Environmental Engineering MOD 3

Environmental Engineering
Module 3
SANITARY ENGINEERING
1 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

Sanitation is the prevention of diseases by eliminating or controlling the
environmental factors, which are responsible for the transmission and spread of the
diseases.
 Objective of providing sewerage works

The objectives of sewerage works are as follows:
1. To provide hygienic and aesthetic environment.
2. To collect and treat the sewage in a scientific way so as to avoid the nuisance to
the public and also the pollution of the environment.
3. To dispose the treated sewage by proper methods to avoid the pollution of surface
and ground water sources.

4. To prevent the occurrence and the spread of water-borne diseases and thus
protecting the health of public by tackling the sewage and human excreta
effectively.
5. To prevent and control the nuisance due to the growth of house flies and
mosquitoes by avoiding the stagnation and indisicriminate disposal of human
excreta and other liquid wastes.

1. Sewage :
 The liquid waste of the community is called sewage. It includes the wastes from
water closets, urinals, bathrooms, kitchens of the residences and waste water
from industries and also storm water.
 The liquid waste from the residential areas is called Domestic Sewage, and that
from industries is called industrial sewage.
2. Sullage :
It is the waste water from bath rooms, kitchens, wash basins etc. which is less
offensive in nature including storm water.
3. Sewer :
The underground conduit conveying sewage is called "Sewer"

4. Sewerage :
This term denotes the network of sewers and other devices used in the system for
carrying sewage. In a broader sense the sewerage system includes the collection,
conveyance, treatment and disposal of sewage.
5. Refuse :
It includes all kinds of dry waste of the community i.e.street and house sweepings,
garbage, ash etc.
6. Garbage:
It includes all types of semi solid and solid waste, food products such as
vegetables, peeling of fruits, waste meat etc…

SYSTEMS OF SEWAGE COLLECTION AND
DISPOSAL:
 There are mainly two systems, namely,
 1. "Dry or conservancy system",
 2. "Water carriage system".

1. Conservancy system :
 In this system, the night soil (human excreta) is collected from dry latrines, conserved
there for the complete day, and finally removed by scavengers to the disposal site through
trucks or carts. The matter is disposed by trenching or composting.
 The waste water from kitchens, bath rooms etc. and the rain water, called sullage is
collected in open drains and disposed into any water course or on to the land.
 The dry refuse is collected in the dust-bins placed along roads, from where it is conveyed
by trucks and disposed by means of land filling, incineration (burning to ashes in an
incinerator) or composting.
 This system is an out dated one, though it is still prevailing in most of the Indian towns for
economic reasons. Because of its inherent disadvantages, it should be discouraged and
replaced as early as possible.

Disadvantages :
1) House fly nuisance and the possibility of transmission of diseases like
typhoid.
2) Risk of epidemics due to improper and care less disposal of night soil.
3) The system completely fails during strikes by workers.
4) Requires much land for the disposal of night soil.
Advantage:
The only advantage is that the initial cost of the system is low and does not
require any skilled supervision.

Water-carriage system
 In this system, we have water closets provided with flushing arrangements. The
waste matter is flushed with sufficient quantity of water. Thus water is used as a
medium for conveying sewage through under ground sewers. Finally this
sewage is treated and then disposed by scientific methods.
 Advantages:
1. It is a hygienic and decent system.
2. waste matter is immediately flushed into the sewers and hence no possibility of
bad smell and fly nuisance.
3. The sewage is properly treated and then disposed; as such there is no risk of
epidemics.
4.Requires less area for treatment and disposal

Disadvantages :
1. Its initial cost is high.

2. It may require pumping of sewage at certain stages.
3. It requires skilled supervision and maintenance.

The sewerage systems are classified into the
following types:
 1. Combined system
 2. Separate system
 3. Partially separate system or partially combined system.

Combined system :
 In this system, only one set of sewers is laid which carry the domestic and
industrial sewage and also the storm water.
 This system is suitable for areas with small and evenly distributed rainfall. It is
also suitable for situations where the combined sewage has to be pumped and
also for heavily built up areas with a little space for laying sewers.
Merits:
 Simple and economical method.
 Easy to lay only one larger sewer in congested areas and plumbing is also easy.
 Sedimentation of solids in sewers is avoided as the discharge in the sewer is
more.

Demerits:
 1. Cost of excavation for a larger sewer is more.
 2. Pumping of combined sewage is uneconomical.
 3. During heavy rains, the over flowing of sewers will cause pollution.
 4. Initial cost is more.

