Writing

Today
Fifth Edition

Richard Johnson-Sheehan
Purdue University

Charles Paine
University of New Mexico
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Contents
Prefacexv
About the Authors xxiv
3 Readers, Contexts, and
Rhetorical Situations 22
Part 1 Creating a Reader Profile 23
Getting Started A Brief Reader Profile 23
An Extended Reader Profile 24

1 Writing with Genres 1

Using a Reader Analysis Worksheet
Analyzing the Context 26
25

What Are Genres? 2 Place27

Using Genres to Write Successfully 2 Medium27
Genres in Movies 3 Social, Economic, and Political Influences 28
Writing with Genres 4 Discourse Communities and the
Genres and the Writing Process 5 Rhetorical Situation 29
Using a Writing Process 5 Quick Start Guide 31
Using Genre as a Guiding Concept 7 Activities for Readers, Contexts,
Transfer: Using Genres in College and and Rhetorical Situations 31
in Your Career 7 Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This
Quick Start Guide 8
Activities for Genres 8 4 Reading Critically, Thinking
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This Analytically34
Looking Through and Looking At a Text 35
2 Topic, Angle, Purpose 10 Looking Through a Text 35
Looking At a Text 35
Topic: What Am I Writing About? 11
Reading Critically: Seven Strategies 35
Angle: What New Perspective Can I Take? 13 Strategy 1: Preview the Text 36
What Has Changed That Makes This Topic Strategy 2: Play the Believing and
Interesting Right Now? 13 Doubting Game 37
What Unique Experiences, Expertise, Strategy 3: Annotate the Text 38
or Knowledge Do I Have About This
Strategy 4: Analyze the Proofs in the Text 39
Topic?13
Strategy 5: Contextualize the Text 40
Purpose: What Do I Want to Accomplish? 14
Strategy 6: Analyze Your Own
Are You Informing or Persuading? 15
Assumptions and Beliefs 40
Thesis Statement (Your Main Claim) 16 Strategy 7: Respond to the Text 40
Choosing the Appropriate Genre 18 Using Critical Reading to Strengthen
Quick Start Guide 19 Your Writing 41
Activities for Topic, Angle, Purpose 19 Responding to a Text: Evaluating What
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This Others Have Written 41

iv
 Contents v

Responding with Other Authors’ Positions, Inventing Your Literacy Narrative’s Content 69
Terms, and Ideas: Using What Others Inquiring: Finding an Interesting Topic 69
Have Written 42 Inquiring: Finding Out What You
Quick Start Guide 44 Already Know 69
Activities for Reading Critically, Thinking Researching: Finding Out What
Analytically44 Others Know 72
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This Organizing and Drafting Your Literary
Narrative72
5 Reflecting Critically, Setting the Scene 72
Starting Your Portfolio 47 Describing the Complication, Evaluation,
and Its Resolution 73
Using Critical Reflection to Strengthen
Concluding with Your Point—
Your Writing 48
a Lesson Learned 73
Identify Your Strengths 48
Choosing an Appropriate Style and Design 74
Improve Your Versatility 48
Microgenre: The Digital-Literacy Narrative 75
Become More Independent 49
Zack Henslee, “Is Social Media Really the
Reflecting Critically: Three Strategies 50
Enemy of ‘Proper’ Writing?” 75
Strategy 1: Look Backward to
Quick Start Guide 77
Your Prior Experiences 51
Strategy 2: Look Inward at the Readings77
Choices You Made 52 Wang Ping, “Book War” 77
Strategy 3: Look Forward to the Future 53 Frederick Douglass, “From Narrative of
the Life of Frederick Douglass”79
Writing Your Critical Reflection 54
Introduction: Start the Story 54 Activities for Literacy Narratives 84
Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore
The Body: Evaluate and Resolve the Conflict 54
This • Write This
Conclusion: Reveal What You Learned 56
Using a Portfolio for Reflection 57
Step 1: Collect Your Work into an Archive 57 7 Memoirs 87
Step 2: Select the Best Artifacts for Your Portfolio 59
At-A-Glance: Memoirs 88
Step 3: Reflect on Your Work 59
One Student’s Work: Jake Gentry, “Uproot “ 88
Step 4: Present Your Materials 59
Inventing Your Memoir’s Content 91
Creating an E-Portfolio 61
Inquiring: Finding an Interesting Topic 91
Creating a Starter Résumé 61
Inquiring: Finding Out What
Quick Start Guide 62 You Already Know 91
Activities for Reflecting Critically, Researching: Finding Out What
Starting Your Portfolio 62 Others Know 93
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This Organizing and Drafting Your Memoir 94

Part 2
Setting the Scene in Rich Detail 94
Main Point or Thesis 94
Genres for Writing in College Describing the Complication 94

6 Literacy Narratives 65
Evaluating and Resolving the
Complication94
At-A-Glance: Literacy Narratives 66 Concluding with a Point 94
One Student’s Work: Dana Muraida, “Faking Choosing an Appropriate Style 95
Reading: How My Kindergarten Experiences Evoking an Appropriate Tone or Voice 95
with Literacy Shaped Who I Am” 67 Using Dialogue 96
vi Contents

Designing Your Memoir 97 Inventing Your Argument’s Content 133

Microgenre: The Travel Narrative 97 Inquiring: Identifying Your Topic 134
Bret Lott, “Sabbath” 99 Inquiring: Identifying Points of Contention 134
Quick Start Guide 100 Researching: Finding Out What Others
Believe and Why 134
Readings100
Eliza Kennedy, “When an Open Relationship Organizing and Drafting Your Argument 136
Comes with a Price”100 The Introduction 136
Joe Mackall, “Words of My Youth”104 Summary and Limitations of Opposing
Positions137
Activities for Memoirs 106
Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore
Your Understanding of the Issue 138
This • Write This Reasons Your Understanding Is Stronger 138
Conclusion138
8 Reviews (argument)109 Choosing an Appropriate Style and Design 138
Microgenre: The Rebuttal 140
At-A-Glance: Reviews 110
Sally Butzin, “Arming Teachers Is Not the
One Student’s Work: Rebecca Carcieri - Brown Answer to Anything” 140
Daily Herald, “Harry Style’s ‘As It Was’ Quick Start Guide 141
Is Immediate Hit” 111
Readings142
Inventing Your Review’s Content 112
Lesley Andress Davis, “A Defense
Inquiring: Figuring Out Common of Female Sports” 142
Expectations112
Mat Gendle, “To Reduce Gun Violence,
Researching: Gathering Background Focus on Function Instead of Form” 145
Information114
Activities for Arguments 147
Researching: Go Experience It 115
Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore
Organizing and Drafting Your Review 115 This • Write This
The Introduction 115
Description or Summary of the Subject 116
Discussion of Strengths and Shortcomings 116 10 Literary Analyses (argument)150
Conclusion117
At-A-Glance: Literary Analyses 151
Choosing an Appropriate Style and Design 118
One Student’s Work: Jeremy Foote, “Speed
Microgenre: The Rave/The Slam 119
That Kills: The Role of Technology in
Marah Eakin, Tasting Table, “Pequod’s Pizza” 120
Kate Chopin’s ‘The Story of an Hour’” 152
Quick Start Guide 120
Inventing Your Literary Analysis’s Content 154
Readings121 Read, Reread, Explore 155
Brian Reinhart, “Shake Shack Makes a Inquiring: What’s Interesting Here? 155
Good Burger—and a Good Metaphor for
Researching: What Have Others Said
Dallas Dining” 123
About This Text? 156
Activities for Reviews 126
Organizing and Drafting Your Literary Analysis 157
Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore
The Introduction: Establish Your Interpretive
This • Write This
Question157

9
The Body: Summarize, Interpret, Support 157
Arguments (argument)129 The Conclusion: Restate Your Thesis 158
At-A-Glance: Arguments 130 Choosing an Appropriate Style 158
One Student’s Work: Trevor Denks, “When the Use the “Literary Present” Tense 159
Loser Wins: In Defense of the Electoral College” 131 Integrate Quoted Text 159
 Contents vii

Move Beyond Personal Response 159

12 Written Exams and
Designing Your Literary Analysis 160
Assessments197
Microgenre: The Reading Response 160
Paul Laurence Dunbar, “Reading Response At-A-Glance: Written Exams 198
Assignment”161 One Student’s Work: Shane Oreck,
Mateo Hernandez, “A Student’s Reading “Environmental Science 230: Mid-Term
Response”162 Examination”199
Quick Start Guide 163 Prepping for the Exam 200
Readings163 Meet with a Study Group 200
Kate Chopin, “The Story of an Hour” 163 Ask Your Professor About the Exam 200
S. Selina Jamal, “Emotion in ‘The Story Pay Attention to Themes and Key Concepts 201
of an Hour’” 166 For Standardized Assessments, Study
Activities for Literary Analyses 171 the Rubrics or Scoring Guidelines 201
Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore Create Your Own Questions and Rehearse
This • Write This Possible Answers 201
Inventing Your Answer 202
11 Rhetorical Analyses Review the Exam Quickly to Gain an
(argument)173 Overall Picture 202
Budget Your Time 202
At-A-Glance: Rhetorical Analyses 174
Organizing and Drafting Your Answer 203
One Student’s Work: Sara Kelley, “The Rhetoric
Organize Your Answer 203
of Lincoln’s ‘Gettysburg Address’” 175
Editing for Clarity and Correctness 204
Inventing Your Rhetorical Analysis’s Content 177
Microgenre: The Short Answer 204
Inquiring: Highlight Uses of Proofs 178
Researching: Finding Background Quick Start Guide 205
Information179 Readings206
Organizing and Drafting Your Rhetorical Uma Pandit, “Have the Political Parties
Analysis180 Really Switched Places in the United States?” 206
The Introduction 180 Race Jennings, “How Mosquitoes Transmit
Malaria, and What Can Be Done About It” 208
Explanation of Rhetorical Concepts 181
Provide Historical Context and Summary 182 Activities for Written Exams and
Assessments209
Analysis of the Text 183
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This
The Conclusion 184
Choosing an Appropriate Style and Design 184
Microgenre: The Ad Critique 185 13 Research Papers (argument)211
Theo Jackson, “This Wendy’s Ad Campaign
Just Feels Right” 186 At-A-Glance: Research Papers 212

Quick Start Guide 187 One Student’s Work: Katelyn Turnbow,

“Lives Not Worth the Money?“ 213
Readings188
Inventing Your Research Paper’s Content 216
Keith Amaral, “An Analysis of
Jim Valvano’s ’93 ESPY Awards Speech” 188 Inquiring: Defining Your Topic, Angle, Purpose 217
Stephen Mihm, “America’s Long War on Researching: Finding Out What
Cancer: What Was It Good For?” 192 Others Know 217
Activities for Rhetorical Analyses 195 Organizing and Drafting Your Research Paper 219
Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore The Introduction 219
This • Write This The Body 220
viii Contents

The Conclusion 222 Activities for Profiles 260

Works Cited or References 223 Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore
Choosing an Appropriate Style and Design 223 This • Write This

Microgenre: The Annotated Bibliography 225

Sara Rodriguez, “Annotated Bibliography: 15 Explainers 262
The Fog of Revolution” 225
At-A-Glance: Explainers 263
Quick Start Guide 226
One Student’s Work: Isabella E. Pandolfo,
Readings227
“Sleepless in College Town: Causes and Effects
Katie Brigham, “Why Big Tech Is Pouring
of Poor Sleep in College Students” 264
Money into Carbon Removal” 227
Inventing Your Explainer’s Content 266
Michael J. Ard, “QAnon Is Overrated,
and So Are Most Conspiracy Theories” 232 Inquiring: Defining Your Topic, Angle,
Purpose266
Activities for Research Papers 237
Researching: Finding Out What
Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore
Others Know 267
This • Write This
Organizing and Drafting Your Explainer 268
The Introduction 268

Part 3 The Body

The Conclusion
269
270
Genres for Writing in Your Career
Works Cited or References 270
14 Profiles 240 Choosing an Appropriate Style and Design 270
Microgenre: The How-To Video 271
At-A-Glance: Profiles 241
Huang Xiu, “How to Hang a Hammock
One Student’s Work: Ebony James, “Neil on Campus” 272
deGrasse Tyson: Sexy Astrophysicist and Quick Start Guide 274
Defender of Science” 242
Readings274
Inventing Your Profile’s Content 242
Lucia F. Jacobs, Nathaniel Hunt, and
Inquiring: Finding Out What You Robert J Full, “Squirrels, Parkour, and
Already Know 243 Nimble Robots” 275
Researching: Finding Out What Zack Wendt, “Section 1.01 How Do
Others Know 244 Hydroelectric Dams Generate
Organizing and Drafting Your Profile 244 Electricity?”277
The Introduction 245 Activities for Explainers 279
The Body 245 Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore
The Conclusion 246 This • Write This
Choosing an Appropriate Style and Design 246
Microgenre: The Portrait 247 16 Photo Essays 282
Hannah Giorgis, “Beyoncé Brought the
Feminine Divine to the Grammys” 248 At-A-Glance: Photo Essays 284
Quick Start Guide 249 One Student’s Work: Ren George,
“Hidden in Plain Site: Campus Architecture
Readings249
Around Us” 285
Ashley Collins, “What You Don’t Know
About Kelsea Ballerini” 249 Inventing Your Photo Essay’s Content 290
Sharon S. Smith, PhD, Mary Ellen O’Toole, PhD, Use Storyboards to Sketch Out Your Ideas 290
and Robert D. Hare, PhD, “The Predator: Make Your Own Media Resources 292
When the Stalker Is a Psychopath” 255 Find the Media Resources You Need 292
 Contents ix

Do Background Research on the Multimedia Quick Start Guide 329

You Collected 293 Readings329
Organizing and Drafting Your Photo Essay 294 Paul Rosenzweig, Charles Stimson,
The Introduction 294 Steven Bucci, and James Carafano, “Drones
The Body: Using Images to Carry the Story 295 in U.S. Airspace: Principles for Governance “ 329
Conclusion: State or Show Your Main Point 295 Alissa Walker, “Ban Cars” 337
Style and Design in Photo Essays 296 Activities for Proposals 340
Microgenre: The Infographic 298 Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore
This • Write This
Quick Start Guide 299
Readings300
15 Facts About Our National Mammal: 18 Research Reports (argument)342
The American Bison 301
At-A-Glance: Research Reports 343
Craig Blankenhorn, “Bringing Child
Homelessness into Focus: A Photo Essay” 304 One Student Group’s Work: Alex Johnson,
Krista Blackmon, and Dee Hamilton English 141:
Activities for Photo Essays 308
Heartland State University, “Look Out! The
Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore
Problem with Motorized Personal Vehicles on
This • Write This
Campus”344
Inventing Your Report’s Content 350
17 Proposals (argument)311 Inquiring: Finding Out What You
Already Know 351
At-A-Glance: Proposals 312 Researching: Creating a Research Plan 351
One Student Group’s Work: Ahsan Kahn and Researching: Gathering Sources and
Joseph Smith, City and Regional Planning 237, Revisiting Your Hypothesis 354
Professor Gina Brown, “Lighting the Way: Organizing and Drafting Your Report 354
A Proposal for Sustainable Campus Executive Summary or Abstract 354
Illumination at Franklin Community College” 313 Introduction355
Inventing Your Proposal’s Content 317 Methods Section 355
Inquiring: Defining the Problem 317 Results or Findings Section 355
Inquiring: Analyzing the Problem 318 Discussion Section 355
Researching: Gathering Information Conclusion/Recommendations356
and Sources 318
Works Cited or References 357
Inquiring: Creating a Plan to Solve the
Appendices357
Problem319
Choosing an Appropriate Style 357
Organizing and Drafting Your Proposal 321
Designing Your Report 358
The Introduction 321
Description of the Problem, Its Causes, Microgenre: The Abstract 360
and Its Effects 321 Clark, Caitlyn E., Barker, Aaron, King,
Description of Your Plan 323 Jennifer, & Reilly, James. Wind and Solar
Hybrid Power Plants for Energy Resilience360
Discussing the Costs and Benefits of
Your Plan 324 Quick Start Guide 361
The Conclusion 324 Readings362
Choosing an Appropriate Style 325 Andrew Gelman and George A. Romero,
“‘How Many Zombies Do You Know?’
Designing Your Proposal 325
Using Indirect Survey Methods to
Microgenre: The Pitch 327 Measure Alien Attacks and Outbreaks
Hans Fex, “Elevator Pitch: Mini Museum” 327 of the Undead” 362
x Contents

Nicholas Freudenberg, Luis Manzo, Prewriting400

Hollie Jones, Amy Kwan, Emma Tsui, and Concept Mapping 400
Monica Gagnon, “Food Insecurity at Freewriting401
CUNY: Results from a Survey of CUNY
Brainstorming or Listing 401
Undergraduate Students” 365
Storyboarding402
Activities for Research Reports 371
Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore
Using Heuristics 403
This • Write This Asking the Journalist’s Questions 403
Using the Five Senses 404
19 Résumés and Application Investigating Logos, Ethos, Pathos404
Letters (argument)374 Cubing407
Exploratory Writing 407
At-A-Glance: Résumés and Application Letters 376 Journaling, Blogging, or Microblogging 407
One Student’s Work Résumé and Writing an Exploratory Draft 408
Application Letter 377 Exploring with Presentation Software 409
Inventing the Content of Your Résumé Taking Time to Invent and Prewrite 409
and Application Letter 379
Quick Start Guide 410
Inquiring: Finding Out What You
Already Know About Yourself 379 Activities for Prewriting and Inventing
Ideas411
Researching: Finding Out What
Information About Careers Is Available 380 Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This

Organizing and Drafting Your Résumé

and Application Letter 382 21 Organizing and Drafting 413
Organizing Your Résumé 382
Sketching Out Your Paper’s Organization 414
Organizing an Application Letter 385
Using the Genre to Create a Basic Outline 415
Choosing an Appropriate Style and Design 388
Filling In Your Outline 415
Microgenre: The Personal Statement 389
Drafting Your Introduction: Tell Them What
Jasmine Ceballos, “Why I Want to Be a You’re Going to Tell Them 416
Dentist”390
Six Introductory Moves 416
Quick Start Guide 391
Using a Grabber to Start Your
Readings392 Introduction417
Indeed.com Editorial Team, “How to Using a Lead to Draw in the Readers 418
Build a Résumé in College” 392 When Should You Draft Your Introduction? 419
Ticket to Work, U.S. National Security
Drafting the Body of Your Paper: Tell Them 420
Administration, “Find Help with Educational
Costs Using Benefits.com” 395 Overcoming Writer’s Block 420

Activities for Résumés and Application Drafting Your Conclusion: Tell Them What
Letters397 You Told Them 422
Talk About This • Try This Out • Explore Quick Start Guide 423
This • Write This Activities for Organizing and Drafting 424
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This

Part 4
Developing Your Writing Process 22 Choosing a Style (argument)425
Writing in Plain Style 426
20 Prewriting and Inventing Guideline 1: Clarify Who or What the
Your Ideas 399 Sentence Is About 426
 Contents xi

Guideline 2: Make the “Doer” the Subject 24 Revising and Editing 450
of the Sentence 426
Guideline 3: Put the Subject Early in the Level 1: Global Revision 451
Sentence427 Challenge Your Draft’s Topic, Angle,
Guideline 4: State the Action in the Verb 427 and Purpose 455
Guideline 5: Eliminate Nominalizations 427 Think About Your Readers (Again) and
the Context 455
Guideline 6: Boil Down the Prepositional
Phrases428 Level 2: Substantive Editing 456
Guideline 7: Eliminate Redundancies 428 Determine Whether You Have Enough
Guideline 8: Use Sentences that are Information (or Too Much) 456
Breathing Length 429 Reorganize Your Work to Better Use the
Genre456
Establishing Your Voice 429
Look for Ways to Improve the Design 457
Set a Specific Tone 430
Ask Someone Else to Read Your Work 457
Get into Character 431
Imitate Other Writers 431 Level 3: Copyediting 460
Review Your Title and Headings 460
Writing Descriptively with Figures and
Tropes431 Edit Paragraphs to Make Them Concise
and Consistent 460
Use Similes and Analogies 431
Revise Sentences to Make Them Clearer 461
Use Metaphors 432
Revise Sentences to Make Them More
Use Personification 433
Descriptive461
Use Onomatopoeia 433
Level 4: Proofreading 461
Use Alliteration and Assonance 433
Read Your Writing Out Loud 461
Improving Your Writing Style 434
Read Your Draft Backwards 461
Quick Start Guide 434
Read a Printed Copy of Your Work 462
Activities for Choosing a Style 435 Know Your Grammatical Weaknesses 462
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This
Use Your Spellchecker and Grammar
Checker462
Peer Review: Asking for Advice 462
23 Designing Your Document 436 Quick Start Guide 463
Design Principle 1: Balance 437 Activities for Revising and Editing 463
Balancing a Page 438 Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This

Design Principle 2: Alignment 438

Design Principle 3: Grouping 439
Design Principle 4: Consistency 440 Part 5
Choosing Typefaces 440 Strategies for Shaping Ideas
Using Headings Consistently 441
Design Principle 5: Contrast 441 25 Developing Paragraphs
Using Photography and Images 442 and Sections 465
Using Graphs and Charts 443 Creating a Basic Paragraph 466
Creating a Graph or Chart 443 Transition or Transitional Sentence
Choosing the Appropriate Graph or Chart 444 (Optional)467
Quick Start Guide 448 Topic Sentence (Needed) 467
Activities for Designing Your Document 449 Support Sentences (Needed) 468
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This Point Sentence (Optional) 468
xii Contents

Getting Paragraphs to Flow (Cohesion) 468 Avoiding Logical Fallacies 493

Subject Alignment in Paragraphs 469 Rebuttals and Refutations 495
Given-New in Paragraphs 469 Summarize Your Opponents’ Position
Organizing a Section 470 Objectively495
Opening, Body, Closing 470 Recognize When the Opposing Position
Organizational Patterns for Sections 470 May Be Valid 495
Using Headings in Sections 470 Concede Some of the Opposing Points 496
Refute or Absorb Your Opponents’ Major
Quick Start Guide 472
Points497
Activities for Developing Paragraphs
Qualify Your Claims 497
and Sections 472
Quick Start Guide 498
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This
Activities for Using Argumentative
Strategies499
26 Using Basic Rhetorical Patterns 474 Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This

Narrative475
Description475 28 Collaborating and Peer
Describing with the Senses 476 Response501
Describing with Similes, Metaphors,
Working Successfully in Groups 502
and Onomatopoeia 476
Working Successfully in Teams 503
Definition477
Planning the Project 504
Classification479
Forming: Setting Goals, Getting Organized 505
Step One: List Everything That Fits into
Storming: Managing Conflict 505
the Whole Class 479
Norming: Getting Down to Work 506
Step Two: Decide on a Principle of
Classification479 Performing: Working as a Team 507
Step Three: Sort into Major and Minor Using Peer Response to Improve
Groups480 Your Writing 507
Cause and Effect 480 Types of Peer Response and Document
Cycling508
Comparison and Contrast 482
Using Digital Tools for Peer Review 508
Combining Rhetorical Patterns 483
Responding Helpfully During
Quick Start Guide 484 Peer Response 510
Activities for Using Basic Rhetorical Patterns 484 Quick Start Guide 511
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This
Activities for Collaborating and Peer
Response512
27 Using Argumentative Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This

Strategies (argument)486
What Is Arguable? 487 29 Presenting Your Work
Arguable Claims 487 (argument)514
Four Sources of Arguable Claims 488 Step One: Plan Your Presentation 515
Using Reason, Authority, and Emotion 490 Ask a Few Key Questions to Get Started 515
Reason (Logos)490 Choose the Appropriate Presentation
Authority (Ethos)491 Technology515
Emotion (Pathos)492 Allot Your Time 515
 Contents xiii

Step Two: Organize Your Ideas

Introduction: Tell Them What You’re
517
31 Finding Sources and
Going to Tell Them 517 Collecting Evidence
The Body of Your Talk: Tell Them 518 (argument)535
Conclusion: Tell Them What You Told Them 519 Using Primary and Secondary Sources 535
Question and Answer 519 Evaluating Sources with Triangulation 537
Step Three: Design Your Visual Aids 520 Finding Electronic and Online Sources 538
Format Your Slides 520 Using Internet Search Engines 538
Step Four: Prepare Your Delivery 521 Using the Internet Cautiously 539
Body Language 521 Using Documentaries and Television/
Voice and Tone 522 Radio Broadcasts 540
Step Five: Practice and Rehearse 523 Using Wikis, Blogs, and Podcasts 540
Practice, Practice, Practice 523 Using Artificial Intelligence to Assist
Rehearse, Rehearse, Rehearse 523 Research541
Quick Start Guide 524 Finding Print Sources 542
Activities for Presenting Your Work 524 Locating Books at Your Library 542
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This Finding Articles at Your Library 543
Using Empirical Sources 544
Part 6 Interviewing People 544
Using an Informal Survey 546
Doing Research
Doing Field Observations 546
30 Starting Your Research Quick Start Guide 548
(argument)526 Activities for Finding Sources and
Collecting Evidence 548
Starting Your Research Process 527 Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This
Step One: Define Your Research Question 527
Step Two: Develop a Working Thesis
Step Three: Devise a Research Plan
528
528
32 Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing,
and Summarizing Sources 550
Doing Start-Up Research 529
Assessing a Source’s Reliability 530 Citing551
Is the Source Credible? 530 Quoting552
Is the Source Up-to-Date? 530 Brief Quotations 553
How Biased Are the Author and the Long Quotations 553
Publisher?530 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 554
Can You Verify the Evidence in the Source? 531 Paraphrasing554
How Biased Are You? 531 Summarizing556
Managing Your Research Process 531 Framing Quotes, Paraphrases, and Summaries 557
Finalizing a Research Schedule 531 Avoiding Plagiarism 560
Starting Your Bibliography File 532 Academic Dishonesty 560
Following and Modifying Your Research Plan 532 Patchwriting561
When Things Don’t Go as Expected 532 Ideas and Words Taken Without
Quick Start Guide 533 Attribution561
Activities for Starting Your Research 533 The Real Problem with Plagiarism 561
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This Quick Start Guide 562
xiv Contents

Activities for Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, Citing Other Kinds of Sources 577
and Summarizing Sources 563 A Student’s MLA-Style Research Paper 578
Talk About This • Try This Out • Write This

33 Using MLA Style 564 34 Using APA Style 586

Parenthetical Citations 565
Parenthetical Citations 586
When the Author’s Name Appears in the
When the Author’s Name Appears in the
Sentence565
Sentence587
Citing More Than One Source in the
Citing More Than One Source in the Same
Same Sentence 566
Sentence587
Citing a Source Multiple Times 566
Citing a Source Multiple Times 588
Citing a Source with No Page Numbers 567
Other Parenthetical Citations 588
Other Parenthetical References 567
Preparing the List of References 590
Preparing the List of Works Cited 568
Formatting a List of References in
Including More Than One Source from APA Style 591
an Author 568
Creating the List of References 591
Citing a Source That Appears in First
APA List of References 592
and Second Containers 569
References for Books and Other
Formatting a List of Works Cited 569
Nonperiodical Publications 592
Citing Sources in the List of Works Cited 570
References for Journals, Magazines, and
MLA List of Works Cited 570 Other Periodicals 594
Citing Books and Other Nonperiodical References for Web Publications 595
Publications571
References for Other Kinds of Sources 598
Citing Book Chapters and Entries in
A Student’s APA-Style Research Paper 599
Reference Works 572
Citing Journals, Magazines, and Other
Periodicals572
Text Credits 609
Citing Web Publications 573 Index612
Preface
A
s we developed this new edition of Writing
Today, we found ourselves at a pivotal time
in the history of writing. The coronavirus
pandemic earlier in the decade changed how people
use writing and how we teach writing. More recently,
generative artificial intelligence (AI) applications have
begun to dramatically change how almost all people,
including college writers, approach writing for school
and work.
Today, writing in college and the workplace is
more multimodal and interactive than ever before.
Increasingly, our students need to learn how to
write in hybrid and mobile spaces that combine the
physical with the virtual. The written word is still
the bedrock of learning and work, but the activity
we call “writing” is quickly expanding to include
new modalities, such as images, video, audio, and
virtual reality.
Meanwhile, learning and working remotely
have accelerated the evolution of online and hybrid
uses of written communication. Within weeks
after the coronavirus shutdown, we were meeting,
teaching, and learning in videoconferences and
other nontraditional spaces. Learning management
systems like Canvas, Blackboard, and Brightspace
became essential meeting spaces for college learning.
Similarly, in the workplace, online platforms like
Slack, MS Teams, Google Meet, and Zoom have
become central to how we get things done. Each
of these technologies centralizes writing in the
workplace.
The Potentials of
Artificial Intelligence
On top of all this, AI applications are dramatically
changing how we write in college, the workplace,
and our civic lives. Today, we can type a prompt
or question about a topic into an AI application,
and it will generate a reasonably thorough and
mechanically correct summation of that topic based
on information available on the Internet.
Is this the end of college writing, as pundits
have been nervously asking? Well, no, we believe it’s
quite the opposite. As the authors of Writing Today,
we believe college writing is becoming more impor-
tant and more dynamic than ever. AI applications are
indeed capable of synthesizing and paraphrasing the
material available on the Internet, but obtaining these
skills has never been the primary purpose of college
writing. Instead, college writing is about generating
new content, being creative, exploring new ideas,
understanding our readers, collaborating with oth-
ers, researching new angles, crafting persuasive argu-
ments, developing an appropriate voice and tone, and
designing accessible and appealing documents. AI
applications are still a long way from achieving that
kind of proficiency with language and design. Truth
be told, we’re skeptical computers will ever be able to
work at a human level of cognition, but time will tell.
Instead, we believe the introduction of AI to
writing is analogous to the introduction of computer-
aided design (CAD) software a few decades ago
in architecture, animation, construction, engineer-
ing, and science. When CAD software first became
available, media pundits began asking whether
architects, animators, and circuit designers would
be needed anymore. They also speculated that even
engineers and scientists might no longer be needed
because computers would soon be able to design
things faster and better than humans.
CAD has indeed revolutionized architecture,
animation, construction, engineering, and design,
but mostly for the better. By taking over the repeti-
tive, tedious, and time-consuming work of draft-
ing and diagramming, CAD frees up architects,
for example, to be more innovative and produc-
tive while improving the quality and safety of the
buildings they design. Similarly, animators, build-
ers, scientists, engineers, and designers have also
xv
xvi Preface
discovered that CAD tools greatly enhance their
abilities to do their work faster and better. CAD
hasn’t replaced them—it has freed them to be more
creative and productive than ever before.
Similarly, AI applications will likely take over
the mechanical, repetitive, and tedious aspects of
writing. Some of the lower-order aspects of writing,
such as grammar, punctuation, sentence structure,
paragraphing, and proofreading, can be handled
by AI applications. Writers can also use AI to brain-
storm topics, collect and synthesize sources, and
outline documents. AI will be able to critique and
review texts, much like peer editors.
AI will help students put their energies toward
developing higher-order abilities, such as gener-
ating new ideas, building stronger relationships
with their readers, researching new angles on top-
ics, crafting persuasive arguments, enhancing their
voice and tone, and designing even more accessible
and attractive documents. Students will be even
more innovative and productive when they are less
worried about whether their writing is mechani-
cally “correct.” They will be freer to create, explore,
and better express their ideas and beliefs.
Yes, times of pedagogical and technological
change like ours can be uncertain and even anxiety
provoking, but these times also offer great potential
for innovation, revealing new pathways and hori-
zons. As we put the finishing touches on Writing
Today, 5e, we look forward to these emerging chal-
lenges, while trying to capture and express this
time of excitement and promise.
Support for Teaching
Corequisite Courses
Writing Today, 5e, is also enhanced with The
Corequisite Support Workbook, a free companion
book for students enrolled in corequisite first-
year courses. In The Workbook, you will find nine
Workshops that target learning areas that first-year
writing students sometimes struggle with, includ-
ing college study skills, reading in college, brain-
storming, structuring a college paper, sentence and
paragraph construction, basic research, and gram-
mar and punctuation.
The Workbook was designed to support first-
generation students, many of whom come from
underserved communities. These students can be
unprepared for college-level work and don’t have
family or friends to turn to for advice or support.
They may struggle with adapting to college life.
One of our authors, Professor Johnson-Sheehan,
was a first-generation student, and he vividly
remembers how disorienting and confusing that
first year of college can be.
Corequisite courses “mainstream” these stu-
dents, placing them in college-level courses and
providing the extra help and encouragement
they need without delaying their progress. This
approach has been shown to double the success
rate for these students in English courses, greatly
improving their retention in college. The Corequi-
site Support Workbook for Writing Today is designed
to help them do well in your class while they pick
up the life skills needed to succeed in college and
move forward with their college studies.
Welcome to the Fifth Edition
Writing Today has long been a leader in teaching
students the genres and rhetorical strategies that
will help them succeed in their advanced college
courses, their careers, and their civic lives. Since the
first edition, this book has foregrounded practical
writing skills that are based on solid theoretical,
historical, and empirical principles of rhetoric.
With each new edition, we have also kept pace
with the evolving cultural and technological trends
that affect all our lives. At our core, we still firmly
believe in the following three principles that we
laid out in the first edition:
1. Students want to master writing skills that
will help them be successful in college, their
careers, and their civic lives.
2. Students want to learn from a book that pre-
sents information clearly, simply, visually, and
in a way that is intuitive and easy to access.
3. Writing instructors prefer a textbook and
other teaching tools that are practical, flex-
ible, and theoretically sound, allowing them
to adapt these tools’ content to their own
teaching practices and styles.

In this fifth edition, we place more emphasis
on the high-order aspects of writing, such as inven-
tion, genre, audience, research, argumentation,
style, and design. We also continue to emphasize
ref lection as a vital component of writing, criti-
cal reading, and analytical thinking. We stress the
importance of developing our students’ abilities to
transfer the ideas and skills they learned in college
to the workplace and their lives in society. We also
stress the importance of writing and living in a just,
equitable, diverse, and inclusive society.
Writing is about crafting clear, accessible, and
persuasive messages that shape and influence how
others think and behave. Students learn how to use
critical reading, analytical thinking, and thoughtful
reflection to strengthen their communication skills,
so they can become more versatile, resilient, and
independent people. Of course, we want students
to learn how to compose clear and coherent prose,
but more than that, we really want them to develop
a deep understanding of their motives, their read-
ers’ motives, their values, and why they and others
express themselves and behave in specific ways.
Writing Today is an easy-to-use book that fits
the way today’s students read and learn. Students
respond best to an interactive writing style, so the
chapters are brief and to the point. Key terms are
immediately defined and reinforced. Sections and
paragraphs are kept short to make them accessible.
Important points are clearly labeled and supported
by helpful visuals. We emphasize practical appli-
cation and keep the academic explanations to a
minimum, even though Writing Today is thoroughly
grounded in contemporary theories of rhetoric and
writing.
We also maximize pedagogical flexibility for
instructors. Our own experiences as writing teach-
ers and writing program administrators tell us that
instructors can follow a variety of pathways. The
best books on college writing speak to the diversity
of instructors, helping them be creative and innova-
tive. With Writing Today, instructors can choose the
order in which they teach the chapters and combine
them into units that fit their course designs.
Our approach is informed by our own class-
room experience and by much of the research done
in the field of writing studies over the past 30 years.
Preface xvii
This approach is also supported by findings emerg-
ing from our research with the Consortium for
the Study of Writing in College (a collaboration
between the National Survey of Student Engage-
ment and the Council of Writing Program Adminis-
trators). Surveys conducted since 2008 by the CSWC
of hundreds of thousands of students at over 200
different schools found that when faculty assigned
challenging and diverse writing assignments, stu-
dents reported deeper learning, increased practical
competence, and greater personal and social gains.
What’s New in the Fifth Edition
A New Part 3 that Teaches Career-Related Genres.
Writing Today has always featured genres for both
college and careers, but we have now sorted them
into a Part 2, “Genres for Writing in College,” and
Part 3, “Genres for Writing in Your Career.” We
added more chapters to each part. This will help
students smoothly transfer their written communi-
cation skills from college to workplace settings.
Coverage of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Applications.
The emergence of AI as a tool for assisting writing
is now embedded in almost every chapter of the
book. While encouraging students to ask their pro-
fessors for permission, we offer suggestions about
how students might use AI without resorting to
plagiarism or academically dishonest practices. The
fraught line between using AI to assist with writing
and using computers to generate prose is discussed
in several chapters.
Expanding Reflection in Reading, Writing, and
Analytical Thinking. Almost all chapters in the
book address reflection as an important component
of written communication. Students are encour-
aged to step back and look at their work critically
while reflecting on how their writing embodies
their own motives, values, and cultures.
New Chapter on Literacy Narratives. A new
Chapter 6 builds on a popular genre in which stu-
dents can explore their own successes and struggles
with literacy, including digital literacy.
xviii Preface
New Chapter on Explainers. Students and
instructors were having so much fun and learn-
ing so much with this microgenre in the fourth
edition that we turned it into a full genre chapter.
Brief reports that answer questions readers want to
understand, explainers are becoming central docu-
ments in many fields, especially science, technol-
ogy, engineering, medicine, journalism, marketing,
and health care.
New Chapter on Photo Essays. This chapter has
been so popular in one of our other books, Argument
Today, 2e, that we decided to bring it over to Writing
Today. Your students will enjoy learning how to do
a multimodal project that involves photography
and writing.
New Chapter on Résumés and Career Materials.
Increasingly, colleges and universities are asking
students to prepare the first versions of their résu-
més, letters of application, and portfolios early in
their college careers. This chapter shows students
how these documents can be used during their time
in college to find internships, scholarships, fellow-
ships, co-ops, and financial aid.
Expanded Chapter on Essay Exams. The chapter
on essay exams in Writing Today has been trans-
formed into an entire genre chapter on strategies
for writing these important documents. Instruc-
tors told us that the use of essay exams and
short-answer exams is growing, so that topic was
elevated, expanded, and moved earlier in the book.
We believe AI will make essay exams even more
critical as a form of assessment.
Improved Page and Interface Design. Instruc-
tors who have used Writing Today before will notice
the continuing improvement in design, which is
brighter and more open, colorful, and accessible.
Students will appreciate a new design that grabs
their attention and works well with both the print
and eText versions.
Enhanced Coverage of Citing Sources. In Part 6,
“Doing Research,” and elsewhere, we pay even
more attention to properly citing sources and
avoiding plagiarism. The ever-evolving Internet, as
we all know, is always creating new challenges with
the citation of sources. We incorporate new meth-
ods and new technologies to help students man-
age and cite their sources properly while avoiding
plagiarism.
New Student-Written Examples. Many of the
student examples in Parts 2 and 3 have been
changed out. Instructors and students will enjoy
the examples we retained, and the new examples
will give them fresh ideas about how to write more
effectively.
New Microgenre Examples. We have replaced
many of the microgenre examples with new exam-
ples that students will enjoy reading, discussing,
and modeling. New and exciting microgenres
appear in the added genre chapters.
New Engaging and Affective Readings. More
than 15 new readings will foster lively class dis-
cussions and offer a range of topics students might
consider for their own writing. These topics range
across diversity and equity, the Second Amend-
ment, fast food, conspiracy theories, the electoral
college, social media, climate change, global public
health, and popular culture.
Features of This Book
Interactive Writing Style. The instruction is brief
and to the point. Key concepts are immediately
defined and reinforced. Paragraphs are short and
introduced by heads that preview content. This
interactive style helps students skim, ask questions,
and access information when they are ready for it—
putting them in control of their learning.
At-A-Glance Diagrams. Each chapter in Part 2
opens with a diagram that shows one or two com-
mon ways to organize a genre’s key elements, giving
an immediate and visual orientation to the genre.
Students learn to adapt this organization to suit their
rhetorical situation as they read the chapter.

End-of-Chapter Activities. Exercises conclude
every chapter in the book to help students under-
stand and practice concepts and strategies.
• Talk About This questions prompt classroom
discussion.
• Try This Out exercises suggest informal writing
activities students can complete in class or as
homework.
• Explore This lets students find their own micro-
genres and explore how they are used in public
spaces.
• Write This prompts facilitate longer, formal
writing assignments.
“One Student’s Work” Readings. A student-
written example in each chapter of Parts 2 and 3
shows the kinds of issues students might explore
in a specific genre of writing as well as the angles
they might take. Annotations highlight the writer’s
key rhetorical decisions so the reading can be used
either for discussion or as a model.
Quick Start Guides. This practical review
includes action steps and appears in each chapter
to get students writing quickly. Students spend less
time reading about writing and more time working
on their own compositions. They can also use the
Quick Start Guide as a preview to gain familiarity
with a genre before reading the chapter.
Microgenres. A microgenre applies features of
major genres to narrow rhetorical situations. For
example, in Chapter 13, students apply the results
of an annotated biography in a research paper; in
Chapter 6, those of a literacy memoir to a digital-
literacy narrative. Each microgenre in Part 2
includes a description, an example, and a writing
activity, encouraging students to experiment and
play by stretching genre conventions.
Readings and Prompts. A diverse selection of
sample readings in each genre chapter and other
chapters throughout the book offer models of each
genre. Question sets after each reading encourage
critical engagement.
• A Closer Look questions facilitate analytical
reading.
Preface xix
• Ideas for Writing questions prompt responses,
analyses, and different genres of writing.
• A Multimodal Approach. Today’s writers com-
pose electronic texts, work with visual and audio
tools, insert graphics, and collaborate with others
online. Each chapter includes strategies for work-
ing in a multimodal environment. Multimodal
assignments appear in “Write This” activities.
Chapters in Part 5 offer guidance on creating and
posting compositions in online environments.
Active Learning Opportunities. The activities in
The Corequisite Support Workbook for Writing Today
help students fill in the gaps as they develop their
writing process.
How This Book Is Organized
Writing Today features brief chapters and plainly
labeled sections, creating obvious access points that
help students find what they need when they need it.
PART 1
Getting Started
Purposefully brief, the first four chapters are
designed to get students up and running right
away. They introduce the five elements of rhetori-
cal situations (topic, angle, purpose, readers, and
context) and explain why and how using genres
will help students to write successfully. The fourth
chapter teaches strategies for reading critically and
thinking analytically. Enhancements to Chapter 5
give instructors the ability to introduce reflection as
part of the writing process early in the course and
help students set up their writing portfolios.
PART 2
Genres for Writing in College
These chapters help students learn eight commonly
assigned kinds of writing in their college courses.
Students explore expressive, informative, analyti-
cal, persuasive, and argumentative genres that help
them respond effectively to most academic writing
situations.
PART 3
Genres for Writing in Your Career
These chapters help students learn five genres
that are regularly used in the workplace. Two new
xx Preface
genres, the explainer and the photo essay, are popu-
lar and challenging in new ways. The chapters on
the professional report and résumé and career mate-
rials are designed to help students start thinking
early in their college careers about the skills they will
need in their professional careers and civic lives.
PART 4
Developing Your Own Writing Process
Stand-alone chapters on planning, organization,
style, design, and revision offer strategies students
can apply to any writing situation. Instructors can
assign them alongside the genre chapters.
PART 5
Strategies for Shaping Ideas
Today’s students have more opportunities to pres-
ent their work publicly than ever before. Straight-
forward chapters on drafting introductions and
conclusions, developing paragraphs and sections,
and incorporating rhetorical strategies (such as
narration, classification, and comparison and con-
trast) provide resources for writing those sections
of papers where students often find themselves
stuck. A chapter on argument explores appeals and
fallacies, and a chapter on collaboration helps stu-
dents work effectively in groups. Students learn
how to present their ideas in public and on the
Internet.
PART 6
Doing Research
The ability to research effectively is critical to stu-
dents’ success in college and in their careers. Stu-
dents learn to engage in inquiry-driven research,
evaluate sources, and work with sources by para-
phrasing, quoting, and synthesizing. Up-to-date
coverage of MLA and APA styles includes citation
examples and model papers.
Ways to Fit This Book to Your
Teaching Approach
Flexibility is a chief strength of Writing Today.
The first five chapters form a foundation, but the
remaining chapters and The Corequisite Support
Workbook can be taught in any order or c­ ombination
to suit individual teaching approaches and
­objectives.
A Process Approach. Students want to learn a
writing process that suits their own working hab-
its and writing styles. The chapters in Parts 2 and 3
tailor the writing process with strategies specific
to different genres. Part 4, “Developing Your Own
Writing Process,” provides additional chapters on
prewriting, drafting, designing, revising, and edit-
ing that can be assigned with any project.
A Genre-Based Approach. Genres are tools writ-
ers can use to help them invent ideas and plan,
research and draft, design, and edit. Writing Today
covers real-world writing—such as analyses,
reviews, explainers, photo essays, professional
reports, and proposals—that helps students solve
real problems and achieve specific goals.
A Transfer and Reflection Approach. The skills
and knowledge students learn from Writing Today
will “transfer” to their advanced courses and their
careers. Students will also learn how to “reflect”
on the rhetorical choices they make. Chapter 5,
“Reflecting Critically, Starting Your Portfolio”
offers a foundation for transfer and reflection.
Then, throughout Writing Today, students are
encouraged to consider the numerous choices
they make as they write often without conscious
awareness.
A Purposes or Aims-Based Approach. Instruc-
tors who teach an aims approach to writing encour-
age students to be aware of their audience and
purpose as they write to express, inform, analyze,
or persuade. This approach works hand-in-hand
with a genre-based approach.
A Strategies or Patterns-Based Approach. Instruc-
tors who teach rhetorical patterns (narrative, descrip-
tion, comparison and contrast, cause and effect,
etc.), will find them embedded in this book. Part 5,
“Strategies for Shaping Ideas,” shows how strategies
work with and within genres to help students orga-
nize and shape their ideas. Students also learn how
to use common patterns in multimodal texts that use
video, audio, and in-person communication.

