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AUGUST 2011
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................................................... 9
CRANES RAINFALL OUTAGE MODEL .............................................................................................................................. 9 P.530 RAINFALL OUTAGE CALCULATION......................................................................................................................... 9
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One of the earliest and most comprehensive attempts at developing a workable prediction method was carried out by Bell Laboratories in the 1950s and was described in Hathaway and Evans in Radio Attenuation at 11 GHz and Some Implications Affecting Radio-Relay Systems Engineering. 1 In their paper, Hathaway and Evans developed a method of predicting annual outages for microwave paths operating in the 11 GHz common carrier band, as a function of path length, fade margin and geographical area within the contiguous United States. This study has proved to be a worthwhile prediction tool, and when used with recognition of its limitations, is still one of the best references available for microwave engineers working within the United States. Additional studies have been conducted in Europe and Asia. The combined information has been reviewed and published by the ITU-R in several Recommendations, e.g. ITU-R Rec. P.837, P.838, and P.839. Modern mathematical models for predicting rain outage in microwave hops have evolved from these beginnings to the user-friendly Crane2 orITU-R P.530 mathematiocal models, which are described later, now resident in such microwave path design programs as Aviat Networks Starlink and Pathloss.
Robert F. Crane, Prediction of Attenuation by Rain, IEEE Transactions on Communications, September 1980.
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Other areas of the country with much lower annual rates experience types of rainfall such as those accompanying thunderstorms and frontal squalls that produce short duration rains of extreme intensity, and it is the incidence of rain storms of this type which determines the rain attenuation characteristics of an area. It is interesting to note that the first deployment of Bells 11 GHz TJ radio links was in the Pacific Northwest.
Outage: In TDM radio networks, an outage is defined as 1 error per 1,000 bits transmitted (10-3 bit-error rate) or a loss of frame synchronization. With the ARQ retransmission of lost packets in LANs, there is no consensus definition for outage in IP radio links.
Even rain statistics for a day or an hour have little relationship to the excess path attenuation. A day with only a fraction of an inch of rainfall may have a path outage due to a short period of extremely high localized rain cell intensity, while another day with several inches of rainfall may experience little or no path attenuation because rain is spread over a long time period or the high intensity rain cell misses the hop.
Figure 1. An increase in fade margin reduces the number of rain outage events and their durations only minimallyfrequency band, polarization and path length have a much greater effect on rain outage.
Although fades caused by rainfall are occasionally observed at lower frequencies (10-20 dB fades at 6 GHz have even been recorded in tropical regions), this type of fade generally causes outages only on paths above 10 GHz. Outages are usually caused by a blockage of the path by the passage of rain cells (thunderstorms, etc.), averaging 3-5 miles in diameter and perhaps 5-15 minutes in duration. Rain fades exhibit fairly slow, erratic level changes, with rapid path failure as the cell intercepts the path. The fades are not selective, i.e. all paths and frequencies in both directions of a hop are affected simultaneously. Because rain drops tend to flatten because of air resistance while falling, vertical polarization is significantly less susceptible to rainfall attenuation than horizontal in all millimeterwave bands. As seen in Figure 1 above, increased fade margin is typically of minimal help in rain fading; but margins as high as 45 to 60 dB have been used in some highly vulnerable links for increased hop availability (uptime). Increasing the paths fade margin by shortening path lengths or increasing antenna sizes are the most readily available tools for reducing the per-hop outage in a given area, albeit less effective if tandem hops are deployed. Route diversity (ring-protection) or a lower frequency band is highly effective in reducing traffic.