Separate system:
 In this system there are two separate sets of sewers. One set carries domestic and
industrial sewage and another set carries storm water.
 This system is suitable for towns with heavy uneven rainfall and also where
sewage is to be pumped. It is also suitable for areas with steep slope and hard
soils.
 Merits :
 1. Sewers are smaller and hence economical.
 2. Quantity of sewage to be treated is smaller and hence cost of treatment is less.
 3. There is no risk of pollution due to overflowing of storm water from sewers.
 4. The quantity of sewage to be pumped if necessary, is small. Hence, cost of
pumping is low.
Demerits :
1. Maintenance cost of two sets of sewers is more.
2. Greater obstruction to traffic during repairs.
3. Plumbing is not simple.

Partially separate or partially
combined system :
 In this system, there are two separate sets of sewers. One set carries domestic
and industrial sewage and also a part of storm water during heavy rains. The
other set carries only storm water during normal rains.
 As it is a compromise between combined system and separate system, it is
suitable for situations with average conditions of distribution and intensity of

rainfall and occasional heavy rains.

Merits:
1. It is an economical system and provides reasonable sizes of sewers.
2. House plumbing is simple.
3. As a part of rain water is allowed into the sewer carrying sewage,

necessity of flushing is reduced.
Demerits:
1. Self cleansing velocity may not be developed during dry weather.
2. Cost of pumping is more.
3. There are possibilities of over flow.

QUANTITY OF SANITARY SEWAGE :
 The sanitary sewage is also called Dry Weather Flow(D.W.F)
Dry Weather Flow :
It is the average discharge of sanitary sewage that flows in a sewer during the dry
weather. It has three components in it, namely
(a) domestic sewage
(b) industrial sewage
(c) ground water infiltration.
D.W.F is expressed in litres per capita per day (Ipcd) and depends on the following
factors :

 1. Rate of water supply:
 Generally, 80% of the water supply may be expected to reach the sewers unless
there is data available to the contrary. (But it is assumed that D.W.F is equal to
the rate of water supply)
 The sewers should be designed for a minimum of 150 litres per capita per day.)
 2. Population :
 The total quantity of water required by community is the product of population
and rate of consumption)
 Hence population has to be estimated at the end of design period and that value
has to be taken for design purposes.

 3. Type of area :
 The DWF depends on the type of area whether
 residential;
 industrial;
 Commercial
4. Infiltration of ground water into sewers :
Ground water infiltrates into the sewers through leaky joints. Infiltration depends on
(a) Nature of soil (b)Sewer material (c) Water tightness of sewer joints (d) Depth at
which sewer is laid.
5. Exfiltration :
(The leakage of sewage from the sewer into the surrounding soil is called
exfiltration. This has to be avoided because it pollutes ground water. So the joints of
sewers should be made water tight.
LIMITING VELOCITIES OF SEWERS :
 Minimum velocity of flow in sewer which does not permit any settlement and
carry the sewage as soon as possible to the treatment plant is called "Self
Cleansing Velocity“
 The maximum velocity (non-scouring velocity) is thus limited to about 3
m/sec,)though in practice it should preferably not exceed 2.25 m/sec.

SHAPES OF CROSS SECTION FOR SEWERS:
 The sewer cross sections are broadly classified as
 a. Circular section
 b. Non-circular sections.
The non-circular sections are further classified as
 1. Rectangular
 2. Semi-elliptical
 3. Horse-shoe type
 4. Basket handle type
 5. Egg-shaped sections

a. Circular section :
 It is the most commonly used section for sewers. It is suitable for diameter up to
1.5 m.
 It can be constructed either by special wedge shaped bricks in mortar or by
plain or reinforced concrete.
 Smaller diameter pipes may be of stone or cast iron or other materials. The
inside surface has to be made smooth by plastering.