An Academic Approach. Students learn the kinds
of writing common in the general education curric-
ulum, such as narratives, rhetorical analyses, liter-
ary analyses, reviews, and argument essays. They
also learn the foundations of the kinds of writing
common in advanced academic classes, such as
profiles, commentaries, reports, and proposals.
An Argument-Based Approach. Writing Today
presents a rhetorical approach to writing. Several
genres in Part 2, such as rhetorical analyses, com-
mentaries, arguments, and proposals, are purpose-
fully designed to be argument-based; this content
is labeled with argument in the table of contents.
Chapter 27, “Using Argumentative Strategies,”
helps students determine what is arguable and
anticipate opposing points of view.
An Integrated, Multimodal Approach. Instructors
teaching multimodal composition courses know
few writing guides teach critical twenty-first-
century composing skills and even fewer that offer
multimodal assignments. Writing Today offers strat-
egies for writers to plan and collaborate online,
include visuals in print texts, create visual texts,
create media projects, and post compositions to
the web.
A Scaffolded Approach. Teaching with the work-
shops in The Corequisite Support Workbook helps
instructors target learning areas that first-year writ-
ing students sometimes struggle with. In each one,
you will find a variety of activities that will help
them master specific writing skills. They cover
a range of topics, from grammar to invention to
“doing college,” to develop various skills, from crit-
ical reading to writing stronger sentences to doing
research to support writing.
Distance Learning and Online Teaching. Writing
Today was designed to be easily adaptable to online
and hybrid learning environments. The book’s
comprehensiveness and flexibility provide strong
scaffolding on which distance learning, online, and
hybrid courses can be developed. Its highly accessi-
ble design allows students to quickly find the infor-
mation they need while learning on their own and
composing on their computers.
Preface xxi
Correlation to the Revised (2014)
WPA Outcomes Statement
Writing Today helps teachers and students address
learning outcomes for first-year composition
courses identified by the Council of Writing Pro-
gram Administrators: rhetorical knowledge; critical
thinking, reading, and writing; processes; knowl-
edge of conventions; and composing in electronic
environments. Both of us have been leaders in this
organization, and we believe strongly that these
outcomes reflect the kinds of abilities that students
should master in these courses. Specific connec-
tions between chapters and the WPA Outcomes
appear in the Instructor’s Manual.
Writing Today 5/e in Pearson+
Pearson+ is Pearson’s new subscription-based
eText platform. With Pearson+ students get flex-
ible, affordable access to Pearson eTextbooks. Stu-
dents can search, add notes and highlights, create
flashcards, and get audio for most titles. Pearson+
works on any device and allows for offline reading
right in the app. Learn more at Pearson.com.
Supplements
Pearson is pleased to offer the following resources
to qualified adopters of Writing Today:
• INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUALS
Create a comprehensive roadmap for teaching
classroom, online, or hybrid courses. Designed
for new and experienced instructors, the Instruc-
tor’s Resource Manual for Writing Today includes
learning objectives, lecture and discussion sug-
gestions, activities for in or out of class, research
activities, participation activities, suggested read-
ings, series, and films. A separate Instructor’s
Resource Manual provides suggestions for how
to teach corequisite courses using The Corequisite
Support Workbook.
• ANSWER KEY Answers to the workshop
activities in The Corequisite Support Workbook for
Writing Today are also available.
• POWERPOINT PRESENTATION The in-class
slide presentation includes a full lecture outline
and photos and figures from the textbook.
xxii Preface
Supplements are available for instant download at
Pearson.com. Select the “I’m an Educator” option
and search for “Writing Today.” Once at the Writing
Today page, select the “Instructor Resources” tab
towards the bottom of the page.
Acknowledgments
A book like this is never the work of just one or
two people, even though our names appear on the
cover. We would like to thank our editors, Matthew
Goldstein and Nicholas Dyer, for their great ideas
and persistence. In addition, we would like to thank
Rachele Strober (Marketing Manager), Barbara
Cappuccio (Content Producer), Annemarie
Franklin (Project Manager), and Mary Ellen C ­ urley
(Development Editor). We would also like to thank
our colleagues, Scott Sanders, Susan Romano,
Wanda Martin, Michelle Kells, Karen Olson, David
Blakesley, Irwin Weiser, and Shirley Rose, for their
feedback on our ideas. We also want to thank our
students, especially our graduate students, for trying
out some of these materials in their classes and help-
ing us refine the ideas and approaches in this book.
We are appreciative of our thoughtful and
enthusiastic reviewers, whose feedback helped us
improve the effectiveness of Writing Today as a teach-
ing and learning tool: Shawn Adamson, Genesee
Community College; Diana Agy, Jackson College;
Ryan Allen, University of Louisville; Jennifer Aly,
University of Hawai’i Maui College; Ellen Arnold,
Coastal Carolina University; Katherine Baker, College
of Southern Nevada; John Barrett, Richland College;
Sharon Bartkovich, College of Coastal Georgia; Lisa
Bickmore, Salt Lake Community College; Jacqueline
A. Blackwell, Thomas Nelson Community College;
Patricia Webb Boyd, Arizona State University; Jo
Ann Buck, Guilford Technical Community College;
Gary Cale, Jackson College; Genesea M. Carter, The
University of New Mexico; Jacqueline Cason, Univer-
sity of Alaska Anchorage; John Castellarin, Germanna
Community College; Marlys Cervantes, Cowley Col-
lege; Ron Christiansen, Salt Lake Community College;
Gail S. Corso, Neumann University; Paul Craven,
Alamance Community College; T. Allen Culpepper,
Tulsa Community College, Southeast Campus; Tamera
Davis, Northern Oklahoma College; Louise Dekreon
Watsjold, University of Alaska Chugia—Eagle River
Campus; Dominic Delli Carpini, York College of Penn-
sylvania; Jason DePolo, North Carolina A&T State
University; Paul Dombrowski, University of Central
Florida; Carlton Downey, Houston Community Col-
lege; Chitralekha Duttagupta, Arizona State Univer-
sity; Jeremiah Dyehouse, The University of Rhode
Island; Charles Ellis, Wiregrass Georgia Technical
College; Adrian Evans, Bishop State Community Col-
lege; Linda Fantroy, Bishop State Community College;
William FitzGerald, Rutgers University–Camden;
Mary Sue Fox, Central New Mexico Community
College; Dayna V. Goldstein, Georgia Southern
University; Deborah Goodwyn, Virginia State Uni-
versity; Pamela Hardman, Cuyahoga Community
College; Susanmarie Harrington, The University of
Vermont; Matthew Hartman, Ball State University;
Karen Hattaway, San Jacinto College North; Dave
Higginbotham, University of Nevada, Reno; Matthew
Horn, Cuyahoga Community College; Krista
Jackman, The University of New Hampshire; Jay
Jordan, The University of Utah; Chad Jorgensen,
Metropolitan Community College; Brian Kirby, El Paso
Community College; Margaret Konkol, University at
Buffalo, The State University of New York; Andrew J.
Kunka, University of South Carolina Sumter; Betty
LaFace, Bainbridge College; Karen Laing, College of
Southern Nevada; William B. Lalicker, West Chester
University of Pennsylvania; Steve Lazenby, University
of North Carolina at Charlotte; Robert Lively, Truckee
Meadows Community College; Frank ­M acGregor,
Guilford Technical Community College; Joleen
­Malcolm, University of West Florida; Terri Mann, El
Paso Community College; Mike Marra, Jackson Col-
lege (MS); Linda Martin, Coastal Carolina University;
Rachel Maverick, Richland College; Sharon
M c C a m y, I T T Te c h n i c a l I n s t i t u t e ; M i l e s
McCrimmon, J. Sargeant Reynolds Community
College; James McWard, Johnson County Commu-
nity College; Eileen Medeiros, Johnson & Wales
University; Shellie Michael, Volunteer State Com-
munity College; Susan Miller, The University of
Utah; Rhonda Morris, Santa Fe College; Mary
Ellen Muesing, University of North Carolina at
Charlotte; Lori Mumpower, University of Alaska
Anchorage; Margie Nelson, El Paso Community
College; Sarah Nielsen, DeVry University; Annie

Nguyen, Community College of Baltimore County;
David Norman, Savannah Technical College;
Matthew Oliver, Old Dominion University; Michael
Pennell, The University of Rhode Island; Jason
Pickavance, Salt Lake Community College; Jennifer
Pooler-Courtney, The University of Texas at Tyler;
Sarah A. Quirk, Waubonsee Community College; Rhea
Ramakrishnan, University of New Mexico;
Timothy D. Ray, West Chester University of Pennsyl-
vania; Peggy L. Richards, The University of Akron;
Shewanda Riley, Tarrant County College–Northeast
Campus; Christy Rishoi, Mott College; Mauricio
Rodriguez, El Paso Community College; Jane
Preface xxiii
Rosecrans, J. Sargeant Reynolds Community College;
Dan Royer, Grand Valley State University; Stephen
Ruffus, Salt Lake Community College; Andrew Scott,
Ball State University; Brittany Stephenson, Salt Lake
Community College; Theresa Stowell, Jackson College
(MS); Mitchell Summerlin, Calhoun Community
College; Stacey Tartar-Esch, West Chester University
of Pennsylvania; Bradley A. Waltman, College of
Southern Nevada; Elizabeth Wardle, University of
Central Florida; Leah Williams, The University of New
Hampshire; Margaret Wintersole, Laredo Community
College; Kristy Wooten, Catawba Valley Community
College, and John Ziebell, College of Southern Nevada.
xxiv Preface
About the Authors
Richard Johnson-Sheehan
is a Professor of Rhetoric
and Composition at Purdue
University. At Purdue, he
has directed the Introductory
Composition program and
served as the Director of the
Purdue Writing Lab and the
Purdue OWL. He has mentored new teachers of
composition for many years. He teaches a variety
of courses in composition, professional writing,
medical writing, environmental writing, and writ-
ing program administration, as well as classical
rhetoric and the rhetoric of science. He has pub-
lished widely in these areas. His books on writing
include Argument Today, now in its second edi-
tion and coauthored with Charles Paine, Technical
Communication Today, now in its seventh edition,
and Writing Proposals, now going into its third
edition. Professor Johnson-Sheehan was awarded
the 2008 Fellow of the Association of Teachers of
Technical Writing. In 2017, he was awarded the
J.R. Gould Award for Excellence in Teaching by the
Society for Technical Communication. He has also
won numerous awards for undergraduate teaching
at Purdue University.
Charles Paine is a Professor of
English at the University of
New Mexico, where for more
than fifteen years he directed the
Core Writing and the Rhetoric
and Writing programs. He
teaches first-year composition
and courses in writing peda-
gogy, the history of rhetoric and composition, and
other areas. His published books span a variety of
topics in rhetoric and composition, including The
Resistant Writer (a history of composition studies),
Teaching with Student Texts (a co-edited collection of
essays on teaching writing), and Argument Today (an
argument-based textbook). An active member of
the Council of Writing Program Administrators, he
has served on its Executive Board and served as co-
leader of the WPA Summer Conference Workshop.
He co-founded and coordinates the Consortium for
the Study of Writing in College, a joint effort of the
National Survey of Student Engagement and
the Council of Writing Program Administrators. The
Consortium conducts general research into the ways
that undergraduate writing can lead to enhanced
learning, engagement, and other gains related to
student success.
Chapter 1
Writing with Genres
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

1.1 describe what genres are and how they help writers and readers
communicate.
1.2 use genres to communicate with readers.
1.3 develop a writing process that will help you write efficiently and
effectively.
1.4 use “genre know-how” to become a versatile writer in college and in the
workplace.

Writing gives you the power to get things done with words and images. Clear and
persuasive writing allows you to respond successfully to the people and events around
you, whether you are trying to complete an assignment in college, pitch a new idea at
work, strengthen your community, or just text with your friends.
The emergence of new writing situations—new places for writing, new readers, and
new media—means writing today involves more than just getting words and images
onto a page or screen. Writers need to react to a wide variety of situations that include
diverse groups of people and rapidly changing technologies. Learning to navigate
among these complex situations is the real challenge of writing in today’s world.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is also creating new opportunities for writing to evolve
and progress. When used responsibly, AI-assisted software applications will make some
aspects of writing easier, such as finding information, outlining documents, editing
for style, grammar, and punctuation, and designing documents. It may also help you
generate ideas for getting started with a writing project.
AI-assisted writing, however, will also create new challenges. Although it can be
used in creative ways, AI-assisted writing cannot replace your own creativity or criti-
cal thinking. You should always make sure the information generated by AI is accurate
by using other research methods such as books, journals, and reputable websites. You
also need to read and cite any sources found by AI that you are incorporating into your
work. Before using an AI tool, ask your professors if they approve its use or approve
only specific kinds of uses.

1
2 Chapter 1

Writing gives you the power to analyze what’s happening around you, think
critically, express your ideas clearly, and persuade others. Today, being able to com-
municate effectively is vital to your success in college and in your career. In this
book, you will learn to use powerful communication tools that will be key to your
success.

What Are Genres?

1.1 Describe what genres are and how they help writers and readers
communicate.
Writing Today uses a genre-based approach to writing that is easy to learn and incred-
ibly powerful. Defining the word genre is difficult. Sometimes, genres are defined by
their structure alone (e.g., “A report has five major sections: introduction, methods,
results, discussion, and conclusion”). But this understanding of genre is rather simplis-
tic. Genres are not fixed or rigid patterns to be followed mechanically. Genres are not
templates into which we insert sentences and paragraphs.
Genres are ways of writing and speaking that help people interact, communicate, and
work together. In other words, genres reflect the ways people take action and get things
done. They are always evolving because human activities change over time to suit
new social situations and emerging challenges. Genres do offer stable patterns for
responding to typical situations, but those patterns are highly flexible. More impor-
tantly, though, genres reflect how people act, react, and interact in these situations.
Genres are meeting places where writers and their readers connect with each other.
They are also meaning places, because genres are places where writers and readers
make meaning together.

Using Genres to Write Successfully

1.2 Use genres to communicate with readers.
Genres are powerful because they show you how people interact with each other. You
can use genres to analyze and interpret what is happening around you. Then, once you
understand your current situation, you can use a genre to focus your creativity, generate
new ideas, and present your ideas to others.
When you are reading, you also use genres. A genre provides you cues about how
to orient yourself to a text. Once you recognize the genre of a text, it can help you antici-
pate what you are likely to find in a document and how you can use the information in
it. Whether you are reading or writing a text, recognizing its genre can help you make
strategic choices about what information is most important, where that information
is placed, and how style and design make that information easy to understand and
visually appealing. We like to say that the ability to recognize genres gives you “genre
know-how.” Genre know-how gives you the ability to get things done with words and
images (Figure 1.1).
 Writing with Genres 3

Recognizing genres also gives you the oppor-

tunity to use AI-assisted writing software more
effectively. When you know which genre or genres
fit your writing project, you can ask AI applications
to specifically locate the kind of information that is
most relevant to that genre, while helping you orga-
nize that information strategically.
Figure 1.1 College Writing Requires Genre
Know-How
Writing matters because it is one way people get things
done. College writing will teach you “genre know-how,” the
ability to size up writing situations and respond to them
appropriately.

Genres in Movies
How do genres work? To answer this question, let’s

Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock
talk about how genres work in movies (Figure 1.2).
You already know that movie genres include action
flicks, murder mysteries, superhero origin stories,
romantic comedies, musicals, science fiction, fantasy
adventures, horror, thrillers, and others. Before you
even begin watching the movie, you already know
what to expect because you recognize the genre.
These genres, however, aren’t formulas that the writers and directors must follow.
Instead, they are familiar patterns that audiences will recognize and understand.
Once you recognize the genre of a movie, you form specific expectations about
what kinds of things you will—and will not—experience while watching it. For exam-
ple, a romantic comedy usually explores the amusing awkwardness and screw-ups of
a new relationship. Two people meet and feel an attraction to each other. But then mis-
understandings or events beyond their control cause silly arguments or embarrassing
situations. Eventually, the two star-crossed lovers realize they do truly love each other
and find a way at the end of the movie to be together.

Figure 1.2 Movie Genres

Usually, moviegoers recognize the genre of a movie even before they step into the theater. Movie studios use posters and
previews to help audiences know what to expect and how to interpret the movie.

WARNER BROS/Album/Alamy Stock Photo

Iam21 Entertainment/Album/Alamy Stock
BFA/ Alamy Stock Photo

BFA/ Alamy Stock Photo

Photo
4 Chapter 1

Directors of successful romantic comedies also use genres to help them work
c­ reatively and produce a film that is familiar but also fresh. Genres aid the scriptwrit-
ers’ and directors’ creativity by providing guidelines about how the movie should be
structured, scripted, visually designed, musically scored, and even edited.
The genre of a movie helps the director and producers figure out its content, orga-
nization, style, and design. It gives people watching the film a good sense of what the
movie will be about and its basic story. One of the main reasons why some movies flop
is because they don’t follow a familiar genre—the audience just doesn’t “get it.” Mov-
ies can also flop when they follow a genre in a formulaic way, making them painfully
predictable and shallow.
Successful directors, like successful writers, first need to understand the genres
of the movies they are making. The genre helps the director figure out where to start
and how to proceed. Meanwhile, a director will usually stretch or play with the genre
to make the movie fresh and new. As a writer, you can do this too. Once you know the
genre of a text you need to write, you can be creative with it, stretching it and balancing
the familiar and stable with the unique and dynamic.

Writing with Genres

Here are the most important things to remember about genres:

GENRES ARE FLEXIBLE. Genres are as flexible and changeable as the human activi-
ties they represent. They aren’t formulas to be followed mechanically. Instead, you can
bend or stretch the genre to fit your specific topic, purpose, and readers.

GENRES ARE ADAPTABLE TO VARIOUS SITUATIONS. When your readers or con-

text changes, the genre you are using needs to be adjusted to suit the new situation. An
argument that worked previously with some readers or in a particular context might
not work with different readers or in another context.

GENRES EVOLVE TO SUIT VARIOUS FIELDS. Each discipline and discourse com-
munity adapts common genres to its own needs and purposes. A report written by a
biologist, for example, will be similar to a report written by a manager at a corpora-
tion, but there will also be important differences in the content, organization, style, and
design of the text. Genres can be adapted to many different situations and workplaces.

GENRES SHAPE SITUATIONS AND READERS. When you choose a particular genre,
you are deciding what kinds of issues will be highlighted and what role your readers
will play. For instance, people know that when they are reading a memoir (a literary
genre), they should read thoroughly and follow the storyline. Quite differently, when
readers are looking over a business proposal (a workplace genre), they assume that
they can “raid” the document for the specific information they need—in other words,
they can skip and skim.

GENRES CAN BE PLAYED WITH. You can be creative and play with the conventions
of genres. You can combine, blend, or even “mash up” genres into new ones. Genres are
stretchy. But when you stretch or bend a genre in a way that might not fit your readers’
expectations, you need to do so consciously and with a specific purpose in mind.
 Writing with Genres 5

Genres and the Writing Process

1.3 Develop a writing process that will help you write efficiently and effectively.
So how can genres help you write better? Think of something you are already good
at. To do something well, you first needed to learn the process for doing it. Someone
else—perhaps a teacher, coach, parent, or friend—showed you the process and helped
you get better at it (Figure 1.3).
Writing is similar to the other activities you enjoy. To write well, you first need
to learn a reliable writing process with help from your professors. Strong writers
aren’t born with a special gift, and they aren’t necessarily smarter than anyone else.
Strong writers have simply mastered a reliable writing process that allows them to
generate new ideas and shape those ideas into something readers will find interesting
and useful.

Using a Writing Process

Over time, you will develop your own unique writing process, but the following six
steps work well as a starting place:

ANALYZE THE RHETORICAL SITUATION. Define your topic, state your purpose,
and analyze your readers and the contexts in which your text will be read or used. If
approved by your professor you can use the Internet or AI applications to better under-
stand your topic and find out what your readers want and need, as well as the places
or situations in which they will use your document.

INVENT YOUR IDEAS. Use inquiry and research to generate your own ideas and
discover what others already know about your topic. You can use the Internet, books,
articles, interviews, and surveys to generate content and blend together what you and
others know about this topic. If your professor approves, you might use AI software to
also generate ideas that you can use in your papers.

Figure 1.3 Learning to Do Something Involves Learning a Process

To do something you enjoy, you first had to learn a step-by-step process for doing it. Once you
mastered the process and it became second nature, you could make it yours by refining and
adapting it.
PrathanChorruangsak/iStock/Getty

wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock
Images
6 Chapter 1

ORGANIZE AND DRAFT YOUR PAPER. Use your understanding of the genre you’re
working with to arrange and compose your ideas into familiar patterns that your read-
ers will recognize and find useful. If approved by your instructor, you might use an AI
application to generate suggestions for structuring your ideas in ways that will be more
accessible and clear for your readers.

CHOOSE AN APPROPRIATE STYLE. Use techniques of plain and persuasive style

to clarify your writing and make it more compelling. In this book, you will learn time-
tested strategies for writing plainly and persuasively. Meanwhile, AI applications can
help you revise your writing to make it more clear and consistent.

DESIGN YOUR DOCUMENT. Develop an appropriate page layout and use visual or
audio features to make your ideas more accessible and attractive to readers. AI applica-
tions can help you develop designs that will work with your specific readers.

REVISE AND EDIT YOUR WORK. Improve your writing by rewriting, reorganizing,
editing, and proofreading your work. Correctness is even more important now that AI
is available to assist you. Readers will expect documents to be well-organized, clear,
and error free.
Experienced writers tend to handle each of these steps separately, but a writing process
shouldn’t be followed mechanically from one step to the next. Instead, experienced
writers tend to move around among these steps as needed (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 A Writing Process

Good writers tend to go through steps as they develop their work. They move among these steps in
ways that fit their own work habits and personalities.

Organize and
Invent Your
Draft
Ideas
Analyze the
Rhetorical
Situation Choose a
Style

Design the
Document

Genre Revise and

Edit
 Writing with Genres 7

Why bother with a writing process at all? This is one of those “work smarter, not
harder” kinds of things. A reliable writing process helps you better figure out what you
need to do. In the long run, following a writing process will save you time and will help
you to write with more confidence and creativity.

Using Genre as a Guiding Concept

The genre you are using will influence each stage of your writing process, as shown
in Figure 1.4. For example, if you are writing a movie review, the “review genre” (dis-
cussed in Chapter 8, “Reviews”) will help you make decisions about what kinds of
information your readers will expect. Should you tell them the plot of the movie?
Should you describe the characters? Should you spoil the ending?
The genre will provide you with a model, so you can arrange your ideas in a pattern
that your readers will expect. The genre will also help you to make informed decisions
about what kinds of style and document design would work for your review.
The purpose of a genre is to help you figure out how people tend to act, react,
and interact in the situation in which you are writing. So if you tell your readers you
are writing a “movie review,” they will have some predictable expectations about
the content, organization, style, and design of your text. Your job, as a writer, is to
meet your readers halfway. You want to meet their expectations as much as pos-
sible, while also presenting your argument in a way that will help you achieve your
own purpose.

Transfer: Using Genres in College and in

Your Career
1.4 Use “genre know-how” to become a versatile writer in college and in the
workplace.
The genre-based approach to writing might be new to you, but it’s really just the
next step toward preparing you to succeed in college and in your career. By learning
how to use the genres in this book, you will develop genre know-how, the practical
knowledge and skill to write effectively for a variety of purposes and situations. You
will learn how to recognize and adapt genres for your own needs, and you will learn
how to use this genre know-how to adjust your writing for unique situations and
specific readers.
In other words, the communication skills you learn in this book will “transfer” to
your advanced classes and to your career. Now is a good time to practice the genres
you will need to be a successful and versatile writer. Now is also a good time to get
good at using AI applications responsibly to help you generate information, organize
information into genres that your readers will recognize, write clearly and persuasively,
and design documents to make them accessible and attractive.
8 Chapter 1

Quick Start Guide

At the end of each chapter in this book, you will find something called the “Quick Start Guide.” The purpose
of the Quick Start Guides is to help you get up and running as soon as possible. You can use these guides
for review or to preview the essential information in the chapter. Here is the essential information in this
chapter.

Know what a genre is. Genres are ways of writing and speaking that help people communicate and work
together in specific situations. Genres offer relatively stable patterns for writing, but more importantly, they
reflect how humans act, react, and interact in everyday situations. Genres are meeting places—and mean-
ing places.

Develop your “genre know-how.” Genre know-how is the ability to use genres to analyze and interpret
what is happening around you. With this how-to knowledge, you will be able to adapt your writing to new
situations and to focus your creativity, generate new ideas, and present those ideas to others.

Keep in mind that genres are flexible. Genres are as flexible and changeable as the human activities
they represent. They need to be adjusted to suit the always evolving situations you’ll encounter in college
and your career. They can be stretched, blended, and messed around with to fit unique situations.

Develop your writing process. A writing process leads you from your basic idea to a finished document,
from inventing ideas to final editing. Developing and refining your writing process will save you time and
effort in the long run.

Use genres in college and in your career. A genre-based approach to writing helps you master a “genre
set” that will transfer to your advanced college courses and to the workplace. The genre set taught in this
book will cover most of the texts you will write in college and in your career.

Activities for Genres

Talk About This
1. With a group of people in your class, have everyone talk briefly about their
favorite movie genres; then, as a group, choose one of those genres to discuss.
Describe the genre and its common features.
2. In your group, brainstorm a list of all the television shows or streaming series
you can think of. Then divide these shows and series into genres. What features
did you use to sort them into categories? How do the producers follow and bend
the genres to come up with something new?
3. With your group, brainstorm a list of all the restaurant genres you can think
of. Then choose one restaurant genre to explore further. How does the genre of
the restaurant encourage specific kinds of behavior from its employees and its
customers?
 Writing with Genres 9

Try This Out

1. On the Internet, find a webpage or website that conforms to a familiar website
genre. To your professor, write a one-page analysis that describes the website and
explains its genre and how that genre works.
2. When a movie uses the well-known features of a genre to make fun of that genre,
it’s called a parody. Write a one-page description of a movie that parodies a
­particular genre (the genre it makes fun of) and the features of the genre that are
specifically played with or overemphasized by the parody.
3. For five minutes, use freewriting to describe how you feel about your favorite
movie or television show and what you like about it. Freewriting means just put-
ting your pen on the paper (or your fingers on the keyboard) and writing any-
thing that comes to mind. Then, in your group, discuss what you wrote in your
freewrite.
4. Consider a kind of writing activity that you are good at (e.g., texting, e-mail,
essays, poetry, short stories). What kind of content is typical in this kind of writ-
ing? How is that content organized? What kind of language is used? In what
ways does the genre determine the content, organization, and style in this kind of
writing?
5. Using an AI application to help you, create a concept for a movie that blends two
different genres. For example, you might prompt the AI application to reinvent
a horror story as a romantic comedy or to recreate a history documentary as a
superhero movie. Save the text generated by the AI application. Then, in a one-
page paper written for your professor, write a discussion of how blending these
two genres might offer some creative opportunities for coming up with a new
kind of movie.

Write This
1. Analyze a genre. Find a longer nonfiction document that seems to be using a
specific genre. Write a two-page analysis in which you describe the document’s
content, organization, style, and design.
2. Review a movie for a website or blog. Write a three-page review of a movie
that you could post on a blog or movie review website. In your review, identify
the genre of the movie and the common characteristics of that genre. Then show
your readers how the movie exhibits those characteristics. Toward the end of
your review, tell your readers whether you think the movie is successful by
discussing how well it works within its genre.
 Chapter 2
Topic, Angle, Purpose
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

2.1 develop and narrow your topic to respond to any writing situation.
2.2 develop your angle, the unique perspective you’ll bring to the topic.
2.3 identify your purpose, or what you want to accomplish.
2.4 use your identified purpose to develop a thesis sentence (or main point).
2.5 choose the appropriate genre for your purpose.

OK, one of your professors just assigned you a new writing project. What should you do
first? Start by taking a deep breath. Then read the assignment closely and ask yourself
a few specific questions about what you need to do:
What am I being asked to write about? (Topic)
What is new or has changed recently about this topic? (Angle)
What exactly is the assignment asking me to do or accomplish? (Purpose)
Who will read this document, and what do they expect or need? (Readers)
Where and when will my readers use this document? (Context of Use)
Whether you are writing for your class or the workplace, answering these five ques-
tions will help you evaluate and respond to your unique rhetorical situation. As shown in
Figure 2.1, the rhetorical situation has five elements: topic, angle, purpose, readers, and
context. How you understand and define the rhetorical situation will probably expand
or narrow as you invent, draft, and revise. Still, taking the time to define these elements
at the beginning will help you get off to a good start.
In this chapter, we will discuss the first three elements: topic, angle, purpose. Gain-
ing a clear understanding of your topic, angle, and purpose will help you figure out
what you are writing about and what you want to achieve. These three elements will
also help you decide which genre is most appropriate for your writing project. Then,
in Chapter 3, “Readers, Contexts, and Rhetorical Situations,” we will discuss strategies
for creating profiles of your readers and anticipating the contexts in which they will
experience your work.

10
 Topic, Angle, Purpose 11

Your Figure 2.1 Five Elements of the Rhetorical

Topic Situation
Before you start writing, consider the five elements that
Your Your make up your unique rhetorical situation. This will help
Purpose Angle you get started on your work.

Your The
Readers Context

Topic: What Am I Writing About?

2.1 Develop and narrow your topic to respond to any writing situation.
In college, your professors will provide the topics you will write about or they will ask
you to come up with your own topics. When your professors supply the topic, they will
usually define the topic broadly, saying something like this:

For this paper, I want you to write about the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.

Our next project will research “dating and mating in college,” and we will use our own
campus for field research.

If your professor does not supply a topic, you should choose a topic that intrigues
you and one about which you have something interesting to say. If you have no idea
what you want to write about, make a list of ten topics that you like to read or talk
about. In that list you should be able to find an idea or issue that you would enjoy
spending some time writing about.
When you finish college and start your career, you will write about topics that are
different than the ones you wrote about in college. Nevertheless, when writing any
document, you should still begin by clearly identifying your topic. For instance, your
supervisor or a client may request a document from you in the following way:

Our organization is interested in receiving a proposal that lays out a plan for lowering our
energy costs by using wind and solar power.

We want you to explore and report on the causes behind the sudden rise in violence in the
East End neighborhood.

Once you have identified your topic, you should explore its boundaries or scope,
trying to figure out what is “inside” and what is “outside” the topic. A good way to
determine the boundaries of your topic is to create a concept map like the one shown
in Figure 2.2.
To make a concept map, start by writing your topic in the middle of a sheet of
paper or your computer screen. Circle it, and then write down everything connected
with it that comes to mind. Mapping on paper works well, but if you prefer mapping
12 Chapter 2

Figure 2.2 Creating a Concept Map About Your Topic

A concept map is a helpful way to quickly get your ideas onto the screen or a piece of paper.

Cheating

New normal Security Consistency

still under Relationship
Relationships≠≠
Acceleration happiness
construction of changes in Relationships happiness
Relationships Less
progress take Lessthan
than
College
Collegespouse
spouse takeenergy
energy romantic
Covid romantic
Covidbaggage
baggage
Pandemic More
changed
Pandemic changed Morethan
than
People Situationships
Peopleready
ready everything
Situationships aafriendship
friendship
everything
for
forcommitment
commitment Dating and
Making
Mating in College Stress
Stressfree
free
Makingup upfor
for
lost
losttime
time
AAspectrum
spectrum Dating
Dating&&hookup
hookup Did Covid
ofofsexualities app
appexplosion
explosion accelerate
Female/male sexualities explosion?
Apps for
specific cultural Apps for
Asexual or backgrounds
any identity
LGBTQ+ graysexual
Hookup apps Apps for
romance

on-screen, you can use free or low-cost apps like Bubbl.us, MindMeister, Canva, and
Lucidchart.
While mapping, write down all the things you already know about your topic.
Then, as you begin to run out of ideas, go online and enter some of the words from your
map into a search engine like Google, Bing, Yahoo, or Baidu. The search engine will bring
up links to numerous other sources of information about your topic. Read through these
sources and add more ideas to your concept map.
As your map fills out, you might ask yourself whether the topic is too large for the
amount of time you have available. If so, pick the most interesting ideas from your map
and create a second concept map around them alone. This second map should help you
narrow your topic to something you can handle.
An artificial intelligence (AI) application might also be helpful when exploring your
topic, but we suggest you first use techniques like concept mapping, freewriting, and
Internet searches to generate ideas and information for your paper. An AI application
will tend to bring up ideas and information that are common or popular right now.
Making your own concept map, doing your own freewriting, and running your own
Internet searches will help you become more creative and express your ideas in a more
personal and compelling way.
 Topic, Angle, Purpose 13

Angle: What New Perspective Can I Take?

2.2 Develop your angle, the unique perspective you’ll bring to the topic.
On just about every topic, someone has already said something, which means completely
new topics are rare. That’s fine. You don’t need to discover a new topic for your writing
assignment. Instead, you need to come up with a new angle on an existing topic. Your
angle is your unique perspective or view on the issue you want to write about.
A good way to identify a new angle is to ask yourself, “What has changed about
this topic that makes it interesting right now?” Another question you can ask is “What
unique experiences, expertise, or knowledge do I have that would help me write about
this topic in my own way?”
Let’s consider these two questions separately.

What Has Changed That Makes Figure 2.3 A Book on Your Topic
This Topic Interesting Right Now? This book, published in 2007, looks like an
Imagine you are searching for information about college interesting source for information on your topic,
but dating has changed since 2007. Your own
dating trends. At your library, you find a 2007 book by
observations as a college student today may give
Laura Sessions Stepp titled Unhooked: How Young Women
you some new ways to see the topic.
Pursue Sex, Delay Love and Lose at Both (Figure 2.3). The
book seems out of date. The author takes a heteronorma-
tive view and does not consider other sexual orientations.
Also, so much changed with the explosion of dating apps
and the aftermath of the Covid-19 pandemic. You believe
that “hookup culture” is not as widespread as the book’s
author suggests. Covid made some college students more
interested in stability and privacy, while it made others
even more eager to make up for lost time and date as
many people as they can.
Plus, now dating apps are available for every sexual
orientation, religious and cultural background, and desired
level of commitment. Nobody knows what the “new nor-
mal” will look like. Whatever “normal” is—if normal is
even possible or desirable—it will be more complicated.
If your professor allows it, you might even use an
AI application to help you figure out what has changed
about your topic in the past ten or twenty years. Ask the
AI application to help you identify what has changed
recently about your topic and what hasn’t changed.

What Unique Experiences, Expertise,

or Knowledge Do I Have About This
Topic?
Your experiences as a college student give you some addi-
tional insights or “angles” into the real college dating scene.
Source: “Unhooked: How Young Women Pursue Sex, Delay Love
and Lose at Both” by Laura Sessions Stepp, Riverhead Books, an
imprint of Penguin Group (USA).
14 Chapter 2

For example, perhaps your personal observations tell you that the hooking-up culture
has been replaced by various dating and relationship “subcultures” that are far more
complex. Or, maybe you look around and realize that many of your friends are actually
searching for relationships that will lead to marriage, even if they want to date and love
whoever they like. That’s another possible angle on this topic.
To see if one of these angles works, do some freewriting to get your ideas on the
screen. Freewriting involves opening a new page in your word processor and writ-
ing anything that comes to mind. Freewrite for about five minutes, and don’t stop
to correct or revise. If you run out of material, type and finish the phrases “What I
really mean to say is . . . ” or “I remember . . . ” These kinds of phrases will help you
get rolling again.
Dating and mating in college is a very large topic—too large for a five- to ten-page
paper. But if you explore a specific angle (e.g., shifting from hooking-up culture to
a dating culture that’s more diverse and complex), you can say something new and
interesting about how people date and mate in college.

Purpose: What Do I Want to

Accomplish?
2.3 Identify your purpose, or what you want to accomplish.
Your purpose is what you want to accomplish. Everything you write has a purpose,
even informal kinds of writing like texting. Whenever you speak or write, you are
trying to inform, ask a question, flirt, persuade, impress, or just create something
fun for you and your readers. When writing for college or the workplace, figure
out what you want to achieve (your purpose) before you get too far into the writing
process.
Your professor may have already identified a purpose for your paper in the
assignment, so check there first. Assignments based on the topics might look like
this:

Write a 500-word paper in which you analyze how Martin Luther King, Jr. used nonviolent
tactics to challenge the status quo of racial oppression in the 1960s.

Use close observation of students on our campus to support or debunk some of the com-
mon assumptions about dating and mating in college.

If you need to come up with your own purpose for your paper, ask yourself what
you believe and what you would like to prove about your topic. For example, at the end
of the freewrite in Figure 2.4, a purpose statement is starting to form:

In my paper, I would like to argue that the hooking-up culture that existed more than a
decade ago has evolved into different kinds of dating-mating subcultures. There are many
factors that caused this change, so I will focus on how the Covid pandemic led to an
explosion of dating apps. My goal is not to say the pandemic was the one and only cause.
 Topic, Angle, Purpose 15

Figure 2.4 Freewriting to

Find Your Angle
I’m interested in studying mating and dating in college. Why? Because it’s so Freewriting about your topic
confusing nowadays. Everything about dating and mating is changing. Fast. And helps you test your new angle.
it’s going to keep changing, and who knows where things will be even one year from now.
For sure things are much different that they were in 2007. That’s the year Stepp’s book
Just write freely for five to ten
Unhooked was published. It may have been true in 2007 that “hooking-up culture” minutes without making revisions
was everywhere on every campus. Yes, it’s true that there is still a lot of that. But or corrections.
now it’s more like a minor SUB-culture among a whole bunch of other dating and
mating subcultures. At least that’s what I’ve noticed on our campus. To be
honest, let’s face it, the first year of college is scary, and everyone is still trying to
figure out who they are. Some of us are looking for commitment and some for,
yes, a bunch of hook-ups, but there’s a whole range of preferences and
orientations in between those two.

I’ve been thinking abut how things have changed and I’ve also been thinking about
why they changed. There’s a ton of reasons. Too many to even list, but here’s a
whole bunch of reasons I can look into. Not sure where this will go. That’s for
research. For one thing the Covid pandemic changed everything. It made some
people hungry for security and commitment. No fooling around when it comes to
relationships. But for other people it’s been just the opposite. I know I know. Covid
is not what it used to be. I get that. But it did change things. Maybe forever.

Here’s another idea I can research. There’s so many different dating apps. One
website I found said “there are now over 1500.” There’s everything from eHarmony
to Tinder and some that are. . . well, they’re not for anyone looking for anything like
commitment. There’s one for farmers. I search “Outdoors dating apps” and
found there were more than 30, probably way more than that. There’s an app
for every body size, every cultural background and every sexual identity.

Is this a new thing? I think it is. But why the explosion of dating apps? Not sure, but
here’s a few guesses. First, with Covid, people interested in dating couldn’t go to
clubs. For two years almost, campuses were empty. But people still wanted to find
someone with who suited them. Lifestyles. They had to turn to apps. Is that why
there were so many new ones? Did this explosion start in 2020? This might be
something good to research and find out. There are so many different ways to look
at this. So many angles I could take. That means time to start doing some research.

I want to argue that changes in technology were another important cause. I also want to
argue that because social-networking technologies are always changing, the evolution of
dating and mating is impossible to predict with any certainty.

This statement is still a bit rough, and it lacks a clear focus, but the purpose of the
writing project is starting to take shape.

Are You Informing or Persuading?

At this point, your purpose statement can help you figure out two important things
about your paper. First, it will help you determine whether you are trying to inform your
readers about something or whether you are trying to persuade them.
Your purpose statement also defines the genre you are likely to follow. For example,
the word argue in the rough purpose statement above signals that the author will likely
be writing an argument, a commentary, or an argumentative research paper. For almost
everything you write in college and the workplace, your primary purpose involves
informing or persuading, so your purpose statement will usually be built around the
kinds of verbs shown in Figure 2.5.
Second, once you determine whether you are informing or persuading your readers,
you will find it much easier to come up with a thesis statement that will focus your paper.
16 Chapter 2

Figure 2.5 Common Verbs Used in Purpose Statements

Informative Writing Persuasive Writing
to inform to persuade
to describe to convince
to define to influence
to review to argue
to notify to recommend
to instruct to change
to advise to advocate
to shed light on to urge
to explain to defend
to describe to justify
to illustrate to support

Thesis Statement (Your Main Claim)

2.4 Use your identified purpose to develop a thesis sentence (or main point).
Your paper’s thesis statement (also known as your “main point” or “main claim”)
should be similar to your purpose statement. A purpose statement guides you, as the
writer, by helping you develop your ideas and draft your paper. Your thesis statement
guides your readers by announcing the main point or claim of the paper.
The thesis statement in your paper will usually first appear in your introduction,
often toward the end of your introduction (Figure 2.6). Then it will usually reappear in
the conclusion of your paper, typically with more emphasis.
In special cases, you may choose to use a question thesis or implied thesis in which
a question or open-ended comment in the introduction sets up a thesis statement that
appears only in the conclusion of the document.
There are four major types of thesis statements:

INFORMATIVE THESIS. As its name implies, an informative thesis is appropriate

when your purpose is to inform readers, not to persuade them. For example, here are
a couple typical informative thesis statements:

Natural threats to Florida’s cities include hurricanes, floods, and even tsunamis.

Irish and Chinese immigrants were the bulk of the labor force that built the First Transcon-
tinental Railroad.

Both of these thesis statements are informative because they aren’t asking readers
to agree or disagree with them. Instead, the writers are trying to inform readers about
the topic in a neutral way.
 Topic, Angle, Purpose 17

Figure 2.6 A Prominent Thesis Statement Orients Readers

Your thesis statement should help readers understand your main point or claim quickly and clearly.

Turnbow 1

Katelyn Turnbow
Professor Thompson
English 102

15 October 2022

Lives Not Worth the Money?

The outbreak and spread of Ebola have brought new attention to equally

lethal diseases that are often forgotten. The idea of a forgotten disease is almost

absurd, a disease for which a cure is available but not given, effective, but never given

a chance to work. We are often of the belief that human life is invaluable. In reality,
Your thesis
sentence however, the cures that do not make money for the manufacturer are simply not made at
will usually
appear at the all. One need only look at African Sleeping Sickness (WHO). There is a cure, but the
end of the
victims who would benefit from the drug are poor and considered “unprofitable” by the
introduction.
pharmaceutical industry. It remains, however, a drug company’s ethical responsibility to

care for the people who its drugs can save, even when helping others is not profitable.

Thesis is West African Sleeping Sickness, also known as African Trypanosomiasis or

shown in bold
but is not HAT, was discovered in 1902 and it kills over 50,000 people a year. These victims,
usually put in
bold in a
college paper.

ARGUMENTATIVE THESIS. An argumentative thesis states a claim that your readers

can choose to agree or disagree with. This kind of thesis usually has two features—an
assertion and backing:

[Assertion] The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) should re-exert its authority
over violence on television, [Backing] because American children who watch violent
shows are becoming desensitized to the consequences of cruel behavior.

QUESTION OR OPEN-ENDED THESIS. Occasionally you may want to hold off on

stating your main point, saving it for the end of the paper. In these situations, a ques-
tion or open-ended thesis may be your best choice, especially if you are arguing about
something controversial or making a controversial point. Here are examples of a ques-
tion thesis and an open-ended thesis:

What is the best way to ensure that guns are not used to commit crimes while also pro-
tecting the constitutional rights of gun owners?
18 Chapter 2

The question explored in this research paper is whether drones can be safely used to
deliver pizzas and other food products on the Penn State campus.

When you use a question or open-ended thesis in your paper’s introduction, the conclu-
sion of your paper will need to clearly express your thesis statement in a straightforward
way. That way, the question or open-ended sentence you posed in your introduction is
answered at the end of your paper.

IMPLIED THESIS. In some situations, you might choose not to state your thesis explic-
itly at the beginning or end of your paper. This is called an implied thesis. Genres that use
the narrative pattern, such as memoirs, profiles, and narrative arguments, may need an
explicit thesis statement. In these situations, the author’s purpose is to move readers
toward thoughtful reflection rather than to inform or persuade them about a single spe-
cific point. Other times, the author might feel the overall message will be more powerful
if readers figure out the main point for themselves. If you choose not to include a thesis
statement, you need to make sure the main point of your text comes through clearly for
your readers, even though you aren’t stating it explicitly.

Choosing the Appropriate Genre

2.5 Choose the appropriate genre for your purpose.
Besides helping you come up with your thesis statement, your purpose statement will
also help you figure out which genre is appropriate for your paper. In some cases, your
professor will have already identified the genre by asking you to write in a specific
genre, such as a literacy narrative, a review, a literary analysis, a proposal, or a research
paper. If so, you can turn to that chapter in this book to learn about the expectations for
that genre (Chapters 6–19 in Parts 2 and 3).
If your professor doesn’t specify a genre, the best way to figure out which one
would work best is to look closely at your purpose statement. Your thesis sentence
will signal which genre would be best for your paper. Look for verbs like “argue,”
“propose,” “analyze,” “explain,” or “research.” These verbs will often tip you off to
the genre you should use (argument paper, proposal, analytical report, explainer, or
research paper).
The genre that fits your purpose statement will help you make strategic decisions
about how you are going to invent the content of your paper, organize it, develop an
appropriate style, and design it for your readers.
 Topic, Angle, Purpose 19

Quick Start Guide

Ready to start right now? Here are some techniques and strategies for identifying your topic, angle, and
purpose.

Identify your topic. Your professor may assign a topic or may ask you to come up with one yourself.
Either way, figure out what interests you about the topic. Then use a prewriting strategy such as concept
mapping or freewriting to find information and issues related to your topic.

Narrow your topic. Ask yourself whether the topic is appropriate for the amount of time you have avail-
able. If it seems too large, pick the most interesting ideas from your concept map or freewrite and create a
second map or freewrite around them. This second map or freewrite should help you narrow your topic to
something you can handle.

Develop your angle. Your angle is the unique perspective you will take on the topic. A good way to
develop an angle is to ask yourself, “What has changed recently about this topic that makes it especially
interesting right now?” You might also ask what unique perspective you could offer on this issue.

Write down your purpose. Your purpose is what you want to accomplish—that is, what you want to
explain or prove to your readers. Decide whether you are informing or persuading your readers or doing
something else. Then write a thesis statement that states your main claim or main point. Keep in mind that
your thesis will probably change as you develop your drafts.

Choose the appropriate genre. The best way to figure out which genre would work best for your project is
to look closely at your purpose statement and thesis statement. The verb that identifies your purpose or thesis
will often signal which genre you should use. In some cases, your professor will tell you which genre to follow.

Activities for Topic, Angle, Purpose

Talk About This
1. With a small group in class, use an AI application to generate a list of topics
that college students often discuss and argue about on sites like Reddit,
Quora, or Discord. For example, what do college students talk about with
relationships, sports, or politics? What do they argue about at local gathering
places like cafés, restaurants, or bars? What are some things college students
often discuss with their friends or families? Together, use the AI application to
come up with ten issues that people in your group have discussed or argued
about over the last few days.
2. Take a look at one of the websites you go to for the latest news. What are some
of the hot topics in the news today? You will notice that completely new topics
aren’t all that common. However, reporters are always developing new angles
on topics that lead to new and interesting insights. With your group, discuss the
new angles you notice on these topics. What has changed recently that helped
these reporters find new angles on existing topics?
20 Chapter 2

3. Find an opinion piece in your local or campus newspaper or on the Internet.

Ask yourself the following questions. Is it clear to you what the thesis is? If the
author includes a thesis statement of some kind, does it accurately and clearly
announce the main point? What kind of thesis is used—informational, argu-
mentative, question, or implied? Do you think the author chose the best kind
of thesis for this piece? What other angles on the topic might have worked,
and how would choosing a different angle have changed the kind of thesis
statement that the author used?

Try This Out

1. List five topics that you might be interested in writing about this semester. They
can include anything that captures your imagination. Then, for each of these
topics, ask yourself, “What is new or has changed recently about this topic that
makes it interesting or important?” Using your answers to this question, write
down two possible angles for each topic.
2. Think of a topic that catches your interest. For five minutes, create a concept map
that includes everything you can think of about this topic. Now, look at your
concept map and find a part of this topic that you would like to explore further.
Next, freewrite on that part for five more minutes and see what kinds of ideas
begin to emerge. In what ways would this “narrower” topic be easier to write
about than the topic you started with? Do you see any opportunities to push
your topic into new and creative areas?
3. Pick a topic that interests you and develop a purpose statement for a paper about
that topic. Your purpose statement doesn’t need to be perfect right now. As you
move through the writing process, you’ll refine your purpose, but try to describe
what you want to achieve. Do you want to inform your readers about your topic,
or do you want to persuade them? Now, build your purpose statement around
one of the words shown in Figure 2.5.
a. Using your topic and purpose statement decide what kind of thesis statement
would work best (informative, argumentative, question, or implied). Now,
write down your thesis statement. Try to come up with a thesis statement that
captures your paper’s main point clearly and completely.
b. Look through the genres listed in the table of contents of this textbook
(Chapters 6–19) and identify which genre would be most suitable for writing
about this purpose.
c. With your professor’s permission, run your thesis statement and angle
through an AI application. What kinds of information and ideas does the AI
seem to be coming up with? Do you see any new angles you might explore
while writing about this topic?
 Topic, Angle, Purpose 21

Write This
1. Identify the topic, angle, and purpose of an assignment. Choose a writing
assignment from one of your professors. Using the steps and concepts discussed
in this chapter, first determine the topic you are being asked to write about and
then come up with a unique angle on it. Then draft a purpose statement for your
assignment. Write an e-mail to your professor in which you identify the topic,
angle, and purpose of the paper you will be writing. Then discuss which genre
would be most appropriate for this assignment and why.
2. E-mail your professor about a new angle on a topic. Pick any topic that interests
you and find a new angle on that topic. Use concept mapping to explore and nar-
row your topic. Then write a rough purpose statement that shows what you want
to achieve in your paper.
Choose a genre that would help you to say something meaningful and inter-
esting about this issue. Turn to the chapter in Part 2 or Part 3 (Chapters 6–19) that
discusses the genre you chose. Using the At-A-Glance diagram that appears early
in the chapter, sketch a brief outline on this topic.
Finally, write an e-mail to your professor in which you explain how you
would go about writing an argument on this topic. Explain your topic, angle, and
purpose, as well as the genre you would use. Tell your professor why you think
your approach to the topic would be effective for your readers.
 Chapter 3
Readers, Contexts,
and Rhetorical
Situations
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

3.1 create a profile of your readers to understand their needs, values, and
attitudes.
3.2 figure out how context—where readers read and the mediums they use—
shapes your readers’ experience.
3.3 recognize the importance of discourse communities in college and in the
workplace.

Something to keep in mind is that everything you write will be shaped by the needs
of your readers and the situations in which they will consider what you are saying.
Your writing needs to inform them, persuade them, and achieve your purpose. So your
writing should speak to their specific needs, values, and attitudes. In other words, they
aren’t going to agree with you just because you wrote your argument down. You need
to meet them at least halfway.
In the previous chapter, you learned how to define your topic, angle, and purpose.
In this chapter, you will learn how to create profiles of your readers and size up the con-
texts in which they will read your work. Together, your topic, angle, purpose, readers,
and context make up the rhetorical situation in which you are writing and your readers
are considering your ideas.
Each rhetorical situation is unique because every new situation puts into play a
writer with a purpose, who is writing for specific readers who are encountering specific
ideas at a unique time and place. When you have sized up the rhetorical situation, you
can figure out which genre will best help you accomplish your purpose. Understanding
your readers and the contexts in which they will experience your work will help you
adjust your writing to fit both your goals and your readers’ expectations.