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The following are a few basic considerations in deploying millimeterwave microwave hops: Rain outage approximately doubles in each higher millimeterwave band, e.g. 18 to 23 GHz Or, increased rain outage at 23 GHz may result in its path length lowered 50% as compared to an 18 GHz path Rain outage is directly proportional to path lengthassuming a constant fade margin for each hop Rain outage increases X2 to X3 for H-pol millimeterwave hops as compared to V-pol H-pol hops require ~6 dB more fade margin than V-pol hops for equal rain outage Rain outage in tandem-connected short hops are the same as for a single long hopif they have the same fade margin Rain outage durations are typically 5-15 min in duration each. A Pathloss, Starlink, etc., path calculation that shows small annual rain outage, e.g. 1 min/year, actually equates (in this example) to one 10 min outage in 10/1 = 10 years Rain cells typically travel east to west, thus causing fewer but longer duration outages to East-to-West millimeterwave hops than to North-to-South hops. Total rain outage to both is the same Traffic is 100% protected from subscriber disconnect caused by a long-term rain outage in a millimeterwave hop with optimally configured ring (route diversity) protection Two hops out of a ring repeater site will not both be affectedexhibit simultaneous rain outageif they are separated in azimuth by at least 60 -80. Multipath fading in optimally aligned millimeterwave hops does not occur during periods of heavy rainfall, so the entire path fade margin is available to combat rain attenuation fades Neither space diversity nor in-band frequency diversity provides any improvement against rain attenuation fade outage
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B
6.8 9.5
C
7.2 11.0
D1
11.0 16.0
D2
15.0 22.0
D3
22.0 31.0
E
35.0 52.0
F
5.5 8.0
0.01
0.006 0.001
12
19.0 28.0
19.0
26.0 54.0
28.0
41.0 80.0
37.0
50.0 90.0
49.0
64.0 102.0
63.0
81.0 127.0
98.0
117.0 164.0
23.0
34.0 66.0
Figure 2: These rain rates (from Crane 1980) in mm/hr exceeded _% of the time, are long-term averages over a 10year or longer period. Rain rates (and high frequency link outage) are greater or smaller over shorter periods. The simplified P.530 model, easily adaptable to programmable calculators, interpolates rain outages from the 0.01% rain rates in the Crane 1980 (above), Crane 1996, or ITU-R tables.
Except for border regions, always select the rain region where your microwave links are going to be implemented. In hops crossing rainrate border areas, select the regional numbers based on how optimistic or conservative you want the final
Early studiesboth theoretical and experimentalresulted from recognizing the importance of rain in designing microwave paths with path availabilities (uptimes) over 99 percent. Estimates of rain outage in the 1950-1970s was typically a manual procedure requiring access to thick volumes of rain rate tables with statistics for major cities in the U.S. and around the world, but with personal computers emphasis has been on establishing predictive techniques for statistical estimation of attenuation probability distribution for a particular path. Robert F. Crane, in his Prediction of Attenuation by Rain 1980 paper developed a model (see Appendix) for determining attenuation on factors including path length, frequency, polarization and point rain rates shown in Canadian/US rain rate tables [Figure 2] and rain region map (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Each region of North America has a different value that is used in the Crane 1980 and ITU-R P.530 mathematical models for predicting rain attenuation. Crane 1996 and ITU-R P.837 worldwide rain region maps and rain rate tables for North America and the world are also used in these models.
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A typical per-hop rain outage objective in a millimeterwave access or spur link is around 26min/year (99.995 percent availability or uptime), which equates to perhaps two to three rain outage events each year. If this if unacceptable and traffic is not otherwise ring-protected, it may be necessary to assign the hop to vertical polarization, increase its fade margin (for a minimal improvement), or migrate the hop to a lower frequency band.
RELIABILITY OBJECTIVES
Rain outage always causes long-term traffic interruptions if not ring-protected, from which the hops availability or uptime" is computed and is therefore not included in paths performance (reliability) calculations that consider only short-term (<10 CSES/event) multipath outages that do not significantly affect traffic (Figure 4). A microwave hops error performance is predicted and measured only during available periods when the hop is up ( as near to 100% as is economically and technically possible, not down due to a long-term rain, duct, decoupling, defocusing, etc. power fade, equipment outage, or infrastructure (site, power, antenna feeder system) failure. In considering how to establish realistic performance (short-term outage, path reliability objectives, several things need to be kept in mind. A single overall design objective for not more than X minutes or seconds outage over some period, such as a year, is an oversimplification. The character of the particular kind of outage and its effect on the system should be taken into account and perhaps there should even be different objectives for different types of outages.
Outage Time %
100.0 50.0 20.0 10.0 5.0 2.0 1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
Year
8760 hrs 4380 hrs 1752 hrs 876 hrs 438 hrs 175 hrs 88 hrs 8.8 hrs 53 min 5.3 min 32 sec
Month (Average)
720 hrs 360 hrs 144 hrs 72 hrs 36 hrs 14 hrs 7 hrs 43 min 4.3 min 269 sec 3 sec
Day (Average)
24 hrs 12 hrs 4.8 hrs 2.4 hrs 1.2 hrs 29 min 14 min 1.4 min 9 sec 0.9 sec 0.09 sec
Figure 4. Rain outage always causes long-term traffic interruptions in a hop that is not ring-protected and, thus, is not included in path reliability calculations that consider only short-term (<10 CSES/event) multipath outages.