 Merits :
1. For running full and half full conditions, it gives maximum hydraulic mean
depth for the given area. Hence maximum velocity is maintained compared
to other sections, preventing deposition of solids.
2. Economical in construction
3. Easy to construct
4. Suitable for separate sewerage system where discharge is almost constant.
 Demerits :
 1. Its performance is poor in combined system because of low DWF and
consequently low velocity.
 2.Arya
Construction may be difficult in the case of masonry circular sewers.
J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam
24
b. Non-circular sewers:
 1. Rectangular sewers:
 The sewer may be constructed in masonry or concrete. This section is also

known as "box type" section.
 Merits :
 1. Easy to construct
 2. Can be used for storage also
 3. Economical
 Demerits :
 1. Hydraulic mean depth is low for small discharges.
 2. Cannot effectively take the load of over burden when width is large.
Semi-elliptical section :
 This can be constructed in either concrete or masonry.
 It is suitable for soft soils.
 Merits :
 1. Structurally more stable because of arch action.
 2. Masonry or concrete below springing line is less.
 Demerits :
 . Difficult to construct.

Horse-shoe type
 It ha semi circular on the top with sides inclined
or vertical.
Merits
 Suitable for large sewer with heavy discharge.
 Demerits :
 1. Low velocities when discharge is small.
 2. Difficult to construct.

Basket handle type
 The shape resembles the basket handle and hence the name. This
can be constructed in R.C.C.
 Merits:
 1. Selfcleansing velocity can be developed even at small discharges.
 2. Section can function efficiently for large discharge also.
 Demerits :
 1. Difficult to construct
 2. Costly and uneconomical

EGG shaped Type Section
 Merits
 1. Self cleansing velocity will be available,even during small
discharges.
 2. Suitable for combined sewerage system as well as separate
system
 3. Better hydraulic properties compared to circular sections.
 Demerits :◦
 1. Construction is difficult
 2. Less stable than circular sections

Sewer Materials
 1. Stone ware sewers :
 These are manufactured from vitrified clay or stoneware in sizes up to 600
mm in dia and 600 to 900 mm in length. The ingredients of stone ware
pipes are 76%of silica and 24% of Alumina and a small percentage of
other substances like crushed stone or pottery and also iron oxide.
 These are cheap, easily available and highly resistant to corrosion. Butthey
are bulky and heavy in, weight, Hence handling andtransportation is
difficult, They are also brittle and require careful handling. These are
commonly used in the house drainage works and branch sewers.

2. Cast-iron sewers :
 These are used where high internal pressures and external loads are to be taken
by the sewer. Cast-iron is the most impure form of iron which contains highest
proportion carbon varying from 2 to 4.5%.
 Suitability :
 1. When sewer line has to be carried in exposed position
 2. When sewage has to be pumped.
 3. When sewer is to be laid under buildings.
 4. When leakage is to be minimized to prevent ground water pollution
 5. When external loads are high.
 6. When sewage is to be conveyed under pressure.

3. Cement concrete pipes
 These may be constructed with plain concrete or R.C.C.
 R.C.C. is used for larger sections and also where they have to withstand high
internal pressures and external loads. The pipes can be (a) Pre-cast type or (b)
Cast in-situ type.
 They are strong but difficult to handle and to lay.
 4. A.C pipe sewers

 These are manufactured from a mixture of cement and asbestos fiber. These are
durable and resistant to corrosion and chemical action. They are light in weight
but are breakable. These are available from 50 to 1000 mm dia .

SEWER APPURTENANCE :
 MAN HOLES:
 They are constructed at the points where a sewer takes change of (a) alignment (b) gradient (c)
diameter and also (d) at all junctions of sewers. The distance between them varies from 30 to
100 m.
 Objectives
 1. For inspection, cleaning and maintenance
 2.To facilitate junctions and change of directions
 3. Incidentally to help ventilation though they are not specifically meant for it.
They are mainly of two types namely
 1. Drop man-hole
 2. Ordinary man-hole
Ordinary man-hole
 It consists of three important components namely access shaft,. man hole
cover, working chamber.
 Man-hole is a concrete or masonry structure So as to have working chamber
with sufficient space for a man to stand inside and carry out work.
 The access shaft provides an access to the working chamber. A series of steps
are provided to the side of man hole to facilitate descending in to the working
chamber.
 The top of the access shaft is covered with R.C.C. slabwith an opening. The
opening is covered with a manhole cover made of cast iron.

Ordinary manhole Drop Manhole

2. Drop man hole :
 The drop man-hole is constructed when a branch sewer which is at a higher
level is to be joined to main sewer at a lower level.
 This is done by providing a vertical drop pipe out side the man-hole so that the
sewage from an inlet sewer at a higher level is dropped through this pipe to the
floor level.
 Otherwise the sewage will splash on to the man working inside the man-hole.