22
 Readers, Contexts, and Rhetorical Situations 23

Creating a Reader Profile

3.1 Create a profile of your readers to understand their needs, values, and attitudes.
Before you start writing, you should create a reader profile that helps you adapt your
ideas to your readers’ needs and the situations in which they will use your document.
A profile is an overview of your readers’ beliefs, values, traits, and characteristics.
At a minimum, you should develop a brief reader profile that gives you a working under-
standing of the people who will be reading your document. If time allows, you should
create an extended reader profile that will give you a more in-depth view of their needs,
values, and attitudes.

A Brief Reader Profile

To create a brief reader profile, use the Five-W and How questions to describe the kinds
of people who will be reading your text (Figure 3.1).
WHO ARE YOUR READERS? What are their personal characteristics? How young
or old are they? What cultures do they come from? Are they familiar with your topic
already, or are they completely new to it?
WHAT DO THEY NEED AND WANT? What information do they need from you to
make a decision? What ideas excite them, and what bores them? What information do
they need to accomplish their personal and professional goals?
WHERE WILL THEY READ THIS? Will your readers be sitting on the couch, at their
desks, in a meeting, or on an airplane? Will they be reading from their phone, a printed
page, a computer screen, or a tablet computer?
WHEN WILL THEY READ THIS? Does the time of day affect how they will read your
document? Will they be reading when the issue is hot and under discussion?
WHY WILL THEY READ THIS? Why will they pick up your document? Do they want
to be informed, or do they need to be persuaded? Are they reading to learn something?
Are they expecting to be entertained or excited by your ideas?
HOW WILL THEY READ IT? Will they read slowly and carefully? Will they skip and
skim? Will they read some parts of your document carefully and other parts quickly
or not at all?

Who are my readers? Figure 3.1 Elements of a

Brief Reader Profile
What do they need and want?
You can quickly profile your readers by
Where will they read this? simply answering the Five-W and How
Brief Reader
questions.
When will they read this? Profile

Why are they reading it?

How will they read it?

24 Chapter 3

Your answers to the Five-W and How questions will give you a brief reader profile
to help you start writing.

An Extended Reader Profile

When you are writing complex or high-stakes documents, like proposals or longer
reports, you should create an extended reader profile that goes beyond answering the
Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How questions. An extended reader profile will
help you to better anticipate your readers’ needs, values, and attitudes toward you and
your topic.
WHAT ARE THEIR NEEDS? Your readers probably picked up your document because
they need something. Are they looking for specific information about your topic? What
information do they need to accomplish something or achieve a goal? What are their
life goals, and what information do they need to achieve those goals? Make a list of the
two to five needs that your readers expect you to fulfill in your document for it to be
useful to them.
You might find it helpful to think more broadly about what people in general
need and why. American psychologist Abraham Maslow developed a helpful tool for
identifying people’s needs. He organized human needs into five levels that move from
lower-level physiological needs (food, air, sleep) to higher-level self-actualization needs
(creativity, spontaneity, morality). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, as it is called, is often
illustrated as a pyramid like the one in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Maslow’s

Hierarchy of Needs
This pyramid is helpful in figuring out
how people rank what they need.
morality
Usually, the needs at lower levels
creativity
(physiological, safety) need to be spontaneity
satisfied before people are concerned Self-actualization
problem-solving
about the needs at the higher levels lack of prejudice
(self-actualization) on the pyramid. acceptance of facts

Source: Based on Maslow, Abraham.

(1943). “A Theory of Human Motivation.” self-esteem, confidence,
In Psychological Review, 50(4), 430-437. Self-esteem
achievement, respect of others

friendship, family, sexual intimacy Love and Belonging

health, security of body, security of

Safety
employment, security of family, security of property

food, breathing, water, sleep, sex, homeostasis, excretion Physiological

 Readers, Contexts, and Rhetorical Situations 25

One thing to keep in mind is that Maslow’s ranking of needs is culturally depen-
dent, so people from different cultures may value some needs more than others. In
other words, people from different backgrounds may rank these values at higher or
lower levels.
WHAT ARE THEIR VALUES? Values arise from your readers’ personal beliefs, social
conventions, and cultural expectations. Your readers’ values have been formed through
their personal experiences, family or religious upbringing, and social/cultural influences.
Personal values. Like you, your readers have beliefs, principles, and standards
of behavior that are important to them. Think about your readers’ upbringings and
experiences. What are their core beliefs? What makes your readers and their values
unique or different?
Customs of their society. Think about how your readers behave with others in
their own social circles. What expectations do their friends and family place on them?
What traditions or codes govern their behavior?
Cultural values. Your readers’ culture may influence their behavior in ways even
they don’t fully understand. What do people in their culture or subculture value? How
are these cultural values similar to or different from the values held by someone from
your culture?

You should do some research on the beliefs and values of your target readers. Don’t
assume that your readers see the world as you do. Even people who seem similar to
you in background and upbringing may have different perspectives on what is hap-
pening around them.
WHAT IS THEIR ATTITUDE TOWARD YOU AND THE ISSUE? Your readers will
also have a particular attitude about your topic and even opinions about you. Will they
be excited about your topic, or will they find it boring? Are they concerned, upset,
apathetic, happy, or excited about your topic? Do you think they generally accept your
views before they start reading, or are they deeply skeptical? What are their positive or
negative feelings about you and the issue?
If your readers are positive and welcoming toward you and your views, you will
want to encourage their goodwill by giving them compelling reasons to agree with you.
If they are negative or resistant, you will want to use solid reasoning, sufficient examples,
and good style to counter their resistance and help them understand your point of view.

Using a Reader Analysis Worksheet

Anticipating all of your readers’ needs, values, and attitudes can be especially difficult
if you try to do it all in your head. That’s why professional writers often use a Reader
Analysis Worksheet like the one shown in Figure 3.3 to help them create an extended
profile of their readers.
Using the Reader Analysis Worksheet is easy. On the left, list the types of people
who are likely to read your document, ranking them by importance. Then fill in what
you know about their needs, values, and attitudes. If you don’t know enough to fill a
square, just put a question mark (?) in that area. Question marks signal places where
you may need to do some additional research on your readers.
26 Chapter 3

Figure 3.3 A Reader Analysis Worksheet

A Reader Analysis Worksheet is a helpful tool for understanding your readers and making good decisions about the content,
organization, style, and design of your document.

Types of Readers Needs Values Attitudes

Most Important Readers

Second Most Important

Readers

Third Most Important

Readers

An extended reader profile blends your answers to the Five-W and How questions
with the information you added to the Reader Analysis Worksheet. These two reader
analysis tools should give you a strong understanding of your readers and how they
will interpret your document.
You might even try using an artificial intelligence (AI) application to help you fig-
ure out your readers’ needs, values, and attitudes about your topic. More than likely,
your readers see the world differently than you and have their own needs. An AI appli-
cation might help you see your topic from their perspective. Be aware, though, that the
AI application may return information that is based on stereotypes. Do some additional
research to find out if the information is accurate and unbiased. Also, you should be
highly skeptical of any negative attributes that the AI application suggests about groups
of people or specific cultures.

Analyzing the Context

3.2 Figure out how context—where readers read and the mediums they use—
shapes your readers’ experience.
The context of your document involves the external influences that will shape how your
readers interpret and react to your writing. Keep in mind that readers react to a text
moment by moment, so the happenings around them can influence their understand-
ing of your document.
 Readers, Contexts, and Rhetorical Situations 27

Your readers will be influenced by three kinds of contexts: place, medium, and
social and political issues.

Place
Earlier, when you developed a brief profile of your readers, you answered the Where
and When questions to figure out the locations and times in which your readers would
use your document. Now go a little deeper to put yourself in your readers’ place.
What are the physical features of this place?
What is visible around the readers, and what can they hear?
What is moving or changing in this place?
Who else is in this place, and what do they want from my readers?
What is the history and culture of this place, and how does it shape how people
view things?
A place is never static. Places are always changing. So figure out how this place is
changing and evolving in ways that influence your readers and their interpretation of
your text (Figure 3.4).
An AI application could be especially helpful for exploring your readers’ context.
With permission from your instructor, ask an AI application to identify the places and
situations in which your readers may read your document. Then, ask AI to describe
those kinds of places and situations, so you can gain a better sense of how the context
will influence how your readers interpret and react to your ideas and arguments.
The genre of your document may help you to imagine the places where people
are likely to read it. Memoirs, profiles, reviews, and commentaries tend to be read in
less formal settings—at home, on the bus, or in a café. Proposals and reports tend to
be read in office settings, and they are often discussed in meetings. Once you know
the genre of your document, you can make
decisions about how it should be designed
and what would make it more readable in a Figure 3.4 The Influence of Place
specific place. The place where your readers encounter your writing will strongly
influence their interpretation of your ideas.
Medium
The medium is the technology that your
readers will use to interact with your
document. Each medium (e.g., paper, mobile
phone, website, public presentation, video,
podcast) has its strengths and weaknesses,
changing how your readers will interpret
your words and react to your ideas.
Singkham/Shutterstock

PAPER DOCUMENTS. Paper documents

are often read more closely than on-screen
documents. With paper, your readers may
be patient with longer paragraphs and
extended reasoning. Document design,
28 Chapter 3

which is discussed in Chapter 23, “Designing Your Document,” can make a paper
document more attractive and help people read more efficiently. In print documents,
readers appreciate graphics and photographs that enhance and reinforce the words
on the page.

MOBILE PHONE SCREENS. When reading articles or posts on their phone, people
tend to scroll or swipe, paying more attention to brief articles or posts rather than
slowing down to read longer ones. That said, if an article is entertaining, informative,
or about something they care about, most readers will slow down and read more atten-
tively. They pay more attention to images that are embedded in the document than the
words. You can learn more about writing briefly and concisely by turning to Chapter 22,
“Choosing a Style.”

ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS. When people read a document on a screen, they usu-

ally “raid” it, reading selectively for the information they need. They tend to be impa-
tient with long documents, and they generally avoid reading lengthy paragraphs. They
appreciate informative and interesting visuals like graphs, charts, and photographs that
will enhance their understanding. Chapter 23 has some helpful information for using
design and images to make your writing more accessible for people using various
devices, from phones to tablets to desktop computers.

PUBLIC PRESENTATIONS. People expect that presentations will be much more visual
than on-screen and print documents. A presentation made with PowerPoint, Slides, or
Keynote usually boils an original text down to bullet points that highlight major issues
and important facts. Turn to Chapter 29, “Presenting Your Work,” for more ideas about
how to make great presentations.

PODCASTS OR VIDEOS. A podcast or video needs to be concise and focused. Hear-

ing or seeing a text can be powerful; however, low-quality podcasts and videos are
easy to spot. The people listening to your podcast or watching your video will expect
a polished, tight presentation that is carefully produced.

Social, Economic, and Political Influences

Now, think about the current social, economic, and political trends and events that can
influence how your readers interpret what you are telling them.

SOCIAL TRENDS. Pay attention to the social trends that are influencing you, your
topic, and your readers. You decided to write about this topic because you believe it is
important right now. What are the larger social trends that will influence how people in
the near future understand this topic? What is changing in your society that makes this
issue so significant? How do these trends directly or indirectly shape how your readers
will interpret what you are saying?

ECONOMIC TRENDS. For many issues, the bottom line is the bottom line. Follow the
money! What economic factors will influence your readers? How does their economic
status shape how they will interpret your arguments? What larger economic trends are
influencing you and your readers?
 Readers, Contexts, and Rhetorical Situations 29

POLITICAL TRENDS. Also, keep any political

Figure 3.5 The Importance of Context
trends in mind as you analyze the context for your
document. On a micropolitical level, how will The context—which includes place, medium, and social and
political trends—will shape how your readers interpret your
your ideas affect your readers’ relationships with
document as well as their reactions to it.
you, their families, their friends, their coworkers,
or their supervisors? On a macropolitical level,
how will the local, state, national, and interna- Medium
tional trends shape how your readers interpret
your ideas?
Your Readers’
Naturally, readers respond to the immediate Place Interpretation
context in which they live (Figure 3.5). If you under-
stand how place, medium, and social, economic,
and political trends influence your readers, you can Social and Political
Trends
better meet them where they are.

Discourse Communities and the

Rhetorical Situation
3.3 Recognize the importance of discourse communities in college and in the
workplace.
In Writing Today, you will learn how to write for various discourse communities. A
discourse community is a group of people who share common goals, values, and cus-
toms. Some discourse communities are informal while others are formal (Figure 3.6).
An example of an informal discourse community would be students at your col-
lege or university. Even though you are all unique as individuals, you and many other
students have similar goals, values, and habits because you are experiencing various
things in a shared place and time. How you and other students communicate with each

Figure 3.6 Formal and Informal Discourse Communities

A discourse community is a group of people who share common goals, values, and customs.
Prostock-studio/Shutterstock

SolStock/E+/Getty Images
30 Chapter 3

other is not governed by established rules or conventions, so the discourse community

is informal.
Formal discourse communities communicate in ways that are more constrained
by rules and conventions. Lawyers, engineers, scientists, medical doctors, and other
professionals are members of discourse communities that share specialized knowledge,
practices, and standards. If you want to join one of these discourse communities, you
need to learn what they know, how they communicate, how they do things, and what
rules they follow.
Why is knowing about discourse communities important? Learning to write in
college requires much more than figuring out how to put together good sentences, para-
graphs, and essays. Writing involves learning how to gain entrance into the informal
and formal discourse communities that you want to join.
That’s one major reason you are going to college. If you want to be a scientist,
engineer, psychologist, or musician, you need to learn that formal discourse commu-
nity’s knowledge, genres, and conventions. And, even if you are just texting with your
friends or designing a poster for a party on your dorm floor, you should be aware that
informal communities also have expectations about your message’s content, organiza-
tion, style, and design.
To learn more about a specific formal discourse community, you might ask an AI
application to tell you about what the people in your readers’ discourse ­community
tend to need and value, as well as their attitudes toward specific events, things,
or activities. Again, be highly skeptical of any information based on stereotypes,
especially negative stereotypes, that the AI application may offer. Individuals in a
discourse community will ultimately have their own personal needs, values, and
attitudes.
As you think about the rhetorical situation (topic, angle, purpose, readers, and
­context), keep your own and your readers’ shared discourse community in mind. We
will come back to this concept of discourse communities throughout this book. Our
point here is that being aware of discourse communities will help you write more
clearly and persuasively.
 Readers, Contexts, and Rhetorical Situations 31

Quick Start Guide

Need to quickly analyze your readers and the context for your document? Here are some steps to help you
get started.

Create a brief profile of your readers. Using the Five-W and How questions, figure out who your read-
ers are, what they need, where and when they will be reading the document, why they are reading it, and
how they will be reading it. A sentence or two for each question should be enough to develop a brief profile.

Know your readers’ expectations. On a basic level, what are the two to five pieces of information your
readers expect or need you to tell them for your document to be useful?

Figure out your readers’ values. Write down your readers’ personal, social, and cultural values, and try
to anticipate how these values will shape your document.

Anticipate your readers’ attitudes about you and your topic. Try to figure out what your readers’ mind-
set will be. Will they be excited or bored, concerned or apathetic, glad or angry, optimistic or pessimistic?
Are they already convinced or deeply skeptical? Do they feel positive or negative about you and your topic?
Will they welcome your views or be hostile toward them?

Think about how place and medium affect your readers. The physical place where they are reading
may affect how closely they are reading and dictate what they need you to highlight for them. The medium of
your document (e.g., paper, screen, presentation, podcast) will also shape how people interpret your ideas.

Consider social, economic, and political trends. Identify any current trends or events that might color
your readers’ understanding of your writing. What social trends affect your topic? How does money influ-
ence the situation? How does your project touch on micropolitical and macropolitical trends?

Keep the discourse community you want to join in mind. A discourse community includes people who
share common goals, values, and customs. To participate in a discourse community, you need to learn what
they know, how they do things, and what conventions they follow when communicating with each other.

Activities for Readers, Contexts,

and Rhetorical Situations
Talk About This
1. Take a screenshot of an advertisement that’s targeted to you. In a group, figure
out the advertisement’s purpose, its target readers, and the contexts in which it
was used. Be as specific and thorough as you can as you define the following:
• Purpose: What is the advertisement trying to do? Use keywords like persuade,
inform, entertain, and others to describe its objectives.
• Readers: What are the needs, values, and attitudes of the target readers? How
does the advertisement try to use those needs, values, and attitudes to its
advantage?
32 Chapter 3

• Context: Describe the place and medium of the advertisement as well as the
social, economic, and political trends that might influence how it is interpreted.
How do these contextual factors influence how readers respond to this ad?
Finally, do you think the ad is effective in persuading or influencing its intended
readers? Did it persuade you? For which readers would it be most effective, and
for which ones would it be less effective?
2. Think of a time when you did not communicate effectively. With your group, dis-
cuss why the communication failed. What happened? Describe how you misread
the situation and why someone reacted in a negative or unexpected way. How
could you have handled the situation better if you had known the needs, values,
and attitudes of the other person? If you had better understood the social and
political views of the other person, how could you have shaped your message to
make it more successful?
3. Using an AI application, generate a list of ten things that motivate people to
agree with others or to take action. With a group from your class, discuss how
these motives influence the ways people make decisions in real life. What are
some ways you could use these motivations in your written work to inform or
persuade other people?

Try This Out

1. Imagine that you are an advertising specialist who has been asked to develop
an ad campaign to market mobile phones and tablets to the elderly to make it
easier for them to go online and connect with friends and family. Figure out these
customers’ needs, values, and attitudes toward the product. Then take notes
about how the places where elderly readers encounter the advertisements shape
their decisions about buying these kinds of products and services. In a one-page
e-mail to your professor, explain how you might use this knowledge to create an
advertising campaign for this new market.
2. You have probably seen electronic billboards that use light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) to display content. These billboards offer more flexibility than traditional
billboard media because different advertisements can be displayed at different
times of the day.
Imagine that you are creating ads for these kinds of billboards. First, choose a
product you want to advertise. Now create two thumbnail sketches (with images
and words) for the billboard for two different contexts:
• Context A—rush hour, when drivers are stopped at traffic lights in front of the
billboard for as long as 90 seconds.
• Context B—normal drive time, when drivers may not stop at all, but drive by
and have as little as 2 seconds to glance at the billboard.
Write a one-page memo explaining how the two versions differ in response to the
differing contexts. Explain why each version’s design and content is right for the
context.
 Readers, Contexts, and Rhetorical Situations 33

3. For your next project in this class, do a brief reader analysis in which you answer
the Five-W and How questions about your readers. Then do an expanded reader
analysis in which you explore their needs, values, and attitudes. In a one-page
memo to your professor, explain the differences between your brief analysis and the
extended analysis. What does the extended analysis reveal that the brief analysis
didn’t reveal? Would the brief analysis be enough for this project, or do you think
the extended analysis would help you write a more effective document? Why?

Write This
1. Evaluate an argument. Find an opinion article about an issue that interests you
and write a one-page critique in which you discuss how well the writer has
adapted this article for its context. You can find a variety of opinion articles in
your local or school newspapers (in the “opinion” section) or on the Internet
(blogs, personal pages, online newspaper opinion sections and the responses
to them). Mark up the text, paying attention to how the writer addresses the
following contextual issues:
• Place—How does the place in which the article was published influence how
readers will interact with it? Where is someone likely to read this article and
how does that physical place influence how readers will interpret its message?
• Medium—How does the medium shape the way people read this article and
what they will focus on?
• Social, economic, and political trends—What have people been saying about
the issue? If it’s a hot topic, what makes it important right now? What larger
trends have motivated the writer to present this argument?
In your critique, explain how the author of this opinion article adjusted the argu-
ment to the context in which it appears. Discuss whether you felt the opinion
article succeeded. How might it be improved?
2. Use an AI application to revise an online document for a different reader. Find
a brief document on the Internet that is aimed toward a specific kind of reader.
Then ask the AI application to revise the document for a completely different
type of reader. For example, if it was originally aimed at a young reader, ask the
AI application to rewrite it for a reader who is much older or from a different
culture.
To complete this assignment, you will need to do a brief and extended reader
analysis of your new readers.
Write a brief reflective e-mail to your professor in which you describe what
kinds of changes the AI application made to the content, organization, style, and
design of the document. Attach the original version and the AI-revised version
of the document to your e-mail, so your professor can see the changes you are
discussing.
 Chapter 4
Reading Critically,
Thinking Analytically
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

4.1 “look through” and “look at” texts.

4.2 use seven strategies for analyzing and responding to texts at a deeper level.
4.3 use critical reading to strengthen your writing.

Critical reading is a process for analyzing and critiquing texts through cultural, ethical,
and political perspectives. This kind of close reading means adopting a questioning and
even skeptical stance toward the text, allowing you to explore insights that go beyond
its apparent meaning.
When you read critically, you aren’t discovering the so-called “hidden” or “real”
meaning of a text. In reality, a text’s meaning is right there in its words and images,
but that meaning is not always obvious. As a critical reader, your job is to read texts
closely and think about them analytically so you can better understand their cultural,
ethical, and political significance. When reading critically, you are going deeper, using
strategies such as:
• asking insightful and challenging questions
• figuring out why people believe some things and are skeptical of others
• evaluating the use of reasoning, authority, and emotion
• contextualizing the text within its culture and other cultures
• exploring ethical and political values that are woven into the text
• analyzing the text based on your own values and beliefs
Critical reading is also a key component of strong writing (Figure 4.1). In your col-
lege courses and in your career, you will regularly encounter documents that use words,
images, symbols, audio recordings, and videos in a variety of ways. In this chapter, you
will learn a variety of critical reading strategies that will help you understand those
features at a deeper level. You will learn strategies for analytical thinking, helping you
look beyond the surface to better understand what their authors are saying and how
they are trying to influence their readers.

34
 Reading Critically, Thinking Analytically 35

Looking Through and Figure 4.1 Combining Critical Reading with

Writing
Looking At a Text As you improve your critical reading skills, you will also
improve your ability to write effectively.
4.1 “Look through” and “look at” texts.
When reading critically, you should think of yourself
as interpreting the text in two different ways: looking
through and looking at.1

AYO Production/Shutterstock
Looking Through a Text
Most of the time, you are looking through a text,
interpreting what the author is saying. You are
primarily paying attention to the content of each text
rather than its organization, style, design, or medium.
Your goal is to understand the text’s main points while
gathering the information it provides.

Looking At a Text
Other times, you are looking at a text, exploring why the author or authors made specific
choices about its content, organization, style, design, and medium.
• Genre—choice of genre, including decisions about content, organization, style,
design, and medium
• Persuasion strategies—uses of reasoning, appeals to authority, and appeals to emotion
• Style and diction—uses of specific words and phrasing, including metaphors,
irony, specialized terms, sayings, profanity, or slang
• Visual design—uses of visual elements, such as photos, diagrams, symbols, and
document/interface design
• Medium—how the text’s medium, such as print, website, mobile phone screen, can-
vas, or film, shapes the author’s decisions and how the readers will interpret the text
Reading critically is a process of toggling back and forth between “looking through”
and “looking at” to understand both what a text says and why it says it that way
(Figure 4.2). This back-and-forth process will help you analyze the author’s underlying
motives and values. You can then better understand the cultural, ethical, and political
influences that shaped the writing of the text.

Reading Critically: Seven Strategies

4.2 Use seven strategies for analyzing and responding to texts at a deeper level.
The key to critical reading is to read actively. Imagine that you and the author are having
a conversation. You should take in what the author is saying, but you also need to
respond to the author’s ideas and how those ideas are expressed.

1 Richard A. Lanham, Analyzing Prose, 2nd ed. (New York: Continuum, 2003), 193–213.
36 Chapter 4

Figure 4.2 Toggling Between Looking Through and Looking At a Text

Reading critically involves both looking through and looking at texts.

Looking At the Looking Through

Text the Text
How and Why What

• Organization and style • Ideas and

• Motives and values content
• Reasoning and evidence • Main point
• Design features • Facts
• Voice and tone • Quotations
• Cultural references • Descriptions
• Choice of medium • Definitions

While you read, be constantly aware of how you are reacting to the author’s ideas.
Do you agree with these ideas? Do you find them surprising, new, or interesting? Are
they mundane, outdated, or unrealistic? Do they make you angry, happy, skeptical, or
persuaded? Does the author offer ideas, arguments, or evidence you can use in your
own writing? What information in this text is not useful to you?

Strategy 1: Preview the Text

When you start reading a text, give yourself a few moments to size it up. Ask yourself
some basic questions:

WHAT ARE THE MAJOR FEATURES OF THIS TEXT? Scan and skim through the
text to gather a sense of the text’s topic and main point. Pay special attention to the
following features:

• Title and subtitle—speculate about the text’s purpose and main point based on the
words in the title and subtitle
• Author—look up the author or authors on the Internet to better understand their
expertise in the area as well as their values and potential biases
• Chapters and headings—scan the text’s chapter titles, headings, and subheadings
to figure out its organization and major sections
• Visuals—browse any graphs, charts, photographs, drawings, and other images to
gain an overall sense of the text’s topic and main points
 Reading Critically, Thinking Analytically 37

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THIS TEXT? Find the place where the author or authors
explain why they wrote the text. In a book, the authors will often use the preface to explain
their purpose and what motivated them to write. In articles or reports, the authors will
usually signal in the introduction or conclusion the purpose they are trying to accomplish.
WHAT IS THE GENRE OF THE TEXT? Identify the genre of the text by analyzing its
content, organization, style, and design. What do readers normally expect from this
genre? Did the authors choose the appropriate genre to achieve their purpose? For this
genre, what choices about content, organization, style, design, and medium would you
expect the authors to make?
WHAT IS YOUR FIRST RESPONSE? Pay attention to your initial reactions to the
text. What seems to be grabbing your attention at first glance? What seems new and
interesting? What seems dull or out of date? Based on your first impression, do you
think you will agree or disagree with the authors? Do you think the material will be
challenging or easy to understand?

Strategy 2: Play the Believing and Doubting Game

Peter Elbow, a scholar of rhetoric and writing, invented a close reading strategy called
the “Believing and Doubting Game” that will help you analyze a text from different
points of view.
The Believing Game—Imagine you are someone who believes (1) what the author says is
completely sound, interesting, and important and (2) how the author has expressed these
ideas is amazing or brilliant. You want to play the role of someone who is completely
convinced by the argument in the text, whether you personally agree with it or not.
The Doubting Game—Now pretend you are a harsh critic, someone who is
deeply skeptical or even negative about the author’s main points and methods
for expressing them. Search out and
highlight the argument’s factual
shortcomings and logical flaws. Figure 4.3 Playing the Believing and Doubting Game
Look for ideas and assumptions Playing the Believing and Doubting Game allows you to see a text
that a skeptical reader would reject. from opposite perspectives. Then you can come up with
Repeatedly ask, “So what?” or “Who a synthesis that combines the best aspects of each point of view.
cares?” or “Why would the author BELIEVING DOUBTING
do that?” as you read and reread.
Once you have studied the text from
the perspectives of a “believer” and
a “doubter,” you can then create a
synthesis of both perspectives that will
help you develop your own critical
believeinme33/123RF

response to the text (Figure 4.3). More

than likely, you won’t absolutely
hugofelix/123RF

believe or absolutely reject the author’s

argument. Instead, your synthesis
will be somewhere between these two
extremes. SYNTHESIS
38 Chapter 4

Elbow’s term “game” is a good choice for this kind of critical reading. You are role-
playing with the argument, first analyzing it in a sympathetic way and then scrutinizing
it in a skeptical way. This two-sided approach will help you not only better understand
the text but also figure out what you believe and why you believe it.

Strategy 3: Annotate the Text

As you read the text, highlight important sentences and take notes on the items you
find useful or interesting.
HIGHLIGHT AND ANNOTATE. While reading on paper, keep a pencil or pen in
your hand. If you are reading a text on a screen, you can use the “review” or “comment”
feature of your word processor or e-reader to highlight parts of the text and add comments.
These highlights and notes will help you find and examine key passages later on.
TAKE NOTES. Write your observations and reactions to the text in your notebook or
in a separate document on your computer. As you take notes, remember to look through
and look at the text.
• Looking through—Describe what the text says, summarizing its main claims, facts,
and ideas.
• Looking at—Describe how the author is using various rhetorical techniques, such
as style, organization, design, medium, and so forth to make the argument.
You might find it helpful to use a notetaking app such as Evernote, Google Keep, Joplin,
MS OneNote, or Zoho Notebook (Figure 4.4). With these tools, your notes are stored in the

Figure 4.4 Using a Notetaking App

Evernote is one of the many notetaking apps that you might find useful.
Evernote Corporation; ilterriorm/Shutterstock
 Reading Critically, Thinking Analytically 39

cloud, allowing you to access your comments whenever you are online. These electronic
notetaking tools are especially helpful for organizing your sources and keeping track
of your ideas.

Strategy 4: Analyze the Proofs in the Text

Almost all texts are argumentative in some way because most authors are directly
or indirectly making claims they want you to believe. These claims are based on
proofs that the author wants you to accept. Even if you agree with the author, you
should challenge those claims and proofs to see if they make sense and are properly
supported.
Arguments tend to use three kinds of proofs: appeals to reason, appeals to authority,
and appeals to emotion. Rhetoricians often refer to these proofs by their ancient Greek
terms: logos (reason), ethos (authority), and pathos (emotion).
• Reasoning (logos)—Analyze the author ’s use of logical statements and
examples to support their arguments. Logical statements use patterns like if
x then y; either x or y; x causes y; the benefits of x are worth the costs y; and x is
better than y. The use of examples is another kind of reasoning. Authors use
examples to describe real or hypothetical situations by referring to personal
experiences, historical anecdotes, demonstrations, or well-known stories.
• Authority (ethos)—Look at the ways the author draws on their own authority or
the authority of others. The author may appeal to specific credentials, personal
experiences, moral character, the expertise of others, or a desire to do what is best
for the readers or others.
• E
 motion (pathos)—Pay special attention to the
author ’s attempts to use emotions to sway your Figure 4.5 Using Emotion in a Scientific
opinion. The author may promise emotionally Argument
driven results that people want, such as happiness, Scientists generally use reasoning (logos) to support
fun, trust, money, time, love, reputation, their arguments, but they can often strengthen their
popularity, health, beauty, or convenience. Or the persuasive impact with emotion and appeals to
author may use emotions to make some readers authority.
uncomfortable, implying that they may become
unhappy, bored, insecure, impoverished, stressed
out, disliked, ignored, unhealthy, unattractive, or
overworked.

Almost all texts use a combination of logos, ethos, and

pathos. Advertising relies heavily on pathos, but ads
Richard Shotwell/Invision/AP Images

also use logos and ethos to persuade through reasoning

and credibility. Scientific texts, meanwhile, are
dominated by logos, but occasionally scientists draw
upon their reputation (ethos) and they will use emotion
(pathos) to add emphasis and color to their arguments
(Figure 4.5).
You can turn to Chapter 27, “Using Argumentative
­Strategies,” for a more detailed discussion of these three
forms of proof.
40 Chapter 4

Strategy 5: Contextualize the Text

All authors are influenced by the cultural, ethical, and political events that were
happening around them when they were writing the text. To better understand these
contextual influences, consider what was happening when the text was being written.
CULTURAL CONTEXT. Do some research on the culture in which the author lived while
writing the text. What do people from this culture value? What kinds of struggles did
they face or are they facing now? How do people from this culture see the world similarly
to or differently from the way you do? How is this culture different from your culture?
ETHICAL CONTEXT. Look for places in the text an author is concerned about rights,
legalities, fairness, and sustainability. Specifically, how is the author responding to
abuses of rights or laws? Where does the author believe people are being treated unfairly
or unequally? Does the author believe the environment is being handled wastefully or
in an unsustainable way? How might an author’s sense of ethics differ from your own?
POLITICAL CONTEXT. Consider the political tensions and conflicts that were
happening when the author wrote the text. Was the author trying to encourage political
change or feeling threatened by it? In what ways were political shifts changing people’s
lives at the time? Was violence happening, or was it possible? Who were the political
leaders of the time, and what were their desires and values?

Strategy 6: Analyze Your Own Assumptions and Beliefs

Examining your own assumptions and beliefs is probably the toughest part of critical
reading. No matter how unbiased or impartial we try to be, all of us still rely on our own
preexisting assumptions and beliefs to decide whether we agree with the text. Here are
a few questions you can ask yourself after reading:
• How did my first reaction influence my overall interpretation of the text?
• How did my personal beliefs influence how I interpreted and reacted to the
author’s claims and proofs?
• How did my personal values cause me to react favorably to some parts of the text
and unfavorably to other parts?
• Why exactly was I pleased with or irritated by some parts of this text?
• Have my views changed now that I have finished reading and analyzing the text?
If an author’s text challenges your assumptions and beliefs, that’s a good thing. As a
writer yourself, you too will be trying to challenge, influence, inform, and entertain your
readers. Treat other authors and their ideas with the same respect and open-mindedness
that you would like from your own readers.
Even if you leave the critical reading process without substantially changing your
views, you will come away from the experience stronger and better able to understand
and explain what you believe and why you believe it.

Strategy 7: Respond to the Text

Now it’s time to take stock and respond to the text. Ask yourself these questions, which
mirror the ones you asked during the pre-reading phase.
 Reading Critically, Thinking Analytically 41

WAS YOUR INITIAL RESPONSE TO THE TEXT ACCURATE? In what ways did
the text meet your original expectations? Where did you find yourself agreeing or
disagreeing with the author? In what ways did the author grab your attention? Which
parts of the text were confusing, requiring a second look? Were you pleased with the
text, or were you disappointed?
HOW DOES THIS TEXT MEET YOUR OWN PURPOSES? In what ways did the text’s
argument line up with the project you are working on? How can you use this material
to do your own research and write your own paper? How did the author’s ideas conflict
with what you need to achieve?
HOW WELL DID THE TEXT FOLLOW THE GENRE? Do you feel that the author met
the expectations of the genre? Where did the text stray from the genre or stretch it in
new ways? Where did the text disrupt your expectations for this genre?
HOW SHOULD YOU REREAD THE TEXT? What parts of the text need to be read
more closely? In these places, reread the content carefully, paying attention to what it
says and looking for ideas such as key concepts or evidence that needs clarification.

Using Critical Reading to Strengthen

Your Writing
4.3 Use critical reading to strengthen your writing.
The ability to read critically will be important throughout college and your career. Close
reading is most important, though, when you are completing your own projects. Critical
reading will help you write smarter, whether you are writing for a college course, your
job, or just for fun. Here are some strategies for converting your critical reading into
informative and persuasive writing.

Responding to a Text: Evaluating What Others

Have Written
When responding to a text, you should do more than decide whether you “agree”
or “disagree” with the author’s views. All sides will have some merit—otherwise,
the topic would not be worth discussing. So you need to go further to explain your
response and figure out where your views align with or diverge from the author’s
views.
To develop a thorough and fair response to what you’ve read, consider these ques-
tions and use the response “templates” to get started.
WHY SHOULD PEOPLE CARE ABOUT WHAT THE AUTHOR HAS WRITTEN?
Explain why you think people should care about the issue and why.

is an important issue because .

While might not seem important at first glance, it has several important
consequences, such as , , and .
42 Chapter 4

Example Response: While the legal drinking age of 21 may seem like old news and
a sensible federal law that saves lives, the issue demands further attention and public
debate because, contrary to “common sense,” many recent public health studies show
that the law is not enforceable and only produces a culture of secret risky behavior,
including binge drinking.

WHERE AND WHY DO YOU FIND THE AUTHOR’S VIEWS COMPELLING—OR

NOT? Describe exactly where and why you agree or disagree with an author’s
conclusions or viewpoints.
At the heart of this debate is a disagreement about the nature of , whether it
was or .

While contends that there are two and only two possibilities, I believe we
should consider other possibilities, such as or .

Admittedly, my negative reaction to ’s assertion that was

influenced by my own beliefs that should be .

Example Response: While historian Tanika Kim mentions that some studies show that
setting the legal drinking age at 21 reduces alcohol consumption and traffic fatalities,
Susannah Morales, a sociologist, cites several studies that show just the opposite.
I disagree with Kim, who argues the law should remain unchanged, and also with Morales,
who argues it should simply be reduced to 18 nationally. Instead of these either-or
solutions, I believe colleges and communities can establish safe but open environments
where underage drinkers are encouraged to drink responsibly.

Responding with Other Authors’ Positions, Terms,

and Ideas: Using What Others Have Written
You can respond to the text by incorporating the author’s ideas or words into your
writing. Joseph Harris offers a useful system of four “moves” for using what others
have said to advance your own ideas and arguments.2
ILLUSTRATING. Use facts, images, examples, descriptions, or stories provided by an
author to illustrate and explain your own views.
As summarizes the data on , there are three major undisputed
facts: first, ; second, ; and third, .

This problem is illustrated well by the example offered by , who explains

that .

Example of Using Illustrating: Sarah Jones, the Dean of Students, explained the
negative consequences of the current legal drinking age law with the analogy of
“forbidden fruit.” “When you label alcohol as a forbidden fruit, it only becomes more
attractive.” It’s human nature, she said, to desire what you can’t have.

2 Joseph Harris, Rewriting: How to Do Things with Texts, 2nd ed. (Logan: Utah State University Press, 2017).
 Reading Critically, Thinking Analytically 43

AUTHORIZING. Use the authority, expertise, or experience of the author to strengthen

your own position or to back up a point you want to make without going into a lengthy
explanation.
As explained by , a recognized authority on the subject of , the
most important features of a are and .

Although makes a valid point in arguing that , a more balanced and

workable solution is offered by , who suggests we .

Example of Authorizing: A study in the Journal on Studies for Alcohol and Drugs
analyzed dozens of peer-reviewed scientific articles published since 2006 and concluded
that the debate should cease because the “evidence is clear” that “lowering the legal
drinking age would lead to a substantial increase in injuries, deaths, and other negative
health-related consequences” (113).3

BORROWING. Borrow a term, definition, or idea developed by the author for thinking
about the issue you’re writing about.
defines as “ .”

’s concept of “ ” is helpful for thinking through the complexities of

this issue.

Example of Borrowing: According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and

Alcoholism, alcohol use can be divided into three “drinking levels”: (1) moderate or
low-risk drinking, (2) heavy or at-risk drinking, and (3) binge drinking.

EXTENDING. Extend the author’s ideas in a new direction or apply them to topics
and situations that the author did not consider.
The successful model described by could be implemented here with some
modifications, including , , and .

While I agree generally with ’s recommendations on this issue, I suggest they

do not go far enough. For example, .

Example of Extending: Rather than employing the futile and unenforceable zero-
tolerance policy currently in effect here at Farris College, I believe we would far
more effectively discourage risky drinking behaviors if we employed the prevention,
intervention, and treatment strategies described by the NIAAA.
These four moves—illustrating, authorizing, borrowing, and extending—will help
you become part of the larger conversation about your topic. By incorporating the ideas
of others into your own work, you can support your own ideas while helping your
readers understand where your ideas agree or contrast with the ideas of others.

3 WilliamDeJong and Jason Blanchette, “Case Closed: Research Evidence on the Positive Public Health
Impact of the Age 21 Minimum Legal Drinking Age in the United States,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol and
Drugs 17 (2014): 113.
44 Chapter 4

Quick Start Guide

Let’s get started with critical reading and responding. Use these strategies to read texts closely.

Toggle between looking through and looking at the text. Throughout the reading and writing process,
combine looking through to understand what a text says with looking at the text to identify how it says it
and why.

Preview the text to size up its major features. Rather than reading from the first word to the last, take
a few minutes to scan and skim the text. Note its overall content, organization, genre, and your initial
reactions.

View the text from different perspectives. Play the Believing and Doubting Game to interpret the text
from different perspectives.

Read closely by highlighting and taking notes. Focus your attention by reacting as you read, using a
pen or pencil or an electronic notetaking tool.

Analyze the author’s use of proofs in the text. Look closely at the authors’ use of reasoning, authority,
and emotion to support the text’s argument.

Contextualize the text culturally, ethically, and politically. Pay attention to how cultural, ethical, and
political issues might have influenced the author or how people responded to the text.

Respond critically through self-analysis and reflection. Challenge your own assumptions, values, and
biases to gain a deeper understanding of the author’s beliefs and your own.

Use the results of your critical reading to write your own text. Now it’s your turn. Put the author’s ideas,
evidence, and strategies to use. Respond by using the text’s ideas and evidence to advance your own ideas.

Activities for Reading Critically,

Thinking Analytically
Talk About This
1. Think of a time when you needed to read and understand a difficult text. It may
have been something you read for a high school or college class. Maybe it was
something you read on the job or on your own. Discuss with your group why the
text was challenging for you.
2. Ask each member of your group to bring in an article from the Internet that is
interesting, puzzling, or infuriating. Ask all group members to briefly describe
the articles they brought and explain why they thought their chosen texts were
special in some way. Then, as a group, choose one article to analyze closely with
the strategies described in this chapter. How do these critical reading strategies
help you see things in the article that you had not seen before?
 Reading Critically, Thinking Analytically 45

3. You have probably heard the term “critical thinking” throughout your high school
and college career. Everybody agrees that being “critical” is supposed to be good
for you, but it’s hard to define exactly what it is. Ask an artificial intelligence (AI)
application for a few definitions of “critical thinking” and explain how it was
defined for you in the past. As a group, using the ideas in this chapter, define
“critical thinking” in your own words. Share your definition with the whole class.

Try This Out

1. Consider your major or a major that interests you. Using the Internet, identify
the kinds of texts that a student pursuing this major would need to read critically
and the kinds of texts people in this area need to write. Make a list of five kinds
of texts these majors read and five kinds of texts they write. Then use the Internet
to explore the kinds of writing that people in this major might need to do in a
future career. Write a brief response in which you explain the kinds of writing
people with this major do in their advanced courses and their careers.
2. Think about a time when you read or viewed something that significantly
changed your life or the way you see the world. Write a brief narrative about
this experience. Describe the text and explain what you believed before and after
reading. Explain also why you were “open” to changing your viewpoint. Try to
go beyond explanations like “It was true” or “It made sense.” Explain what the
text did to you and why you were open to accepting this new viewpoint.
3. Find an article that you completely disagree with on the Internet, in your local
or campus newspaper, or in a magazine. Play the Believing and Doubting Game
with this article. The hard part will be playing the “believing” part, but do your
best to play the role of a complete true believer. Try to support the position you
disagree with in a way that would make a supporter of that position say, “That’s
a fair way to describe what I believe and why I believe it.” Then play the role of
the complete skeptic. Finally, write a brief synthesis that explains what people on
both sides believe and why they believe it.

Write This
1. Create a “double-entry” notebook that looks through and looks at a text.
First, choose a text that you want to understand better. It could be an article, a
textbook for one of your college courses, an argument on television, or just about
anything. After previewing the text, closely read the text and take notes on two
sides of the page or screen.
a. Left side: Looking through—Make longer notes that describe what the author
is saying. Don’t judge; focus just on the content.
b. Right side: Looking at—Describe what the text is doing, focusing on genre,
argumentative strategies, style, and rhetorical patterns. Describe how the
author has chosen to express the content of the text. You should also
speculate about why the author makes those particular choices and what
those strategies do to the reader. You can ask questions, speculate, or explain
why something confuses or puzzles you.
46 Chapter 4

When you are finished, write a brief reflection for your professor describing what
you learned by looking through and looking at the text.
2. Look through and look at a visual text. Choose an advertisement that is visually
rich and that you find interesting. First, look through the advertisement and
describe it in vivid detail. If there’s a story inside the ad, what is it (conflict →
resolution → what was learned)? Now look at the ad and describe how it works
and the strategies it uses to achieve its purpose. How does the ad use design,
style, and rhetorical patterns to achieve its purpose? Does this ad belong to a
specific genre of advertising? If so, what other ads fall into this genre?
Chapter 5
Reflecting Critically,
Starting Your Portfolio
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

5.1 reflect critically on your own writing (and life).

5.2 look backward, inward, and forward at your writing practices.
5.3 write a critical reflection.
5.4 create learning portfolios to showcase your work.
5.5 create a résumé of your experience and skills.

Reflecting on your writing will help you become a stronger and more versatile writer.
The key to reflection is describing and evaluating your rhetorical choices. Rhetorical
choices are writing strategies you have decided to use in a given rhetorical situation,
whether those choices have been made automatically or consciously. When you reflect,
you are stepping back from your writing to see the big picture, asking yourself what is
working well and not so well. It is the process of asking yourself why you have made
the rhetorical choices you have and whether those choices can be improved.
Think about this. You make hundreds of rhetorical choices every day, usually with-
out even thinking about them. You talk to friends. You interact with professors. You
respond to something on Instagram, Pinterest, or a dating app. Your responses to others
will depend on the specific rhetorical situation, what you are talking about (your topic),
what you are trying to accomplish (your purpose), who you are talking to (readers),
where the conversation is taking place (context), and so on.
In everyday conversations, these choices are almost instinctual, but in college and
your career, you will encounter situations that are unfamiliar and even intimidating.
In these situations, your choices need to be made more deliberately and consciously.
With critical reflection, you bring those automatic rhetorical choices out into the open
so that you can examine them consciously and decide whether you are handling various
situations appropriately. When reflecting on your writing, you are doing the following:
• gaining a more precise understanding of your topic and the angle you’ve chosen
• exploring the freedoms and boundaries of the genre you used

47
48 Chapter 5

• recognizing the strengths and limitations of invention and research methods for
generating ideas
• questioning whether your organization and style were appropriate for this genre
and these readers
• understanding how your document’s design and images clarified your message
and made it more appealing to readers
Critical reflection is about growing stronger and figuring out who you are as a
writer and as a person. Reflection will help you think more deeply and write better,
with even more clarity and persuasiveness.

Using Critical Reflection to Strengthen

Your Writing
5.1 Reflect critically on your own writing (and life).
Critical reflection is primarily about doing three things: identifying your strengths,
improving your versatility, and becoming more independent.

Identify Your Strengths

One secret to a successful life is figuring out what you are good at. People sometimes
get hung up on what they don’t do well. Their self-doubt and self-consciousness block
their creativity and freedom, holding them back from reaching their potential. This is
especially true when people are writing. When writers are afraid of making mistakes
or saying something the wrong way, it’s hard to let ideas flow freely.
Critical reflection can help you identify and build on your strengths. That’s why
athletes watch game films and why musicians listen to recordings of their perfor-
mances. These recordings help them identify all the things they do well, while looking
for ways to improve (Figure 5.1).
Then these athletes and musicians can build on their strengths while targeting
other areas for improvement. A softball player will see that her swing is great, but she
notices that slight changes in her stance might improve her balance and control. A vio-
linist hears that he plays beautifully, but he notices that his transitions between sections
are too brief. He decides to try longer pauses to enhance the effect on the audience.
As a writer, what do you do well? Are you creative? Are you good at arguing a
point? Are you a strong researcher? Do you use metaphors effectively to add color
and imagery to your writing? Make a list of five things that you do well as a writer.
Then, with them in mind, identify one or two things you would like to improve.

Improve Your Versatility

Life comes at you fast, so you need to stay light on your feet. Throughout life you’ll
encounter new kinds of situations and new kinds of people. That’s why versatility is so
important for success. Reflection helps you see the possible pathways ahead, allowing
 Reflecting Critically, Starting Your Portfolio 49

Figure 5.1 Strengthen Future Performances by Reflecting on the Past

With any activity, the best road to improvement lies in examining what you’ve done well and what you can do better.
David Baileys/Alamy Stock Photo

SuperStock/Alamy Stock Photo

you to be more creative and try new things. Being versatile is about knowing what has
worked in the past and then figuring out how to respond to new things.
Here’s something to try. After you finish your next writing project, spend ten
minutes writing a brief reflection about what just happened. This is called “reflective
writing.” Reflective writing is like those commentary tracks that sometimes come with
the movies you stream. In these commentaries, the director and actors talk about what
they were trying to accomplish in each scene, describing not only what they did but
also other possible choices they could have made.
When you reflect on your own writing, you explain what you were trying to accom-
plish and why you made the rhetorical choices you did. You can also explain other
possible paths you could have taken but chose not to. This is a good way for you to
step back, consider the big picture, and assess the paths you took as well as some you
might have taken.

Become More Independent

Independent people are often more reflective than others because reflection helps
them get above the fray and figure out what is happening around them. By making
reflection a habit, you will become more independent because you will be better
able to assess the quality of your own writing. Instead of depending on a professor
or supervisor to evaluate your writing, you can make those kinds of judgments for
yourself.
Critical reflection allows you to see that you always have choices in life, some better
than others. Interestingly, these important life choices are often made at the moments
when you needed to communicate something to someone else. As you improve your
ability to reflect, you will make choices that help you become more independent and
give you the freedom to move forward (Figure 5.2).
The same is true with critically reflecting on your writing. Reflection helps you craft
your own message and go your own way. You’re taking charge.
50 Chapter 5

Figure 5.2 Reflecting

on Your Writing Will Help
You Take Charge
Being reflective helps
independent people craft a
positive message.