For example, propagation outages due to multipath fading are usually short. An annual outage of 30min/yr due to multipath fading might represent 1,000 or more individual SES (severely errored second) outages, most averaging less than 1 second in duration each in properly configured hops. On the other hand, propagation outages totaling an hour per hop due to rain attenuation, on a path with a large fade margin, might consist of four or five individual outages averaging ten to fifteen minutes each. The effects of these two types of system outage would be quite different in nature, long-term rain outage being an availability or uptime (disconnects traffic) parameter, and short-term multipath fade outage an error performance or path reliability parameter that does not disconnect traffic.
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A distinction should be made between TDM and Ethernet/IP communication links for which an outage of a few seconds or a few minutes is just a nuisance or an inconvenience, and public safety links carrying critical real-time voice and computer traffic for which such an outage might result in a danger to life, great economic loss or other catastrophic consequences. The suitability or unsuitability of a rain-affected band such as 18 or 23 GHz as well as ring and other protection schemes to mitigate outage could differ widely for these two situations.
NOTE
It is important to note that graphs, formulas and computer methods for calculating short-term multipath outages are all for one-way outages as they are selective in frequency, i.e., do not occur at the same time in the two directions of a hop. To derive two-way multipath fade outage (not ever recommended since all ITU and North American performance objectives are only-way only), they would have to be doubled. Long-term outages due to rain or other non-selective power fades do not have to be doubled since they occur simultaneously in both directions of transmission.
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APPENDIX
CRANES RAINFALL OUTAGE MODEL
(A complex algorithm, thus only used in all Path Engineering Calculation Computer Programs)
A = Rain attenuation (required fade margin) exceeded p% of the year A = RP% A = RP%
Where
[(e [(e
-1)/ - (b e
cd
/c ) + (b e
cD
/c )];
for d<D<Do
-1)/ ];
for D<d
RP% = Rain Rate exceeded p% of the time, mm/hr D= Path length in kilometers = [ln (be )]/d
-0.17
cd
b= 2.3 RP% c= 0.026 - 0.03 ln RP% d= 3.8-0.6 ln RP% = Multiplier coefficient, a function of frequency and polarization (Figure 5) = Exponent coefficient, a function of frequency and polarization (Figure 5) P'=P[Do/D], where Do =22.5 km, for D>22.5 km
A0.01%
Where R0.01% D d
=
= = = = =
A0.01%
0.058 (49)
1.08
16 [1/(1 + 16/16.8)]
= 32 dB (40 dB if horizontally-polarized since the and increase) x PR = % of time rain attenuation exceeds A (% outage time) = 10 Where: x = A0.01% = A = PR = Path Availability = Annual Rain Outage Time 11.628 {-0.546 + [0.29812 + 0.172 log (0.12 A0.01%/A)] } Fade Margin for 0.01% (53 min/yr) Outage (32 dB) Paths actual Fade Margin from path calcs (41 dB) Rain Unavailability objective (0.005% for 99.995% availability) 100 - PR % = 99.995% 6 = PR % x 31.5x10 = 1600 sec/yr
1/2
This much simplified, at least when compared to Cranes, ITU-R rain outage model is easily programmed into scientific calculators and computers. The regression coefficients, multiplier and exponent in both the above Crane and ITU-R P.530 rain models are from the following ITU-R Rec. P.838 table (Figure 5).
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Frequency (GHz)
7.0 7.5 8.0 10.6 11.2 13.0 15.0 18.7 22.4 30.0 38.0 60.0
Vertical Polarization V
0.0027 0.0033 0.0040 0.0109 0.0132 0.024 0.034 0.058 0.089 0.167 0.278 0.642
Vertical Polarization V
1.312 1.311 1.310 1.243 1.224 1.183 1.128 1.080 1.047 1.000 0.942 0.824
Horizontal Polarization H
0.0030 0.0037 0.0045 0.0122 0.0145 0.026 0.037 0.064 0.097 0.187 0.314 0.707
Horizontal Polarization H
1.332 1.329 1.327 1.258 1.242 1.203 1.154 1.112 1.080 1.021 0.954 0.826
Figure 5. The ITU-R Rec.838 table comprises the regression coefficients, multiplier and exponent , in both the Crane model and the competing ITU-R P.530 rain model.
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Aviat, Aviat Networks, and Aviat logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Aviat Networks, Inc. Aviat Networks, Inc. (2011) All Rights Reserved. Data subject to change without notice. _w_Rain_Attenuation_Fading_25Aug11 10 AVIAT NETWORKS AUGUST 2011