Inlet
 An inlet is an opening through which storm water from roads and footpaths is
admitted and conveyed to the sewer.
 They are located by the side of roads at 30 to 60 m intervals.
 There should be sufficient number of inlets so that the storm water is effectively
drained into sewer without causing floods.
 The horizontal inlet intercepts larger quantity of storm water
but are required to be provided with grating of smaller openings capable of

carrying heavy loads.

Catch Basin
 It is similar to the horizontal inlet with an extra provision of a basin allow
settlement of grit, sand and debris.
 Thus it prevents these matters to enter into the sewer.
 The outlet pipe is usually trapped to prevent escape of foul gases from the
sewers.

Inverted syphon
 This is constructed when sewer is to cross a natural water Course or railway
track or such other obstructions.
 The inverted syphon runs under pressure. Hence it is made of one or more
number of cast iron pipes R.C.C pipes.

FLUSHING TANK
 Flushing tank is device which holds and then quick releases periodically
sufficient quantity of water in the sewer so that the deposited solids flushed
and washed away.
 Thus prevents the chances for clogging the sewer

Pumping Station

COMPONENTS OF PUMPING STATION :
 1. Sump well :
 This is also known as wet well. The sewage from the low level is collected in
this well. The sump well is provided with a man hole and steps.
 2. Dry well:
 It is situated by the side of sump well. It is also known as pump room. There
should be enough working for accommodating the pump and other machinery.
 3. Motor room :
 It is situated above pump room and accommodates the electric motor which runs
the pump.

 4. Rising main:
 The sewage after pumping, is taken to the gravity sewer located at a higher level.
The rising main may be made up of cast-iron pipes.
 5. Emergency exit pipe :
 If by some reason the sump over flows, the excess is diverted through the exit
pipe a safety measure in the case of emergency
 6. Automtic starter :
 It helps in starting the pump automatically when the level of sewage in wet well
rises beyond particular point. This is achieved by a float operated switch

arrangement When the level of sewage falls, the float also moves down and the
switch is stopped.
 7. Flow recorders :These are installed to measure the rate of pumping ofsewage.
STRENGTH OF SEWAGE:
 The strength of sewage is its potentiality to produce nuisance to the man and his
environment. The strength of sewage is generally expressed in terms of B.O.D
 SAMPLING OF SEWAGE:
 The concentration, nature and flow of sewage, change constantly. So, it is
necessary that the sample collected for analysis should be fairly representative
of the sewage, Hence, the samples are collected at various depths and at
frequent intervals of time (half hourly or hourly collection).
 Samples are taken beneath the surface where particles are mixed due to
turbulence. Such sampling is called "grab sampling“. Samples collected at
frequent intervals in equalor proportionate to flow, are mixed up. This mixed
sample is called "Composite sample", which gives the indication of true
strength of sewage.
Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam
44
 The samples should be tested immediately as the characteristics are liable for
change with time.
 For certain samples, preservatives like chloroform, formaldehyde, sulphuric acid

etc., are also added. But care should be taken in selection of preservative so that
the selected preservative does not change the characteristics of sample.
 Samples are collected in quartz bottles. Bottles are thoroughly cleaned and
sterilized. Bottles should be filled with sample completely without leaving any air
in the bottle. The stopper should be firmly inserted and tied with a piece of cloth.
The bottles should be labelled giving the details like sample number, time of
collection, date and place of collection etc. The samples have to be transported to
the laboratory carefully and quickly for testing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE
 The following are the characteristics of sewage.
Physical characteristics
 1. Colour
 The fresh sewage has yellowish, grey or light brown colour. The stale or septic
sewage has black or dark brown colour. Other colours in sewage are due to the
presence of industrial wastes, dyes etc.
 2. Odour:
 Fresh domestic sewage has slightly soapy or oily smell but the stale sewage has
offensive odour due to liberation of Hydrogen Sulphide and other sulphur

compounds

 3. Temperature:
 Generally the temperature of sewage is slightly higher than that of water
supplied. The rise in temperature increase the biological activity.
 4. Turbidity :
 Sewage is normally turbid resembling dirty dish water or waste water from
baths having other floating matter, faecal matters, etc.

Chemical characteristics
 1.Solids
 The sewage contains both organic and inorganic solids. These solids are
present in the form of settleable suspended_solids, colloidal particles and
dissolved solids. The settleable solids can be removed by sedimentation but
the removal of dissolved and colloidal solids require some biological
treatment.
 2, Other chemical substances
 The sewage may also contain proteins, carbohydrates Fats oils, greases,
phenols etc. In addition to the above, sewage may contain chlorides,

compounds of Nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur, alkaline substances, Toxic
compounds and heavy metals.