Andrey_Popov/Shutterstock
Reflecting Critically: Three Strategies
5.2 Look backward, inward, and forward at your writing practices.
This semester, your professor will probably ask you to write brief reflections about
your writing and perhaps a longer reflection at the end of the semester. Similarly, in
your career, your supervisors will ask you to write “post-mortems” after complet-
ing projects in which you identify what happened, what went well, and what could
have been done better. You will also be asked to write semi-annual or annual self-
assessments in which you reflect on your accomplishments, strengths, and personal
development. All of these activities have the goal of helping you and others improve
your performance.
When writing these critical reflections, keep in mind that you are essentially tell-
ing a story. In this sense, a reflection is a kind of memoir in which you’re the main
character who faces a dilemma or challenge, considers various options and makes
choices, and finally resolves the dilemma or challenge. For each project, you want
to explain

• how you prepared to tackle the assignment

• how you came up with the topic and a new angle on it
• how you used invention techniques and research to develop your ideas
• how you went about generating and organizing the content
• how you used style and design to make the document clear and attractive to the
readers

Like a story, your reflection should conclude by explaining what you learned
from the experience and what you learned about yourself as a writer.
 Reflecting Critically, Starting Your Portfolio 51

When writing a reflection, you might find it helpful to use three strategies: look
backward, look inward, and look forward.1

Strategy 1: Look Backward to Your Prior Experiences

Whenever you are trying something new, you depend on your prior experiences and know-
how to figure out what you need to do and how you should do it. For example, going to
college was a new experience for you, but you used your experiences from high school to
help you navigate this new place. You looked backward to make sense of your new situation
and then figured out what to modify and how to move forward.
The same is true about writing. College writing is different than the kinds of writ-
ing you did in high school. Still, recalling your past learning and experiences will help
you succeed. When you are asked to complete a writing project that is different from
anything you have experienced before, first ask yourself how the assignment is similar
to and different from things you have been asked to write in the past.
Keep in mind, though, that prior knowledge can sometimes interfere with being
creative. You may have learned how to write a simple five-paragraph essay in high school
(introduction, three body paragraphs, conclusion), but that rigid “school genre” has to
be modified for more sophisticated writing assignments in college and in the workplace.
Looking backward, you can use some features of the five-paragraph essay
(e.g., clear thesis statement, active voice, strong topic sentences to lead off paragraphs) to
help you complete a more sophisticated writing project like a review, proposal, or research
paper. However, you will need to replace strategies that worked for the five-paragraph
essay with new strategies and skills that expand your creativity and versatility.
As you write your critical reflection, it’s essential that you step back to compare or
contrast the strategies you used in previous experiences with the skills you are trying
out in this new experience. Then you will be in a better position with future projects
to recognize what you need to do—and what you need to do better. While reflecting on
your work, ask yourself some of these questions:

HOW DID YOUR PRIOR EXPERIENCES HELP YOU? How was this project similar to
things you’ve done in the past? Did those prior experiences help you get it done? What
strategies have you used in the past to come up with ideas, generate content, organize
the material, develop an appropriate voice, and design the document?

DID YOUR PRIOR EXPERIENCES HOLD YOU BACK? How was this project different
from projects you have completed before in school or in your personal life? At what
points did you need to move beyond what you learned before? How did the new genre,
medium, or rhetorical situation push you to try new things? How did you change your
voice or style so it would better fit the readers or their context? How did you experiment
with design or the medium to enhance your message?

1This three-strategy schema was adapted from a schema devised by Kara Taczak and Liane Roberts (“Reiter-

ative Reflection in the Twenty-First-Century Writing Classroom,” A Rhetoric of Reflection, ed. Kathleen Black
Yancey [Logan: Utah State University Press, 2016], 42–63).
52 Chapter 5

Strategy 2: Look Inward at the Choices You Made

Now let’s look inward at the rhetorical decisions you made while writing. As you
invented your ideas and drafted, you needed to make numerous rhetorical choices
about the content, organization, style, and design. Looking inward means asking and
answering the why question—why you made the choices you did and the possible strat-
egies you considered but did not use. The why question asks, “Faced with this particular
rhetorical situation (purpose, readers, context, genre, medium, etc.), why did you
believe your choices would help you achieve your purpose?”
When looking inward, you should

• describe the rhetorical choices you faced

• describe the possible paths available at these points
• explain why you felt the paths you chose would work best
• evaluate whether other strategies may have been more effective

The truth is, you actually had to make hundreds of choices, from large decisions about
content to small decisions about word choice. In fact, you made more decisions than
you consciously realized and far more than you can possibly discuss in your critical
reflection. Choose several of those key moments that illustrate how you responded to
the challenges you faced.
Here are some specific questions you can ask yourself as you reflect inwardly about
your writing:

WHAT WERE YOU AIMING TO ACHIEVE? Describe the rhetorical situation and how
you responded to it. What were you writing about (topic), and what did you want to
achieve (your purpose)? Who were the readers you wanted to influence, and what
were their needs, values, and attitudes? When and where would they be reading your
work (the context)? In all, how did the particulars of this rhetorical situation guide the
choices you ended up making?

WHAT WAS YOUR COMPOSING PROCESS? Did you do some invention work dur-
ing class time or at home? If you used an artificial intelligence application to generate
ideas or organize your thoughts, how did you adapt and incorporate what was gener-
ated into your own work? As you drafted, did you write a little at a time, or did you
complete the project all at once? When did you start, and when did you finish? What
did you enjoy (and not enjoy), and what worked out well (and not so well)?

WHAT INFORMATION DID YOU CHOOSE TO LEAVE OUT? You probably couldn’t
include all your ideas or all the information you collected. What didn’t make the final
cut? If this were a movie, what scenes would have been cut from the final version? Why
did you decide to leave some items out? In the end, how satisfied were you with the
choices you made?

WHY DID YOU CHOOSE TO ORGANIZE YOUR PAPER IN A PARTICULAR WAY? The
genre you used gave you an overall pattern to follow, but how did you adapt the pattern
to fit your specific needs? Where did you need to break out of the genre’s usual pattern?
Why did you go your own way at that point?
 Reflecting Critically, Starting Your Portfolio 53

WHY DID YOU CHOOSE ONE STYLE OVER ANOTHER? What voice or tone were
you trying to achieve? Why did you feel that style would be appropriate for this topic
and these readers? How did you use stylistic devices, such as similes, metaphors,
personifications, and pace, to clarify and enhance your words?

WHY DID YOU DESIGN THE PROJECT IN A SPECIFIC WAY? If you designed the
document or added images, why did you choose this particular look? How did the
images you included illustrate important concepts? How well do you think the style
and design worked together?

HOW DO YOU FEEL IT WENT? Now that you’re done, how do you feel about the
project? Are you relieved or frustrated? Do you feel confident that your decisions will
help you achieve what you wanted? Which decisions made you feel anxious?

Here’s a hint: While reflecting inwardly, make a conscious effort to include keywords
from your class and Writing Today. By using the terms you have been learning in class,
you will gain a much better understanding of your writing abilities while demonstrat-
ing that you are mastering the course material.

Strategy 3: Look Forward to the Future

Hey, even the best writers can still improve. While you are looking forward, identify the
places where you can get better. That way, you can set a few goals you want to reach.
Here are a few questions that will help you look forward toward the future:

WHAT ARE A FEW THINGS YOU LEARNED ABOUT WRITING IN THIS ASSIGN-
MENT THAT YOU CAN USE IN YOUR FUTURE WRITING PROJECTS? Was your
voice stronger or more passionate? What did you learn about drafting introductions
or conclusions? Did something about the design or your use of graphics succeed
in a special way that you would like to try again? Did the extra time you spent on
revision improve your work?

WHAT ARE A FEW OVERALL THINGS YOU WOULD LIKE TO IMPROVE ABOUT
YOUR WRITING PROCESS? Should you start earlier next time? Do you want to be
more creative? Do you want to write more quickly or maybe slow down a bit? Do you
want your writing style to be smoother or more colorful? Could the final versions of
your projects be more visually attractive in the future?

WHAT IS YOUR THEORY OF WRITING? To come up with your “theory of writing,”

ask yourself: “Which keywords from Writing Today and this class anchor and guide my
whole writing process?” What strategies work best for you? Do you like to explore the
possible choices and limitations of the genre and medium? Is having a clear purpose
(i.e., a thesis statement) most important, or do you first dive into the topic and then
discover your specific angle and purpose along the way? Or do you first try to under-
stand who will be reacting to your writing by completing a profile of your readers?
For you, is it best to keep your readers in mind as you write or to just concentrate on
what you want to say?
54 Chapter 5

Remember that your theory of writing needs to be flexible enough to allow you to
deal with a wide variety of writing situations but specific enough to serve as a guide
you can actually follow.

Writing Your Critical Reflection

5.3 Write a critical reflection.
Let’s talk about how to write those critical reflections that your professor is asking for.
Some professors may even ask you to make audio recordings or podcasts in which you
comment verbally on your writing.
Whatever the medium or length, think of your reflection as a “story” in which you
are the main character who is facing and resolving conflicts. Some reflections are very
brief, focusing on just one rhetorical choice you faced. Others will be longer and address
a series of choices—a series of conflicts you dealt with (Figure 5.3).
Here’s a hint: Use the keywords and phrases your professor uses in the assignment
sheet, rubric, or evaluation criteria. If, for example, the assignment stresses the impor-
tance of an “argumentative thesis statement,” then you should use that key phrase in
your critical reflection.
Here are some tips that will help you write a critical reflection.

Introduction: Start the Story

Any good story starts by setting the scene and introducing a conflict that involves a situ-
ation in which a character faces one or more important choices. Throughout the writing
process, you faced far more rhetorical choices than you can discuss. So first you need to
decide which choices were difficult or important enough to present an actual conflict.
For these parts of your reflection, describe the rhetorical choices you faced by
addressing one of the “looking inward” questions. Make sure to explain why this choice
was important or difficult.
The sample reflection in Figure 5.3 has an effective introduction. Akira talks about
the situation she faced, her purpose, and the choices she had to make on the road to
achieving that purpose. Notice how she is telling a story.

The Body: Evaluate and Resolve the Conflict

Any conflict has at least two possibilities. Here is the place in your story where you
should evaluate the conflict by exploring the possibilities you faced.
Then describe how you resolved the conflict by explaining why you made the
choice you made and not others. Essentially, you are describing how you figured
out what was needed for the given situation and then describing your strategies for
solving the problem.
Remember: Wherever possible, draw direct connections between your rhetorical
choices and the keywords in the assignment sheet, rubric, or evaluation criteria.
To see how this works, take another look at Akira’s critical reflection in Figure 5.3.
She explains how and why she made strategic decisions about the content, organization,
style, and design of her paper. She also uses keywords that were part of the assign-
ment’s evaluation criteria.
 Reflecting Critically, Starting Your Portfolio 55

Figure 5.3 Sample Brief Critical Reflection

Critical Reflection on “Eating Healthy at the Union’s Laughing Tomato”

Eating Healthy at the Union’s Laughing Tomato

Akira Jefferson
When asked to write a review of a local restaurant that could appear in Akira is telling a
our college newspaper, I was nervous because I’m still figuring out my dorm’s story, setting the
scene.
dining hall. So far, “eating out” is mostly ordering Domino’s or Jimmy Johns.
Plus, my family didn’t eat out much because money is tight and my dad’s a
great cook. So, I don’t have much experience with restaurants.
I had to first decide on a topic—which restaurant would be interesting Akira identifies
to me and my readers. At first I thought I’d review my favorite restaurant and explains the
first choice she
from home. Instead, I chose The Laughing Tomato at the OU Memorial faced, and why she
Union, mainly because it’s on campus and they accept our meal points, chose this topic.
which is important for my primary readers (OU students) who will be see-
ing this in the context of our online weekly newspaper. Before going, I did
some brainstorming to create my list of evaluation criteria, like you asked.
I came up with definitions of “healthy food,” “good atmosphere,” and
“good service.” (I’ve pasted a copy of my concept map at the end of this
reflection.)
Then I grabbed a few friends so we could all order something different and She describes and
compare notes. I used my phone to record our impressions, and I asked my evaluates how she
researched her
friends about their experiences with the food and the place. Using my phone topic and invented
was a good idea because I could play our comments back when I was working the content.
on the paper. (Plus, I could enjoy the food and company without writing eve-
rything down.) The comments helped me “invent” things to write about and She uses key-
find great quotes to add in. If I had tried to write them down while eating, words from the
assignment sheet.
I would have been distracted from the experience. I wanted to focus on the
food and comments rather than taking notes.
Writing the first draft was frustrating, but it taught me about learning to
write in a new genre. A restaurant review is different than anything I’ve writ-
ten before. That was a problem. My high school teachers focused on writing
essays for the OCCT Test and the SAT. They hammered home the importance
of putting the thesis sentence at the end of the first paragraph and using
complex sentences and big words. They told us to never use “I” or “me.”
They told us that paragraphs should be a certain number of sentences. In a
way, those “rules” made things easy because I could just plain follow them.
But with a review, I faced choices that were new for me. That’s a good thing.
I liked how I could experiment with describing the food and the restaurant,
using all my senses.
Still, I didn’t know where to start, so first I thought about my readers and Akira looks inward
what they value. In my concept map, I came up with two main topics: good by describing the
main conflict.
variety of dishes and a place to kick back and have fun. It felt like I needed
another category or two, so I asked an AI chatbot, “What are the categories
56 Chapter 5

that should be used to review a restaurant.” It came up with the ones I had
thought of but also “service,” “value,” and “location.” I thought “value” was
a good one, so I started working with those three categories. Now I had my
main categories for organizing. I used these three headings: “A Menu with
Something for Everyone,” “A Good Value for Meal Points or Wallet,” and
“A Place to Relax and Have Fun.”
She describes When I was drafting and revising, another decision came up: Should
another choice I include the off-color remarks my friends made in the quotes I used? They
(tone) and then
explains why she were really funny and showed that this restaurant is a fun, free kind of
chose as she did. place, but I was worried that some of the language might be offensive. So
I ended up cleaning up the language, but I did try still to get across that
sense of fun.

What did I learn about what works for me? In the future, when I get stuck,
She looks forward I’ll remember that making a concept map is a tool that works for me, and
by talking about sometimes AI is helpful for going that one step farther. And what can I do bet-
what she learned ter? I procrastinated and waited to draft the paper the night before our peer-
and how she can
do better. review day. When I first got back from the restaurant, I was excited, and the
ideas were all fresh. I wish I had at least taken some notes about my ideas the
next morning. In the future, I know I’ll need to keep moving forward, work-
ing on different parts of a writing project from the time it’s assigned. I enjoyed
doing the review, but I know my writing could have been more polished if I’d
had a little more time to revise. Having enough time seems to be a big part of
writing well. I like how my review turned out, and I feel more confident about
Akira evalu-
ates her writing future times when I’ll need to adjust my voice to the situation. But still, I’m
choices. going to start earlier next time.

Conclusion: Reveal What You Learned

Like any story, your reflection should end by revealing what you learned. You might
describe several revelations or just one. For instance, what did you learn about being
creative or doing research? If you used an artificial intelligence tool at any point in the
writing process, what did you learn about the value and limitations of these tools? What
did you figure out about the genre you followed? How did your experimentation with
metaphors or a new voice work out? What did you learn about using images or design-
ing the document? How will this new learning be useful to you when writing in later
college classes or in your career?
Also, if you came up with any basic principles about writing that could be part of
your theory of writing, you might share them here.
Look one more time at Akira’s critical reflection (Figure 5.3). In her conclusion, she
talks about what she learned and how she thinks she can improve.
 Reflecting Critically, Starting Your Portfolio 57

Using a Portfolio for Reflection

5.4 Create learning portfolios to showcase your work.
Your professors and future employers may ask you to develop a portfolio that collects
samples of your work. Your portfolio is a collection of your best work, allowing you
to exhibit your experiences, skills, knowledge, and potential. Creating a portfolio can
lead you to deeper, more permanent learning. In college, you will probably need to
assemble portfolios for specific courses or create a portfolio as a “capstone” to your
studies in your major.
The portfolio reflection (or “cover letter”) is the place to reflect on your growth and
challenges as a writer. It usually focuses on two aspects of your journey toward better
writing. First, you can focus on what you’ve learned and how you’ve improved—where
you were and where you are now. Second, you can discuss the challenges you still face
and look forward to what you’ll need to learn for writing in your major and in your
career.
Your portfolio will also be important to your career. When applying for jobs, you
will use your portfolio to showcase what you can do for potential employers. As an
employee, you may also be asked to include a portfolio as part of your annual perfor-
mance evaluations, which are used to determine whether you will receive a promotion
or a raise in salary.
Creating a portfolio is not difficult. Just follow these four simple steps:
1. Collect your work in an ongoing “archive” in a binder, on your hard drive,
or in the cloud on a web-based server. Each item in your portfolio is called an
artifact.
2. Select the artifacts that best exemplify your knowledge and skills. Your selections
depend on who will be viewing your portfolio and why.
3. Reflect on what is in the portfolio. This brief reflection reviews your portfolio’s
materials and sometimes describes the skills and processes you’ve used to create
them.
4. Present the portfolio as a complete package. Depending on how it will be used,
your portfolio might be print, online, or a multimedia presentation.
Your portfolio should include the documents you will discuss in your cover letter.
It might include noteworthy photographs, presentations, and projects. It could also
include electronic media, such as images, video, and audio you have stored on your
phone or in the cloud.

Step 1: Collect Your Work into an Archive

Your archive is like a storehouse of raw material. This is where you should keep copies
of your work until you select them for your portfolio. Find a safe place for storing your
archive. Today, almost all portfolios are electronically stored and presented. You could
use your computer’s hard drive, but make sure you back up your archive with a cloud
58 Chapter 5

storage system like Dropbox, Google Drive, Apple iCloud, or Microsoft OneDrive. Your col-
lege might also offer cloud storage or an e-portfolio system. Here are some materials
you might consider including in your archive:
• all notes, including class notes, brainstorming, freewrites, journaling, and so on
• rough drafts, informal writing, responses, and perhaps your professors’ written
comments on your drafts
• peer reviews that you’ve done for others and that others have done for you
• final drafts
• other electronic material, such as images, multimedia, blogs, web-based discussions
For print documents, you should designate a drawer in your desk or file cabinet for
archive materials. Keep any projects, awards, letters, or other career-related documents
in this drawer. Or you can scan these documents and store them electronically on your
computer or in the cloud.
ARCHIVING FOR YOUR COLLEGE CAREER. Right now, early in your college career,
is a good time to create an archive. That way, you will get into the habit of saving your
best work. As an added benefit, you will always know where your work is stored. The
worst time to start an archive is when you are getting ready to graduate from college.
At that point, much of your best work will have been forgotten or lost.
Here are some college-related items that you should collect:
• awards or recognition of any kind
• letters of reference from professors
• scholarship letters and letters of acceptance
• materials and evaluations from internships, co-ops, or jobs
• copies of exams (preferably ones you did well on)
• evidence of participation in clubs or special events and volunteer work
You never know what you will need, so keep anything that might be useful. If you
regularly save these materials, you will be amazed at how much you accomplished
during your college years.

ARCHIVING FOR YOUR PROFESSIONAL CAREER. Employers often ask job appli-
cants to bring a professional portfolio to interviews. It is also common for professionals
to maintain a portfolio for promotions, performance reviews, and job searches. For this
kind of professional portfolio, you should archive the following items:
• résumé
• examples of written work, presentations, and other materials such as images, links
to websites, and so on
• diplomas, certificates, and awards
• letters of reference
Your career archive will store much more material than you would ever include in
a professional portfolio. You can then select the most appropriate material for a specific
job interview or a performance review.
 Reflecting Critically, Starting Your Portfolio 59

Step 2: Select the Best Artifacts for Your Portfolio

Start by considering which of your archived artifacts will allow you to achieve your
portfolio’s purpose and meet the needs of your readers. Unless your professor asks
for everything, you should select materials from your archive that best demonstrate
your abilities and how much you learned in the course. If you are creating a portfolio
for a job or internship interview, you should choose the items that match the skills and
qualifications mentioned in the job posting.

Step 3: Reflect on Your Work

You may be asked to write two kinds of reflections for your portfolio, depending on
how it will be used:
LEARNING-FOCUSED REFLECTIONS. These reflections tell the story of your prog-
ress in a class. They show that you have made progress toward certain knowledge and
skills. They also give you a chance to reflect on the course objectives more thoroughly
and to demonstrate how you met those course objectives.
MASTERY-FOCUSED REFLECTIONS. These reflections describe your mastery of
s­ pecific knowledge and skills. In this kind of reflection, explain what you can do and
how expertly you can do it.
Whether you are creating a portfolio for a class or for a job interview, your reflection
needs to state an overall claim (i.e., a main point or thesis). The reflection should then
point to specific features of the portfolio as evidence that supports your claim.
Demonstrating these features, Figure 5.4 shows a learning-focused reflection writ-
ten for a first-year writing course. Notice how this reflection makes a claim about the
writer’s experience and abilities and then points to specific places in the portfolio where
readers can find evidence supporting those claims.

Step 4: Present Your Materials

How you present your work is important, so don’t just throw your materials into a
manila envelope or a single online folder. That looks sloppy and unprofessional. You
need to present your materials in an organized and attractive way so your readers can
find the documents they want to see. For a print-based portfolio, use a nice three-ring
binder or folder. For an e-portfolio, put your work in folders on a file-sharing site like
Google Drive, MS OneDrive, or Dropbox. You can scan paper documents and store them
electronically.
FOR A SPECIFIC COURSE. Most portfolios for a single course are organized chrono-
logically from the earliest documents to the most recent documents. Your reflective cover
letter should appear first as an introduction to the portfolio. And if you are asked to
include drafts of papers, they should appear after the final versions, not in front of them.
FOR A JOB OR INTERNSHIP APPLICATION PACKET. Portfolios used for job searches
typically follow the organization of a résumé. After your reflection, you should include
parts like Education, Related Coursework, Work Experience, Skills, Awards, and
Activities. For a print-based portfolio, each part should have its own divider with a
tab, and for an e-portfolio, each part should be in a different document or subfolder.
60 Chapter 5

Figure 5.4 A Student’s Learning-Focused Reflection

This reflection, created for a course in first-year composition, exemplifies one approach to the portfolio cover letter. (Only the
first four paragraphs are shown here.) The professor had asked for cover memos that described students’ learning progress in
terms of the course’s student learning objectives (SLOs).

MEMORANDUM
Date: December 12, 2023
To: Professor Hannah Young
From: Dawson Simmons
Subject: Reflection Memo for Portfolio

I will admit that I didn’t know what to expect when I signed up for English 105. All of my
previous English classes have been about novels, poetry, and plays. So a whole semester
about writing sounded difficult. During the semester, though, I grew more comfortable
with my writing style, and I now have a better understanding of my own “writing
process.” My portfolio demonstrates that I have achieved the student learning objectives
(SLOs) for the course.

Dawson One of the most important outcomes for our course was about using genres to read and
describes communicate more effectively. That outcome states that students should “gain
the skill in
experience reading and composing in several genres to understand how genre
terms of the
course’s conventions shape and are shaped by readers’ and writers’ practices and purposes.”
student When this class began, I had no idea what in the world this meant. Now I understand
learning that every major and career has its own specific ways of communicating, and if you don’t
outcome. understand those “ways,” then you won’t be able to fully understand what others are
trying to communicate. You also won’t be able to communicate what you know to them.
That’s why this objective is so important: We need to get experience with a lot of
different genres so that we can get better at learning how the genres in our majors work.
Otherwise, we won’t be able to write well in our jobs.

One example of a genre that I really knew nothing about but will need in the future is the
proposal genre. Even though I’d never written a proposal, I sort of had an idea about
Dawson looks what a proposal is supposed to do (propose something), but it was all very vague. But for
forward to me, learning about proposals is important because I plan on becoming a civil engineer. I
future kinds want to build roads and bridges and tunnels. Engineers write lots of reports and
of writing. proposals because nobody is going to give you the go-ahead for a project if you haven’t
helped them understand what you’re going to do and why it’s a good idea to do it the
way you propose.
He describes
the rhetorical Our third major writing assignment was to create a team-written proposal that addressed
situation and a campus problem. My group agreed on the problem really quickly—campus parking.
the choices But we didn’t have the slightest idea about what to do next. Believe it or not, the genre of
that were
a proposal actually helped us figure out the steps we needed to take. We needed to
made.
define the problem and explain to our audience why it was important. And that brought
up a question we forgot to ask: Who were we writing to? Again, the genre itself helped
us answer that: We were writing to the people who actually had the power to make the
decision whether to go forward with and fund our proposal. Also, writing as a team, it
was important that all of us had a pretty decent grasp of how a proposal worked, what
sections and ideas needed to be included and more or less in what order. In short, it was
knowledge of the genre that guided our processes of drafting, organizing, revising, and
designing.
 Reflecting Critically, Starting Your Portfolio 61

If you will be presenting your portfolio in person (e.g., in an interview or to a

group), you should organize your material in a way that helps you orally explain your
background and experiences.

Creating an E-Portfolio
Making an e-portfolio is not difficult, especially if you know how to create a basic blog
or website. The blogging site WordPress is a popular place to house e-portfolios. You
can also house your work on Google Sites, Adobe Portfolio, and others. Many universities
also have created their own hosting sites for e-portfolios.
Electronic portfolios have several advantages:

• They can be accessed from any networked computer.

• They can include multimedia texts such as movies, presentations, and links to web-
sites you have created.
• They can include scanned-in documents showing comments that others have hand-
written on your work.
• They provide interactivity for the reader. For example, the reflective letter can link
directly to the documents in the portfolio or to items on the Internet.
• They can include materials and links to information. For example, you might put
links to your university and academic department to help interviewers learn about
your educational background.
• They can be updated easily, and older versions can be archived.
• They provide customized access features for different readers.
• They eliminate copying costs.

Some e-portfolio services even allow you to maintain an electronic archive from which
you can create a few different e-portfolios, each targeted for a specific purpose and
audience.

Creating a Starter Résumé

5.5 Create a résumé of your experience and skills.
Your professor may ask you to include a résumé in your portfolio. At this point in your
college career, you might not have much to put on a résumé. You will still find it useful
to put one together. Increasingly, résumés are being used for college-related purposes,
like scholarships, applications, and internships. Plus, if you create a starter résumé now,
you can add to it each semester. That way you can keep track of your accomplishments
as you move forward in college.
For more detailed information about résumés, consult Chapter 19, ” Résumé and
Career Materials.”
62 Chapter 5

Quick Start Guide

Use this guide to help you reflect on your work and complete your portfolios.

Strengthen your writing by being reflective. Critical reflection encourages you to do three things: Iden-
tify your strengths, increase your versatility, and become more independent.

Look backward at your previous experiences. Your previous experiences and learning will help you
figure out how to do new things, so start by looking backward to what you have done before. Then explain
how the current writing situation is similar and how it is different so you can try out new strategies.

Look inward to describe and evaluate your rhetorical choices. Describe the situation and the rhetori-
cal choices you faced as you invented, drafted, and revised your project. Explain why you feel the choices
you made would help you achieve your purpose with the readers you were targeting. You might also explain
what you could do to make your writing project even more effective.

Look forward toward the future. Think about what you learned and how you will try to strengthen your
writing in the future. Identify any insights you’ve discovered about your writing process and even try form-
ing your own “theory of writing.”

Collect your work in an archive. Get into the habit of saving your documents and projects in an archive.
For a composition course, you may be asked to save everything, from notes to rough drafts to final drafts,
from print documents to audio files to images to videos.

Select the works for a specific type of portfolio. When you have a specific type of portfolio in mind,
start selecting the works from your archive that will help you to achieve your purpose and that will help your
readers assess your progress or abilities.

Reflect on your abilities and growth. Every portfolio needs some kind of reflection or cover letter that
introduces readers to the portfolio. In your reflection, make your argument about what the portfolio shows
by pointing out what you want readers to notice.

Keep your portfolio up to date. Revisit your portfolio at the end of each semester. It will be useful when
you begin your job search. Many professionals maintain an ongoing portfolio for career development, pro-
motions, and new opportunities.

Activities for Reflecting Critically,

Starting Your Portfolio
Talk About This
1. With your group, discuss some of the differences between critically reading
the works of others and critically reflecting on your own work. Why can being
critical about your own work be more difficult? Are there any ways in which it’s
easier to be critical about your own writing?
 Reflecting Critically, Starting Your Portfolio 63

2. With your group, talk about how you shift among different communication
methods to adapt to the various rhetorical situations you face every day. For
instance, what are the differences between the texts you send to your close
friends, new acquaintances, family members, and your boss at work? How do
you adjust your strategies to these different situations? When are the different
choices easy and automatic, and when do you need to carefully consider how
you adjust your writing to achieve the purpose you’re after?
3. Imagine that your major requires that you create a capstone portfolio to show
advisors at the end of the year, including what you learned and how you
learned it. Make a list of the kinds of artifacts that you will want to have saved
for this portfolio, with a brief explanation of what each artifact would show
about you.

Try This Out

1. In this chapter, you learned about three strategies for reflection: looking
backward, looking inward, and looking forward. Using these three strategies,
reflect on your choice to attend the college or university where you are right now.
Write three paragraphs about that choice. The first paragraph in your reflection
should look back to how and why you chose to come here. The second paragraph
should discuss how you adapted to this new situation and how you feel things
have worked out so far. The third paragraph should talk about what you need to
do in the future and what you hope will happen.
2. Think about the career you want to pursue after you graduate and imagine what
potential employers will want to know about you. What will they want you to
know and be able to do? To demonstrate your knowledge and abilities, what
kinds of things would you include in your portfolio? You might discuss jobs,
internships, and co-ops you hope to have before graduating. Identify the skills
you want to develop while you are at college and how you could demonstrate
them in your portfolio. List the activities you want to participate in while at col-
lege, and explain how they are relevant to your career plans.

Write This
1. Write a brief reflection about the most recent project you completed. In your
reflection, explain how you came up with the topic and angle. Describe any
places where the writing was easy and where you struggled to move forward. If
you had one or two more days to revise and improve it, what would you have
focused on? Then wrap up your reflection by discussing what you learned about
your writing process.
64 Chapter 5

2. Create a mini-portfolio. With your most recent assignment in this course, cre-
ate a mini-portfolio that charts your progress from prewriting through drafts
and feedback to final drafts. Write a cover letter in which you reflect on your
writing process for this assignment. In your reflection, make a claim about
your learning and support it by pointing to specific places where you have
improved each draft, what you still need to work on, and the choices you
made and why.
Chapter 6
Literacy Narratives
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

6.1 invent the content for your literacy narrative.

6.2 organize and draft your literacy narrative to tell an informative and com-
pelling story.
6.3 develop a voice and design that reflect and reinforce the overall tone of
your literacy narrative.

A literacy narrative is an autobiographical story that describes how an author learned

how to speak, read, or write. Literacy narratives can also be used to describe how
someone learned a new language, to speak in public, to design new things, or to create
images or sounds. The author usually describes overcoming some obstacle, perhaps a
struggle to learn something new.
Writing a literacy narrative allows you to explore a central theme or question about
yourself, especially questions about how your schooling, society, or culture shaped
the challenges you faced and are facing right now. Your literacy narrative can explore
questions such as “What does it mean to be truly literate in today’s world?” “What
relationships between literacy and power are revealed by my experiences?” “How did
I learn to communicate with the people in a community that was new to me?”
Literacy narratives go back centuries and even thousands of years. One of the most
famous literacy narratives is embedded in the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass,
an American Slave. In his 1845 autobiography, Douglass describes his early life as an
enslaved person and highlights how the people who enslaved him sought to limit his
freedom by keeping him illiterate.
In another literacy narrative, Thinking in Pictures, Temple Grandin, an autistic pro-
fessor, describes how she used visual thinking techniques to overcome her challenges
with speaking, reading, and writing. Grandin explains how she used her powerful
memory to build a “visual library” and become a world-famous scientist.
When writing your literacy narrative, you might describe:
• Your own struggles with learning to read or write
• Encountering a new kind of literacy, such as learning a new language or learning
to work with a computer
• Helping others with their own literacy issues
• Using a new communication technology, including social media
• A situation where your literacy skills were tested or challenged in some way.
65
66 Chapter 6

Because speaking, reading, and writing are so central to human life, writing your
literacy narrative is a great way to explore who you really are.

At-A-Glance
Literacy Narratives
This diagram shows a basic organization for a literacy narrative, but other arrangements will work, too. You
should alter this organization to fit the features of your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context.

Introduction: The scene and characters

in which you encountered the
new literacy practice

Complication: The challenges or

decisions you faced

Climax: The significant event that

led to a revelation

Falling action: Your new understanding

about yourself or the practice

Conclusion: What you learned overall,

how you were changed

Literacy narratives tell a personal story in which writers describe their experiences with a new literacy and the
new perspectives, skills, and communities that result. They tend to have these features:
• An introduction that introduces the literate practice being explored, often by describing the scene where
the new literacy practice was first encountered or where a breakthrough moment occurred.
• A story that follows a narrative arc that begins with the background, moves to a critical incident and a
climax, and ends with a resolution and a new understanding.
• Rich and vivid details about the people, the settings, and the new experience with literacy.
• A central theme or question about the process of learning and the struggles to learn.
• A revelation of a breakthrough with the literacy practice and the writer’s relation to it.
• An overall evaluation about the impact on the writer, such as how the writer has changed or how a
significant person made a difference for the writer.
 Literacy Narratives 67

One Student’s Work: Literacy Narratives

Faking Reading: How My Kindergarten Experiences

with Literacy Shaped Who I Am
Dana Muraida
I’m pretty sure it was my dad who took the video of me and my younger An engaging title
cousin Jack. We’re sitting on a couch, and I’m pretending to read a Calvin and introduction
start fast, with a
and Hobbes comic book to him. The thing is, I couldn’t read at all. I was lead that sets the
faking it. I guess my dad took that video because he thought it was a cute scene and the
and humorous moment to capture on that old video recorder, me pretending overall tone.

to read. I suppose I find it humorous, too. I do now anyway.

But that video brought back some unhappy memories for me about not The author hints
at the overall
being able to read like the other kids my age. This story has a happy ending,
theme, what read-
but my story says something, I think, about the different kinds of literacies ers should take
that a person should strive for. It also says something about the importance away from the
literacy narrative.
of being humble.
“I’m happy to tell you that every single one of your children is reading.” Dialogue moves
the plot forward.
That’s my kindergarten teacher, smiling at parent night delivering her happy
news to our parents, with their adult knees scrunched up under our tiny
desks. I’ll call my teacher “Ms. Sylvia.” (It was “Ms. Something” anyway.)
Hearing her say that gave me a bad feeling because I knew I couldn’t read.
I don’t remember many details, but I do remember how I felt: Sick to my
stomach, ashamed, stupid, behind. Maybe I’ll never learn to read. Maybe.
I’m the only person I know who can’t do it.
The books everyone was reading were the “Bob Books.” They’re still
around, advertised on Amazon as “the perfect steppingstone to independent
reading.” And here’s their pitch to anxious parents everywhere: “Picture your
child with bright eyes saying the magical words, ‘I read the whole book!’” It’s
no wonder I felt pressured to fake it. Reading is a big deal for parents, for
teachers, and especially struggling students. And getting us all reading was a
big deal to Ms. Sylvia’s ego, which was tied up in every one of us succeeding
on the Bob Books test.
Ms. Sylvia was so proud of her accomplishment, that all of her students More background
could read. And my recollection is that she considered that to be her main is provided.
accomplishment as a teacher. Who was I to get in the way of her perfect
record? Ms. Sylvia meant well, but her pride made her eager to keep her
perfect record, so much so that she was closing her eyes to what was really
going on. She failed to understand what I had not been able to understand.
What would you call the type of literacy she was missing? I honestly don’t The type of
know. For now, I’ll call it “compassionate literacy” and define it this way: literacy is
described and
Compassionate literacy is the ability to read not words on a page but people— named.
the ability to realize that people may not understand what you want them to
understand. People fake understanding stuff all the time. Maybe they don’t
68 Chapter 6

want to appear unintelligent. Maybe they don’t want to let others down, like
their teacher. Maybe they actually fool themselves into thinking they do
understand.
Moves toward a How has this experience shaped me? I think my early struggles with
resolution. reading spurred me to work even harder. More importantly, my struggles
have influenced what I want to achieve in life and what I think is important.
I plan to go to medical school and become a primary-care doctor who works
compassionately with her patients. I want to be a good doctor, a ­doctor who
strives to remember her blind spots when working with patients, who takes
the time to read her patients with humility and listen carefully to what
they say.
I learned a lot about compassionate medicine this past summer when
I shadowed doctors at a clinic near the New Mexico–Arizona border in the
high desert of Zuni Pueblo. When I was there, I learned that patients—like all
human beings—sometimes pretend that they understand what a doctor is
telling them. Maybe they pretend because they don’t want to disappoint the
doctor or seem unintelligent. Just keep nodding while the doctor is talking. In
other words, patients sometimes say they understand something when they
really don’t. This is especially true for patients who come from different
cultural or economic backgrounds as their doctors.
The doctors I shadowed tried to be always mindful of the many forces that
impacted their patients and the Zuni community’s health, from shared histori-
cal traumas, to poverty, to genetic predispositions, to unvoiced cultural norms.
These doctors honored other forms of knowledge and understood that effec-
tive medical practice equals compassionate medical practice. They showed
me the importance of patience and having a genuine desire to learn from each
patient. They encouraged me to read each patient not as a chart of sentences
but as a rich and complex person with a unique story.
I learned that compassionate doctors can foster real understanding by
patiently and sympathetically trying to understand their patients, their
­families, and their cultures. They do this by asking questions and by listening.
It’s that second part—listening—that’s not as easy as it sounds. I know
I have a lot more to learn about doing this, but I know in my heart it’s
important.
The overall main My kindergarten teacher Ms. Sylvia may not have taught me to read, but
point about what
she did teach me something very important about reading and listening.
was learned is
offered. I know a good doctor needs to “read” people with compassion and listen to
them carefully. They need to be able and willing to translate their medical-
literacy knowledge into language that makes sense to people who come from
different places and cultures. And to do that, good doctors need to be able to
understand—really understand—who those people are.
 Literacy Narratives 69

Inventing Your Literacy Narrative’s

Content
6.1 Invent the content for your literacy narrative.
When you begin generating content for your literacy narrative, think about the ways
of communicating that have been most important to you. Keep in mind that literacy
­covers a wide range of topics, not only speaking, reading, and writing. You can also
write a literacy narrative about any technology or tool that you use for communicating
with others like social media, e-mail, or texting.

Inquiring: Finding an Interesting Topic

You’ve been learning new ways to communicate with others throughout your life,
in school, with your family, with your friends, or while on the job. Think about the
times you had to learn new skills to succeed or participate in a certain community.
Think about a time you struggled or experienced a breakthrough with a communi-
cation skill. Think about the times when someone helped you learn a new way to
communicate or perhaps when you helped someone figure out how to communicate
in a different way.
Some literacies are learned in school, but others happen in less formal situations.
Consider which ways of communicating have been most significant in your life. Then,
make a list of the kinds of literacies you have tried out or become good at. Figure 6.1
shows one student’s brainstorming list of the topics that she considered writing about.
There are many others. When you decide that one of these would be a good topic for
you, start listing events that are memorable and relevant that involved the literacy you
are exploring. These events don’t need to be earth-shattering. Just list the stories that
are meaningful and reveal something about who you are.

Inquiring: Finding Out What You Already Know

OK, you’ve chosen your topic. Now it’s time to delve more deeply into what you
remember about it. This will help you draw out the details about your experiences to
include in your literacy narrative.
ANSWER THE FIVE-W AND HOW QUESTIONS. Explore these five journalistic
questions—who, what, where, when, why, and how.
Who? Who was involved when you were learning this new form of literacy?
What were their names and their roles? What did they say and do? How well did you
know them? What did they look like? How were they helpful or not? How did they
make you feel? Who else was there in the background?
What? What kind of literacy are you writing about—speaking, reading, writing,
digital literacy, graphic arts? What were your first thoughts and feelings about this
new kind of literacy, and how did learning it change you or not change you? What
made it new and challenging? What was exciting about it, and what was scary?
70 Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Brainstorming a List of Literacies

Brainstorming a list of memorable literacy experiences is a good way to start the process of finding a
topic. Here is one student’s list of memorable experiences.

Ideas for a Literacy Narrative

Telling stories about our family and community over the holidays.
Sitting next to Rosa when she was in the fourth grade, helping her with her essay
and me feeling frustrated she had such a hard time getting the letters down on the
page and how frustrated both of us were at first.
Translating for my grandparents at the hospital.
Learning about calligraphy and document design in yearbook class.
Going from math to algebra, like a whole new language, and finally having it all
make sense.
Ms. Sanchez helping me with my reading and me figuring things out on that
Friday afternoon before Winter Break.
Seeing how pictures and words work together, and Gina sharing her anime comic
books with me.
My abuelo helping me write the story about him and using the computer to make
the drawings.
Getting bullied by mean girls after my Snapchats, learning what not to share.
Using a word processor for the first time in elementary school.
How frustrated I was with the novel we were reading in Ms. Barker’s class and
how in the end it changed how I saw my world and what my future could be.
Learning how to use a car repair manual and talk “mechanic talk” with Tío Frank
as we worked on his 1975 Ford 150.
Learning to record family recipes, Mama telling me they’re like the stories our
family tells.
Getting scolded for using bad grammar and how I still get nervous when writing
for school.
Learning about financial literacy after my debacle with online gaming.

Where? Where did you encounter this new form of literacy—in school, with your
family, or on the job? What did that place look like? Do you remember any sounds,
smells, or sights from that moment or time? What other scenes might be an important
part of the story?
When? When did your story begin? When did the major events happen as you
were learning? When did it end, or are you still learning or even facing challenges? Were
the events confined to a single day, or did they stretch across months or years of your
life? When were you most frustrated, and when did you experience a breakthrough
moment that led to a new understanding?
 Literacy Narratives 71

Why? Why were these experiences important for you? Why would they be inter-
esting to others to hear about, and how might others learn from your experiences? At
the time, why did you feel the way you did? Why did your attitudes about this new
literacy change?

How? How did this experience change who you are? How has this new literacy
changed the way you see and interact with the world? How has this new literacy con-
tinued to play a role in your life? How do you see it playing a role in the future you
want to have?

ROLE-PLAY YOUR STORY AS A PODCAST OR VIDEO. Imagine someone has asked

you to share your story on a podcast. Tell your story into your phone’s voice or video
recorder. Afterward, you can transcribe it to the page or screen. Sometimes it’s easier
to tell the story orally and then turn it into written text.

STORYBOARD THE EVENT. Using a pen and paper or one of the many free Internet
storyboarding tools, draw out the major scenes in the event (Figure 6.2). For this comic-
strip form of invention, it’s fine to use rough figures or even stick figures. They will help
you recall the details and sort out the story you are trying to tell.

Figure 6.2 Storyboarding to Recall the People, Scenes, and Events

Storyboarding is a good way to help you remember the details about what happened. These details will be important when
you’re portraying the places, people, and events involved in your literacy narrative.
72 Chapter 6

Researching: Finding Out What Others Know

By doing a little research, you can find details that offer insights into your experiences with
learning to speak, read, or write. Incorporating researched facts and narratives into your
own work will help you explore the causes and effects of learning to speak, read, or write.
When researching your topic, try to find information from the following types of sources:
ONLINE AND PRINT SOURCES. Use Internet search engines to research the history of
the literacy practices you’re exploring or perhaps find similar experiences to yours. You
might look into the histories of technologies like the alphabet, the printing press, or social
media platforms. If you are writing about an embarrassing experience on social media,
you might do some research to see how others have dealt with similar experiences. If you
needed to learn a second language, you might track down relevant information about
bilingual education and integrate those details into your literacy narrative.
EMPIRICAL SOURCES. When telling the story of your experiences, you can bring a
scene to life by including rich details about people and the places where things hap-
pened. You might talk to family members, former classmates, or teachers about what
happened. While interviewing people, use your phone to record what people say. You
might also revisit the places you describe in your literacy narrative. When visiting a
place, you can use a notebook or take pictures to help you describe the scene more
vividly or explore how places have changed or stayed the same.

Organizing and Drafting Your Literacy

Narrative
6.2 Organize and draft your literacy narrative to tell an informative and compel-
ling story.
A literacy narrative should grab the readers’ attention and then use plenty of details
to tell the story. When writing your first draft, don’t worry about getting things right.
Instead, just get your ideas down on the page or screen. You can revise what you wrote
later, making sure the events are in the right order and the phrasing sounds good.

Setting the Scene

For your first draft, you might just describe what happened as plainly as you can. Here
are some strategies for starting out strong and fast:
DESCRIBE THE SCENE. Setting the scene helps readers envision the place where
something important happened. Where did the events take place? What did the scene
look like? What did you feel, smell, taste, or hear? What is the history of this place? How
does it figure into your personal history?
IDENTIFY YOURSELF AND OTHERS. Introducing yourself or the other main char-
acters provides context readers may need to understand what happened and why.
What did you and your characters do that hints at who they are? What are their roles
in your narrative? What did they say? What did they not understand? What did they
care about? What did they not do that they could or should have done?
 Literacy Narratives 73

IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF LITERACY. Remember, there are many kinds of literacy, not
just speaking, reading, and writing. Readers should understand what kind of literacy
you’re focusing on by the first or second paragraph, even as early as your title or the
first sentence. Explicitly naming the literacy may not be necessary. Instead, you can
help readers identify it through a dialogue between characters, by describing what was
happening, or by introducing the people and yourself as characters.
USE DIALOGUE. You can use people talking or arguing to quickly draw your readers
into your narrative. What did you or someone else say? Who said what to whom? How
did they say it? Were they angry, excited, frustrated, or judgmental? Dialogue is a good
way to move the story forward and reveal moments where your characters realized
something important.
FOCUS ON THE ACTION. Describing what was happening at some key moment will
stimulate your readers’ curiosity. What were you or someone else doing? Do you know
why they did it, or is it a mystery? What were the consequences?

Describing the Complication, Evaluation, and Its

Resolution
A major tension or complication that you or someone else faced should be at the center
of the literacy narrative.
THE COMPLICATION. What was the central conflict that you and others faced? How
did it come about? How did it lead to the decisions you made? Why was this conflict
important to you, and why should readers care about it?
THE EVALUATION. What did you or others think was happening at the time? What
misunderstandings came about? Did you and other people respond in appropriate
ways, or did you make decisions that didn’t work? What was the initial plan for resolv-
ing the complication, and who was involved in coming up with it?
THE RESOLUTION. What did you and others decide to do? How was the compli-
cation resolved? In what ways was your solution successful, partially successful, or
unsuccessful?

Concluding with Your Point—a Lesson Learned

Whether you choose to state your main point directly or not, your readers should come
away from your literacy narrative with a sense of what the story meant to you and what
it means to them. Your conclusion should describe, directly or indirectly, what you
learned and what your readers should take away from your experiences.
Many literacy narratives conclude with the lesson that was learned by the author.
You might talk about how your experience made you stronger. Maybe your struggle to
learn or overcome an obstacle to learning caused you to question things more. Maybe
the struggle with a new form of literacy revealed that something you thought was true
might not be completely true after all.
You might find it helpful to look back at the beginning of your literacy narrative,
especially if you began with a specific scene or story. You can come back to that scene
or story and show how you have grown from the experience.
74 Chapter 6

Choosing an Appropriate Style

and Design
6.3 Develop a voice and design that reflect and reinforce the overall tone of your
narrative.
Depending on what kind of literacy narrative you are writing, style and design will
be important. The voice or tone you choose should create an atmosphere that matches
what the narrator and other characters are feeling.
• Set a specific tone by using a concept map or brainstorming list to develop clouds
of words that match the tone you want to set.
• Use dialogue to dramatize key moments in the story as well as your characters’
motivations.
• Use similes (X is like Y) to compare two things that are different by showing how
they share some similar features.
• Change the pace, using shorter sentences to speed up your prose when you are
describing quicker-paced or intense moments, especially the climax of your story.
Use longer sentences when you're describing a calmer, slower-paced scene.
You can also use document design, drawings, and photographs to set a tone or illustrate
what you experienced.
• Add visuals, especially photos and drawings, to show your readers what the peo-
ple and scenes in your literacy narrative looked like.
• Create a page design for your literacy narrative that matches your own feelings as
you went through the experience you are describing.
• Add color to the page by choosing specific fonts for the title, headings, and regular
text.
• Turn the written version of your literacy narrative into a script for an audio podcast
or perhaps a video, so your readers can hear and see what you experienced.
Most literacy narratives are written in words, but you can use images and docu-
ment design to greatly enhance your readers’ ability to feel what you felt and experience
what you experienced.
 Literacy Narratives 75

Microgenre
The Digital-Literacy Narrative
Today, you have access to a wide variety of digital methods for communicating, such as mobile phones,
tablets, and computers. Since the Covid-19 pandemic, many people now have extensive experience using
videoconferencing tools like Zoom, Google Meet, and Microsoft Teams.
These digital communication tools have dramatically altered how we interact with each other, and they will
continue to shape how we learn, play, and work. For this reason, digital-literacy narratives are becoming more
popular because people are trying to figure out how these new technologies shape and alter their interactions
with others. They describe and reflect on writers’ experiences learning to communicate with others through
these kinds of digital tools:
• Texting, instant messaging, and social media (Instagram, TikTok, Snapchat, Reddit, Twitter, and others)
• Chat rooms, online forums, and substacks
• Computer software that edits images, movies, and sounds
• Artificial intelligence, computer-aided design (CAD), and 3D printing
Digital-literacy narratives usually explore the personal and social impacts of these technologies.
Here’s how to write your own digital-literacy narrative.
Identify and describe the digital-communication tool (or tools). Your readers may not be familiar with
the digital tool you are talking about. If so, you may also need to explain where and when it originated and
how to use the tool—how to access it, how to use it to find and share information and ideas, and so on.
Narrate your first experiences with it. Tell your readers when, where, and why you began using it. What
led to your first encounter? Was it your choice, or did someone require you to use it?
Describe what happened as you continued using it. Use details to describe what happened as you
learned more about how this new form of digital literacy works. What were your key moments of frustration,
insight, or empowerment? How did it change you and your relationships with o­ thers?
Reflect on your overall experiences. Describe the lessons you learned as you kept using the tool.
How did it shape who you are? Did you learn any new skills that you could apply to other situations and
communication settings? What should your readers learn from you about this tool or similar tools?
WRITE your own digital-literacy narrative. Choose a digital-communication tool that has been
important to you. Then tell a story that allows you to describe and reflect on your experiences.

Is Social Media Really the Enemy of

“Proper” Writing?
Zack Henslee
It’s ruining the beauty of language!
The title i­ dentifies
Texting with “2day,” “lol,” “cuz,” or “b4” is showing your lack of education, not the digital-­
communicating! communication
We are raising a generation incapable of proper writing! tool and the
question that
If you want to succeed in college and in your career, you should stay away from those the author will
brief, informal, cutesy posts. address.
76 Chapter 6

These are the fears we hear so often from social media’s detractors. I certainly heard
them again and again as a teenager, and occasionally I’m still hearing them. These detractors,
however, seem to think that if a person becomes adept at communicating on I­nstagram or
Twitter or Snapchat, they get stuck there forever. They seem to think that social media infects
the entire person with a writing virus that traps them into that one very bad way of writing.
My experiences exploring social media as a teenager are, I think, fairly typical. When
I first started using social media in high school, I made some pretty serious mistakes,
which at the time seemed like the end of the world. I would post without really thinking
about my audience or my purpose, so I found myself embroiled in ridiculous and mean-
ingless online arguments and misunderstandings. Sometimes, people would make fun
The author of me, ­deliberately trying to wound my ego. Again, at the time, these seemed like the
­discusses his most important problems the world was facing.
personal
­experiences with Yes, of course the detractors are correct when they say that social media makes many
social media. societal problems worse, but it’s not, as they claim, the enemy of good, proper, grammati-
cal writing. In fact, the lessons we learn on social media can in some ways make us better
writers—writers able to recognize the differences between audiences and situations and
adapt the writing accordingly. That’s my story anyway.
Using social media, I got practice writing in different styles and formats, for d­ ifferent
readers and different situations. First you have to understand the conventions for the
­different platforms, what works and what doesn’t, and that’s far more complicated than the
detractors realize. Then, you need to figure out how to play around with those c ­ onventions.
Crafting snappy one-liners for Twitter or composing visually appealing posts on Instagram,
you can get creative and think outside the box. This helped me to become more versatile
as a writer and more comfortable with trying out different styles and formats.
Finally, using social media has taught me the importance of understanding my
­audience and engaging with them. Responding to comments on a post and participating
in online discussions, I learned how important it is to actively engage with others in order
to better understand their perspectives and build relationships. In college, these skills have
been useful for participating in group discussions and for working on collaborative p ­ rojects
The author with teams of my fellow students.
reflects on what Now, after finishing two summer internships, I realize that on the job I’ll need to use
he has learned
from using the
these skills almost every single day. But I have a pretty good sense about adapting to
digital tool. ­different situations, about adopting a different writing persona in different situations.
When writing to my fellow engineers—whether informally via emails and Slack or more
formally through brief reports—I need to get my point across concisely and clearly. When
­working on a proposal for a client, the writing has to be much different. For these very for-
mal ­communications, you need to understand what the clients care about, and you need
to get to the point quickly. These are all skills I developed using social media.
I understand why the detractors are skeptical of the value of social media for writing
skills, but I've found that it has actually been a valuable tool for improving my communica-
tion skills in a wide variety of situations. Using social media can help writers become more
concise, aware, and engaged writers, and I'm grateful for the tough lessons I've learned
along the way.
 Literacy Narratives 77

Quick Start Guide

Here’s a basic approach for creating a literacy narrative that explores a theme and makes a point.

Identify a literacy practice that has been important in your life. Make a list of the literacy practices that
have shaped who you are, remembering that literacy is more than reading and writing.

Use brainstorming to help you remember key events, scenes, and characters. Making a brainstorming
list will help you remember details about what you saw, who was involved, and what happened.

Research the literacy practice using online and print sources. If you think that some background on
this literacy will help you make your point, research what others have found out about it.

Do some empirical research to refresh your memories. Interview the people who were there or visit the
places that are key to understanding your experiences.

Narrate the story. Tell the story. Describe important moments of insight, frustration, or achievement.
Describe people, their actions, and places with rich and vivid detail.

Develop the main point or lesson you want your readers to learn from your experience. Reflect on
what you’ve written and choose ideas and feelings you want this story to evoke for your readers.

State the message directly or indirectly. Whether you choose to state the main point directly or indirectly,
your final paragraphs should provide a sense of closure that points readers to your overall message.

Develop an appropriate tone or voice. Develop your voice and use dialogue to add other voices.

Use design and visuals to enhance the written text. Think of some ways that you can use document
design, photographs, and illustrations to reflect and visually capture the tone you are trying to establish.

Readings: Literacy Narratives

Reading 1
In this literacy narrative, author Wang Ping writes about learning to read and growing
up during the Cultural Revolution, a tumultuous time in Chinese history when all but
­government-approved books were strictly banned. As you read, pay attention to how
she uses even simple events to draw out meaning and relevance.

Book War
Wang Ping
I discovered “The Little Mermaid” in 1968. That morning, when I opened the door to light the stove
to make breakfast, I found my neighbor reading under a streetlight. The red plastic wrap indicated
it was Mao’s collected work. She must have been there all night long, for her hair and shoulders
were covered with frost, and her body shivered from cold. She was sobbing quietly. I got curious.
78 Chapter 6

What kind of person would weep from reading Mao’s words? I walked over and peeked over her
shoulders. What I saw made me shiver. The book in her hands had nothing to do with Mao; it was
Hans Christian Andersen’s fairy tales, and she was reading “The Little Mermaid,” the story that had
lit my passion for books since my kindergarten. I had started school a year earlier so that I could
learn how to read the fairy tales by myself. By the end of my first grade, however, the Cultural
Revolution began. Schools were closed, libraries sealed. Books, condemned as “poisonous
weeds,” were burnt on streets. And I had never been able to get hold of “The Little Mermaid.”
My clever neighbor had disguised Andersen’s “poisonous weed” with the scarlet cover of
Mao’s work. Engrossed in the story, she didn’t realize my presence behind her until I started
weeping. She jumped up, fairy tales clutched to her budding chest. Her panic-stricken face
said she was ready to fight me to death if I dared to report her. We stared at each other for an
eternity. Suddenly she started laughing, pointing at my tear-stained face. She knew then that
her secret was safe with me.
She gave me 24 hours to read the fairy tales, and I loaned her The Arabian Nights, which
was missing the first fifteen pages and the last story. But the girl squealed and started dancing
in the twilight. When we finished each other’s books, we started an underground book group
with strict rules for safety, and we had books to read almost every day, all “poisonous” classics.
Soon I excavated a box of books my mother had buried beneath the chicken coop. I pried it
open with a screwdriver and pulled out one treasure after another: The Dream of the Red
Chamber, The Book of Songs, Grimm’s Fairy Tales, The Tempest, The Hunchback of Notre Dame,
Huckleberry Finn, American Dream, each wrapped with waxed paper to keep out moisture.
I devoured them all, in rice paddies and wheat fields, on my way home from school and
errands. I tried to be careful. If I got caught, the consequence would be catastrophic, not only
for myself, but also for my entire family. But my mother finally discovered I had unearthed her
treasure box and set out to destroy these “time bombs”—if I was caught reading these books,
the whole family would be destroyed. She combed every possible place in the house: in the
deep of drawers, under the mattress and floorboards. It was a hopeless battle: my mother
knew every little trick of mine. Whenever she found a book, she’d order me to tear the pages
and place them in the stove, and she’d sit nearby watching, tears in her eyes. And my heart,
our hearts, turned into cinder.
When the last book went, I sat with my chickens. Hens and roosters surrounded me, peck-
ing at my closed fists for food. As tears flowed, the Little Mermaid became alive from inside.
She stepped onto the sand, her feet bled terribly, and she could not speak, yet how her eyes
sang with triumph. Burning with a fever similar to the Little Mermaid’s, I started telling stories
to my siblings, friends, and neighbors—stories I’d read from those forbidden treasures, stories
I made up for myself and my audience. We gathered on summer nights, during winter dark-
ness. When I saw stars rising from their eyes, I knew I hadn’t lost the battle.
The books had been burnt, but the story went on.

A Closer Look at “Book War”

1. As Ping writes, in China’s Cultural Revolution books were “condemned as ‘poison-
ous weeds.’” How does the narrator illustrate this negative view of books? Pretend
you are reading the first paragraph in slow motion and pinpoint the moment at
which some detail draws you in to surprise you. Is this organization effective? Why
or why not is this an effective strategy?
 Literacy Narratives 79

2. Make a list of the events that occur. What happens and what changes in each scene?
How does the author string these events together to form an engaging plot, and
at what point does the overall theme or “larger meaning” emerge? What larger
questions about literacy do you think the author wanted her readers to take away?
3. What is the complication in “Book War”? What is at stake, and whose values does
the narrator struggle with? In the resolution, whose values win out in the end?
Could the author have more clearly stated her message in the resolution? Why
would a clear explanation be more effective or less effective than the one the author
chose to use?

Ideas for Writing

1. Compared to China during the Cultural Revolution, Western countries have far
fewer restrictions on what can and cannot be read. However, many school systems
in the United States have prohibited the teaching of certain books and banned them
from libraries. Write a commentary in which you discuss these prohibitions. Should
certain books be banned? If so, which books should be banned? Who should decide
which books are allowed and not allowed?
2. Write a literary analysis that defends the teaching of a book or story that some
people believe should be prohibited. Explain the merits of the literary work.
Why is it worth it for students to read the book even though some people find it
objectionable?

Reading 2
Born into slavery, Frederick Douglass (1817/1818–1895) was perhaps the single most
influential leader of the abolitionist movement, which sought to end slavery in the United
States. As an enslaved person, he was legally forbidden from learning to read and write
because it was believed that literacy rendered a person “unfit to be a slave.” Nevertheless,
after escaping to the North, he emerged as a prominent and brilliant writer and speaker.

From Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass

Frederick Douglass
CHAPTER VI
My new mistress proved to be all she appeared when I first met her at the door,—a woman of
the kindest heart and finest feelings. She had never had a slave under her control previously
to myself, and prior to her marriage she had been dependent upon her own industry for a liv-
ing. She was by trade a weaver; and by constant application to her business, she had been in
a good degree preserved from the blighting and dehumanizing effects of slavery. I was utterly
astonished at her goodness. I scarcely knew how to behave towards her. She was entirely
unlike any other white woman I had ever seen. I could not approach her as I was accustomed
to approach other white ladies. My early instruction was all out of place. The crouching servil-
ity, usually so acceptable a quality in a slave, did not answer when manifested toward her.
80 Chapter 6

Her favor was not gained by it; she seemed to be disturbed by it. She did not deem it impu-
dent or unmannerly for a slave to look her in the face. The meanest slave was put fully at ease
in her presence, and none left without feeling better for having seen her. Her face was made of
heavenly smiles, and her voice of tranquil music.
But, alas! this kind heart had but a short time to remain such. The fatal poison of irrespon-
sible power was already in her hands, and soon commenced its infernal work. That cheerful eye,
under the influence of slavery, soon became red with rage; that voice, made all of sweet accord,
changed to one of harsh and horrid discord; and that angelic face gave place to that of a demon.
Very soon after I went to live with Mr. and Mrs. Auld, she very kindly commenced to teach
me the A, B, C. After I had learned this, she assisted me in learning to spell words of three
or four letters. Just at this point of my progress, Mr. Auld found out what was going on, and
at once forbade Mrs. Auld to instruct me further, telling her, among other things, that it was
unlawful, as well as unsafe, to teach a slave to read. To use his own words, further, he said,
“ . . . It would forever unfit him to be a slave. He would at once become unmanageable, and
of no value to his master. As to himself, it could do him no good, but a great deal of harm. It
would make him discontented and unhappy.” These words sank deep into my heart, stirred
up sentiments within that lay slumbering, and called into existence an entirely new train of
thought. It was a new and special revelation, explaining dark and mysterious things, with which
my youthful understanding had struggled, but struggled in vain. I now understood what had
been to me a most perplexing difficulty—to wit, the white man’s power to enslave the black
man. It was a grand achievement, and I prized it highly. From that moment, I understood the
pathway from slavery to freedom. It was just what I wanted, and I got it at a time when I the
least expected it. Whilst I was saddened by the thought of losing the aid of my kind mistress,
I was gladdened by the invaluable instruction which, by the merest accident, I had gained from
my master. Though conscious of the difficulty of learning without a teacher, I set out with high
hope, and a fixed purpose, at whatever cost of trouble, to learn how to read. The very decided
manner with which he spoke, and strove to impress his wife with the evil consequences of
giving me instruction, served to convince me that he was deeply sensible of the truths he was
uttering. It gave me the best assurance that I might rely with the utmost confidence on the
results which, he said, would flow from teaching me to read. What he most dreaded, that
I most desired. What he most loved, that I most hated. That which to him was a great evil, to
be carefully shunned, was to me a great good, to be diligently sought; and the argument which
he so warmly urged, against my learning to read, only served to inspire me with a desire and
determination to learn. In learning to read, I owe almost as much to the bitter opposition of my
master, as to the kindly aid of my mistress. I acknowledge the benefit of both.
***

CHAPTER VII
I lived in Master Hugh’s family about seven years. During this time, I succeeded in learning to
read and write. In accomplishing this, I was compelled to resort to various stratagems. I had no
regular teacher. My mistress, who had kindly commenced to instruct me, had, in compliance
with the advice and direction of her husband, not only ceased to instruct, but had set her face
against my being instructed by anyone else. It is due, however, to my mistress to say of her,
that she did not adopt this course of treatment immediately. She at first lacked the depravity
indispensable to shutting me up in mental darkness. It was at least necessary for her to have
some training in the exercise of irresponsible power, to make her equal to the task of treating
me as though I were a brute.
 Literacy Narratives 81

My mistress was, as I have said, a kind and tender-hearted woman; and in the simplicity of
her soul she commenced, when I first went to live with her, to treat me as she supposed one
human being ought to treat another. In entering upon the duties of a slaveholder, she did not
seem to perceive that I sustained to her the relation of a mere chattel, and that for her to treat
me as a human being was not only wrong, but dangerously so. Slavery proved as injurious to
her as it did to me. When I went there, she was a pious, warm, and tender-hearted woman.
There was no sorrow or suffering for which she had not a tear. She had bread for the hungry,
clothes for the naked, and comfort for every mourner that came within her reach. Slavery soon
proved its ability to divest her of these heavenly qualities. Under its influence, the tender heart
became stone, and the lamblike disposition gave way to one of tiger-like fierceness. The first
step in her downward course was in her ceasing to instruct me. She now commenced to prac-
tise her husband’s precepts. She finally became even more violent in her opposition than her
husband himself. She was not satisfied with simply doing as well as he had commanded; she
seemed anxious to do better. Nothing seemed to make her more angry than to see me with
a newspaper. She seemed to think that here lay the danger. I have had her rush at me with a
face made all up of fury, and snatch from me a newspaper, in a manner that fully revealed her
apprehension. She was an apt woman; and a little experience soon demonstrated, to her satis-
faction, that education and slavery were incompatible with each other.
From this time I was most narrowly watched. If I was in a separate room any considerable
length of time, I was sure to be suspected of having a book, and was at once called to give an
account of myself. All this, however, was too late. The first step had been taken. Mistress, in
teaching me the alphabet, had given me the inch, and no precaution could prevent me from
taking the ell.
The plan which I adopted, and the one by which I was most successful, was that of
making friends of all the little white boys whom I met in the street. As many of these as I could,
I converted into teachers. With their kindly aid, obtained at different times and in different
places, I finally succeeded in learning to read. When I was sent of errands, I always took my
book with me, and by going one part of my errand quickly, I found time to get a lesson before
my return. I used also to carry bread with me, enough of which was always in the house, and
to which I was always welcome; for I was much better off in this regard than many of the poor
white children in our neighborhood. This bread I used to bestow upon the hungry little urchins,
who, in return, would give me that more valuable bread of knowledge. I used to talk this matter
of slavery over with them. I would sometimes say to them, I wished I could be as free as they
would be when they got to be men. “You will be free as soon as you are twenty-one, but I am a
slave for life! Have not I as good a right to be free as you have?” These words used to trouble
them; they would express for me the liveliest sympathy, and console me with the hope that
something would occur by which I might be free.
I was now about twelve years old, and the thought of being a slave for life began to bear
heavily upon my heart. Just about this time, I got hold of a book entitled “The Columbian
Orator.” Every opportunity I got, I used to read this book. Among much of other interesting
matter, I found in it a dialogue between a master and his slave. The slave was represented
as having run away from his master three times. The dialogue represented the conversation
which took place between them, when the slave was retaken the third time. In this dialogue,
the whole argument in behalf of slavery was brought forward by the master, all of which was
disposed of by the slave. The slave was made to say some very smart as well as impressive
things in reply to his master—things which had the desired though unexpected effect; for the
conversation resulted in the voluntary emancipation of the slave on the part of the master.
82 Chapter 6

In the same book, I met with one of Sheridan’s mighty speeches on and in behalf of
Catholic emancipation. These were choice documents to me. I read them over and over again
with unabated interest. They gave tongue to interesting thoughts of my own soul, which had
frequently flashed through my mind, and died away for want of utterance. The moral which
I gained from the dialogue was the power of truth over the conscience of even a slaveholder.
What I got from Sheridan was a bold denunciation of slavery, and a powerful vindication of
human rights. The reading of these documents enabled me to utter my thoughts, and to meet
the arguments brought forward to sustain slavery; but while they relieved me of one difficulty,
they brought on another even more painful than the one of which I was relieved. The more
I read, the more I was led to abhor and detest my enslavers. I could regard them in no other
light than a band of successful robbers, who had left their homes, and gone to Africa, and
stolen us from our homes, and in a strange land reduced us to slavery. I loathed them as being
the meanest as well as the most wicked of men. As I read and contemplated the subject,
behold! that very discontentment which Master Hugh had predicted would follow my learning
to read had already come, to torment and sting my soul to unutterable anguish. As I writhed
under it, I would at times feel that learning to read had been a curse rather than a blessing.
It had given me a view of my wretched condition, without the remedy. It opened my eyes to the
horrible pit, but to no ladder upon which to get out. In moments of agony, I envied my fellow-
slaves for their stupidity. I have often wished myself a beast. I preferred the condition of the
meanest reptile to my own. Anything, no matter what, to get rid of thinking! It was this everlast-
ing thinking of my condition that tormented me. There was no getting rid of it. It was pressed
upon me by every object within sight or hearing, animate or inanimate. The silver trump of
freedom had roused my soul to eternal wakefulness. Freedom now appeared, to disappear no
more forever. It was heard in every sound, and seen in everything. It was ever present to tor-
ment me with a sense of my wretched condition. I saw nothing without seeing it, I heard noth-
ing without hearing it, and felt nothing without feeling it. It looked from every star, it smiled in
every calm, breathed in every wind, and moved in every storm.
I often found myself regretting my own existence, and wishing myself dead; and but for the
hope of being free, I have no doubt but that I should have killed myself, or done something for
which I should have been killed. While in this state of mind, I was eager to hear anyone speak
of slavery. I was a ready listener. Every little while, I could hear something about the abolition-
ists. It was some time before I found what the word meant. It was always used in such con-
nections as to make it an interesting word to me. If a slave ran away and succeeded in getting
clear, or if a slave killed his master, set fire to a barn, or did anything very wrong in the mind
of a slaveholder, it was spoken of as the fruit of abolition. Hearing the word in this connection
very often, I set about learning what it meant. The dictionary afforded me little or no help.
I found it was “the act of abolishing;” but then I did not know what was to be abolished.
Here I was perplexed. I did not dare to ask anyone about its meaning, for I was satisfied that
it was something they wanted me to know very little about. After a patient waiting, I got one of
our city papers, containing an account of the number of petitions from the north, praying for
the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, and of the slave trade between the States.
From this time, I understood the words abolition and abolitionist, and always drew near when
that word was spoken, expecting to hear something of importance to myself and fellow-slaves.
The light broke in upon me by degrees. Meanwhile, I would learn to write.
The idea as to how I might learn to write was suggested to me by being in Durgin and
Bailey’s ship-yard, and frequently seeing the ship carpenters, after hewing, and getting a
 Literacy Narratives 83

piece of timber ready for use, write on the timber the name of that part of the ship for which it
was intended. When a piece of timber was intended for the larboard side, it would be marked
thus—“L.” When a piece was for the starboard side, it would be marked thus—“S.” A piece for
the larboard side forward, would be marked thus—“L. F.” When a piece was for starboard side
forward, it would be marked thus—“S. F.” For larboard aft, it would be marked thus—“L. A.”
For starboard aft, it would be marked thus—“S. A.” I soon learned the names of these letters,
and for what they were intended when placed upon a piece of timber in the ship-yard.
I immediately commenced copying them, and in a short time was able to make the four letters
named. After that, when I met with any boy who I knew could write, I would tell him
I could write as well as he. The next word would be, “I don’t believe you. Let me see you try it.”
I would then make the letters which I had been so fortunate as to learn, and ask him to beat
that. In this way I got a good many lessons in writing, which it is quite possible I should never
have gotten in any other way. During this time, my copy-book was the board fence, brick wall,
and pavement; my pen and ink was a lump of chalk. With these, I learned mainly how to write.
I then commenced and continued copying the Italics in Webster’s Spelling Book, until I could
make them all without looking on the book. By this time, my little Master Thomas had gone to
school, and learned how to write, and had written over a number of copy-books. These had
been brought home, and shown to some of our near neighbors, and then laid aside. My mis-
tress used to go to class meeting at the Wilk Street meetinghouse every Monday afternoon,
and leave me to take care of the house. When left thus, I used to spend the time in writing in
the spaces left in Master Thomas’s copy-book, copying what he had written. I continued to do
this until I could write a hand very similar to that of Master Thomas. Thus, after a long, tedious
effort for years, I finally succeeded in learning how to write.

A Closer Look at Narrative of the Life of Frederick

Douglass
1. When Douglass’s autobiographical work was published in 1845, some people
claimed it was written by a ghostwriter. They did not believe that a formerly
enslaved person who had acquired literacy so late in life was capable of writing
so eloquently. With your group, highlight five sentences that you would call “elo-
quent.” Discuss with your group the qualities that make these sentences feel more
eloquent than the ones around them.
2. Chapter VI ends with these sentences: “In learning to read, I owe almost as much to
the bitter opposition of my master, as to the kindly aid of my mistress. I acknowl-
edge the benefit of both.” Why does Douglass imply that Mr. Auld’s prohibition
was motivating? With your group, come up with a list of abilities that might be
“prohibited” by others but that doing so might make people even more motivated
to learn them.
3. Make a list of literacies, besides the ability to read and write, that are considered
important in our society today, such as “media literacy.” With your group, explore
these questions: Is literacy important for protecting our freedom? What kinds of
literacy are most important for supporting freedom and democracy? How should
schools help students acquire those kinds of literacy?
84 Chapter 6

Ideas for Writing

1. Frederick Douglass explains, “I would at times feel that learning to read had been
a curse rather than a blessing. It had given me a view of my wretched condition,
without the remedy. It opened my eyes to the horrible pit, but to no ladder upon
which to get out.” Write a memoir in which you describe a time in which learning
something may have made you feel “cursed” rather than “blessed.” Explain why
you felt that way. Did that feeling change as you grew older?
2. Choose a literacy practice that you believe is important for people to become profi-
cient at. Write a commentary that argues for the importance of teaching that literacy
in grade school or high school. In your commentary, explain why you think this
form of literacy is so important as young people grow and find their way in the
world.

Activities for Literacy Narratives

Talk About This
1. Ask each member of your group about the first time they used social media. Each
person should say how old they were and tell a funny story about some of their
first attempts to use this form of social media (keep it PG-13). After each person
tells their story, compare the organization of their brief digital-literacy narrative
to the typical organization of any literacy narrative.
2. With a group of people in your class, talk about the physical space where you did
a lot of your learning in elementary school. Is there a classroom or other space
prominent in your memories? Describe sensory details: how the furniture was
arranged, who sat or stood where, the background noises, and perhaps even the
smells of that place.
3. With your group, explore the various kinds of literacy by having each member
describe a literacy they’ve learned especially well. Give your group a description
of this form of literacy and explain what you can do that many others cannot.
Explain also why you excelled.

Try This Out

1. What is your earliest memory about reading, writing, or some other kind of
literacy that is now important to you? Choose a memorable incident about that
literacy and tell a story describing what happened.
a. Briefly relate that story. If you’re writing the story, use fewer than 300 words.
If you’re telling your story to a small group, make it less than three minutes.
b. Now explain (in writing or orally) why that story is memorable and important.
What general theme does it evoke, and why is that theme important for you
and others?
 Literacy Narratives 85

2. Write about your experiences learning to communicate with images and/or

sounds. For instance, you might write about playing or creating a video game.
You could also write about making or experiencing an audio recording or a
video. How was this experience different from or similar to your experiences
with the traditional reading and writing?
3. Describe your hopes and expectations about your future literacy practices. What
forms of literacy will you need to learn to pursue the career you have in mind?
To achieve your aspirations, what kinds of communication skills will you need to
improve or acquire? You may want to do some Internet research to understand
how professionals in your chosen career field communicate. What are the typical
genres? Who are the readers someone in that career would write to?

Explore This
Here are some microgenres that are related to the literacy narrative. Use these examples
to come up with your own guidelines for writing one of these microgenres. How would
you need to change the content, organization, style, and design?
A literacy profile—a literacy narrative describing the experiences of a fictional
character or real person
Social-media literacy narrative—a narrative about your experiences (good or
bad) using social media
Visual-literacy narrative—a narrative about your experiences learning to use
images to communicate
Literacy manifesto—a statement of your personal beliefs about a literacy you
think is undervalued (or overvalued) by most people
Digital-literacy narrative—a story about how you learned to use technology
(e.g., texting, e-mail, mobile phone, social media) to communicate with others
Skill-literacy narrative—a story about learning a new skill, how to express
yourself visually with sign language, art, music, dance, or just about any non-
written or non-spoken way of communicating with others

Write This
1. Write a rhetorical analysis of an advertisement for a literacy-oriented product.
Find an advertisement on the Internet or in a magazine that tries to persuade
people to purchase a literacy-oriented product. For instance, mobile phone
­companies are always trying to get you to switch to their service. When do you
find their ads persuasive or not? Companies also sell toys for preschoolers that
introduce the alphabet or they sell books for children just learning to read. Why
do you think some of these products and books are more effective than others?
2. Write a literacy-narrative profile. Write a profile that describes someone who
was important in your literacy development. This person might be a teacher,
a fellow student, or a member of your family. They might even be a fictional
86 Chapter 6

c­ haracter from a book or movie. Your profile should help your readers under-
stand what makes a person a good or bad model when helping someone else
become literate.
3. Repurpose a literacy narrative that you or someone else has written. When
you “repurpose” a writing project, you change one or more of the elements of
the ­rhetorical situation—topic, angle, purpose, readers, or context. This is not
a simple task because changing one element means that you would also need
to change other elements or strategies (i.e., “rhetorical choices” such as style,
design, etc.). You could also change the medium from, say, a w ­ ritten document
to a video, podcast, or brochure. When you’ve finished a polished draft, write
a reflection that describes how you changed the rhetorical situation and the
­rhetorical choices you made to accommodate this new writing situation.
4. Write a digital-literacy narrative. Use the guidelines in the microgenre section of
this chapter to write a literacy narrative that focuses on how you learned to
communicate with a digital technology that was new to you.
Chapter 7
Memoirs
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

7.1 generate content for your memoir.

7.2 use the memoir genre to organize a story.
7.3 develop an engaging voice to tell your story.
7.4 design and add visuals to enhance the narrative.

The words memoir and memory come from the same Latin root word, memor, which
means “mindful.” Memoirs do more than share a writer’s memories. Good memoirs
explore and reflect on a central theme or question, and they rarely conclude with explicit
answers to those questions. Instead, they invite readers to explore and reflect with the
narrator to try to unravel the deeper significance of the recounted events.
People write memoirs when they have true personal stories that they hope will
inspire others to reflect on intriguing questions or social issues. Readers expect memoirs
to introduce them to new and sometimes unfamiliar perspectives that lead them to fresh
and meaningful insights.
Memoirs are becoming more popular every year. They vary in size and medium.
Book-length memoirs are filling up the bestseller lists. Memoirs can also be very brief,
as short as a few hundred words or even a single paragraph. Very short memoirs often
appear in online magazines and journals, such as Brevity (brevitymag.com). “Graphic
memoirs,” like graphic novels and comic books, use sequenced panels of drawings
and words to narrate their stories. Meanwhile, blogs and social networking sites give
ordinary people opportunities to post reflections on their lives.
In college, professors will sometimes ask you to explore the ways that an event
that happened in your life relates to something in their courses, such as anthro-
pology, sociology, or even economics and marketing. In these assignments, the
goal is not just to recount events but to unravel their significance and arrive at
insights that help you explore and engage more deeply with the issues discussed
in the class.

87
88 Chapter 7

At-A-Glance
Memoirs
This diagram shows a basic organization for a memoir, but other arrangements will work, too. You should
alter this organization to fit the features of your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context.
Using rich detail, memoirs tell a personal story in which an event or series of events leads the writer to new
insights about life. They tend to have these main features:
• A n engaging title that hints at the memoir’s overall meaning or
Introduction: Sets the scene “theme.”
• An introduction with a “lead” that captures the reader’s interest or
sets a scene.
Description of a • A complication that must be resolved in some way—a tension or con-
complication flict between people’s values and beliefs, or a personal inner conflict
the author faces.
• A plot that draws the reader forward as the memoir moves through a
Evaluation of the series of scenes or stages.
complication
• Intimacy between the narrator and the reader, allowing the writer to
speak with readers in a personal one-on-one way.
Resolution of the • Rich and vivid details that give the story greater imagery, texture, and
complication impact.
• A central theme or question that is rarely announced or answered
explicitly but that the narrator explores and reflects on with the reader.
Conclusion: What the • A new understanding or revelation that presents a moment of
writer learned
growth, transformation, or clarity in the writer.

One Student’s Work: Memoirs

Uproot
Jake Gentry
An intriguing title My Grams glanced up from her newly planted irises, her blue eyes
that hints at the spotting her 7-8-9-something-year-old grandson across the yard. Bent down,
memoir’s theme,
uprootedness. I went through her garden in search of villainous weeds.
Doing as I was told, I was on a search and destroy mission that summer
After an intriguing day. Upon locating one of the many floral invaders, I descended from the
short lead, the
scene is set. heavens and with my godlike power vanquished my foes by plucking their
flowering tops from their stems. I was the Anti-Mother Nature, the God of
Floral Decimation (or at least, that’s what I was pretending to pass the time).
Grams gave a small laugh before rising from the flowerbed, approaching me.
I looked to her, boasting that I had ruthlessly rid the garden of weeds.
 Memoirs 89

She gave me a smile, looking down at a decapitated dandelion whose head

I still clutched in my palm (after blowing away its wish-granting seeds, of
course).
“To get rid of a weed, you have to uproot it.” Grams explained. In a dem- Dialogue moves
onstration, she grabbed hold of the dandelion stem and yanked, revealing the the story forward
and reveals
earthen underbelly of the plant. “Otherwise,” she chimed,” it will live here the characters’
forever.” personalities.
I sighed, disappointed that my godly flower power had failed me.
***
Approximately a decade later, my grandmother’s advice about weeds began The narrator
to echo in my mind. College application week was nearing, and I sat at my desk briefly explains
that the scene
drowning in irresolution. My nerves were racing faster than my anxiety medi- has shifted to a
cine could keep up. I wasn’t sleeping. I sat at a crossroads of three colleges: decade later.

• Hampden–Sydney College (Virginia, 8 hours and 5 minutes away from

home).
• East Tennessee State University (Johnson City, 4 hours and 6 minutes
away from home)
• Tennessee Technological University (Cookeville, 45 minutes away from
home)

I jumped as my bedroom door creaked open and my mother poked her

head in.
“School night,” she reminded me in her teacher’s voice. Either the bags The complication
under my eyes or my eyes themselves betrayed me because my mother saw is introduced, the
inner conflict the
straight through me. She sat down on the bed, moving my chair to face her. narrator faces.
She smiled, assuring me that I would know the right school soon. It would
come to me.
I didn’t believe her.
My uncle lived alone in Johnson City, in a doctor’s salary-sized house.
I would have plenty of space, live with my favorite relative, and attend
ETSU comfortably on a hefty scholarship. Those were the pros. The cons
consisted of me moving four hours away from home, an idea Mom didn’t
like. Hampden-Sydney was in the same boat—good scholarships and a long
distance from home.
I thought about the weeds. The theme,
Merriam-Webster defines the verb uproot as both “to pull up by the roots” uprootedness,
begins to become
and as “to displace from a country or traditional habitat” (1). clearer as the nar-
My hometown is unincorporated, and my familiar ties combined with my rative unfolds.
relative isolation from the outside world reinforced a home-centric mentality. My
mother wanted me to attend Tennessee Tech. Cheaper, closer to home, and with
classmates of mine already planning to attend, TTU provided me with a safety
net I couldn’t resist. Plus, I could come home every weekend to do my laundry.
In some ways, I guess I tugged at my roots when I moved out. Even the
small gesture of moving less than an hour away, to a campus I had been to
countless times prior, was still a movement. In doing so, I also grew.
90 Chapter 7

Within the confines of my hometown, I was fated to be in the closet for-

ever. Unable to fathom disappointing my parents, I even majored in some-
thing I had no interest in. My mother wanted me to become a teacher, move
back home after college, and teach at the only high school in my county. For a
time, that was my plan too. Be the perfect son.
However, I think growth is synonymous with change. Within my first
semester, I began dating my first boyfriend. Within a few years, I got the cour-
age to tell my mother I was dropping education to become an English major.
I no longer went home every weekend.
Rich details provide Late one night in my Grams’s cigarette smoke-saturated den, I said that
background and I no longer felt like my hometown was home anymore. My house was now
move the plot
forward. my parents’ home, and my Cookeville apartment felt like mine.
Grams lifted a cigarette from her ashtray, tendrils of wispy smoke drifting
in the light of the lamp beside her. Like the old gardener she was, she grinned
at me.
“When we are no longer growing, we must uproot,” she replied.
I agreed. Upon high school graduation, my root system had matured
beyond the soils of my hometown. My time at TTU nurtured me, allowed me
to branch out and bloom. However, as I left Grams’s house that night, I realized
I felt safe and still. I was a sapling tree that officially was getting too big for its
pot, and soon, I would have the chance to uproot once more.
***
The narrator’s A year later, I am a senior in college. I have about two semesters left to
tone is m­ aintained decide what graduate school I want to attend. In like manner to my high
throughout,
even though he school days, I can hear Grams’s words. Except, now I have the power to
describes impor- decide where to go, how far to go, or if I want to go at all.
tant changes in Colleges like New York University or Bowdoin fascinate me, not only for
his life.
their graduate programs but the adventure they would offer. To leave every-
thing that I know behind and start anew. I want to submerge in the unknown,
dive in both headfirst and headstrong.
However, every time I start thinking about leaving, I am reminded that
some roots can never truly be severed. The idea of being so far from my loved
ones makes my heart physically ache. I have reconnected with my parents
over the last year, and things have finally settled down back home.
The narrator Change is a cruel beast, and usually comes right when you get comfort-
introduces a able. After moving away from my first house when I was fourteen, I devel-
new twist on the
“uprooted” theme, oped a hatred for adaptation. The process of starting anew and growing
adaptation. accustomed to a new place is my least favorite feeling. With such a major
disruption of normalcy approaching, I have begun to wonder if my excitement
comes from my control of the situation this time around, or if it truly hasn’t hit
me that my life will completely change come next winter.
Looking back upon my years of growth and movement, I can agree on one
thing. The connections you form with people, the memories you have of a
place, the love you have for others—those are your roots. Some things are so
deeply inlaid in the ground that nothing can unearth them, even child-gods of
floral destruction.
 Memoirs 91

Even in these moments of wanderlust and homesickness, I find solace in The conclusion
and a ­resolution
Grams’s words.
with a new
When we are no longer growing, we must uproot. ­understanding
I have a few months before I begin applying to grad school. I don’t know emerges.
if graduation from TTU will complete my growth here. I doubt I’ll know the
answer then anyway.
From a plant preparing his pilgrimage, I offer up these words: Grow where
you will, your roots will follow.

Works Cited
“Uproot.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.
merriam-webster.com/dictionary/uproot. Accessed 3 Dec. 2020.

Inventing Your Memoir’s Content

7.1 Generate content for your memoir.
The aim of your memoir is to explore the meaning of an event or series of events from
your past. When you start out, don’t be too concerned about the main point of your
memoir, the big idea you want to reveal to your readers. Instead, choose an interesting
incident from your life that you want to explore in greater depth. As you write, you may
discover the meaning of your experience for yourself. Then you can invite the reader to
explore this perspective with you.

Inquiring: Finding an Interesting Topic

With your whole life as potential subject matter, deciding what to write about and nar-
rowing your topic can be challenging. Think about the times when you did something
exciting, confusing, scary, or fun. Think about the times when you felt pain or joy. Think
about the times when someone or something important came into your life, helping you
make a discovery about yourself or clarify a belief.
Make a brainstorming list or concept map that includes as many events as you can
remember (Figure 7.1). Don’t think too much about what you are writing down. These
events don’t need to be momentous or boldly dramatic. Just list the stories that are
meaningful and reveal something about who you are.

Inquiring: Finding Out What You Already Know

Memoirs are about memories—of course—but they also include your reflections on
those memories. You need to do some personal inquiry to pull up those memories
and then reflect on them to figure out what they meant to you at the time and what
they mean to you now. Pick an event from your brainstorming list and use some of the
following techniques to reflect on it.
92 Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Using a Concept Map to Generate Ideas

Concept mapping is a good way to connect ideas and experiences. Try to think of places, people, and events that made an
impact on your life or led to new insights. Here is a concept map of the ideas and people described in Jake Gentry’s memoir.

Feeling like a
weed myself
A villain in the garden
Changing self,
growing aware
Uproot it, or it
Does not belong here will live forever
Living in new places
Have to leave,
Weeds start anew
Leaving my roots,
my native soil
Growing up
Mom wants me close

Learning to adapt Home

Soil I grew up in
Roots and being (my closet?)
Growth, movement, uprooted
change
Moving away,
Leaving the closet tugging at my roots

College
Coming out, Connections, Grams and her garden
severing roots memories, the people
New soil

Need to keep growing

Far from home

Hard to adapt

MAKE A MAP OF THE SCENE. In your mind’s eye, imagine the place where the event
happened. Then draw a map of that place (Figure 7.2). Add as many details as you can
remember—names, buildings, people, events, landmarks. You can use this map to help
you recall key events and tell your story.

RECORD YOUR STORY AS A PODCAST OR VIDEO. Tell your story into your com-
puter’s audio or visual recorder. Afterward, you can transcribe it to the page or screen.
Sometimes it’s easier to tell the story orally and then turn it into written text.

STORYBOARD THE EVENT. In comic-strip form, draw out the major scenes in the
event. It’s fine to use stick figures because these drawings are only for you. They will
help you recall the details and sort out the story you are trying to tell.

DO SOME ROLE-PLAYING. Use your imagination to put yourself into the life of a
family member or someone close to you. Try to work through events as that person
might have experienced them, even ones that you were part of. Then compare and
contrast that person’s experiences with your own, paying special attention to any ten-
sions or conflicts.
 Memoirs 93

Figure 7.2 Making a Map of the Scene Stage

Sometimes, drawing a map of the scene where an
event happened can help you reconstruct it and
remember important details. Here is a map of a jazz
club a writer used for writing a memoir about an
important event that happened there.
Dining

Researching: Finding Out What Others Know

Research can help you better understand the event or times you are writing about. For
instance, a writer describing her mother’s return in 2021 from a tour in Afghanistan
might want to find out more about the history of the related conflicts. She could also
find out about other soldiers’ experiences by reading personal stories at The Library of
Congress Veterans History Project (loc.gov/vets). When researching your topic, try to find
information from the following three types of sources:

ONLINE SOURCES. Use Internet search engines to find information that might
help you understand the people or situations in your memoir. Psychology websites,
for example, might help you explain your own actions or the behavior of others that
you witnessed. Meanwhile, historical websites might provide background informa-
tion for an event. This knowledge would help you envision experiences from a time
before you were born or when you had little or no awareness of what was happening
in the world.

PRINT SOURCES. At your campus or public library, look for newspapers or maga-
zines that might have reported something about the event you are describing. Or find
historical information in magazines or a history textbook. These resources can help you
explain the conditions that shaped how people behaved.

EMPIRICAL SOURCES. Research doesn’t only happen on the Internet and in the
library. You should interview the people who were involved with the events you want
to describe in your memoir. If possible, revisit the place you are writing about. Write
down any observations, describe things as they are now, and look for details that you
might have forgotten or missed. Your notes will help you add the rich details that bring
a scene to life.
94 Chapter 7

Organizing and Drafting Your Memoir

7.2 Use the memoir genre to organize a story.
To write a good memoir, you will need to go through a series of drafts to discover what
your theme is, how you want to recount the events, what tone will work best, and so
forth. So don’t worry about doing it “correctly” as you write your first or even your
second draft. Just try to write out your story. When you reread and revise what you’ve
written, you can start figuring out what’s most important and how it all holds together.

Setting the Scene in Rich Detail

Memoirs usually start by describing the place where the story happened. You should
be as visual as possible, so the readers can see this place and the people who were
there. Use details to describe people, places, and things. Use dialogue to bring your
readers into the story and understand how the characters talk and think.

Main Point or Thesis

Memoirs explore and reflect on a central theme or question, but they rarely provide
precise answers or explicit thesis statements. When writing a memoir, you can use your
conclusion to clarify your main point, using an implied thesis. In other words, don’t
state your main point or thesis in your introduction unless you have a good reason for
doing so. Instead, give readers the room to reflect on the theme for themselves.

Describing the Complication

The complication in your memoir is the problem or challenge that you or others needed
to resolve. Paint a picture using scene setting, dialogue, and your own inner thoughts
to show how this complication came about and why you and others first reacted to it
as you did.

Evaluating and Resolving the Complication

After describing the characters’ initial reaction, show how you and others evaluated
and resolved the complication—or began to resolve and understand it. The complication
isn’t necessarily a problem that needs to be fixed. Instead, you should show how you
and others tried to make sense of the complication, reacted to the change, and moved
forward.

Concluding with a Point

Your conclusion describes not only what you learned but also what your reader
can take away from your experiences. Memoirs often have an “implied thesis,”
which means you’re allowing readers to figure out the main point of the story for
­themselves. In some cases, though, it’s fine to just tell your readers what you learned
from the experience. For example, here is a thesis that states the main point of the
memoir.
 Memoirs 95

Tearing an ACL in my senior year was a major disappointment and the end of my dream
of playing soccer in college. I learned, though, that when one dream ends, other dreams
take its place.

Avoid concluding with a “the moral of the story is . . . ” or a “they lived happily ever
after” ending. Instead, strive for something that suggests the events or people reached
some kind of closure. Achieving closure, however, doesn’t mean stating a stale and
uninteresting platitude or revealing a fairy-tale ending. Instead, give your readers the
sense that you and your characters are looking ahead to the future.
Whether you choose to state your main point directly or not, your readers should
come away from your memoir with a sense of what the story meant to you and what
it might mean to them.
With permission from your professor, you might try using an artificial intelligence
(AI) application to help you mold and shape your rough memoir into a compelling
story. Try copying and pasting your memoir into an AI application to see what kinds of
revisions and changes the system suggests. In some cases, the AI application may put
events into a stronger narrative pattern, or it may help you identify gaps in your story
that you can explore further.
However, don’t use the AI application to generate a memoir on its own. It’s your
story! The AI application should help you tell your story better, not make something
up from scratch.

Choosing an Appropriate Style

7.3 Develop an engaging voice to tell your story.
Choose a style that harmonizes with your story and theme. Your style will create the
atmosphere your readers feel and help them identify with your attitude and feelings
about the events you are narrating. For example, if you want your narrator (you) to
seem casual, choose a casual style. Or, if you want to set a concerned tone, choose words
and images that evoke being troubled or unsettled.

Evoking an Appropriate Tone or Voice

Your tone or voice should reflect the attitude, or stance, that you are taking toward your
subject matter and your readers. Your tone or voice is the sound your readers will hear
as they read your writing. It isn’t something innate to you as a writer. Instead, the tone
or voice you choose should fit your topic, your story, and your readers.
Brainstorming is a useful tool for helping you to set a specific tone and find
your voice.

1. Think of a keyword that describes the tone you want to set in your memoir.
2. Put that word at the top of your screen or a piece of paper (Figure 7.3).
3. Below that keyword write down any words or phrases that you tend to associate
with this tone word.
96 Chapter 7

4. As you write words on your screen or paper, try to come

Figure 7.3 Brainstorming to Create a up with more words that are associated with these new
Tone or Voice
words. Hint: You can use your word processor’s thesau-
A brainstorming list is a good tool for helping you
rus to help you generate more words. An AI application
find words and phrases that will set a tone in your
memoir. Simply choose the words or phrases that
might also be able to help you generate a list or word
best describe the tone you are looking for and gen- cloud of words you can use.
erate a list of words that associate with that tone. Your brainstorming should give you a list of words that
My Tone: Worried express the tone or voice you want. Then, while drafting
anxious hands shaking a little and revising your memoir, look for places where you can
pacing around uneasy strategically use these words. If you use them consistently
apprehensive fearful throughout the memoir, your readers will sense the tone or
looking at my phone impatient attitude you are trying to convey. This tone will help you
nervous restless develop your central “theme,” the idea or question that the
troubled afraid entire memoir explores.
moist eyes irritated Don’t take this tone or voice to an extreme, though. If
upset agitated
you use too many of these words, your readers will sense
agitated touchy
that you are overdoing it.
fussy

Using Dialogue
Allow the characters in your memoir to reveal key details about themselves through
dialogue rather than narration. Use dialogue strategically to reveal themes and ideas
that are key to understanding your memoir. Here are some guidelines for using dialogue
effectively:
USE DIALOGUE TO MOVE THE STORY FORWARD. Reserve dialogue between char-
acters for key moments that move the story forward in an important way. Whenever
characters are talking in your memoir, they should reveal something new about them-
selves or the events happening around them.
WRITE THE WAY YOUR CHARACTERS SPEAK. People rarely speak in perfect gram-
matical English. When your characters are talking to each other, use realistic phrasing to
reflect how the people in your story really talk. You can use dialects or speech patterns
to reveal aspects of your characters’ personalities or cultures. However, take care not
to slip into dialects that sound stereotypical or even offensive.
TRIM THE EXTRA WORDS. In real dialogue, people often say more than they need
to say. To avoid drawing out a conversation too much, craft your dialogue to be as crisp
and tight as possible.
IDENTIFY WHO IS TALKING. Your readers should know who is talking, so make
sure you use dialogue tags (e.g., he said, she said, they asked, she growled, he yelled). Not
every statement needs a dialogue tag. If you leave off the tag, make sure it’s obvious
who is speaking.
CREATE UNIQUE VOICES FOR CHARACTERS. Each of your characters should
sound different. You can vary their vocabulary, tone, cadence, dialect, or style to give
them each a unique voice.
 Memoirs 97

What if you cannot remember what the people in your story actually said? As long
as you remain true to what you remember, you can invent some of the details of the
dialogue.