 3, Gases
 Sewage contains dissolved Oxygen, hydrogen sulphide,carbondi-oxide, methane etc..
 Biological characteristics:
 The sewage may contain a wide range of micro.organisms. These micro-
organisms include the Viruses,bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa, rotifers etc. These
organisms may be aerobic anaerobic or facultative innature.
 "Aerobic bacteria" are those which can live and grow in the presence of oxygen
dissolved in water medium .
 "Anaerobic bacteria" are those which can survive and can grow in the absence of
oxygen.
 "Facultative bacteria" are those which can survive grow both in the presence and
absence of oxygen.

ANALYSIS OF SEWAGE :
 1. Total solids :
 Total solids are important indicators of the strength of sewage.
 The solids may be organic or inorganic in nature and also settleable, colloidal
and dissolved in form.
 The quantitative determination of all these forms is very significant in sewage
treatment, The velocity of flow and the size of sedimentation tanks depend on
the nature and amount of settleable solids.
 2. Oxygen demand :
 This is the amount of oxygen consumed by readily oxidizable organic matter
for oxidation,

 3. Bio-chemical oxygen demand :
 This is known as B.O.D, test. B.O.D is the amount of oxygen required for
biological decomposition of biodegradable organic matter under aerobic

conditions and is expressed in mg/l.
 So, B.0.D. indicates the amount of biologically active organic load, in other
words the strength of sewage. More the B.O.D value of particular sewage
sample, greater is the nuisance producing capacity of that sewage.
 4. pH value
 PH value is another important parameter whichinfluences the treatment
processes of sewage. pH value is defined as the logarithm of the reciprocal of

Hydrogen ion concentration. It indicates whether the sample is acidic or
alkaline in nature.

 5. Chlorides
 The normal chloride concentration of sewage is 120 mg/1. The excess of
chlorides indicates the presence of industrial waste or infiltration of sea water.

The sources of chlorides for domestic waste water are kitchen, urinals and water
closets.

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Environmental Engineering

1 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

 Objective of providing sewerage works

1. To provide hygienic and aesthetic environment.

2 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

3 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

from industries is called industrial sewage.

The underground conduit conveying sewage is called "Sewer"

conveyance, treatment and disposal of sewage.

5 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

 There are mainly two systems, namely,

 1. "Dry or conservancy system",

 2. "Water carriage system".

6 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

7 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

3) The system completely fails during strikes by workers.

4) Requires much land for the disposal of night soil.

8 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

1. It is a hygienic and decent system.

4.Requires less area for treatment and disposal

1. Its initial cost is high.

10 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

 3. Partially separate system or partially combined system.

11 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

industrial sewage and also the storm water.

 Sedimentation of solids in sewers is avoided as the discharge in the sewer is

12 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

 2. Pumping of combined sewage is uneconomical.

 4. Initial cost is more.

13 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

industrial sewage and another set carries storm water.

 1. Sewers are smaller and hence economical.

 2. Quantity of sewage to be treated is smaller and hence cost of treatment is less.

 3. There is no risk of pollution due to overflowing of storm water from sewers.

 4. The quantity of sewage to be pumped if necessary, is small. Hence, cost of

2. Greater obstruction to traffic during repairs.

3. Plumbing is not simple.

15 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

 As it is a compromise between combined system and separate system, it is

suitable for situations with average conditions of distribution and intensity of

16 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

2. House plumbing is simple.

3. As a part of rain water is allowed into the sewer carrying sewage,

2. Cost of pumping is more.

3. There are possibilities of over flow.

17 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

Dry Weather Flow :

18 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

 The total quantity of water required by community is the product of population

and rate of consumption)

has to be taken for design purposes.

19 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

 The DWF depends on the type of area whether

4. Infiltration of ground water into sewers :

 The maximum velocity (non-scouring velocity) is thus limited to about 3

m/sec,)though in practice it should preferably not exceed 2.25 m/sec.

21 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

22 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

23 Arya J, Guest Lecturer NSS Polytechnic College Pandalam

4. Suitable for separate sewerage system where discharge is almost constant.

 The sewer may be constructed in masonry or concrete. This section is also

 2. Can be used for storage also

 1. Hydraulic mean depth is low for small discharges.

 This can be constructed in either concrete or masonry.