Designing Your Memoir

7.4 Design and add visuals to enhance the narrative.
Memoirs, like almost all genres today, can use visual design to reinforce the written text.
You can enhance and deepen your words by including images and sounds.

CHOOSE THE MEDIUM. Readers might be more moved by an audio file of you nar-
rating and enacting your memoir than by a written document. If so, you can convert
your memoir into a script. Or perhaps a video recording or a multimedia document
would better allow you to convey your ideas. If you’re feeling ambitious and creative,
you could even create a “graphic memoir” that portrays the events in sequential frames
with drawings and words.

ADD VISUALS, ESPECIALLY PHOTOS. Use one or more photos to emphasize a key
point, set a tone, or add a new dimension. Photos or drawings of specific places will
help your readers visualize where the events in the memoir took place.

PUBLISH YOUR MEMOIR. Websites like Teen Ink, Buzzfeed, and Slice offer places
where you can share your memoirs. Otherwise, you might consider putting your mem-
oirs on a blog or on your Instagram feed. Remember, though, not to reveal private infor-
mation or photographs that might embarrass you or put you or others at any kind of
risk. For wider circulation, several journals exclusively publish undergraduate writing.
(For a list of them, consult guides.library.stonybrook.edu/undergraduate_research/
journal_list.)

Microgenre
The Travel Narrative
The experiences that happen to you while traveling can be eye-opening, introducing you to new and unfamil-
iar places, people, and perspectives. Travel can open you to experiencing and appreciating different cultures
and unfamiliar ways of thinking and acting.
Keep in mind that “travel” doesn’t necessarily mean visiting a place far from home. Everyone has done
some traveling, whether voyaging to a far-off distant land or visiting the next town over from our own. Any
kind of travel can lead authors and readers to new insights.
Travel narratives are distinguished from other memoirs by a single feature: They focus on an experience
in which the author is experiencing new and unfamiliar places, people, and perspectives. Your travel narrative
should have all the features described in this chapter’s At-A-Glance (in the first section of this chapter). You
can work those events into a plot with a complication, evaluation, resolution, and conclusion.
98 Chapter 7

Be sure to pay special attention to the conflict or tension that you, as a traveler, experience. Describe
the new realization (that positive or negative “aha” moment) you came away with. And finally, think about
the larger theme: What significance does your story have, and what does it tell your readers about this
unfamiliar place and its people? What themes, questions, or tensions does the experience invite your
readers to reflect on?
Here are some strategies for writing your own travel narrative.

Start off with a “grabber” and scene-setter. To capture your reader’s attention, use a grabber and then
describe the place you visited in rich detail. Together, your grabber and scene-setter should evoke the
overall tone of your travel narrative.

Write in the first person. Use personal pronouns such as “I,” “me,” “my,” and so on. Travel narratives are
not objective journalism. They portray experiences through the eyes and mind of the traveler (you) who is
describing what happened.

Write in the past tense. Like most memoirs, travel narratives describe what happened, not what is
happening.

Quote what you heard people say. As with all memoirs, quotations will reveal the personalities of the
people you met. They will also help you move the plot forward and show when you or others figured
something out.

Humanize the people and places you depict. Avoid idealizing people and places. Likewise, avoid
denigrating them as simply “weird,” “uncultivated,” or “wrongheaded.” Try to convey their world as they
see and understand it, showing why it makes sense to them and how we might learn from this new
perspective.

Describe only the moments that help you evoke the overall theme. Write concisely by describing
only the personal experiences that help your readers understand what happened. Trim any other
details out of the story. A travel narrative should focus on the people and places that are relevant to
the story.

Write with humility by focusing on self-discovery. Maybe you have visited or lived in a place, but
you shouldn’t pretend that you have a complete understanding of the people and their culture. Show
some humility and vulnerability. A travel narrative allows readers to experience what the traveler has
seen and considered. Invite readers to share in your curiosity and to open up their minds to different
ways of living.

WRITE your own travel narrative. Recount a time when you traveled to a new place and experienced
people who were different from the people you are familiar with. Remember, the “travel” could be just a
few miles if the place, people, and customs were unfamiliar and revealing.
 Memoirs 99

Sabbath
Bret Lott
Our apartment in German Colony was only a ten-minute walk to the gardens that The opening
­overlooked the old city. To the left stood the high limestone walls of Jerusalem, to the paragraphs set the
scene and pique
right Mt. Zion itself with its trees and tiers of white buildings, the blue cone roof of readers’ attention
Dormition Abbey, beside it the white bell tower. In the evenings all that fall Melanie and with a grabber.
I took walks to the gardens, the limestone walkways lined with rosemary, olive trees
everywhere. And this view of Jerusalem.
We live here, we said to each other. That’s Jerusalem. That’s it. Right there.
But we also lived there. We went to the grocers, the post office, the ATM. The gas
station, the butcher shop, the laundromat. I made my routine drives down to Tel Aviv to
teach my courses and attend meetings. All that.
We lived there.
Which meant dealing with Shabbat. That pesky Saturday when nothing—or very The narrator
little—was open. No news in how we Americans felt: Even though we are believing reveals his feelings
about Sabbath
Christians, we still found it difficult to adjust. observances—that
Of course, we were used to going where we needed to go and doing what we it is a “pesky”
needed to do. Yes, we understood the holiness of the day, God’s call to observe the annoyance.
Sabbath one of those really real Commandments.
Still, those first few weeks we were sometimes a little piqued about the whole
thing. Especially if we’d missed going to the grocer’s, or the butcher’s, or just
wanted an Everything with Bulgarian cream cheese from the bagel place down the
street.
But one Saturday early on we decided to take a mid-morning walk to the gardens, The complication
because there wasn’t a whole lot to do. And the bagel place was closed. emerges.

Here was the rosemary, the olive trees. The limestone walls of the city, that blue
cone roof and bell tower.
But there were also people out walking. A lot of them. Young people, old.
Families. Couples. Many were Orthodox of one kind or another, the men with their
hats, the women with their long skirts and scarves. Boys with their kippahs, girls in
pretty dresses.
Then the dim bulb of understanding came to us, the unsurprising no-news of what The narrator
a Sabbath really is. The lifelong call finally, finally made manifest to the weak-eyed and describes how
he and his wife
hard of hearing. arrived at new
This is a day off. This is a day of rest. insights he invites
And the Commandment in full seemed to fall into place: I have created you in My the reader to
share.
image, and I want you to enjoy one day of rest a week, because I know the joy of that
peaceful day. This rest I offer you is so important it is in fact holy. So take this day off
to rest in My Name.
Nothing new. At all. But a discovery we two made one Saturday morning in
Jerusalem.
“Shabbat Shalom,” these people out walking in the gardens called to each other,
and to us. Peace to you this Sabbath.
“Shabbat Shalom,” we said in return, and began to understand.
100 Chapter 7

Quick Start Guide

Here’s one basic approach for creating an engaging memoir that makes a point.
Choose the event or series of events you want to write about. Use the brainstorming exercises to
come up with a list of events and choose one that could become an effective memoir.
Question your memory about the event(s). Figure out what you know and what you can imagine about
the event. What can you recall or find out about the place, the objects in that place, and the people and
what they did?
Do some research. If you want to find out more about the time, the place, or a person in your memoir, do
some background research to find out what things were really like.
Draft the story. Write the story, including all the events that relate to it. Describe people, their actions,
and places with rich and vivid detail.
Find the theme. Reflect on what you’ve written and choose the “theme” you want this story to evoke for
your readers. “Pets and people” is a topic, not a theme. “To what degree can pets replace people in our
lives?” is a theme.
State the message directly or indirectly. Whether you choose to make the main point directly or indi-
rectly, your final paragraphs should provide a sense of closure that points readers to your overall message.
Develop an appropriate tone or voice. Develop your narrator’s voice and use dialogue to add different
voices to your story.
Edit the story to its essentials. When you ask yourself, What is essential to the main point and theme of
my memoir? you’ll probably end up cutting out a lot of your original draft. Good memoirs are to the point;
they should include only what is essential.

Readings: Memoirs

Reading 1
Eliza Kennedy, a former lawyer, is a journalist and, most recently, a novelist. She wrote the
following piece for The New York Times, in which she discusses the arrangement she had
with her college boyfriend and its ensuing complications.

When an Open Relationship Comes with a Price

Eliza Kennedy
During college, I spent a few wonderful evenings making out with a longhaired poet. I spent a
few weeks messing around with a gentle, funny religion student. I even briefly, if accidentally,
dated a high school student (since when do 17-year-olds have beards?).
 Memoirs 101

This is what you do in college. No longer tethered to childhood routines and unburdened
by the judgments and prejudices of people who know you best, you explore and experiment,
sampling new ideologies, new points of view. New people.
So I sampled, freely and happily. But my situation was different from most: I also had a
serious boyfriend at the time. Serious, as in we lived together. We owned two cats together.
I wasn’t breaking any rules, however. We had an open relationship.
It was a complete disaster.
My boyfriend and I met in Introduction to Philosophy. He was darkhaired, charming and 5
endearingly weird, one of those passionate, articulate boys who live life in superlatives.
The music he listened to was the best of all possible music. The books he read stood at
the pinnacle of literature. He himself was going to be the greatest philosopher of his
generation.
I know, I know. But I was only 18! I was, and still am, a sucker for a quick wit, a raucous
laugh, and a big brain. Moreover, my boyfriend was generous with his grand convictions:
The people he surrounded himself with were destined for greatness, too. Loved by him,
I felt swathed in glory.
Inseparable from the start, he and I explored the new world of our university together,
attending readings, plays, and concerts. We ate pie and sushi. We drank gin and lemonade.
I spent the summer in his hometown, falling under the spell of his courtly father and gracious
mother. Back on campus in the fall, he and I moved in together, filling a ramshackle apartment
with music posters and thrift-store furniture.
Cue the cats. Cue domesticity.
Or rather, don’t. My boyfriend was committed to living his life according to strict intellectual
principles, and for him, personal freedom was paramount. Love could not require constraint,
foreclosure, or deprivation. He argued that even though we planned a future together, we
should always permit each other to do as we pleased, including dating other people.
Whoa, sorry, what? I was from a small town in Illinois. My idea of romance was as conven- 10
tional as could be, involving me and my boyfriend “sitting in a tree, k-i-s-s-i-n-g.” First comes
love, then comes marriage, and so on.
That playground taunt is also a promise: Exclusivity leads to safety, to vows, to happily
ever after. There was no room in our tree for other people.
Or was there? I wasn’t on the playground anymore. I was supposed to be exploring,
experimenting, sampling new perspectives. I wasn’t a philosopher like my boyfriend, but
I was studying English literature, including Percy Bysshe Shelley.
As he wrote: “True Love in this differs from gold and clay, / That to divide is not to take
away.”
Shelley railed against the prevailing morality that demanded lovers marry and be monoga-
mous, and so travel “the broad highway of the world . . . / With one chained friend.”
One chained friend. Sounds like fun. 15
I had no wish to shackle anyone to me, especially not the person I loved best. I didn’t want
to concede—by being possessive, by demanding fidelity—that my love was anything less than
capital-T True. If an open relationship was necessary to prove how well I loved my boyfriend,
I was happy to comply.
Thus we were off on our grand romantic adventure.
The longhaired poet and I had a class together. He was earnest and soulful. He wrote
poems on ragged notebook paper and left them at our door in the middle of the night.
His poetry was terrible, but it was about me, which improved it immeasurably.
102 Chapter 7

My boyfriend was amused, maybe slightly impressed that I had inspired verses, but largely
indifferent. His attitude seemed to be: Go have fun.
20 So I did. Not too much. I was still present, still a good, loving girlfriend. I was just some-
times somewhere else, with someone else.
Then my boyfriend’s attitude changed. He started emerging from his study with questions
when I arrived home. Who was this guy? What was his major? Where was he from? What did
he read? Was he smart?
Questions morphed into criticism. That poetry was awful. His handwriting wasn’t that hot,
either. Look at those “t’s.”
Then my boyfriend caught a glimpse of the guy, and full-on outrage ensued. Are you kid-
ding me with that hair? He doesn’t look soulful; he looks constipated! What are you doing
wasting your time with this clown?
I was doing just that: wasting my time, very enjoyably. But it wasn’t worth my boyfriend’s
interrogations and disbelief, his implicit suggestion that by choosing poorly, I had made myself
less lovable to him.
25 So I chucked the poet and asked whether we needed to rethink our arrangement.
Of course not. There was nothing wrong with our principles, only with how I had imple-
mented them. I was free to continue being free. I just had to do it better. Or something.
I moved on. I spent time with my friend who was studying religion. With my hairy high
school student. With a woman who lived in our building.
A pattern emerged. My boyfriend would react at first with nonchalance. He would become
mildly curious. Then subtly judgmental. Then not so subtly.
He always ended up in the same place: offended, incredulous, and scornful of my romantic
interests for their obvious flaws, and of me for my apparent blindness to them. He was so con-
vinced of his own correctness and so skilled at arguing his positions that pushing back was
always an exercise in futility. So I would capitulate and abandon each new love interest, caus-
ing a lot of undeserved pain.
30 How were my boyfriend’s own adventures in free love progressing? They weren’t. He didn’t
date anyone else as long as we were together. Why? He never gave a clear answer. Too busy.
Too picky. I felt like the butt of some twisted joke. Romantic freedom was his principle, and yet
I was the only one out there living it.
Halfway through our junior year, he moved out. The weight of other people hadn’t caused
our bough to break, but it certainly hadn’t helped. No longer in thrall to his supremely
persuasive rationale for open relationships, I understood why he reacted as he had.
He was jealous. He feared losing me. I’d thought I was living his principle, but I had
really experienced only one side of being in an open relationship—the fun and easy side.
How would I have responded if he had been the one making out and messing around? Not
well, I suspected.
Enough with the sampling and the experimenting. I didn’t want anyone to feel threatened
or insecure. I didn’t need a crowd. From now on, I was going to stick to one friend at a time.
Yes, chains are heavy, chains rust and abrade, but they also bind us and keep us safe.
After graduating from college, I dated, in succession, a Swedish guy living in Italy, a fellow
editor at my first real job, and a disgruntled ad man. Each time, love bloomed. Then it faded.
Except for my love for the disgruntled ad man. Him I married, and our love is still very
much alive.
35 All around me, friends were doing the same. Pairing up. Settling down. Marrying. Engraving
their faithfulness on rings and proclaiming it in vows. Cue domesticity. Cue happily ever after.
 Memoirs 103

Or don’t. I have watched and listened as some of those friends learned how fascination
fades. How reality can dull the bliss. Their eyes began to wander, or their hearts did. They
cheated. Or split up. Or cheated, then split up. Or stayed faithful and married, but now feel
hemmed in and hamstrung. They’re all around me, these people who said “you, and no other,”
and meant it. Until they didn’t.
Back to Shelley, who wrote: “I love Love—though he has wings, / And like light can flee.”
Sad to say, that pretty much nails it.
I had fled an open relationship, opting for the safety of a closed circle. But the wreckage
of monogamous relationships lies all around us. The notion that they’re somehow more stable
than open ones is an illusion. Not because monogamy is unsafe, but because all romantic love
is. It’s powerful and thrilling. It’s also terrifying.
Marriage isn’t the place to sample and explore, as I did in college. But even here, roman-
tic love is more complicated than in the old children’s rhyme. It’s still an experiment—in
trust, understanding, and communication. Like any experiment, it could fail. There are no
­guarantees. As a wife and now a mother, I see that giving my heart to just one other person
may be the riskiest way to love of all.
Source: From The New York Times, June 25 © 2015 The New York Times. All rights reserved. Used by permission
and protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States. The printing, copying, redistribution, or retransmission
of this Content without express written permission is prohibited.

A Closer Look at “When an Open Relationship Comes

with a Price”
1. The theme of growing up is a central feature of this memoir. What are some of the
issues with relationships that all couples need to deal with? How do those issues
play out in the couple’s open relationship? How do the author and her boyfriend
respond in different ways to those issues?
2. The author clearly indicates that she was being naïve about her boyfriend and her
relationship with him. She was clearly buying into a narrative of living together
that hid many of its negative aspects. What are some of the elements of that “living
together” narrative, and how do they work in this memoir?
3. Where are the turning points in this memoir? How do each of these turning points
signal that the characters’ values are not in alignment with how they actually react
to the realities of an open relationship?

Ideas for Writing

1. Write a memoir about a time in which your idealistic values were challenged by
the realities of your life. Describe how you resolved that conflict between what you
wanted to believe about yourself and what the real world was pushing you to do.
Like Kennedy, you could also write about a time when you couldn’t resolve the
conflict between your personal values and the real world.
2. Write an argument in which you discuss the pros and cons of open relationships
and decide whether you agree with these kinds of relationships. If you feel strongly
that open relationships are a bad idea, against your faith, or unworkable, feel free
104 Chapter 7

to make that argument. If you think, under some conditions, that an open relation-
ship would work, explain what those conditions might be and the ground rules
required.

Reading 2
Joe Mackall has authored books about culture and his own life. In this memoir, he talks
about growing up in the suburbs with honesty and candor, recounting two incidents when
he did something thoughtless and then paid a price for it. Notice how his voice emerges
from the page as he sets the scene and describes his characters.

Words of My Youth
Joe Mackall
I stand at the edge of my suburban driveway on Fairlawn Drive, sunned and safe. My friend
Mick and I play Wiffle ball. Each swing of the bat sends the ball flying into the mystery grip of
physics and aerodynamic wonder. The ball appears headed straight up before some hidden
hand of wind and speed and serrated plastic jerks it over to the lawn of the widow next door.
Mrs. Worth’s boxer drools the day away, watching from the backyard in its own state of
ignorant awe.
We take turns “smacking the shit” out of the plastic ball. I don’t notice, not right away,
an older kid—a man really—walking down the other side of the street, his eyes straight
ahead. Not from around here. As the kid-man gets closer, I focus more intently on the
game, as if this focus will protect me from what’s about to happen. I chase the ball as if
catching it matters more than anything, more than my first kiss or my last day of school.
I make careful throws, keeping my eye on the ball, trying to anticipate the direction of its
flight and fall.
I fear—as I so often fear—that something I have done has found its way back to me.
And now I’ll pay. Five or six houses away now, the kid-man crosses the street. He’s not from
around here, but I recognize him from somewhere. There’s something in the way the kid-man
never looks around, as if his entire world centers on a horizon only he can see. He’s smoking.
Not a good sign. I pick the ball up off the boxer’s drool-wet lawn, wipe the drool on my jeans,
and toss it a few feet in the air. When I look up I see the kid-man—black hair greased and
straight, a broken mustache, patches of dirt and beard—punch Mick in the nose. Mick bends
over and covers his nose with cupped hands in one motion. Blood oozes through his summer-
stained fingers and drips onto the hot cement. Although the kid-man—eighteen, nineteen,
probably—has just punched Mick in the face, I’m stunned stupid when the kid-man walks over
to me and slams me in the nose. We run to the porch.
“My girlfriend’s not a dyke,” the kid-man says, as he lights a new cigarette from the old
and walks off.
It’s true. We have called the man’s girlfriend a dyke. Often and repeatedly. But still, stand-
ing behind the harsh-sounding, cool-sounding word with blood dripping from my nose, I who
only a minute ago was playing Wiffle ball on a summer afternoon, realize I cannot define nor do
I understand the word we all so love to use.
 Memoirs 105

II
Again on the Wiffle ball driveway, also summer, also my twelfth year, I call one of my
Gentile friends a dumb Jew. Soon all of us revel in the discovery of this new slur.
This new way of degrading each other catches on quickly. Not one of the Catholic boys
schooled in the Judeo-Christian tradition is sure why calling somebody a dumb Jew is
derogatory.
But we celebrate this new slur anyway. But wait. Wasn’t Jesus a Jew? Isn’t Bill Rosenberg
a Jew? We all love Bill. This must be something else. It sounds different. It sounds like it
shouldn’t be said. So we say it and love saying it, we boys without weapons.
The screen door slams. My mother has caught the sound of the slur. She motions for me
to come inside. “Tell your friends to go home,” she says. I do not have to. They’re gone. This is
1971, and the suburbs. Somebody’s parent is everybody’s parent. Parents stick together.
They know who the real enemy is.
She grabs my hair and pulls me into the house. Inside my head I’m screaming.
I do not say a word.
“What did you say out there? What were you saying?”
I understand that my mother knows the answer to her questions. I realize I had better not
repeat what I said outside, not even in answer to her questions. I know she never wants to
hear that again. Not ever. Not from me. Not from anybody.
“Where did you ever hear a thing like that? That kind of talk?” she asks.
An excellent question. I honestly do not know. I have no idea. The slur just seems to
have been out there, there and somehow not there, like incense, like the way a Wiffle ball
whips and dips, the way adults laugh at things kids don’t understand, the way background
noise from a baseball game leaks out of transistor radios, the way bits of gravel bounce out
of pickup truck beds, the way factory fires flirt with the night sky, the way sonic booms burst
the lie of silence.

A Closer Look at “Words of My Youth”

1. A memoir doesn’t just recount events but selects and arranges those events into a
“plot” that helps the reader infer causation, or a sense of what causes what. There
seem to be two stories here, but is there a single plot? What single question or
theme is evoked from this plot? Outline the two stories and show how they follow
a single plot.
2. In this memoir, the Wiffle ball is more than an object that the narrator and his
friends throw and smack. The Wiffle ball itself—the actual object and the way it
behaves when it is thrown—serves as a symbol of some other idea or problem.
How is the Wiffle ball used to illustrate other concepts in this memoir? Examine
the memoir’s long and zigzagging final sentence closely.
3. Compare the ending of “Words of My Youth” with the final paragraphs of
“Uprooted” and “When an Open Relationship Comes with a Price.” Which of these
concludes with an explicitly stated main point, a “takeaway lesson”? Which is the
least explicit, leaving it up to the reader to reflect on the memoir’s overall theme
and meaning? Finally, which ending do you find most interesting and effective?
Explain why you feel one is better than the others.
106 Chapter 7

Ideas for Writing

1. Explain the purpose of “Words of My Youth.” What theme or question is Mackall
encouraging readers to explore with him? Try to articulate that question or theme
in a single sentence. Write a one-page response in which you identify that question
and explain what Mackall wants readers to take away from his memoir.
2. When people say “I have no regrets in life,” can that be true, or are those people just
denying or forgetting? At some point in our lives, each of us has done something
that was thoughtless, foolish, or even unkind. Write a memoir that recounts a time
when you did something you now regret, for whatever reason. How would you
make sense of that behavior now?
3. Mackall chooses to use strong and offensive language to describe violent events
and offensive behavior. In a one-page response to this memoir, discuss whether you
feel the language and events were warranted, considering what you believe is the
central theme/question of the story.

Activities for Memoirs

Talk About This
1. With a group of people in your class, ask each person to tell a funny story
about themselves (keep it PG-13). After each person tells their story, compare
the organization of the story to the typical organization of a memoir. What
are some of the similarities and differences between these funny stories and
memoirs?
2. For 5-10 minutes freewrite about the physical space where you did a lot of your
learning in elementary school. Is there a classroom or other space prominent in
your memories? While freewriting, pay special attention to sensory details: how
the furniture was arranged, who sat or stood where, the background noises, per-
haps even the smells of that place.
3. Do some people who don’t really know you have a false idea about who you are?
Perhaps it’s an impression or image that you yourself have adopted, encouraged,
or just never bothered to correct. Give your group a description of this mistaken
or alternative impression that some people hold about you. Tell a story that
reveals this alternate “you” that others see and how that image or impression just
doesn’t capture the real you.

Try This Out

1. All families have stories that have been told so often they have become
“famous.” Choose a story about you that stands out as especially celebrated in
your family.
 Memoirs 107

a. Briefly relate that story. If you’re writing the story, make it less than 300
words. If you’re telling it to a small group, make it less than three minutes.
b. Now explain (in writing or orally) why that story is a favorite in your family.
What does it mean to those who tell it? Does it mean the same thing for every-
one involved? When is this old story told again and again? What purpose does
it serve? What point does it make about your family—what is its significance?
Do different people draw different meanings from the story? What general
theme does it evoke, and why is that theme important for your family?
2. Find a memoir in a book or magazine or on the Internet. Think about how chang-
ing the intended audience and/or the medium might help the memoir reach a
different set of readers. What other medium would you choose, and how would
you alter the original memoir to adapt it to this medium?
3. Authors write memoirs because they have a point they want to get across to their
readers. If you wanted to “repurpose” a memoir into becoming, say, a profile, a
proposal, or a research report, how might you do it? How would its angle and
purpose change? When you change genres, the nature of the text changes. The
readers themselves and their expectations may change significantly; the tone
needs to change, as do style and many other factors. List specifically what would
change if you used a different genre to handle the subject of a memoir.

Explore This
Ready to search for your own microgenres? Here are some microgenres that are related
to memoirs. Choose a microgenre from the following list and find three examples in
print or on the Internet. Compare and contrast their content, organization, style, and
design.
The six-word memoir—a story about yourself told in just six words (see Activity
3 in “Write This”)
Manifesto—a statement of your personal beliefs based on your experiences
Confessional—a story about something you did wrong
“This I believe”—a story that illustrates a belief or value you hold as true
Graphic novel memoir—an illustrated memoir, designed like a comic or
storyboard
Stranger in a strange land—a story that describes how someone new to a place
that is familiar to you reacted in some unexpected ways
Digital literacy narrative—a story about how you learned to use technology
(e.g., texting, e-mail, mobile phone) to communicate with others

Write This
1. Write a memoir. Write a five-page memoir in which you explore your relation-
ship with a member of your family. Choose an event or series of events that
illustrate your relationship and explore its tensions. Identify a complication or a
108 Chapter 7

struggle of values. Then show how you and this family member evaluated the
complication and resolved it. End your memoir by telling your readers what you
learned from this experience.
2. Create a map or a storyboard. Create a map or a storyboard and write a three-page
memoir about a specific event in your life. Develop your memoir by paying
special attention to the scene, the people, and the events (actions, dialogue,
thoughts) that make up the plot. Be sure that your memoir evokes some
significant point or theme that you want your reader to understand.
3. Write a “six-word memoir.” A six-word memoir tries to tell a story in just six
words. For instance, when the famous writer Ernest Hemingway was challenged
to tell a story in just six words, he responded: “For sale: baby shoes, never worn.”
Smith Magazine challenged famous and unknown writers to contribute and
received over 11,000 responses, some of which were collected in Not Quite What
I Was Planning: Six-Word Memoirs by Writers Famous and Obscure. Here are a few
of them:
• I’m ten, and have an attitude.
• Anything’s possible with an extension cord.
• Revenge is living well, without you.
• My reach always exceeds my grasp.
• Never should have bought that ring.
• Found true love after nine months.
Chapter 8
Reviews
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

8.1 invent the content of a review.

8.2 organize a review and write a draft.
8.3 develop an appropriate style and create a design that fits the readers and
context.

You’re already familiar with the review genre. For a long time, you have been reading
reviews of movies, video games, books, software, music, restaurants, consumer prod-
ucts, services, performances, and many other products and services. Like many people,
you probably use reviews to help you decide what to buy, what to see, and where to eat.
Reviews help you understand the strengths and limitations of products, performances,
or services so you can decide if you want to pay for them.
Writing reviews can be fun. They allow you to express your opinion about the
products, performances, and services you spend money on, explaining why you liked
something or didn’t. When writing a review, though, you need to go deeper than simply
giving something a thumbs up or thumbs down. Instead, you need to base your opin-
ions on the common expectations that you share with your readers. By figuring out these
common expectations, you can help readers determine whether they’ll buy something,
do something, or find something interesting.
Reviews are also important in the workplace. In your job, you will be regularly
asked to evaluate products and services, explaining why you believe your company or
organization should purchase something or choose a particular provider. Meanwhile,
your supervisors will write reviews of your performance, and you will write reviews
of others.
In college courses, you will be asked by your professors to write reviews that express
your opinions about the arts, architecture, books, politics, education, fashion, and other
topics. Your professors will want to see how effectively you can support your opinions
and demonstrate your understanding of a subject while also expressing an informed
opinion.

109
110 Chapter 8

At-A-Glance
Reviews
These diagrams show two possible organizations for writing reviews, but other arrangements of these
­sections will work. You should adapt the organization you use in a way that fits your topic, angle, purpose,
readers, and context.

Introduction Introduction

Description or Description or
summary of the subject summary of the subject

Strengths and Strengths of the

weaknesses of the first subject
feature of the subject

Strengths and Weaknesses

weaknesses of the second of the subject
feature of the subject

Weighing the strengths

of the subject against
Strengths and
its weaknesses
weaknesses of the third
feature of the subject

• Conclusion
•
•
Conclusion

A review typically has the following features:

• An introduction that identifies the subject being reviewed and offers some background information on it.
• A description or summary of the subject.
• A discussion of the subject that determines whether it meets, exceeds, or falls short of common
expectations.
• A conclusion that offers an overall judgment of the subject.
 Reviews 111

One Student’s Work: Reviews

Harry Style’s “As It Was” Is Immediate Hit

Rebecca Carcieri - Brown Daily Herald.
After almost two and a half years, music sensation Harry Styles has The review starts
released a new song—“As It Was”—and an accompanying music video by identifying its
topic up front.
­Thursday night. This is the lead single off of his new album “Harry’s House”
that is set for release on May 20.
The album and “As It Was” were written during the COVID-19 pandemic
in 2020 and 2021, a time when Styles was forced into a period of self-­reflection,
he told Capital FM radio. Styles views this song as a “metamorphosis and
embracing change, and former self and perspective shift,” he said in an
­interview with Audacy Friday morning.
Styles takes a stab at an 80s pop melody with the inclusion of a steady
backbeat, cymbals, bells, and a synthesizer—a change from the 70s ­influence
of his first album “Harry Styles” and the cohesive mix of modernity in
“Fine Line.”
Though the tempo is upbeat, it is contrasted by deeply personal lyrics,
even starting with an adorable voice message from his godchild, director
Ben Winston’s daughter Ruby, saying she wants to say goodnight to Styles.
This immediately adds a sentimental and personal aspect to the song, similar The major themes
of the video are
to his inclusion of his ex-girlfriend’s voicemail in the end of his second highlighted for
album’s “Cherry.” readers.

The lyrics
There are certain lines in this song that particularly glisten as elusive
s­ entiments and give the listener further insight into Styles’ mind. In the first
verse, “I want you to hold out the palm of your hand / Why don’t we leave
it at that?” shines as an indescribably relatable sentiment—Styles is seeking
comfort, asking to hold another person’s hand, but doesn’t want to explain
what he’s truly feeling.
The second verse—“Answer the phone / ‘Harry you’re no good alone /
Why are you sitting at home on the floor? / What kind of pills are you on?’”—
showcases a common theme in Styles’ writing—his loneliness, which can be
heard most notably in “Fine Line” and “To Be So Lonely.” Although this is a
common theme, it’s still surprising to hear Styles continue to talk about his
loneliness, especially alluding to times when he is at his lowest and seems to
retreat from others to sit with those feelings.
In the media, Styles appears to have it all together. Physically attractive
and extremely talented, he has had a fruitful career and has been spotted with
many other ultra-popular celebrities throughout his time in the spotlight.
Styles is frequently placed on a pedestal of luxury, but it's comforting to know
that behind his public persona, he still has his own struggles.
112 Chapter 8

The music video

The video for the song is a masterpiece—it artfully captures a ­relationship
in its decline. Styles walks into a large, empty room with a round spinning
stage in the middle. There, he meets a woman and they walk in opposite
­directions, occasionally embracing, until eventually, she rolls off of the stage.
Styles is then seen stripping down to his underwear while she remains
fully clothed and the two are pulled apart on different floors. When they
appear back on the stage, Styles chases after her but can’t quite catch up.
At the end, he seems to break free from his desire and performs an energetic,
­contemporary dance without a care in the world.
This is a notable transition for Styles—dating back to even his days in the
worldwide boyband sensation One Direction—a singular, identifiable love
interest is rarely found in his music videos. Styles knows his fanbase is
­predominantly women, many of whom fantasize about being in a relationship
with him. This addition seems to signify an unspoken understanding between
The review makes Styles and his fans: He’s ready for them to realize he has his own personal,
references to the
artist’s previous private romantic life and thinks his followers can now handle the reality that
work. they won’t be the one he ends up with.
Styles stripping down to a pair of underwear while his partner remains
fully clothed appears to allude to his open and vulnerable nature in his past
relationships, which he frequently mentions in his past work such as in songs
“From the Dining Table” and “Meet Me in the Hallway.”
The world was shocked to see Styles’ abilities in his 2020 music video for
“Treat People with Kindness” after he spoke for years about how he wasn’t a
dancer. This video is the second time we’ve seen Styles perform a dance
­routine in a music video, and it’s arguably even better than the first. Though
his previous routine was fantastic, this time, we’re able to see Styles truly
The conclusion
states the writer’s emote through his movements. This ultimately ties the whole video together
main point. and signifies his ability to become independent after a relationship’s end.

Inventing Your Review’s Content

8.1 Invent the content of a review.
Of course, before writing a review of something, you need to spend some time expe-
riencing it. But wait. Before you see the movie, read the book, or make a trip to the
­restaurant, do some inquiring about it and some background research to help you
understand your subject from a critical perspective. Inquiry will help you determine
what you and your readers expect of your subject. Background research will help you
develop a fuller understanding of your subject’s history and context.

Inquiring: Figuring Out Common Expectations

The foundation of a good review is a set of common expectations that you and your
readers share about what makes something successful or unsuccessful. Those expecta-
tions are not usually stated directly in the review itself. Instead, the reviewer assumes
 Reviews 113

that his or her readers share some assumptions about the qualities that make something
successful.
If your professor approves, you might use an artificial-intelligence (AI) applica-
tion to see what people commonly expect from your subject. For instance, you might
submit a query like, “What are the features and characteristics that most people expect
in a superhero film?” Keep in mind, though, that you and your readers might be much
different from “most people.” Also, remember that AI often makes mistakes, assuming
people generally like the same things.
For example, let’s say you want to write a review of an action movie that just
arrived in theaters. You might use an invention strategy like brainstorming to list all
the things most people would expect from this kind of movie. As quickly as you can,
make a list like the one shown in Figure 8.1. Then figure out which three to six items
are most important and put a star or asterisk next to them.
Once you have identified the features you believe are most important, group any
unstarred items on your list under the starred ones. For example, the list shown in
­Figure 8.1 could be sorted into six major categories: noble but flawed hero, complex
and sinister villain, a romantic relationship, fast-paced plot, stunts and chase scenes,
and intense music that enhances scenes.
More than likely, if you asked other people to list their expectations for an action
movie, they would produce lists similar to yours. They might use different words, or

Figure 8.1 Using Brainstorming to List Common Expectations

Brainstorming is a good way to come up with a list of elements that you and your readers would
expect the subject of your review to have.

Features of a Good Action Movie

*Great hero Cool special effects
Memorable lines Unexpected humor
*Love interest that doesn’t sidetrack Intense music soundtrack
movie Strong set of values
Real or potential victims of villain Villain is brilliant
Character evolution, especially hero *Music that sets the moods for scenes
Suspense Hero’s desire for revenge
Interesting setting Opening scene that grabs audience
Something unexpected Social pressures on hero to give up
Chase scenes Good friends for hero
Use of weapons Low expectations for hero
*Complex and sinister villain Recognizable actors
*Fast-paced plot Dark lighting
Fighting scenes Somewhat realistic, even if fantasy
Some irony, but not too much Characters worth caring about
Hero needs to be flawed in some way Rivalry between hero and villain
Mystery to be solved Violence that has purpose and
*Amazing stunts meaning
114 Chapter 8

they might put a star next to something you thought was less important. If you and your
readers share these expectations, you will likely agree with them about what makes a
good action film. That’s what we mean by “common expectations.” They are expecta-
tions that you and your readers already share.
Having created your list of common expectations, you will have a better idea about
what you and your readers will be looking for in this kind of movie.

Researching: Gathering Background Information

Now it’s time to do some background research that will help you better understand
what you are reviewing.
ANSWER THE FIVE-W AND HOW QUESTIONS. You might start with an Internet
search, typing your subject’s name or title into the search line. Look for answers to the
Five-W and How questions:
• Who wrote it, developed it, or produced it?
• What is the genre of your subject, and what do people expect from that genre?
• When was it created?
• Where does it exist, or where were the scenes set?
• Why was it created—for what purpose?
• How has the genre been evolving over the years and most recently?
Then follow up with print sources, which should be available at your campus library
or through your library’s website. In magazines, newspapers, and academic journals,
look for articles that offer background information on your subject and the people who
created or participated in it.
READ UP ABOUT THE GENRE. Whether you are reviewing a movie, video game,
book, performance, or restaurant, find out what genre it fits into and do some
­background reading on that genre. For example, let’s say you’re reviewing a new K-pop
band. Do some research on what elements are typical in K-pop songs and performances.
That will help you better understand the genre and whether this new band is going to
be a success. What features make a great K-pop band?
INTERVIEW OR SURVEY OTHERS. On almost any college campus, someone is an
expert about your subject. You could also survey others who have already seen the
movie, eaten at the restaurant, listened to the music, and so on. What did they think of
your subject? How did they react to it? What did they like and dislike about it?
FIND OTHER REVIEWS OF YOUR SUBJECT. You might also find other reviews about
your subject on the Internet or through social media. They can be helpful to see how
others are reacting to your subject. But be careful! While taking notes on these reviews,
don’t use the words or ideas from other reviews without citing them. In academic
­settings, using someone else’s ideas without citation is plagiarism. In professional set-
tings, borrowing the words and ideas of others is usually a violation of copyright laws,
which can get you or your company into legal trouble.
Of course, reviews often arrive at similar conclusions and even refer to each other,
but your review needs to be original in wording and presentation.
 Reviews 115

Researching: Go Experience It
As you’re experiencing your subject, pay close attention to your own reactions. For
example, when you are reviewing a movie, allow yourself to experience the movie as a
regular moviegoer. But also step back and experience the movie critically as a reviewer.
If something in the movie is funny, go ahead and laugh, but then ask yourself why you
laughed, and what exactly the characters did or said that made you laugh. If you thought
the food at a restaurant was too bland, ask yourself why you had that reaction and how
the food did not match up with the common expectations for that particular dish.
After you experience your subject, you might also spend some time playing the
Believing and Doubting Game to draw out some ideas for your review.
Believing—First, imagine that you are going to write an overly positive
review (i.e., a rave review). What did you like? Why was the experience so
amazing? What stood out as superior? How did your subject exceed your
expectations?
Doubting—Second, imagine that you are going to write a very negative review
(i.e., a slam). What didn’t you like? Why was your experience so awful? What
were the weakest aspects of your subject? What annoyed or irritated you?
What didn’t fit your expectations or the genre?
Synthesizing to find common ground—Now examine both your positive and
your negative comments. Which issues would be most important to you and
your readers? Where do your positive and negative observations line up,
and where do they strongly disagree? Which side do you think is stronger?
What can you use from each side in your review?

Organizing and Drafting Your Review

8.2 Organize a review and write a draft.
The organization of a review tends to be rather straightforward, so drafting this kind
of argument is often easier than drafting in other genres.

The Introduction
Your introduction is the basis for the rest of the review. It will typically make some or
all of these moves:

IDENTIFY YOUR TOPIC AND OFFER BACKGROUND INFORMATION. Tell your

readers your topic (the subject of your review) and offer enough background informa-
tion to familiarize your readers with it.

STATE YOUR PURPOSE. You should also identify your purpose, directly or indirectly.
You don’t need to say something like “My purpose is to review . . . ,” but it should be
clear to your readers that you are writing a review.

When I decided to dine at Bistro 312, I was determined to arrive with an open mind and
leave behind my usual biases against French food.
116 Chapter 8

STATE YOUR MAIN POINT OR THESIS. Later in the introduction, you may want to
tell your readers your overall assessment of your subject (your main point or thesis).
Your main point or thesis statement should do more than say whether you liked or
didn’t like the subject of your review. You should be specific about what you liked or
didn’t like and why you did or didn’t like something.

Weak: Elden Ring is an entertaining video game.

Stronger: Elden Ring is a great video game because the open-world concept allows
player freedom, the bosses and scenarios are amazing and horrific, the scenery is ­complex
and intricate, and the background music makes the experience appealing and fun.

Often, your main point or thesis statement will reveal the expectations on which you
based your review.
Many reviewers prefer to use a “question thesis” in the introduction, which allows
them to postpone giving their overall judgment until the conclusion. For example, you
could ask, “Is Elden Ring the masterpiece that we’ve been waiting for—the open-world
video game that puts all the elements together in one immersive package?” Then you
can answer the question with a thesis statement in the conclusion.

Description or Summary of the Subject

Assume that your readers have not seen the movie, played the game, read the book,
eaten at the restaurant, or gone to the performance. You will need to give them a brief
description or summary of your subject. You have a couple of options for organizing:
CHRONOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OR SUMMARY. Describe or summarize your
subject by leading your readers through the major scenes of the movie, stages in the
game, structure of the book, or sequence of the performance. In this section of your
review, you should offer an objective description without making any evaluative
comments.
FEATURE-BY-FEATURE DESCRIPTION. Divide your subject into two to five major
parts and then describe each part separately. Help your readers share the experience by
offering plenty of sensory detail. What does it look like? How does it sound, taste, smell,
and feel? Are there similes, metaphors, and analogies you can use to deepen readers’
experience and understanding?

Discussion of Strengths and Shortcomings

Earlier, you generated a list of common expectations that you and your readers share
about your subject. Point out the strengths of your subject for your readers and explain
how the subject met these expectations. Then discuss any shortcomings—how the
­subject failed to meet these expectations—and explore why your subject came up short.

Like many Star Wars fans, I was both thrilled and nervous when Disney and Lucasfilm
announced they were rolling out the new television series Obi-Wan Kenobi. All of us could
see that there was a huge time gap in Obi-Wan’s life between Episode III and Episode IV
that needed further exploration. When we last see Obi-wan in Episode III: Revenge of
the Sith, he’s a thirty-something Ewan McGregor, defeating Anakin-turned-Vader in a
 Reviews 117

dramatic lightsaber duel and then delivering the baby Luke Skywalker to his aunt and
uncle on Tatooine. But by the time we get to Episode IV: A New Hope, Obi-Wan (now Ben)
is much older, wonderfully played by Sir Alec Guinness. What had the famous Jedi Master
been doing all that time? That’s the time gap Obi-Wan Kenobi promised to fill.

Fortunately, we didn’t need to worry. When Disney and Lucasfilm signed McGregor to
play Obi-Wan again, they signaled to all Star Wars fans that they were serious about this
project. McGregor made a believable younger Obi-Wan in Episodes I–III, but he always
seemed held back by the legacy of playing a role made famous by an acting legend, Sir
Guinness. McGregor’s acting always seemed a bit self-conscious, trying as a younger
man to imitate the movements, expressions, and speech of the much older Guinness. In
Obi-Wan Kenobi, though, McGregor is seventeen years older and has aged into the part.
He is completely believable as a middle-aged Obi-Wan. In the television series, he seems
much more natural and a bit more grizzled, allowing him to make the bridge between his
younger self as Obi-Wan and the classic portrayal by Guinness.

If I have one criticism of this version of Obi-Wan—and it’s a small one—it’s the sense that
he has become weak and cynical since Episode III. After dropping off baby Luke at his
aunt and uncle’s house, Obi-Wan has stayed on Tatooine, but he’s leading a repetitive and
irrelevant life as a meat cutter. Perhaps that’s his deep cover, subtly crafted to allow him
to protect Luke from a distance. But he actually seems to have accepted his life as a relic
from a “more civilized age.” Rather than risk blowing his cover, he even allows Nari, one
of the very few remaining Jedi Knights in the universe, to be hunted down and killed on
Tatooine. I found it hard to believe the Obi-Wan of Episodes I–III or IV would not respond
to a plea for help by another Jedi. Then, in his first lightsaber confrontation with Darth
Vader, he seems frightened and rusty—much less able and confident than the Jedi Master
played by a much older Guinness in A New Hope.

Early in each paragraph, make a direct claim (a topic sentence) that captures the gist
of the strength or shortcoming. Then, in the remainder of the paragraph, support that
claim with reasoning, examples, quotes, facts, and any other evidence you need to
prove your point.
When discussing strengths and weaknesses, go ahead and express your opinion.
That’s what readers expect from you. They want you to tell them exactly how you felt
about the experience and why you felt that way.

Conclusion
The conclusion of your review will usually be brief, perhaps only a few sentences. In
your conclusion, you should state or restate your overall assessment of the subject. Then
you might offer a look to the future.

Overall, I’m enjoying the Obi-Wan Kenobi television series because it captures the
­emotion, intensity, and magic of the original blockbuster movies. The series also brings
in younger versions of the original Star Wars characters, such as Princess Leia, and fills
out the stories of supporting characters like Luke’s aunt and uncle. The series presents a
vastly more complex Obi-Wan who is haunted by the near extinction of other Jedis and
 118 Chapter 8

the brutality of the Empire. Like many avid Star Wars fans, I’ll be eagerly waiting for each
new episode and hoping that a few more seasons will be coming.

Avoid introducing any new information about your subject in the conclusion. Your
conclusion should bring readers around to your main point.

Choosing an Appropriate Style

and Design
8.3 Develop an appropriate style and create a design that fits the readers
and context.
The style of your review depends on your readers and the places where they will encounter
your review. A review written for a mainstream newspaper, magazine, or website should
use a lively style that matches your overall reaction to the movie, book, or performance.
An academic review, perhaps for a film studies or music appreciation course, might use a
plainer or more formal tone. Here are some ways you can improve the style of your review:
• Use plenty of sensory detail to help your readers imagine how your subject actu-
ally looked, sounded, felt, tasted, and smelled.
• Set an appropriate tone by using a concept map or brainstorming list to develop
a cloud of words that best describe the tone you want to set.
• Change the pace, using shorter sentences to speed up your prose when you are
describing action. Use longer sentences when you're describing a calmer, slower-
paced scene or place.
The format and design of your review will depend on where it will appear. A piece
written for a movie review blog will be designed differently than one written for a
course in film studies.
• Choose an appropriate medium, like a website,
a blog, a newspaper, or even a podcast, that will
Figure 8.2 Adding a Still or Clip from a Movie make your review available to the public.
In your review, you might add a still from a movie or even • Design your review to fit the place where you
a link to the trailer. want to publish it, trying to reflect the font,
headings, title, and other features of the web-
site, blog, or newspaper.
• Add photographs, audio, or video clips
that help your readers see or hear what you
experienced.
Album / Alamy Stock Photo

For some reviews, such as a movie review, you

might be able to add in a link to a trailer or a clip
from a scene. Caution: If you want to publish your
review or post it on a website, make sure you
ask permission to use any photos or screenshots
(Figure 8.2).
 Reviews 119

Microgenre
The Rave/The Slam
Did you ever really like something? Did you really, really, really like it? Have you ever been completely blown
away by a movie, song, play, novel, meal, or concert?
You should write a rave about it. A rave is an over-the-top review that is more about feelings and r­eactions
than reason. In a rave, the reviewer suspends his or her ability to think rationally about the subject of the
review. Instead, he or she shares that enthusiasm with the readers.
But how do you write an enthusiastic review without making it sound like a promotion or an
­advertisement? Here are some strategies:

Figure out what you liked best about it. There were probably one or two qualities that made this one
“the best ever.” What were those qualities and why did they make the experience so incredible?

Summarize it briefly. Summarize or describe your subject briefly, but use only positive terms and graphic
details to illustrate your points.

Compare it favorably to the classics. Tell readers that your subject belongs with the classics and name
those classics. Don’t say it’s better than the classics because your readers will be skeptical. Instead, tell
them it’s just as good.

Use metaphors and similes to describe your experience. Metaphors and similes that use food and
fighting work well: “It left us hungry for more.” “The crowd was drooling with anticipation.” “It was m
­ ind-
blowing.” “We were stunned.” “It knocked me for a loop.” “I felt like I had been elbowed in the head.”

Tell the readers they must experience it. You’re not just recommending they experience it; you’re telling
them they must do it.

Amplify and exaggerate. Liberally use words like “awesome,” “incredible,” “unbelievable,” “fantastic,”
“amazing,” and “astounding.” Use the word “very” a little too often. Tell readers it’s one of the most
important things ever written, filmed, created, cooked, or played. Call it an instant classic.

Don’t let up. In a rave review, there is no going halfway. This is the best thing that has happened to you in
your life, this year, this month, this week, or at least today (pick one).

Have fun. The whole purpose of a rave is to express your raw emotions about the things you love.
You want readers to feel what you felt. They know you’re being irrational. That’s the best part about
a rave.

An alternative version of this microgenre is the slam, in which you completely trash something. A slam is
­basically the same thing as a rave, except now you are going completely negative.

WRITE your own rave or slam. Think of a movie, television show, book, restaurant, or place that you
really, really enjoyed (or really, really hated). Then write a one-page rave review (or slam) in which you share
your enthusiasm (or scorn) with your readers. Let yourself go and have some fun with this.
120 Chapter 8

Pequod’s Pizza
Marah Eakin, Tasting Table
The pizza is If you ask any Chicagoan worth their salt

canyonvue / Stockimo / Alamy Stock Photo

­compared favor- where to go to get deep dish, they’ll tell you
ably to the
classics. Pequod’s. (That is, if they’re not trying to keep
it a secret.) The Lincoln Park eatery has been
pumping out pizzas since 1970 and is a local
Exaggeration is favorite. It’s so popular, in fact, that wait times
used to heighten on weekends are occasionally measured
the intensity.
in hours, not minutes. Don’t worry, though:
Those who plan ahead can make a reserva-
tion or join the eatery’s waitlist on Yelp.
Metaphors and It’s worth it, though, as the pan pizza’s
visual details crispy caramelized crust is positively
amplify the
message. ­transcendent. Other deep dish establishments like Lou Malnati’s and Giordano’s are fine, but
Pequod’s takes the gooey style and elevates it to its highest potential. The restaurant’s sausage
is especially good, offering a nice layer of fennel flavor to cut through the pizza’s richness.
While a lot of hyped-up restaurants don’t always deliver on their reputation, Pequod’s does,
and it does it consistently. The restaurant has been named to so many “best pizza” lists that the
restaurant’s site says that “it’s difficult to list them all,” and there’s a reason for that. Pequod’s
makes the best pizza in Chicago—and maybe the best pizza in the country.

Quick Start Guide

Need to write a review? Here’s what you need to get going.

Find something you want to review. Your professor may tell you what you should review. If not, choose
something that you can analyze critically, not something you absolutely adore or detest. You want to pick
something you can assess fairly.

Figure out your and your readers’ common expectations. List two to seven qualities that you and your
readers would expect your subject to have.

Gather background information on your subject. Using online and print sources, collect background
information on your subject and read other reviews. You might also interview an expert.

Go experience it. As you are experiencing your subject, pay attention to your own reactions as a regular
participant and as a critical observer.

Draft your review. Introduce your subject and describe it. Figure out your main point or thesis statement.
Then describe your subject’s strengths and weaknesses. Finish with a conclusion that offers your overall
judgment.

Develop an appropriate writing style. The style of your review depends on where it will appear and who
will read it. Most reviews use a lively tone that readers will find entertaining.
 Reviews 121

Add graphics to support your written text. A few graphics, like photographs and movie stills, will help
you visually illustrate what you are talking about.

Revise and edit. Keep in mind that your opinion of the subject may have changed while you were
­reviewing it. If so, you may need to revise the whole argument to fit your current opinion.

Readings: Reviews

Reading 1: The Last of Us, Episode

“Long, Long Time”
To generate this review, we typed the italicized prompt below into an AI application,
­OpenAI’s ChatGPT. Overall, the review that was generated is okay but not great. The
review feels a bit generic, and the voice sounds somewhat mechanical and flat in places.
That said, this AI-generated review offers a reasonable summary and an analysis of this
episode. Talk about this review with your class, highlighting the strengths and limitations
of using AI applications to write reviews like this one.

Prompt: Write a review of the HBO series “The Last of Us,” focusing on the episode “Long,
Long Time” and its portrayal of a same-sex relationship.

A Hauntingly Beautiful Journey: The Last of Us, Episode “Long, Long Time” Review
The Last of Us series on HBO has captivated audiences with its gritty post-apocalyptic world
and emotionally charged storytelling. The episode “Long, Long Time” continues this trend
by fearlessly delving into the controversial and important topic of same-sex relationships.
With nuanced writing and exceptional performances, the episode offers a thought-provoking
­exploration of love, acceptance, and the human experience.
First and foremost, the writing in “Long, Long Time” is commendable. It treats same-sex
relationships with respect and sensitivity, allowing the characters to shine in their a
­ uthenticity.
The narrative doesn’t rely on stereotypes or clichés, but instead presents the characters as fully
realized individuals with complex emotions and desires. By doing so, the episode c ­ hallenges
any preconceived notions the audience may hold and encourages empathy and understanding.
The performances in this episode are nothing short of exceptional. The chemistry between
the actors portraying the same-sex couple is palpable, capturing the tenderness, vulnerability,
and intensity of their relationship. They bring a depth of emotion to their characters that is both
raw and captivating, making it easy for viewers to invest in their journey. The performances are
complemented by the outstanding direction, which effectively captures the subtleties of the
characters’ interactions and enhances the emotional impact of their story.
What sets The Last of Us apart is its ability to weave these complex themes seamlessly
into the broader narrative. While “Long, Long Time” focuses on same-sex relationships, it
does so within the context of a post-apocalyptic world filled with danger, survival, and moral
­dilemmas. This approach allows the exploration of same-sex relationships to feel organic and
integral to the overall story rather than forced or tokenistic.
122 Chapter 8

That being said, it is important to acknowledge that the episode’s portrayal of s­ ame-sex
relationships may not resonate with everyone. Controversial topics often invite differing
­opinions, and while the series handles the subject matter with care, some viewers may still
find it challenging or uncomfortable. However, it is precisely this discomfort that can spark
­conversations and promote a greater understanding of diverse experiences.
In conclusion, The Last of Us episode “Long, Long Time” is a brave and thought-­
provoking installment that fearlessly explores the complexities of same-sex relationships. With
strong writing, exceptional performances, and an integration of these themes into the broader
narrative, the episode encourages viewers to examine their own beliefs and prejudices. While
it may not be universally embraced, its ability to generate dialogue and foster empathy is a
­testament to the power of inclusive storytelling in the medium of television.

A Closer Look at The Last of Us, Episode “Long,

Long Time”
1. Read through this AI-generated review of this episode of The Last of Us with your
group. Where does the review appropriately summarize the episode and the
­television series? Is there important information missing that the review should
have included—e.g., actors’ names, descriptions of key scenes, or quoted lines from
the episode? If you had never seen this episode or this television series, would you
understand what the review is talking about? What kinds of information would
help you better understand what the review is talking about?
2. With your group, discuss The Last of Us if you have seen it. The series met many
of the common expectations for a typical post-apocalyptic zombie narrative. But
it also violated some of those expectations. List three ways in which the series
met the typical expectations. Then list three ways in which it bent the genre to be
innovative.
3. The writing style in this review is energetic in some places and rather flat in o
­ thers.
Highlight three places where the style is energetic and three places where the
style is flat. How might you revise this review to make the writing style more
consistent?
4. With your group, play the Believing and Doubting Game to examine this AI-­
generated review from opposite perspectives. First, as a group, imagine you
believe this review is excellent because it so closely adheres to the moves and
patterns of the review genre. Then imagine you are skeptics who are critical of
the review’s content, organization, and style. After this, work with your group to
come up with a synthesis that combines elements of your believing and doubting
perspectives.

Ideas for Writing

1. Find three movie reviews that show a mixture of responses to a movie you have
seen. One reviewer should like the movie, and another should dislike it. The
third reviewer can take a middle path. Then write an argument paper in which
 Reviews 123

you compare the three reviewers’ opinions and then express your o ­ pinion
about whether the movie was award-winning caliber, a flop, or something in
between. Of course, you will need to watch or re-watch the movie to answer
this question.
2. One of the interesting aspects of the television series The Last of Us is how it
handles family dynamics in a post-apocalyptic world. The characters are aware
that past family relationships and the formation of new kinds of families may
cause others to misunderstand the actions and behavior of others. Think about
how people in your family perceive or misperceive you based on your appear-
ance or behavior. In what ways do you adjust how you look or behave based on
how you think people will react to you? Write a commentary in which you discuss
how people change their actions and behavior to fit various social situations and
physical settings.

Reading 2
In this review, Brian Reinhart discusses his experiences during three visits to Shake Shack,
which is one of the fastest-growing hamburger chains. Pay attention to how Reinhart talks
not only about the food at Shake Shack but also about how this franchise fits into the
larger Dallas fast food market.

Shake Shack Makes a Good Burger—and a Good

Metaphor for Dallas Dining
Brian Reinhart
Monday, 5:50 p.m.
There is no line at Shake Shack. Only eight tables are occupied, six by people dining alone.
I snag a parking spot right in front of the door.
Is Dallas coming to its senses?
We live in, probably, the burger capital of the world. There are dives with cult followings
(Keller’s, JG’s, Dairy-Ette), clever upstarts (Off-Site Kitchen, Maple & Motor, ¡C. Señor!) and
upscale places with glorious burgers (Boulevardier, The Grape, On the Lamb). There are all
manner of chains, both native Texan like Jake’s, Whataburger, Hopdoddy and foreign imports
like Smashburger and In-n-Out. But for the first few weeks, people were lining up around
the corner at Shake Shack, on McKinney Avenue in the snootiest pocket of Uptown, as if it
invented putting meat in a bun.
Now that the dust has cleared and the stampede of Instagrammers has moved on, I’m
learning that Shake Shack makes a pretty darn good burger. The patties are thin, but manage
to combine both a nicely seared exterior and a pink medium-rare center. Neat trick, that.
­Hopdoddy makes a thicker patty, but brown all the way through.
Also neat: the crispy, black-edged bacon on my Smokeshack ($6.84), the tangy Shack 5
Sauce and, honestly, the burgers’ size. The burger at Off-Site Kitchen always leaves me
124 Chapter 8

­ anting one bite more, and Maple & Motor can induce food-comatose regret. Shake Shack
w
offers a Goldilocksian balance, provided I don’t look at the calorie count.
There is, however, the matter of fries ($2.99, or $3.99 with cheese). At a thick crinkle cut,
Shake Shack’s fries are distinctive, and they come out crisp and salty. But, after a while,
I found them getting boring. It’s like Shake Shack attempted to mimic the flavor of McDonald’s
fries, but with a thicker, starchier cut and less addicting frying oil. I spent the rest of the night
chugging pints of water.

Wednesday, 6:30 p.m.

Now this is more like it. There’s a 10-minute line, and the restaurant is nicely buzzing with
activity, including a few dozen patrons enjoying fall weather on the patio. Still, Dallas’s trend-
hound diners aren’t mobbing the place. My tabletop says it was “handcrafted in New York from
reclaimed bowling lanes,” which might be the most Brooklyn thing I’ve ever heard.
At the table next to me, a guy is telling his friend, “Last night I was drunk and I accidentally
signed up to be an Uber driver.”
My Shroom Burger ($6.99) is an oddball. The portobello mushroom is fried fabulously and
stuffed with a melty cheese mixture. Alas, all the cheese, congealed, falls straight out, splatting
onto my tray. I spend the rest of the meal picking cheese goo up and re-burgering it. Another
thing happens on that first bite, too: the bun squishes down into thin, foamy pancakes. It’s a
little unsettling.
10 The Shroom Burger is small and devoured within a couple of minutes. I skip the fries this
time; they’re a waste of stomach space. Shack Sauce really is terrific, though, a best-of-all-
worlds mix of mayo with small amounts of ketchup, mustard, paprika and pureed dill pickles.
It’s all the burger condiments, brought together Avengers-style to make CGI magic on my
sandwich.

Sunday, 11:50 a.m.

The line is a mere two minutes. When the clock strikes noon, it finally curls out the door, the
first time I’ve seen a line out the door here, but still looks like a mere 10-minute wait.
In no time, then, I’m having my best Shake Shack meal yet. The Chicken Shack ($6.29)
has an outstandingly flaky, crispy batter with good spices and thick pickles. It’s like
­Chick-fil-A, but open on Sundays and cool with gay people. The Link Burger ($7.69) has a
thin patty with ­gorgeously molten cheese, but the scene-stealer is Pecan Lodge’s glorious
sausage.
My peanut butter shake ($5.29) is so delicious I slurp every last drop without thinking. The
Dallas Pie Oh My Concrete, a blend of frozen custard with a slice of Emporium Pie ($4.59),
­currently features the bakery’s boldly spiced, not-too-sweet pumpkin pie. On the other hand,
it turns out that adding cheese doesn’t make the Shack’s dull fries any better.
I’ve told a friend about the opening-week crowds vanishing. He says, “Dallas is fickle, and
we have a lot of burgers.”
15 That word fickle is coming up a lot lately. According to Leslie Brenner in the Dallas ­Morning
News, folks in the restaurant business call Dallas diners the Fickle 500, after a group of
­trend-hounds who clamor to be seen at the hottest new openings, then move on to the next.
Shake Shack? That’s so September.
I see two sides to that coin. Dallas has a hopping, ever-changing restaurant scene, and
hundreds of enticing places to eat. There are dozens of high-profile places to which I haven’t
been, and this is my freaking job. How can we keep up?
 Reviews 125

On the other hand, the Fickle 500 aren’t always adventurous gourmets. And, with D ­ allas
chefs and restaurant-industry insiders worried about a dining bubble, the result is more
­conservative comfort foods. The business as a whole fears crashes in luxury dining and in
real estate. Its response has created a genuine bubble in specific sectors, like burgers and
“elevated Southern comfort food.”
Maybe those foods are still profitable despite the glut. In economic crises, candy and
­alcohol sales do go through the roof. A good burger joint has more staying power than an
adventurous place like Small Brewpub. Perhaps that explains why Shake Shack chose to open
in a corner of Uptown where trust-fund kids get Belvedere bottle service.
Is the perception of a bubble bad news for gourmets? Sure. But there are steps we can
take. We can keep trying new places with new foods, and reward creativity with our wallets.
We can skip Uptown on Friday night, and spend brunch somewhere other than Bishop Arts.
Of course, while I say all this, I do plan to go back to Shake Shack many a time. The fries 20

are boring, but the chicken sandwich, link burger and shakes are enough to make a fickle diner
settle down.

A Closer Look at “Shake Shack Makes a Good

Burger—and a Good Metaphor for Dallas Dining”
1. In many ways, Shake Shack is offering the same kinds of food that can be found at
any number of burger places. So it’s perhaps a mystery why customers are lining
up outside the door at Shake Shack, while other similar burger places struggle. With
your group, discuss the common expectations that people have for fast-food restau-
rants. Make a list of five common expectations. Then choose four burger places in
your area. Discuss what makes one of these restaurants more popular than others.
2. As Reinhart points out, the success of a fast-food restaurant often depends on
“fickle” customers who may eagerly line up one day and then never come back.
With your group, discuss a few fast-food restaurants in your area that you have
given up on. Why do you no longer eat there? Are you being fickle, or do you have
better reasons for preferring one restaurant over another?
3. Reinhart’s tone in this review is especially lively. With your group, identify five
places where his voice seems especially strong. Discuss the choices he has made to
create this voice in his review. You might use the “persuasive style” principles in
Chapter 22, “Choosing a Style,” to help you figure out how he achieves this style.

Ideas for Writing and Discussion

1. Write a positive review of a television program that you enjoy. In your review, iden-
tify the genre of the program and figure out the common expectations that most
people would have for this kind of program. Then explain why you like the show
and how it follows or bends the genre in new and satisfying ways.
2. On the Internet, find a negative review of a movie, restaurant, performance, or
television show that you personally like. Write a refutation in which you argue
against the reviewer’s interpretation. Explain why you like this show, place to eat,
or performance, even though it may not appeal to everyone.
126 Chapter 8

Activities for Reviews

Talk About This
1. With a group in your class, discuss a movie that you all have seen. What did you
like about the movie, and what were some of its limitations? As you discuss the
movie, take note of the issues that seem to be part of the discussion. What expec-
tations do your group members seem to have in common? Are there any issues
that some members seem to care about but others don’t? When people disagree,
what do they disagree about?
2. Artificial-intelligence (AI) applications can be helpful for finding out what is
commonly believed. They’re not actual human beings, of course, so they can
only reconfigure what other people have already written. Still, that means they
are potentially useful tools for figuring out what people commonly believe. In your
group, follow this three-step process to see whether AI can be useful during the
­invention stage of the writing process.
a. As a group, choose a subject (a type of film, restaurant, video game, etc.), and
generate a list of common expectations for your subject. List as many common
expectations as you can, and then try to agree on the most important three
or four.
b. Now pose the same query to an AI application and read back its results
together.
c. Compare your list to the one that the AI application produced. Which one
was more complete? Did your group come up with characteristics that the
AI application didn’t? Which list seemed most interesting? Do the members
of your group agree that the characteristics listed first by the AI are the most
important? Finally, discuss how AI can be useful in the invention stage of
writing and what writers should keep in mind as they consult these tools.
3. Examine and critique the following passage, which is taken from a review of
a Greek restaurant. Describe which aspects of the review work well. Explain
how it could be improved so that it meets the expectations readers have for
reviews. Does the writer fail to include something that readers would want
to know?
Among the appetizers, everybody in the group agreed that the spanakopita was by
far the best but that the hummus was not up to par. There was some disagreement
about the entrees. Personally, I liked the chicken souvlaki and dolmades plate, but
two members of the group preferred the “Greek Combo,” which includes dolma,
spanakopita, souvlaki, broiled scampi, and moussaka.

Try This Out

1. On the Internet, find a video advertisement that you can review. Most companies
put their most recent advertisements on their websites, or you can find them on
video-sharing websites like YouTube or Hulu. Write a review of the advertisement
 Reviews 127

in which you critique its effectiveness. Tell readers why you thought it worked,
failed, or just irritated you. Your review should run about two pages.
2. Choose a movie and write two one-page reviews for it. Your first review
should be positive. Focus on your and your readers’ common expectations
and say mostly positive things about the movie. The second review should be
­negative. Focus on elements that would cast the movie in a negative light. Then,
in a ­reflective memo to your professor, explore how your shift from positive
to ­negative changed your review and what you had to say about the movie.
Could you reconcile these two reviews into one that is balanced?
3. Find a review on the Internet or prompt an AI application to generate a review.
The review can be about music, movies, television, or just about anything. In a
one-page response to your professor, explain how the review works. Discuss its
content, organization, style, and design. Did you find the review effective? What
were its strengths, and how could it be improved?

Explore This
Now it’s your turn. Choose a microgenre from the list below and find three examples
in print or on the Internet. How is the microgenre you studied similar to and different
from a regular review?
Customer review—a brief statement about a product you purchased
Letter of complaint—a complaint to a company about a product or service
Synthesis—a review that summarizes what other reviewers have said
Star rating—a rating for something (e.g., five stars, 1–10, thumbs-up/thumbs-
down, rotten tomatoes) with a brief explanation of the rating
Professor/course review—inside scoop to other students to guide their selection
of courses and professors

Write This
1. Write a review for your campus newspaper. Imagine that you are a reviewer
for your campus newspaper or another local newspaper. You can review music,
books, poetry, movies, video games, television, sports teams, or just about
­anything that you enjoy. Write a three- to four-page review of the subject you’ve
chosen. Be sure to summarize your subject for your readers, who may not have
seen, heard, or experienced it. Then discuss your subject based on expectations
that you and your readers share. Explain to your readers why you are giving
your subject a positive or negative review.
2. Write an opposing review. Find a review on the Internet that you disagree with
and write an opposing review. Write your review as a response to the original
review, showing why you felt differently about the subject. Next, write a one-
page cover memo to your professor in which you explain your strategy for
­rebutting the original review. Also, discuss why you believe someone might find
your review of the subject stronger than the original one.
128 Chapter 8

3. Write a rave review about something you despise. Here’s an opportunity to

really challenge yourself. Think of something you have experienced recently
that you thought was just awful. You should choose something that other people
would be able to experience for themselves—a book, a class, a sport, a restaurant,
a vacation spot. First, as a brainstorming exercise, write down exactly what you
hated about the experience, just to get it out of your system. Then put yourself in
the position of someone who would have actually enjoyed the same thing. Write
your rave from that imagined point of view, using as many details from your
original brainstorming as possible. (However tempted you may be, don’t get
­carried away by sarcasm or irony.)
Chapter 9
Arguments
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

9.1 invent the content of your argument, showing the major sides fairly.
9.2 organize and draft your argument as an evenhanded debate.
9.3 use a distinctive style and design that creates a favorable impression.

Surely you have heard the old saying “There are always two sides to every argument.”
This saying goes back two thousand years to the Greek rhetorician Protagoras. He
wanted to remind people that no matter how certain they were about the truth being
on their side, someone could almost always come up with a reasonable argument that
counters it. That’s why arguing can be fun—and a bit frustrating at times.
The purpose of an argument is to explore two or more sides of a controversial topic
and then to argue fairly and reasonably for one side over the others. When you write an
argument, you will deepen your own understanding of your position and sometimes
even alter it. By fairly presenting all viewpoints, you will also strengthen your argument
because readers will view you as fair-minded and knowledgeable.
This balanced approach is what makes argument papers different from commentaries,
which usually only express the author’s opinion. An argument describes two or more
opposing positions and discusses why one is stronger or better than the others.
In college, your professors will ask you to write argument papers that analyze
and evaluate the different sides of an issue and then make a good case for one side
or another. For example, you might be asked to write argument papers that explore
controversial topics like climate change, a current political issue, immigration policies,
a policy change at your college, or the costs of higher education. You will write
argument papers that discuss historical events, scientific theories, philosophical
positions, religion, and ethics.
In the workplace, arguments are often called “position papers”; these documents
argue for or against business strategies or policies. Your supervisors will ask you to
explore the various sides of important issues and then explain which decision you
think is best.
The ability to argue effectively and persuasively is an essential skill that will help
you throughout your life.

129
130 Chapter 9

At-A-Glance
Arguments
This diagram shows two basic patterns for an argument but other arrangements will work, too. In the
pattern on the left, opposing positions are described up front; then your own position is explained. In the
pattern on the right, you make a point-by-point comparison, explaining why your position is better than
others. You should alter any pattern to fit your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context.

Introduction Introduction

Major point of difference

Summary of opposing
Opposing positions
positions, including strengths
Your position

Limitations of opposing Major point of difference

positions Opposing positions
Your position
Your understanding of the
issue, describing both •
strengths and limitations of •
your position •

Reasons your understanding Reasons your understanding

is better than the opposing is better than the opposing
views’ understanding views’ understanding

Conclusion Conclusion

Arguing can be fun, but you need to argue fairly and reasonably if you want to win over your readers. The
strongest arguments address opposing viewpoints as objectively and fairly as possible and then persuade
readers that one side is superior to the others. They tend to have the following features:
• An introduction that states the issue being debated, identifies the issue’s two or more sides, and usually
offers an explicit thesis that the argument will support.
• An objective summary of opposing views, including their strengths.
• A point-by-point analysis that discusses the limitations of opposing views.
• A summary of your viewpoint and your understanding of the issue.
• A point-by-point discussion of both the strengths and limitations of your position, arguing that overall
yours is superior.
• A conclusion that drives home your thesis and looks to the future.
 Arguments 131

One Student’s Work: Arguments

When the Loser Wins: In Defense of the Electoral College

Trevor Denks
In the nearly 250-year history of the United States, the Electoral College An open-ended
has awarded the presidency five times to the person who lost the popular vote thesis statement
sets up the thesis
(1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016). Why do we have the Electoral College if it in the conclusion.
hands the presidency, still the most powerful office in the world, to the person
who didn’t even receive the most votes?
The framers of the U.S. Constitution actually intended this to be possible. Reviews the
opposing side in
Article II of the U.S. Constitution says, “Each State shall appoint, in such
a way that they
Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors.” Then, would likely agree
due to the 12th Amendment, Article II adds, “The Electors shall meet in their with.
respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President.” In
plain language, the Electoral College process means each state holds its own
election for the U.S. President. Each state is given a set number of Electoral
College votes, and most states choose to award all of their electoral votes to
the presidential candidate who won their state’s popular vote. (The exceptions
are Maine and Nebraska, who split their Electoral College votes.)
The Electoral College process usually isn’t a big deal in most presidential Discusses his
elections because the vote in the Electoral College tends to align with the own side of the
argument with
popular vote. But when George W. Bush won the presidency in 2000, he lost factual support.
the popular vote to Al Gore by 543,895 votes. In 2016, Donald Trump lost
the popular vote by 2.8 million votes to Hillary Clinton and still ended up
president. Not surprisingly, these results were confusing and frustrating,
especially for the people who voted for the candidate who won the popular
vote but didn’t win the presidency.
So is the Electoral College a constitutional relic that is undermining The thesis
American democracy? Not really. The Electoral College is working properly, statement
explicitly states
even when the election’s loser is declared the winner. an argumentative
claim.
Arguments Against the Electoral College
Most people who argue against the Electoral College point to two issues: (1)
the “weighting” of Electoral College votes and (2) the possibility that state
legislatures can overturn the popular vote in their states.
On the surface, the first issue, the weighting of votes, seems to be the
bigger one. In the Electoral College, each state is given one vote for each of
its representatives in the U.S. House plus two votes for its senators in the
U.S. Senate. As a result, a low-population state like Wyoming has three
Electoral College votes (one for its only representative and two for its
senators), while California has 55 electoral votes (53 for its representatives
and two for its senators). Therefore, one electoral college vote in Wyoming
represents 193,000 people, while one electoral college vote in California
represents 713,000 people. That way, one electoral college vote from Wyoming
132 Chapter 9

is worth (or “weighs”) 3.7 times more than a vote in California. Of course, that
seems unfair, especially in a democracy that claims it supports the principle of
“one person, one vote.”
The second issue is a bit more complex, which became apparent after the
2020 presidential election. Ultimately, each state is responsible for choosing
a slate of “electors” to the Electoral College, and they send envelopes with
the ballots of these electors to Washington. Here’s the problem. In 2020, the
Trump campaign claimed that state legislatures in Republican-led states
like Arizona, Georgia, Michigan, and Wisconsin could legally overturn
the results of their popular elections and award their slate of Electoral
College voters to him. This was likely not legal, but the law isn’t crystal
clear (Gabriel and Saul). According to Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution, if a
state has a “failed election,” the state’s legislature had the power to choose
its electors. Trump and his lawyers tried to hold on to power by falsely
claiming that voter fraud had caused failed elections in a few swing states
with Republican-led legislatures. That would allow those state legislatures
to choose an alternate slate of electors and possibly overturn the Electoral
College vote.
People who argue against the Electoral College usually complain that it
gives voters from less-populous (and rural) states more power than voters
in more populous states. Meanwhile, it leaves the door open for legal
scheming to manipulate the Electoral College vote at the state and national
levels.
Arguments For the Electoral College
Despite its flaws, I believe the Electoral College is still a good way to decide
who will be the U.S. President.
My first reason is probably the most important. If the Electoral College
didn’t exist, presidential candidates would only campaign in cities and their
suburbs because urban areas have the most votes to offer. So rural states like
my native South Dakota would almost never see a presidential candidate.
Issues important to people in small towns and rural areas would never be
discussed or considered by presidential candidates.
Second, the Electoral College is also a better way to decisively declare a
winner. Because most states use a winner-take-all approach to the Electoral
College, presidential elections almost always come out decisively in favor
of one candidate or the other. The simple math of the Electoral College
(expressed in hundreds of votes, not millions of votes) clearly determines who
won the election.
Third, the framers of the Constitution worried that a populist or dictatorial
candidate from one part of the country could win the popular vote by
appealing to voters’ worst fears. The Electoral College was originally designed
to put the final decision in the hands of a few independent-minded electors,
who would have the power to reject that populist or wannabe dictator. The
nation’s founders intended the Electoral College to be a stopgap measure that
allowed a period of reflection and reconsideration before the final selection of
the president (Beinart).
 Arguments 133

My Take: The Electoral College Is Mostly Working as the

Founders Intended
Yes, the Electoral College can be frustrating, especially when someone you
voted for did not win the presidency even though they won the popular vote.
But then, the framers of the U.S. Constitution never believed the majority
should always get what it wants. They anticipated problems with a raw
majority-always-wins form of democracy, so they put in constitutional curbs
like the Electoral College to avoid tyrannical majorities and dictatorial leaders.
People who argue against the Electoral College will often point to former
President Trump as an example of why it doesn’t work. In 2016, he didn’t
win the majority of votes, and he had autocratic tendencies. So the Electoral
College may have handed the presidency to an inexperienced and possibly
demagogic person who didn’t even win the popular vote.
Quite the opposite, I believe the elections of 2016 and 2020 actually show
that the Electoral College does work. Trump won in 2016 because people
in all states were given a voice, not only the people living in big cities who
overwhelmingly voted for Hillary Clinton. Then, in 2020, Trump lied about
voter fraud to challenge the election in courts. He sparked a coup attempt on
the Capitol Building on January 6. But he was turned out of office because the
leaders of the states properly submitted their Electoral College votes, which
could be counted in a simple and straightforward way.
The 2020 election may have appeared to be close to Trump supporters,
but the Electoral College vote was clear about who won—Joe Biden. In the
end, Trump’s illegal attempts to retain power were thwarted by the Electoral
College process. The U.S. Constitution worked as the framers intended.
References
Beinart, P. (2016, Nov. 21). The electoral college was meant to stop people like
Trump from becoming president. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic
.com/politics/archive/2016/11/the-electoral-college-was-meant-to-stop-
men-like-trump-from-being-president/508310/
Gabriel, T. & Saul, S. (2021, Jan. 5). Could state legislatures pick electors to
vote for Trump? Not likely. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/
article/electors-vote.html.

Inventing Your Argument’s Content

9.1 Invent the content of your argument, showing the major sides fairly.
When writing an argument, you need to understand the issue as thoroughly as possible.
But here is the hard part: you must present all major sides of the controversy in a
fair way. In other words, when reading your argument, a person with an opposing
viewpoint should be able to say, “Yes, that’s a fair presentation of my views.”
Your goal is to sound respectful and reasonable. If your readers sense that you are
distorting opposing positions or overlooking the weak points in your own position, they
will question whether you are being fair and presenting the argument in an evenhanded
way. So let your facts and reasoning do the talking for you. If your position is truly
134 Chapter 9

stronger, you should be able to explain all sides fairly and then demonstrate to your
readers why your side is better.

Inquiring: Identifying Your Topic

When writing an argument, choose a topic (or question) that is narrow enough for you
to manage, while allowing you to offer new insights. If you pick an overly broad or
well-worn topic, such as gun safety or abortion, you will find it difficult to say anything
new or interesting. Instead, you should narrow your topic by asking what is new or
what has changed about it recently.
Too broad—Should we allow people to carry concealed handguns?
Better—Should students, faculty, and staff be allowed to carry concealed handguns on
college campuses?
Even better—Given the recent shooting at nearby Ridgeland University, should we allow
students, faculty, and staff to carry concealed handguns on our college campus?

New topics for arguments are rare, but new angles on topics are readily available.
Pay attention to what has changed about your topic or how recent events have made
your topic important right now.

Inquiring: Identifying Points of Contention

To begin generating content for your argument, first identify the major points on
which your side and opposing sides differ. A brainstorming list like the one shown in
Figure 9.1 is often the best way to identify these major points.
When brainstorming, use two columns. In the left column, write “My position” and
list all the arguments you can think of to support your case. In the right column, write
“Opposing positions” and list the best arguments for the other sides of the controversy.
When listing the ideas of people who disagree with you, try to see things from their
perspective. What are their strongest arguments? Why do they hold these views or
values? Are they trying to achieve goals that are different from yours?
When you have filled out your brainstorming lists, put checkmarks next to the two
to five most important issues on which you disagree with the views of others. These are
your argument’s “major points of contention.”

Researching: Finding Out What Others

Believe and Why
You can use these major points of contention as a starting place for your research.
Begin by researching the opposing viewpoints first. When you examine the
beliefs of people who disagree with your position, you can identify the strengths and
limitations of your own position. And, if necessary, you can shift your position as you
become more informed about the issue.
While researching the other side, pretend you completely believe their point of
view. If you were on the other side, how would you present their side of the issue fairly
and completely? Which points would be their strongest? What weaknesses would they
point out in your position? What kinds of sources would they use to support these
positions? Your goal is to strengthen your own argument by figuring out why people
hold viewpoints different from yours.
 Arguments 135

Figure 9.1 Brainstorming to Identify Major Points of Contention

When brainstorming about your topic, just write down anything about your topic that comes to mind.

My Position: Immigration is helping Opposing Positions: Immigration

America, not hurting it. is harming America.

Inhumane to deport our neighbors. Justice and the rule of law. Don’t reward people for
Inhumane to separate families. breaking the law.

Diversity makes us stronger, new and fresh ideas for Punishes immigrants who played by the rules.
the coming challenging century. Jobs are stolen from citizens and even from legal
Net gain to economy estimated at $20 billion per year. immigrants.

Immigrants work jobs citizens will not. Drives wages down, especially for those who labor for
a living.
Keeps the cost of produce and labor at a reasonable
rate. Culture: our customs and values are threatened.

Innovators and job creators, like Google founders and
other high-tech firms.
Terrorist attacks all done by people who were born in
America or are here legally.
Make the economy grow; to grow the economy, the
population must grow.
Taxes, which immigrants pay. Especially sales tax and
social security taxes.
A path to citizenship or legality would boost the tax
base even more.
They prop up foundering social security with $12 billion
per year.
Crimes by immigrants are much lower than for citizens.
Deporting citizens would be impossible and very costly.
Difficult for hard-working immigrants to enter legally.
Christian, Jewish, and Muslim leaders support
immigrant rights.
It’s the American thing to do. We are a nation founded
by immigrants.
Language: English is the mother tongue.
Our traditional cultural identity should not change.
Terrorism. Need to know who is in our country and
what they’re doing and thinking.
Population already too high.
Overcrowded schools and cities cost money.
Schools already underfunded. Can’t educate the whole
world.
Human trafficker. Immigration hurts even immigrants.
Undermine national unity.
Overwhelmed justice system.
A country has the right—and duty—to control its
borders.
Americans are frightened, right or wrong.
Negative impact on the environment.
Illegal immigrants are almost all poorly educated.
Hurts the countries they come from.

Then find sources that support your position and sources that challenge the
opposing position. Your research on other viewpoints will help you pinpoint the kinds
of sources that can be used to support your side of the argument. You should look
for credible sources that both support your position and answer the criticisms that
individuals holding opposing positions might use against you.
Keep in mind that using a variety of sources will make your argument stronger. So
you should look for a mix of online, print, and empirical sources that support all sides
of the issue.
ONLINE SOURCES. The Internet can help you generate content, but you need to be
especially careful about your sources when you are preparing to write an argument.
136 Chapter 9

Countless people will offer their opinions on blogs and websites, but these sources are
often heavily biased and may not rely on valid sources. When researching, you should
look for trustworthy sources on the Internet and avoid sources that are too biased.
Also, keep an eye out for credible television documentaries and radio broadcasts on
your subject because they will often address both sides of the issue in a journalistic way.
PRINT SOURCES. Print documents will likely be your most reliable sources for factual
information. Look for magazines, academic journals, books, and other documents
because these sources tend to be more reliable than online sources and they tend to
have less bias. Your library’s online catalog is a good place to search for books. Through
your library’s website, try using the Readers’ Guide to find magazine articles. Google
Scholar can point you toward scholarly articles available through your library. Use
periodical indexes available through your library’s website to find academic articles.
EMPIRICAL SOURCES. Facts you gather yourself will be useful for backing up your
claims about your topic. Set up an interview with an expert on your topic. You might
find it especially helpful to interview an expert who holds an opposing view. This kind
of interview will help you understand both sides of the issue much better. You might
create a survey that will help you generate your own data. You can also conduct field
observations to study your topic in action.
Remember, you are looking for information that is credible and not too biased. It is
fine to use sources that make a strong argument for one side or the other, but you need
to make sure these sources are backed up with facts, data, and solid sources.

Organizing and Drafting Your Argument

9.2 Organize and draft your argument as an evenhanded debate.
The key to organizing an argument is to remember that you need to treat the major sides
of the issue fairly and thoroughly. As you are drafting your argument, imagine you
are debating another person or a group of people (Figure 9.2). If you were in a public
debate, how would you express your best points and persuade the audience that yours
is the most reasonable position? How would you respond to criticisms of your position?
Meanwhile, try to thoroughly understand and explain the opposing perspectives while
countering their best arguments.

The Introduction
Your introduction should prepare readers for your argument. It will usually include
some or all of these moves:
START WITH A GRABBER OR LEAD. Look for a good grabber or lead to catch your
readers’ attention at the beginning of the introduction.
IDENTIFY YOUR TOPIC. State the controversial issue your argument will explore.
You might offer a definition of your topic, especially if it is new to your readers.
OFFER BACKGROUND INFORMATION. Briefly provide an overview of the various
positions on the issue.
 Arguments 137

Figure 9.2 Imagining a Debate with the Opposing Side

When drafting an argument, imagine yourself debating people who hold positions that oppose yours.
How would you win them over? Would they say you understand their perspective, even though you
disagree with it?

Vladimir Vladimirov/Getty Images

STATE YOUR PURPOSE. State your purpose clearly by telling readers that you will
explain the major sides of the issue and demonstrate why your position is stronger.
STATE YOUR MAIN POINT OR THESIS. State your main point or thesis clearly and
completely. In most arguments, the main point or thesis statement typically appears
at the end of your introduction. In some situations, you may want to save your main
point or thesis statement for the conclusion, especially if you think readers might resist
your argument. Your main point or thesis statement should be as specific and thorough
as possible.
Weak—Only qualified police officers should be allowed to carry weapons on campus.
Stronger—Only qualified police officers should be allowed to carry weapons on
campus because the dangers of allowing students and faculty to carry weapons
clearly outweigh the slight chance that a concealed weapon would be used in
self-defense.

Summary and Limitations of Opposing Positions

The body of an argument usually begins by explaining the other side or sides of the
issue. Try to explain the opposing argument in a way that your readers would consider
fair, reasonable, and complete. Acknowledge its strong points. Where possible, use
quotes from opposing arguments to explain the other side’s views. Paraphrasing or
summarizing their argument is fine, too, as long as you do it fairly.
138 Chapter 9

Then, as objectively as possible, explain the limitations of the opposing positions.

What exactly are they missing? What have they neglected to consider? What are they
ignoring in their argument? Because you want to highlight these limitations as fairly
as possible, this is not the place to be sarcastic or dismissive. You want to point out the
weaknesses in your opponents’ argument in a straightforward way.

Your Understanding of the Issue

Now it’s your turn. Explain your side of the argument by walking your readers through
the two to five major points of contention, showing them why your side of the argument
is stronger. Here is where you need to use your sources to back up your argument. You
must use good reasoning, examples, facts, and data to show readers why your opinion
is more credible.

Reasons Your Understanding Is Stronger

Before moving to your conclusion, you might spend some time comparing and
contrasting the opposing views with your own. Briefly compare the two sides head-
to-head, showing readers why your view is stronger. At this point, it is all right to
concede some points to your opponents. Your goal is to show your readers that your
view is stronger on balance. In other words, both sides probably have their strengths and
limitations. You want to show that your side has more strengths and fewer weaknesses
than the opposing side.

Conclusion
Bring your argument to a close by stating or restating your thesis and looking to the
future. Here is where you should drive home your main point or thesis by telling
your readers exactly what you believe. Then show how your position leads to a better
outcome in the future. Overall, your conclusion should be brief (a paragraph in most
arguments).

Choosing an Appropriate Style

and Design
9.3 Use a distinctive style and design that creates a favorable impression.
The style of your argument will help you distinguish your side from the opposing sides.
Even though your goal is to be factually fair to all sides, there is nothing wrong with
using style to make your side sound more appealing and exciting.
• Use plain style to describe the opposing positions, showing your readers that
you are considering other sides fairly and objectively without any dismissive or
­negative word choices or tones.
• Use similes, metaphors, and analogies to help your readers visualize both sides of
the argument and remember your key points.
 Arguments 139

• Use top-down paragraphs that put your major claims up front and back up these
claims with solid reasoning and evidence. A top-down style will make you sound
more confident and straightforward.
• Define unfamiliar terms with a sentence or parenthetical definition that helps
readers understand any specialized or technical words.
Helpful visuals and good page design will make your argument look professional and
inviting, so readers will have a more favorable impression of it.
• Use descriptive headings that identify the major sections in your argument and
describe what each section shows or argues.
• Include photographs and illustrations that you have downloaded or created
yourself. If you have downloaded an image from the Internet, you will need to cite
your source in the caption and in your bibliography.
• Include helpful graphs, diagrams, and charts to illustrate trends and present any data
visually. Graphs and charts should have a title, and you should use figure numbers in
your written text to refer readers to the visual (e.g., “In Figure 2, the graph shows . . . ”).
• Design the page to make it more readable and attractive with a colorful header
and/or footer and perhaps two columns instead of one (Figure 9.3).
• Number the pages so your readers can easily discuss your argument with other people.

Figure 9.3 Designing an Argument

Your argument doesn’t have to look boring or be hard to read. To make the text more accessible, the
designers of this paper on sanctuary cities used headings, bullets, indentations, and columns.

Source: Justice for Immigrants, U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops

140 Chapter 9

Microgenre
The Rebuttal
A rebuttal counters or refutes a specific argument. Rebuttals often appear as letters to the editor. They
are also used in the workplace to argue against potentially damaging reviews, evaluations, position
papers, and reports. Knowing how to write a rebuttal is an important part of defending your beliefs,
projects, and research.
The main difference between a rebuttal and an argument is that a rebuttal responds directly to the points
made in the original argument. After responding point by point, you can then offer a counterargument. Here
are some strategies for writing a successful rebuttal:

Review the original argument briefly. Objectively and briefly summarize the original argument’s thesis
and its main points.

Challenge any hidden assumptions behind the author’s claims. Look for unstated assumptions in
the author’s reasoning. These are weak points that you can challenge.

Challenge the evidence. Point out places where the author leaves out important facts and other
evidence or uses information that is not accurate or widely accepted. Locate the author’s sources to see
if any data or details are outdated, inaccurate, exaggerated, or taken out of context.

Challenge the authority of the sources. If possible, question whether the author’s sources are truly
authoritative on the issue. Unless a source is rock solid, you can question the reliability of the information
taken from it.

Examine whether emotion is overpowering the reason or evidence. If an author is allowing feelings
to fuel their arguments, you can suggest that those emotions are clouding their judgment on the issue.

Look for logical fallacies. Logical fallacies are forms of weak reasoning that you can use to challenge
your opponents’ ideas. You can learn more about logical fallacies in Chapter 27, “Using Argumentative
Strategies.”

Offer a solid counterargument. Offer a different understanding of the issue supported by authoritative
research.

WRITE your own rebuttal. Find an argument or similar document in a newspaper or on a website
that you disagree with. Write a two-page rebuttal in which you refute the original argument and offer
a counterargument. Your goal is to win readers over to your side.

Arming Teachers Is Not the Answer to Anything

Sally Butzin
Recent school shootings have raised questions about school safety and how to protect our chil-
dren. One answer has been to expand the Guardian program to allow teachers to carry firearms
in their classrooms. Gov. DeSantis and many legislators are promoting this option, particularly for
rural districts whose budgets do not include additional revenue for armed security guards.
 Arguments 141

As a former classroom teacher, I think this is a terrible idea. I can imagine that political The author
leaders see this as an inexpensive solution that makes sense. But as a teacher charged identifies the
argument she is
with the welfare of my students, I would not want the added responsibility of having a rebutting.
loaded weapon in my classroom. There are too many questions that need to be answered
before this idea becomes law.
• Accidental death or injury. Most gun deaths involving children are accidental. An assumption
Obviously, the classroom weapon would have to be locked securely in a cabinet or used by the other
side is revealed to
desk drawer. Suppose a curious or devious child gains access to the gun? Is this the readers.
potential tragedy worth the risk?
• Rapid response. As happened in the first-grade class at Sandy Hook Elementary, the The author
gunman entered the classroom and started firing. Would the teacher have had time to explains the real
problem and
unlock the cabinet, calm her shaking hands, comfort the children, and kill the intruder? shows why the
• Hidden costs. Is the teacher responsible for covering added liability insurance, or will opposing position
the school district pay? Some reports suggest that insurance companies are not willing is misguided.
to take on this added risk at all. Will the teacher undergo additional training? How
much time will this take and who will pay for it? Will teachers be required to use their
meager supply budgets to purchase bullets?
There are better ways to make schools safe. We don’t need more knee-jerk reactions that
offer the illusion of safety. For example, making everyone remove their shoes in an airport She describes
because of one shoe bomber. the real causes of
There are two types of threats to schools based on recent experience: external and school shootings.
internal. External threats from a deranged killer who enters the school can be stopped by
locking doors, along with video monitoring to buzz-in visitors. Armed and trained security
guards add a second layer of safety.
Internal threats come from disgruntled and lonely students who feel alienated and
disrespected. Safe schools create positive and inviting school climates where all students
feel cared for, respected, and trusted. Safe schools invest in more counselors and social
workers to identify and help troubled children, including working with dysfunctional families
to heal and nurture their children. The main point is
Arming teachers is not the answer. stated at the end.

Quick Start Guide

Here are some quick steps for writing an argument.

Identify an arguable topic. An arguable topic has at least two sides. Choose the side that you agree
with. Then narrow your topic to something suitable for an argument.

Identify the points separating your views from opposing views. Using brainstorming or another
prewriting tool, put down everything you know about your topic. Then write down everything you know
about the beliefs of someone who holds the opposing view.

Research the major sides of the topic. Collect materials that support both (or all) sides of the
issue because you want to discover the best reasons for supporting opposing positions. You can then
­authoritatively counter these positions as you support your own.
142 Chapter 9

Develop your main point or thesis statement. State the main point or thesis that you will be supporting in
your argument. This main point or thesis statement will help you draft and revise your argument.

Organize your materials and draft your argument. Arguments are organized to explain competing sides of
an issue. Describe the strengths of opposing positions fully and fairly before you challenge these positions.

Choose your style. When explaining opposing positions, use a plain style with simple, clear sentences and
paragraphs. When you explain your own position, add energy to your argument by using similes, metaphors,
and analogies.

Design the document. Arguments tend to be rather plain in design. However, you might look for opportunities
to add visuals to support your argument.

Revise and edit. As you draft your argument, your position may evolve. Give yourself time to modify your
argument and refine your points. Proofreading is critical because readers will see errors as evidence that your
argument has not been fully thought through.

Readings: Arguments

Reading 1
In this argument, Lesley Andress Davis takes on the extremely controversial issue of
allowing transgender athletes to compete in women’s sports. Davis argues for a “no,”
but she recognizes that the issue isn’t a simple one. Specifically, she is concerned about
preserving women’s progress made under Title IX, a law that mandated that women have
equal opportunities to compete in sports in educational institutions. Watch how she uses
her own experiences as a female athlete to explain her side of this contentious issue. On
this issue, many people on both sides have strong and passionate feelings. As you read,
ask yourself, does the author present both sides fairly, accurately, and thoroughly—even
the side you disagree with?

A Defense of Female Sports

Lesley Andress Davis
Given the cultural revolution in which we currently find ourselves, it should not be surprising
that we are debating the once-obvious question of whether it is fair for biological males to
compete against biological females in sports. Senator Angela Hill (R., Picayune) is leading the
charge in Mississippi to protect the rights of our girls and women by sponsoring The Fairness
Act, which would ensure that only biological females compete on public school girls’ sports
teams in our state.
As a former athlete and Mississippi State University women’s basketball player, this issue
is of particular importance to me. My high school basketball team was nationally ranked and
finished first in Mississippi my junior year and second my senior year. We routinely practiced
against our school’s varsity boys’ team, which had nowhere near our record or ranking.
 Arguments 143

Despite our being at the top of our game in high school women’s sports with an All-American
player and numerous others who went on to play college ball, the boys’ team handily beat us
every time—it was ugly.
This male advantage seems clear across all sports. Allyson Felix is probably the fastest
female sprinter in the world, holding more records than Usain Bolt. Her best time for the
400 meter is 49.26 seconds, but just in 2017, that time was beaten over 15,000 times by
boys and men.
Venus and Serena Williams once boasted they could beat any male tennis player ranked
outside the top 200. In 1998, a male ranked 203rd took them up on their wager and handily
beat them both decisively, 6-1 over Serena and 6-2 over Venus. What if we never knew of a
Serena and Venus Williams because they never had the space to compete and advance to the
top of their sport?
As a little girl, I was inspired by the few female athletes that were featured prominently.
Fortunately, a lot has changed in female sports since I played.
The incredible growth in women’s sports over the past almost 50 years has been in part
the result of the enactment of Title IX in 1972, a federal law specifically designed to create
equal opportunities and access for females in education and athletics.
Before Title IX, an estimated 3 percent of girls in America participated in sports; today,
about two in five (more than 40 percent) of girls play sports. The number of women playing
college sports has increased by more than 600 percent, and the number of young women
playing high school sports has increased more than 900 percent. The impact Title IX has
had on young girls and adult female athletes is immeasurable. It is not a coincidence that
98 percent of female CEOs played competitive sports.
Yet, all of this hard-fought progress women have made in athletics could be eroded if our
state lawmakers fail to ensure that our girls have a level playing field.
For instance, over the last few years in Connecticut, two biological males who had never
distinguished themselves when competing on male track teams came to identify as girls/
women. They joined their respective schools’ girls’ track teams and competed in track meets
against biological girls. It should come as no surprise that they dominated girls’ track by
winning 15 state championships, in the process stripping away 85 opportunities for biological
females to advance to higher levels in girls’ track. Along the way, they broke 17 girls’ state
track records, records no girl will likely ever get close to.
I have compassion for trans athletes’ struggles, and I understand their desire to compete in
sports. Yet, we must be able to have honest, biology-based discussions on the matter without
name-calling, fear of being canceled, and without assuming evil motives of those with whom
we disagree.
Too many today are afraid to state the obvious: science shows us that male-bodied
athletes are generally bigger, taller, faster, and stronger than females. Males benefit from
greater speed and power, adding up to a 10- to 50-percent advantage over female athletes,
depending on the sport.
Physicians like Michelle Cretella have been stating the same, that men and women are
profoundly genetically different, and that no hormone therapy or body-altering surgery can
reverse these biological changes. “[M]en and women have—at a minimum—6,500 genetic
differences between us. And this impacts every cell of our bodies . . . .”
When we ignore the undeniable biological advantage that males have, girls are harmed,
harmed by the loss of medals, trophies, records, podium spots, college recruitment, and
scholarships. To use one of the favorite phrases of the left, where are the “safe spaces” for
144 Chapter 9

young girls and women? Where is the concern for their physical and mental health and the
character development that comes from competition?
Fortunately, at least for now, most Mississippians see past the claims of today’s cultural
revolutionaries. Recent polling demonstrated that 79 percent of Mississippi voters support
such legislation. This includes 87 percent of Republicans, 65 percent of Democrats, and
83 percent of independents.
We cannot look to Washington to protect the civil rights of young girls and women in
Mississippi. Mississippi is one of only ten states that has no policy addressing the participation
of biological male athletes in girls’ high school sports. We need our lawmakers to protect the
rights of young girls and women in our state and pass The Fairness Act now.
We as a nation and a state have made too much progress for women’s rights over many
decades to now watch it all be taken away.

A Closer Look at “A Defense of Female Sports”

1. Davis concedes a few points to the opposing point of view. Find three concessions
that she makes in this argument. With your group, discuss whether making these
concessions was a good strategy on her part. Explain why you feel these concessions
strengthen or weaken the argument.
2. This argument appeals to science as a reason to not allow transgender athletes to
compete in women’s sports. Davis argues that “we must be able to have honest,
biology-based discussions on the matter without name-calling, fear of being
canceled, and without assuming evil motives of those with whom we disagree.”
With a group from your class, make a list of five to ten controversial issues that you
feel this statement could be applied to right now.
3. With this issue, both liberals and conservatives find themselves contending over
ways to support women’s rights to play sports. Where are three places in this
argument that both liberals and conservatives could agree? Where are three places
in this argument that you believe liberals and conservatives would not agree?

Ideas for Writing

1. As Davis argues, Title IX has opened the door for significant participation of
females in sports. She is concerned that much of that progress is at risk. Write a
counterargument in which you agree with some of the points in this article but also
offer an alternative for addressing the problem.
2. Write a proposal in which you develop a policy that allows all people regardless of
gender identification to participate in intermural sports at your college or university.
Keep in mind that intermural sports are activities to improve health and encourage
socialization. However, people do want to compete and win fairly. Try to come up
with a solution that allows for fair competition while offering opportunities to get
exercise and meet others.
 Arguments 145

Reading 2
Mat Gendle is a professor of psychology and director of Project Pericles, a nonprofit
­organization that supports social responsibility and participatory citizenship in c
­ ollege,
especially at the undergraduate level. Professor Gendle researches behavioral and
­cognitive neuroscience.

To Reduce Gun Violence, Focus on Function

Instead of Form
Mat Gendle
I would bet that most people would agree that automobiles engineered specifically for high-
speed motorsport competition probably shouldn’t be allowed for street use. You wouldn’t want
a 650-plus horsepower car crossing the finish line on a NASCAR track and then heading out
onto city streets to run errands after a race.
Yet, there are no legal restrictions specifically placed on cars that have spoilers, hood
scoops, aerodynamic ground effects, aftermarket bumper-mounted tow hooks, competition-
grade seats, or flashy graphics, simply because they might “look like a race car.” Elements like
these may mimic those seen on their high-speed counterparts, but don’t make the vehicle they
are affixed to a contender on race day.
So when it comes to regulating firearms, why do some continue to advocate for cosmetic
restrictions instead of focusing on those aspects that make some potentially more dangerous
than others? Why the focus on the form of guns rather than the function in trying to create a
safer world?
I’m no expert on firearms engineering or policy—I’m just a concerned citizen who has
spent my entire life around knowledgeable and responsible gun owners. And from this
personal experience, one thing is clear to me. A considerable number of proponents of gun
control measures seem to know very little about the firearms that they seek to regulate and
often sound quite ignorant when they discuss regulating guns.
Those in favor of expansive gun rights are keenly aware of this lack of understanding,
making it difficult for proposals to further regulate guns to be taken seriously by ardent Second
Amendment advocates.
In my view, it’s time to stop obsessing over the nebulous term “assault weapon,” as well
as the cosmetic features that are employed to define exactly what type of firearm might qualify
as such a weapon. All too often, proposals seeking to regulate or ban “assault weapons” focus
on cosmetic characteristics, such as the existence of flash suppressors, pistol grips, bayonet
lugs, external magazines, or overall “military styling.” These add-ons and designs do not
meaningfully impact the firearm’s functionality or how potentially deadly the firearm might be.
The frequently-cited comparison of the Ruger Mini-14 Ranch Rifle and sporting rifles from
various manufacturers that are styled after the ArmaLite/Colt AR-15 provides a clear example
of this misguided focus on form over function.
146 Chapter 9

With its wooden stock and otherwise traditional appearance, the Ruger product looks like
a sturdy, all-purpose utility rifle that would be at home in the back of a pickup truck on any
farm or ranch. On the other hand, civilian-market AR-15 style rifles (i.e., ones that do not allow
for fully automatic fire) look extremely similar to the firearms that are standard-issue to U.S.
military and law enforcement personnel.
Yet, the underlying function of these two types of civilian-market rifles is, for all purposes,
identical. Both use the same cartridge (5.56 NATO) and fire semi-automatically at essentially the
same rate. There is nothing about the cosmetic features or design of a civilian-market AR-15 that
would make it inherently more deadly than the traditionally-designed rifle in a mass-shooting
scenario. Yet, AR-15 style rifles are often specifically targeted for regulation precisely because
they have a close physical resemblance to select-fire, military-grade weapons.
There is one functional feature of many so-called “assault weapons” that, if regulated,
could substantially reduce injuries and fatalities during mass-shooting situations—high-
capacity magazines. Unlike regulating cosmetic features such as flash suppressors, a ban
on high-capacity magazines would be a functionally meaningful step to reduce the potential
damage that a firearm can cause in a mass-shooting scenario.
There is no legitimate sporting or self-defense need for someone with proper
marksmanship training to possess a 10-plus round magazine for their firearm of choice.
Moving to create a regulatory environment where the possession, sale and manufacture of
such magazines could be legally phased out over time would be a substantial advancement
from a harm-reduction standpoint. Such a move could include a multi-year plan where
low-capacity magazines would be made widely available to law-abiding gun owners before
anything was banned outright.
Without question, the regulation of firearms is a complex topic that does not easily distill down
to a short op-ed column such as this one. Common-sense gun regulations (such as extensive
owner training, licensing, and perhaps the registration of all firearms) that treat guns and shooting
the same way we treat motor vehicles and driving are worthy of significant discussion.
But this dialogue becomes challenged when the proponents of such regulation are fixated
on the form of particular firearms, rather than their function.

A Closer Look at “To Reduce Gun Violence, Focus on

Function Instead of Form”
1. In this argument, the definition of the word “assault weapon” is open for debate.
Gendle demonstrates that the term actually has no set meaning and therefore
muddies the gun debate. Why does he think this term is not adequate when talking
about weapons that are used in mass-shooting situations?
2. This argument discusses what happens when advocates obsess about what
something looks like (form) instead of what it does (function). Gendle’s opponents,
he says, focus too much on form, not function. What are three examples of this form
versus function difference between the two sides of this argument?
3. With your group, discuss where you think common ground might exist among
moderates who often feel caught between two extreme sides on the gun debate.
Where do you think the two sides could meet in a way that allows legal gun owner-
ship while also minimizing or eliminating mass shooting events?
 Arguments 147

Ideas for Writing

1. Write a three-page commentary in which you discuss the future of gun ownership
if mass shootings continue in the United States. Do you think people will ultimately
demand more restrictions on gun ownership, or do you think mass shootings will
be resolved in some other way?
2. Write a memoir in which you tell a story about an event that confirmed or changed
how you felt about a highly controversial issue. At the end of your memoir, tell
your readers what you have learned about this issue from observing how you and
others reacted to the event.

Activities for Arguments

Talk About This
1. With a small group, make a list of challenging issues facing our society or your
community today. Pick an issue and explore two major sides. What are the two to
five major points of contention between the two sides of the issue? What are the
strengths of each side? What are the limitations of each side?
2. With your class, list ten effective and ineffective ways to argue. What is the best
way to get your point across to someone else? What are your most effective
strategies? Then list some of the worst ways to argue. What are some of the
annoying ways in which other people have tried to persuade you? How did you
react to some of these less effective methods?
3. Think about arguments you have had with friends, family members, and other
people you care about. With a small group, discuss why these arguments are
sometimes easier or more difficult than arguments with people who are not so
close to you. Do you have any strategies for arguing effectively with people you
care strongly about? Do you avoid these kinds of arguments? If so, why?

Try This Out

1. Look at the opinions section of your local or campus newspaper. Pick an issue
that is being discussed in the editorials, commentaries, or letters to the editor. On
your screen or a piece of paper, list the positions and the kinds of support offered
by one of the writers. Then list the points opponents might make to counter these
positions and support their own opinions. In a memo to your professor, explain
both sides of the argument as fairly as possible. Then show why you think one
side or the other has the stronger argument.
2. Find an argument on the Internet. You might look for arguments in the online
versions of newspapers or magazines. In a two-page paper to your professor,
analyze the argument and explain whether you think the author is arguing
148 Chapter 9

effectively or not. Does the author fairly represent both sides of the issue? Is
the author too biased? Have any strengths of the opponents’ position been left
out? Does the author ignore any limitations of their side that should have been
included?
3. Pick a topic that you feel strongly about. Create a two-column brainstorming
list that explores the issues involved with this topic. Then identify the two
to five main points of contention that separate your views from the views of
people who disagree with you about this topic. In a one-page memo to your
professor, discuss the strengths and limitations of your side of the issue and
those of your opponents’ side. Explain what kinds of information you would
need to collect to support your best arguments and highlight the limitations of
your opponents’ views.

Explore This
Using one or two of the microgenres listed below can be fun and instructive about
arguments generally. Try using one or more of these microgenres to explore a topic you
are writing an argument about. Then, write a memo to your professor that describes
how the microgenre differs from a full argument.
Mock argument—a parody that pretends to argue seriously about a silly (or non-
arguable) issue
Argumentum ad absurdum—an argument taken to ridiculous extremes
Devil’s advocate—an argument for the side you or a friend disagrees with
Debate dialogue—imagined dialogue between two people on opposite sides of
an issue
You’re doing it all wrong—an argument in which the author argues that people
have been doing something the wrong way

Write This
1. Write an argument about a local issue. Write a five-page argument in which
you explore both sides of a contentious local issue. Pick an issue that affects you
directly and try to fairly represent both sides. Explain the opposing sides of the
issue as clearly and fairly as possible. Then point out each side’s limitations.
Explain your side of the issue and concede any limitations. Then persuade your
readers that your understanding of the issue is stronger and more reasonable
than your opponents’ understanding.
2. Create a multimedia presentation. Sharing passwords for streaming services like
Netflix, Hulu, and HBO Max has been a way for college students to avoid ­paying
for all of them. Create a ten-slide presentation in which you state your o­ pinion
about whether sharing passwords should be allowed. Explain how people
with opposing perspectives understand the issue. Then explain your side and
 Arguments 149

show why you think your understanding is stronger. Your presentation could
be made with PowerPoint, Keynote, or any other presentation software. Include
­photographs, charts, video, and audio where appropriate.
3. Argue that something bad for people is really good for them. In a 1,000-word
argument, support the claim that something people traditionally assume is
“bad” (e.g., playing video games, seeing violence in movies, watching television,
cramming for an exam) is actually good for them. Summarize the conventional
assumptions about why something is bad. Then use research to show that it is
actually good for people.
 Chapter 10
Literary Analyses
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

10.1 invent the content of your literary analysis with critical reading
strategies.
10.2 organize your literary analysis to highlight your interpretation of the text.
10.3 use an appropriate voice and quotations to lend authority to your
analysis.
10.4 create an appropriate design by following formatting requirements and
adding visuals.

When writing a literary analysis, you should first pose an interpretive question about the
literary text you are exploring and then try to answer that question. Your interpretive
question investigates some aspect of the text you find especially intriguing, such as
questions about its characters, its author, or the historical context in which it was
written. In a literary analysis, you should aim to offer readers new and interesting
insights into what the work means or what it represents.
A literary analysis interprets the text, analyzes its structure and features, and
examines it through the lenses of historical, cultural, social, biographical, or other
contexts. An effective literary analysis helps readers understand what makes a literary
work thought provoking, revealing, troubling, or enjoyable. These kinds of analyses
also contribute to the larger scholarly conversation about the meaning and purpose of
literature.
When writing a literary analysis, you shouldn’t feel like you need to prove that you
have the “right” interpretation of the text. Instead, your literary analysis should invite
readers to consider the work from new and interesting angles while showing them how
a particular perspective can lead them to fresh insights.
Usually, you will write literary analyses for courses that feature creative works, such
as English, language studies, cultural studies, gender studies, and history. Sometimes,
college courses in the natural sciences, social sciences, and technology incorporate
literature to help students better understand the historical, ethical, and cultural factors
that shaped changes in a particular culture.

150
 Literary Analyses 151

At-A-Glance
Literary Analyses
These diagrams show two possible basic organizations for a literary analysis, but other arrangements will work,
too. You should adjust these organizational patterns to fit your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context.

Introduction Introduction

Summary and analysis

Targeted summary or
of first part of text
description of the text

Summary and analysis

of second part of text
Analysis: First point

Summary and analysis

of third part of text
Analysis: Second point
•
•
•
Analysis: Third point Conclusion

•
•
•
Conclusion

Literary analyses have these features:

• An introduction that identifies the literary work you are analyzing and its background; it should also
state your interpretive question about the text and a main point (thesis statement) that explores that
question in depth.
• Targeted summaries or descriptions of the text that focus only on the events or features that play a
key role in your interpretation.
• Quoted material taken directly from the text to serve as your evidence, moving your interpretation
forward and illustrating your points.
• Support for your interpretation that shows how your interpretation makes sense and offers fresh
insights into the interpretive question.
• A conclusion that discusses the significance of your interpretation.
152 Chapter 10

One Student’s Work: Literary Analyses

Speed That Kills: The Role of Technology in Kate Chopin’s

“The Story of an Hour”
Jeremy Foote
Kate Chopin’s “The Story of an Hour” has been taught and analyzed
almost exclusively from a feminist perspective. Indeed, the feminist images of
the story are so powerful that I believe critics have overlooked another theme.
“The Story of an Hour” can be read as a protomodernist text. As also seen
with later modernist writers, technology and the societal changes caused by
technology play important roles in Chopin’s story.
The literary work “The Story of an Hour” was first published in 1894. More than a century
is identified, fol- later, now in the midst of our own technological revolution, it is difficult to
lowed by an inter-
pretive question grasp how fundamentally nineteenth-century technologies were altering the
and main point world in Chopin’s time. Before the railroad, traveling was extremely difficult
(thesis). and dangerous. In the 1850s, it took an average of 128 days to traverse the
Oregon Trail (Unruh 403), with a mortality rate of 4% to 6% (Unruh 408). The
transcontinental railroad, completed in 1869, allowed the same journey to be
Using researched
sources, describes made, safely and much more comfortably, in less than a week (Cooper). Perhaps
the historical more importantly, during the 1890s trains started to become part of daily life. In
context for the 1889 the first interurban electric rail lines were laid, and by 1894 hundreds of
story’s setting and
author’s life. miles of track were being added every year (Hilton and Due 186–87).
Communications underwent an even more dramatic acceleration. The
completion of the first successful transatlantic cable in 1866 meant news that
had previously taken a week or more to travel between Europe and the
Americas could now be sent nearly instantaneously. Like the railroad, while
the initial invention had occurred years earlier, in the 1890s telegrams went
from novel to quotidian. In 1870, Western Union relayed 9 million telegrams.
By 1893, they were sending more than 66 million telegrams annually (United
States Bureau of the Census 788).
States the deeper “The Story of an Hour” can be read as a precursor to technophobic works.
insight that his The story begins with news of Mr. Mallard’s death in a railroad disaster—
historical lens
reveals. received by telegram. This may be a commentary on the literal danger of riding
trains in the 1890s, but we can also see the railroad’s role in the story as a more
subtle warning. The railroads, and the urbanization and industrialization that
they symbolized and enabled, were changing how and where people worked.
Railroads meant that where people lived and where they worked could
be far apart, giving rise to the commuter lifestyle (and the word commuter)
(Paumgarten). Time that in previous generations had been spent with family
was now spent apart, as family members sped away from one another.
These changes certainly affected marital relationships and the experience of
womanhood. Women were spending more and more time by themselves, with
time to pursue their own interests. Perhaps it is these hours alone each day that
leave Louise wanting more autonomy, dreaming of “no one to live for during
those coming years” (Chopin 260).
 Literary Analyses 153

In fact, the story gives evidence that Louise’s emotions are affected by
the physical absence of her husband. After recognizing the joy she feels upon
learning of her husband’s supposed death, Louise reflects on her feelings:
“She did not stop to ask if it were or were not a monstrous joy that held
her. . . . She knew that she would weep again when she saw the kind, tender Quotes directly
hands folded in death; the face that had never looked save with love upon from the literary
text to illustrate
her, fixed and gray and dead” (260). Confronted with her husband’s body, points throughout.
she knows that she will feel differently. Her joyous reaction is to a distant,
faceless death, unimpeded by the reality of an actual corpse—unattached to an
actual person. The railroad provides this catalyst for Louise’s self-realization,
because it “killed” Mr. Mallard both quickly and distantly. Indeed, the speed
and remoteness of Mr. Mallard’s death seem to be the primary causes of the
speed and intensity of Louise’s emotions. Instead of taking care of an ailing
husband and preparing for his death, death is thrust upon her, forcing her to
confront her entire reaction to his passing all at once.
While Brently’s death and Louise’s joyful reaction are enabled by the
railroad, the story would be equally impossible without the technology of the
telegraph. At the beginning of the story, Mr. Mallard’s friend hears of a telegram
listing Brently Mallard as deceased. He decides to break the news to Louise,
after having “taken the time to assure himself of its truth by a second telegram”
(259). Before telegrams, information could not travel faster than people. Mr.
Mallard would have arrived home, safe and sound, long before the news of his
death could have reached his wife. “Slow” communications (i.e., everything
before the telegraph) also had to be relayed person to person. Having people as
part of the medium helped maintain the veracity and the context of messages.
To send a telegram, on the other hand, words are converted into electrical
impulses and then reinterpreted at their destination. They travel at the speed of
light, without any substance, as disembodied information. “Hour” seems to be
warning us that there are dangers in this separation of message from medium:
the more information is isolated, the more meaning comes from the recipient’s
interpretation. The telegram that Louise receives is an example of this danger.
There may very well have been a Brently Mallard killed in the railroad disaster,
so the disembodied information was true, but the substance of the information—
that it was her husband who had been killed—was false. Even a second telegram
was not enough to verify the truth, because the needed truth was found in the
context, not in the information, and telegrams can only relay information.
“Hour” is not only about the danger of communications moving too
quickly but also a warning about the overall increase in the speed of life.
These technologies that were speeding up how people moved and
communicated naturally sped up their lives, including their emotional lives.
As the title tells us, this is a story about time; the rate at which things happen
is important. Louise Mallard goes from devastation to euphoria to shock, all
within an hour. Arguably, her death is more a result of how quickly her
emotions occur, rather than the emotions themselves. Living in a time with
twenty-four-hour news and ever-scrolling Twitter feeds, we know something
of the dangers of not having enough time to process what is happening.
The time needed to experience and analyze emotions has been eliminated, and
154 Chapter 10

the body (and soul) cannot keep up with that kind of schedule. Louise is forced
to confront the great questions of life—death and love and self-actualization—in
Restates the thesis the space of an afternoon. It is no wonder that there are repercussions.
and then dis-
“The Story of an Hour” has long been heralded as a wonderful feminist
cusses the story’s
significance. text, which it is. The issues of male hegemony and feminine independence
are dealt with in an important and powerful way. Chopin helps us realize,
however, that other subtle factors are at play. This is a cautionary tale about a
world that is speeding up; it is a warning about lives that move too quickly.
The tragedy of Louise Mallard’s death occurs not only because she is a
woman but because she is a modern woman. This story would have unfolded
very differently without the technologies of the railroad and telegraph;
by exploring the effects of these technologies within a purposely feminine
text, Chopin shows us that even such “timeless” issues as male and female
relations can only be fully understood within the time and place in which
they occur.
Works Cited
Includes a Works Cooper, Bruce C. “Riding the Transcontinental Rails: Overland Travel on
Cited list that the Pacific Railroad—Introduction.” Central Pacific Railroad Photographic
identifies the
sources the History Museum, 2004, cprr.org/Museum/Riding_the_Rails_Intro.html.
­student consulted. Chopin, Kate. “The Dream of an Hour (The Story of an Hour).” The Awakening
and Other Stories, edited by Pamela Knights, Oxford UP, 2000, pp. 259–61.
Hilton, George W., and John F. Due. The Electric Interurban Railways in America.
Stanford UP, 2000.
Paumgarten, Nick. “[Annals of Transport:] There and Back Again.” The New
Yorker, 16 Apr. 2007, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/04/16/there-
and-back-again.
United States Bureau of the Census. Historical Statistics of the United States:
Colonial Times to 1970. Vol. 2, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1975.
Unruh, John D. The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-
Mississippi West, 1840–60. U of Illinois, 1993.

Inventing Your Literary Analysis’s

Content
10.1 Invent the content of your literary analysis with critical reading strategies.
When writing a literary analysis, your first challenge is to come up with an interesting
interpretive question about the work. As you read and do research on the text, look for
evidence that might lead to insights that go beyond the obvious.
Authors want their literary works to affect readers in specific ways. Authors rarely
present straightforward simple lessons, but they do want to influence the way readers
view the world. So as you are exploring the text from different angles, try to figure out
what message or theme the author is trying to convey. Here are a few techniques for
figuring out that message or theme.
 Literary Analyses 155

Read, Reread, Explore

If the literary work is a short story or short novel, read it at least twice. If it is a poem,
read it again and again, silently and aloud, to get a sense of how the language works
and how the poem makes you feel. As you read the text, mark or underline anything
intriguing or puzzling. Write down your observations and questions as they occur
to you.

Inquiring: What’s Interesting Here?

As you are reading and exploring the text, try to come up with a few thought-provoking
questions that focus on the work’s genre, plot, characters, or use of language. The goal
is to develop your interpretive question, which will serve as your angle for seeing the
text from a new point of view.
EXPLORE THE GENRE. In your literature classes, your professors will use the term
“genre” differently than it is used in this book. Literary works fall into four major
genres: fiction, poetry, drama, and literary nonfiction.

Literary Genre Subgenres

Short stories, novellas, novels, detective novels, science
Fiction
fiction, romance, mysteries, horror, fantasy, historical fiction
Limericks, sonnets, ballads, epic poems, haikus, villanelles,
Poetry
odes, sestinas, open verse
Plays, closet dramas, comedies, tragedies, romances,
Drama
musicals, operas
Memoirs, profiles (of people, places, events), biographies,
Literary nonfiction
histories, essays, nature writing, sports writing, religion,
(or nonfiction prose)
politics

While examining the text, ask yourself why the author chose this genre or subgenre
of literature and not another one. Why a poem rather than a story? Why a short story
rather than a novel?
Also, look for places where the author stays close to the genre or strays from its
usual conventions. How does the genre constrain what the author can do? Does the
author “bend” the genre to encourage readers to explore different themes or questions?
How does the author use this genre in a unique or interesting way?
EXPLORE THE COMPLICATION OR CONFLICT. In almost every literary work, a
key complication or conflict is at the center of the story. What are the complications or
conflicts that arise from the narrative? How do the characters react to the complications?
And how are these complications and conflicts resolved? Keep in mind that conflicts
often arise from characters’ values and beliefs or situations in which characters find
themselves. What choices do the characters make, how do those choices reflect their
values and beliefs, and what are the results of those choices? Are there conflicts between
characters, between characters and their surroundings, between characters’ aspirations,
or between competing values and beliefs?
156 Chapter 10

EXPLORE THE PLOT. Plot refers not just to the sequence of events but also to how the
events arise from the main conflict in the story. How do the events in the story unfold?
Why do the events arise as they do? Which events are surprising or puzzling? Where
does the plot seem to stray from a straight path? When studying the plot, pay special
attention to the climax, which is the critical moment in the story. What happens at that
key moment, and why is this moment so crucial? How do the characters react to try to
resolve the conflict, for better or worse?
EXPLORE THE CHARACTERS. The characters are the people who inhabit the story
or poem. Who are they? What kinds of people are they? Why do they act as they do?
How do the characters interact with each other or with their environment and setting?
To figure out what drives their decisions and actions, you might explore their values,
beliefs, and desires.
EXPLORE THE SETTING. When and where does the story take place? What is the
broader setting—culture, social sphere, historic period? Also, what is the specific setting
in which the story unfolds? How does the setting constrain the characters by influencing
their beliefs, values, and choices? How does the setting become a symbol that colors the
way readers interpret the work? Is the setting realistic, fantastical, ironic, or magical?
EXPLORE THE LANGUAGE AND TONE. How does the author’s tone or choice of
words color your attitude toward the characters, setting, or theme? What feeling or
mood does the work’s tone evoke, and how does that tone evolve as the story or poem
moves forward?
EXPLORE THE USE OF TROPES. Also, pay attention to the author’s use of metaphors,
similes, and analogies. How does the author use these devices to deepen the meaning
of the text or bring new ideas to light? What images are used to describe the characters,
events, objects, or setting? Do those images become metaphors or symbols that color
the way readers understand the work or how they see their world?

Researching: What Have Others Said About This Text?

While most literary analyses focus primarily on the literary text itself, you can also
research the historical background of a work and its author. The Internet and print
sources are good places to find relevant facts, information, and perspectives that will
broaden your understanding.
RESEARCH THE AUTHOR. Learning about the author can often lead to interpretive
insights. The author’s life experiences may help you understand his or her intentions.
You might also study the events that were happening in the author’s time because the
work itself might be responding to those events.
RESEARCH THE HISTORICAL SETTING. You could also research the text’s historical
setting. If the story takes place in a real setting, you can read about the historical, cultural,
social, and political forces that were in play at that time and in that place.
RESEARCH THE SCIENCE. Human and physical sciences can often give you insights
into human behavior, social interactions, or natural phenomena. Sometimes additional
research into psychology, sociology, biology, and other sciences can spark interesting
insights into characters and events.
 Literary Analyses 157

Organizing and Drafting Your Literary

Analysis
10.2 Organize your literary analysis to highlight your interpretation of the text.
So far, you have read the literary work carefully, taken notes, done some research, and
perhaps written one or more responses. How should you begin drafting your literary
analysis?
One piece of advice we can offer is to not use an artificial intelligence (AI) application
to compose your first draft. Most literary works have been written about for years or even
decades. So, an AI application will usually return a bland summary of what has already
been said about the text rather than something original or insightful. AI-written literary
analyses are sometimes accused of being plagiarized because they paraphrase what others
have already said about the text. You’re better off coming up with your own interpretation
of the literary work rather than relying on what an AI application comes up with.

The Introduction: Establish Your Interpretive Question

Introductions in literary analyses usually contain a few common features:
INCLUDE BACKGROUND INFORMATION THAT LEADS TO YOUR INTERPRETIVE
QUESTION. Start by exploring a feature of the work you find intriguing. You can use
a quote from the work or the author, state a historical fact that highlights something
important, or draw attention to a unique aspect of the work or the author.
STATE YOUR INTERPRETIVE QUESTION PROMINENTLY AND CLEARLY. Make
sure your reader understands the question that your analysis will investigate. If
necessary, make it obvious by saying something like “This analysis will explore
why . . . .” That way, your readers will clearly understand your purpose.
PLACE YOUR THESIS STATEMENT NEAR THE END OF THE INTRODUCTION.
Provide a clear thesis that answers your interpretive question. Since literary analyses
are academic in nature, your readers will expect you to state your main point or thesis
statement somewhere near the end of the introduction. Here are examples of a weak
thesis statement and a stronger one:
Weak: The events that take place in Kate Chopin’s “The Story of an Hour” were the result
of recent technological changes.
Stronger: While Kate Chopin’s “The Story of an Hour” portrays Louise Mallard’s reactions
to the news of her husband’s death, it also urges contemporary readers to explore the
ways technology has changed and continues to change how we live and who we are.

The Body: Summarize, Interpret, Support

In the body paragraphs, take your readers through your analysis point by point, show-
ing them why your interpretation makes sense and leads to interesting new insights.
SUMMARIZE AND DESCRIBE KEY ASPECTS OF THE WORK. Use “targeted” sum-
maries of the text that discuss only those aspects of the work that lay the foundation for
158 Chapter 10

your analysis. You can assume that your readers will be familiar with the literary work,
so you don’t need to provide a complete summary or fully explain who the characters
are. But you should describe the aspects of the work that are crucial to your analysis
and that need to be brought to your readers’ attention. You may wish to focus on a par-
ticular scene or on specific features, such as a character’s motives, interactions between
characters, setting, language, symbols, plot features, and so forth.

BUILD YOUR CASE, STEP BY STEP. Keep in mind that the goal of a literary analysis is
not to prove that your interpretation is correct but to show that it is plausible and leads
to interesting insights into the text. Take your readers through your analysis point by
point. Show how your interpretive question and thesis are connected, and back up each
key point with reasoning and evidence taken from the text or your research.

CITE AND QUOTE THE TEXT TO BACK UP AND ILLUSTRATE YOUR POINTS. The
evidence for your interpretation should come mostly from the text itself. Show your
readers what the text says by quoting and citing it or by describing and citing key scenes
and events.

INCLUDE OUTSIDE SUPPORT, WHERE APPROPRIATE. Use research of other

scholars’ interpretations to support what you say about the text. Maybe you can
extend what others have said in new directions. Or perhaps you can push against other
scholars’ interpretations, showing how recent findings or events create opportunities
for new ways to understand the text. Make sure you cite any outside sources properly.
Acknowledge the research you’ve consulted by quoting, summarizing, and citing it.
(Your professor, who is an expert in these literary works, will know what others
have said about them, so you need to be extra careful not to plagiarize their ideas
or words.)

The Conclusion: Restate Your Thesis

Your conclusion should bring your readers’ attention back to the thesis that you offered
in the introduction. Your conclusion may also point the reader in new directions. Up
to this point in the literary analysis, your readers will expect you to closely follow
the text. In the conclusion, though, you can branch off and even speculate. In a
sense, you’ve earned the right to consider some of the larger ideas, perspectives, and
conclusions.
So, if you want, take on the larger issues that were dealt with in this literary work.
What conclusions or questions does your analysis suggest? What challenges does the
author believe we face? What is the author really trying to say about people, events,
and the world we live in? How does the work help us understand something new?

Choosing an Appropriate Style

10.3 Use an appropriate voice and quotations to lend authority to your analysis.
Literary analyses invite readers into a conversation about a literary work. Therefore,
the style should be straightforward but also inviting.
 Literary Analyses 159

Use the “Literary Present” Tense

Describe the text, what happens, and what characters do as though the action is taking place
at the present moment. Here are two examples that show how to use the literary present:
Louise Mallard is at first grief-stricken by the news of her husband’s death, but her grief
fades and is replaced by a sense of elation.
While many of Langston Hughes’s poems recount the struggles of Black Americans, they
also suggest hints of optimism and hope.

When discussing the author historically, however, use the past tense.
Of course, Chopin knew nothing about the discoveries made by modern scientists, but
she did understand human nature and how we are driven to search for meaning.
Langston Hughes was well-known in his time as a Harlem Renaissance poet. He often
touched on themes of equality and expressed a guarded optimism about equality of
treatment for all races.

Integrate Quoted Text

Weave words and ideas from the literary text and your research into your own
phrasings. Avoid quotations that are not directly related to your ideas. For example,
you can include a quotation at the end of your own sentence:
Louise reacts initially with immense grief that conforms to what might be socially expected
from any person who has just learned about the death of a loved one: “She wept at once,
with sudden wild abandonment, in her sister’s arms” (131).

You could also take the same sentence from the story and weave a “tissue” of
quotations into your words:
Although Richards is “careful” and “tender,” when he “break[s] to her as gently as possible
the news of her husband’s death,” Louise weeps “with sudden, wild abandonment,” a
reaction that conforms to society’s expectations (131).
Make sure any sentences that include quotations remain grammatically correct.
When you omit words from your quotation, use ellipses. Also, whenever you take a
quote from the text, explain how the quotation supports the point you are trying to
make. Don’t leave your readers hanging with a quotation without an explanation or
commentary. Tell them what the quote means and be clear about why you used it.

Move Beyond Personal Response

Literary analyses are in part always personal, but your personal response is usually not
enough. While your professor may encourage you to delve into your personal reactions
in your response papers, your literary analysis should move beyond that personal
response to a discussion of the literary work itself and what it might mean for others.
In other words, describe what the text does, not just how you personally react to it.
Keep in mind that literary analyses are interpretive and speculative, not absolute and
final. When you want your readers to understand that you are interpreting, use “hedge”
words and phrases such as “seems,” “perhaps,” “it could be,” “may,” “it seems clear
that,” and “probably.”
160 Chapter 10

Louise seems to realize that her newly realized “exalted perception” would appear
to others as a “monstrous joy.” That is why, perhaps, she chooses to remain behind
closed doors until she can compose herself before opening “the door to her sister’s
importunities” and once again face the judgments of her friends and family (133).

Designing Your Literary Analysis

10.4  reate an appropriate design by following formatting requirements and
C
adding visuals.
Typically, literary analyses use a simple and traditional design, following the MLA
format for manuscripts: double-spaced, easy-to-read font, one-inch margins, and MLA
documentation style (see Chapter 33). Always consult with your professor about which
format to use.
Headings and graphics are becoming more common in literary analyses. Headings
will help you organize your analysis and make transitions between larger sections.
In some cases, you may want to add graphics, especially if the literary work you are
analyzing uses illustrations or if you have a graphic that would illustrate or help explain
a key element in your analysis.
Design features like headers and page numbers are usually welcome because they
help your professors and your classmates keep the pages in order. Also, if you are
asked to discuss your work in class, page numbers will help the class easily find what
is being discussed.

Microgenre
The Reading Response
In college courses in every discipline, your professor may assign a reading response as “informal writing.”
A literature professor might ask you to write about your first reaction to a poem to help you explore its
meaning. An anthropology professor might ask you to describe your reactions to the rituals of a different
culture. In the workplace, trainers and consultants often use informal writing exercises to help teams of
employees explore ideas together—a kind of brainstorming and getting things off the ground.
Your professors may assign a wide variety of reading response assignments, but no matter what the
specific assignment is, make sure you do the following:

Read the prompt carefully. Make sure you understand what your professor wants you to do. Pay
attention to the verbs. Are you supposed to summarize, explore, speculate, analyze, identify, explain,
define, evaluate, apply, or do something else?

Try out new ideas and approaches. Informal writing can be your chance to speculate, explore, and
be creative. Be sure you understand and deliver what your professor expects, but remember that reading
responses can also provide opportunities to extend your thinking into new areas.

Show that you have read, can understand, and can work with the material. Ground your response
in the material you are being asked to discuss. When writing about a story or poem, come back to the
 Literary Analyses 161

text and provide quotes, summaries, and descriptions. If the reading involves a concept, make sure your
response shows that you understand or can use the concept to address the assignment prompt.
Branch out and make connections (if appropriate). Look for the broader implications and for
connections with other issues from the course or even from courses in other disciplines. With informal
writing like reading responses, you’re usually allowed or even encouraged to take risks and speculate.
If you’re not sure whether your professor wants you to do this, ask.
WRITE your own reading response. Ground your response in the text itself by describing or
summarizing aspects of the text or by quoting it. Then move to generating new ideas and insights, making
connections between the text and something else (for instance, to your personal experience or to other
information you think is relevant). Because this is an informal response, speculate and take risks. Have fun
exploring the text while you write your response.

Reading Response Assignment

Here is an example of the kind of response prompt you might be assigned in a literature class. This prompt
is about a poem written in 1896 by the Black American writer Paul Laurence Dunbar (1872–1906). The
professor’s prompt follows the poem; the student’s response follows that.

We Wear the Mask (1896)

We wear the mask that grins and lies,

Library of Congress Prints

­ hotographs Division
It hides our cheeks and shades our eyes,—

[LC-USZ62-108239].
This debt we pay to human guile;
With torn and bleeding hearts we smile, 5

And mouth with myriad subtleties.

Why should the world be over-wise, and P
In counting all our tears and sighs?
Nay, let them only see us, while Paul Laurence Dunbar
We wear the mask. 10

We smile, but, O great Christ, our cries

To thee from tortured souls arise.
We sing, but oh the clay is vile
Beneath our feet, and long the mile;
But let the world dream otherwise, 15

We wear the mask!

Reading Response Prompt for “We Wear

the Mask”
Write a response paper that is at least 400 words long and that incorporates at least two The prompt
requires the use
quotations from the poem. Paul Laurence Dunbar’s poem renders a general social issue of at least two
concrete and tangible with his central metaphor of “the mask.” Examine this metaphor quotes.
162 Chapter 10

Be sure to discuss closely. Explain how it works in the poem and how it adds to the impact or meaning of
the “mask” the poem in terms of tone, theme, or overall message. Finally, speculate about whether
metaphor.
you believe the metaphor is still appropriate in today’s world, even though the poem was
The three key
verbs are examine, written over 100 years ago.
explain, and
speculate.

A Student’s Reading Response

Mateo Hernandez
When I first read this, it sounded kind of happy, almost like a nursery rhyme. So at first
Informal reading I thought the mask metaphor was kind of happy, because when you hear “mask,” you
responses can use
think fun, childhood, and parties. But reading it a few more times, I noticed all those
personal pronouns
such as I and me. words that are the opposite of happy: “grins and lies,” “human guile,” “bleeding hearts,”
“tears and sighs,” “tortured souls,” and many others. So, this is not a happy mask at all.
I also wondered about who is the “We” in “We wear the mask.” Then I noticed the
picture of Dunbar and his lifespan. That made me think about my high school history
class, where we learned about the Jim Crow laws in America, from around 1875 to the
1960s, when Whites passed laws that put Blacks into incredibly brutal segregation.
Connects poem Bringing all these things together, the “We” and “the mask” started to make sense. The
and its context. “We” is “We Black Americans” around 1896, when the poem was written. “The mask” is
not a physical thing. It’s a façade that Blacks wear that makes Whites think they’re happy
but really hides total despair: “But let the world dream otherwise, / We wear the mask.” In
1896, Blacks could not show even a hint of disobedience. So the Black person, who has
Satisfies the to act ignorant and happy, actually knows more than the White person who “dream[s]
prompt by quoting otherwise.”
the poem and
discussing the But why not just come out and say that racism and Jim Crow laws are hurting Black
metaphor. Americans? With this metaphor, the poem is much more emotional and has more impact
Directly responds than just a straight argument. The message is more memorable because it gives us a
to the instructions human face. It’s almost like a story inside the metaphor. The mask metaphor gives the
in the prompt
poem more impact because it makes us see and feel something we might not have. It
(why Dunbar
“chose this makes the message much more powerful.
metaphor”). But is the metaphor still appropriate today? My answer would be “Yes!” First,
Satisfies prompt everyone wears a mask sometimes because everyone faces situations in which they
by speculating
can’t show their real selves. But on the other hand, even today, especially in the last
about the
appropriateness of few years, certain groups have to pretend they’re not angry about inequality and
metaphor for the injustice. It’s so true—maybe always has been—that some people will just tell you,
present day.
“Stop being so sensitive about so-called ‘microaggressions.’ You’re imagining things
that aren’t there.” I know that this is true for Hispanics, and it’s also true for other
groups, like Muslims. It makes people in power uncomfortable, so sometimes it’s just
easier to wear “the mask,” because most people just don’t understand what it’s like
to walk in your shoes. Maybe they should read this poem. Maybe they’re the ones
Dunbar is talking to.
 Literary Analyses 163

Quick Start Guide

Here are some quick steps to get you started on your literary analysis.

Read the literary work at least twice and narrow your topic. Make sure you’re familiar with the work
you’ll be analyzing so you can examine the text closely.

State your interpretive question. Write down a few one-sentence questions that you want to answer in
your analysis. These will probably evolve as you draft your analysis and continue delving deeper into the
text. This is just to get you started; you’ll refine your question as you draft and revise.

Inquire and do some research. Using your reading notes, decide what intrigues you most about the
work. Then you might also do some outside research about the text, the author, and the historical period in
which the text was written.

Develop your thesis. Come up with a main point or thesis that answers your interpretive question. Your
thesis will probably change and evolve, so just write down your best guess at this point.

Draft your analysis. Take your reader through the analysis step by step. Use targeted summaries and
quotes to direct readers’ attention to specific aspects of the text (not the whole text).

Revisit your introduction and conclusion. After drafting, go back to your introduction and refine your
interpretive question and thesis. After reading through your analysis once more, go to your conclusion and
make sure that it brings readers back to your thesis and then branches out in new directions.

Design, revise, and edit. The design of a literary analysis is typically simple and straightforward.
However, make sure you format the document the way your professor requests. Then revise by sharpening
your topic sentences and making sure each paragraph stays focused on answering your interpretive
question. Make sure you use the literary present tense and cite the text properly.

Readings: Literary Analyses

Reading 1
Kate Chopin (1851–1904), a writer of short stories and novels, wrote “The Story of an
Hour” (also known as “The Dream of an Hour”) in 1894. During her lifetime, Chopin was
sometimes criticized for writing “immoral” stories. More recent critics view her as an early
feminist who explored themes of love, marriage, race, and the psychology of women.
As you read this short story, pay attention to the way Chopin paints a rich portrait of a
character and works out a complete plot in a very short space.

The Story of an Hour

Kate Chopin
Knowing that Mrs. Mallard was afflicted with a heart trouble, great care was taken to break to
her as gently as possible the news of her husband’s death.
164 Chapter 10

It was her sister Josephine who told her, in broken sentences; veiled hints that revealed
in half concealing. Her husband’s friend Richards was there, too, near her. It was he who had
been in the newspaper office when intelligence of the railroad disaster was received, with
Brently Mallard’s name leading the list of “killed.” He had only taken the time to assure himself
of its truth by a second telegram, and had hastened to forestall any less careful, less tender
friend in bearing the sad message.
She did not hear the story as many women have heard the same, with a paralyzed inability
to accept its significance. She wept at once, with sudden, wild abandonment, in her sister’s
arms. When the storm of grief had spent itself she went away to her room alone. She would
have no one follow her.
There stood, facing the open window, a comfortable, roomy armchair. Into this she sank,
pressed down by a physical exhaustion that haunted her body and seemed to reach into her
soul.
5 She could see in the open square before her house the tops of trees that were all aquiver
with the new spring life. The delicious breath of rain was in the air. In the street below a peddler
was crying his wares. The notes of a distant song which some one was singing reached her
faintly, and countless sparrows were twittering in the eaves.
There were patches of blue sky showing here and there through the clouds that had met
and piled one above the other in the west facing her window.
She sat with her head thrown back upon the cushion of the chair, quite motionless, except
when a sob came up into her throat and shook her, as a child who has cried itself to sleep
continues to sob in its dreams.
She was young, with a fair, calm face, whose lines bespoke repression and even a certain
strength. But now there was a dull stare in her eyes, whose gaze was fixed away off yonder
on one of those patches of blue sky. It was not a glance of reflection, but rather indicated a
suspension of intelligent thought.
There was something coming to her and she was waiting for it, fearfully. What was it? She
did not know; it was too subtle and elusive to name. But she felt it, creeping out of the sky,
reaching toward her through the sounds, the scents, the color that filled the air.
10 Now her bosom rose and fell tumultuously. She was beginning to recognize this thing
that was approaching to possess her, and she was striving to beat it back with her will—as
powerless as her two white slender hands would have been.
When she abandoned herself a little whispered word escaped her slightly parted lips. She
said it over and over under her breath: “free, free, free!” The vacant stare and the look of terror
that had followed it went from her eyes. They stayed keen and bright. Her pulses beat fast,
and the coursing blood warmed and relaxed every inch of her body.
She did not stop to ask if it were or were not a monstrous joy that held her. A clear and
exalted perception enabled her to dismiss the suggestion as trivial.
She knew that she would weep again when she saw the kind, tender hands folded in
death; the face that had never looked save with love upon her, fixed and gray and dead. But
she saw beyond that bitter moment a long procession of years to come that would belong to
her absolutely. And she opened and spread her arms out to them in welcome.
There would be no one to live for her during those coming years; she would live for
herself. There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men
and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature. A kind
intention or a cruel intention made the act seem no less a crime as she looked upon it in that
brief moment of illumination.
 Literary Analyses 165

And yet she had loved him—sometimes. Often she had not. What did it matter! What could 15

love, the unsolved mystery, count for in the face of this possession of self-assertion which she
suddenly recognized as the strongest impulse of her being!
“Free! Body and soul free!” she kept whispering.
Josephine was kneeling before the closed door with her lips to the keyhole, imploring for
admission. “Louise, open the door! I beg; open the door—you will make yourself ill. What are
you doing, Louise? For heaven’s sake open the door.”
“Go away. I am not making myself ill.” No; she was drinking in a very elixir of life through
that open window.
Her fancy was running riot along those days ahead of her. Spring days, and summer days,
and all sorts of days that would be her own. She breathed a quick prayer that life might be
long. It was only yesterday she had thought with a shudder that life might be long.
She arose at length and opened the door to her sister’s importunities. There was a feverish 20

triumph in her eyes, and she carried herself unwittingly like a goddess of Victory. She clasped
her sister’s waist, and together they descended the stairs. Richards stood waiting for them at
the bottom.
Some one was opening the front door with a latchkey. It was Brently Mallard who entered,
a little travel-stained, composedly carrying his grip-sack and umbrella. He had been far from
the scene of the accident, and did not even know there had been one. He stood amazed at
Josephine’s piercing cry; at Richards’ quick motion to screen him from the view of his wife.
But Richards was too late.
When the doctors came they said she had died of heart disease—of joy that kills.

A Closer Look at “The Story of an Hour”

1. What makes this a narrative and not just a sequence of events? In other words,
explain how the plot moves from complication to conflict, tension, and resolution
to hold the reader’s interest. How would the reading experience and the story’s
significance have been different if the narrator had let it be known at the beginning
that Louise Mallard dies at the end of the story?
2. Read the story again, this time highlighting those parts where the narrator provides
details about Louise Mallard’s character bit by bit. Notice where Chopin has chosen
to place disclosures of revealing details. For example, only near the end of the story
does the narrator refer to the main character by her first name, calling her only
“Mrs. Mallard” up to that climactic moment. How does the author’s sequencing
of disclosures draw the reader into Louise’s character?
3. Short stories often invite readers to explore how characters change or come to a
new understanding of themselves or their world. What does Louise Mallard learn
in this story? How does her new understanding play a role in her death?

Ideas for Writing

1. Write a reading response in which you describe what you believe is the social or
political message of “The Story of an Hour.” Who were the readers that Chopin
may have been writing for? What themes or questions did she want her readers
to explore in the story and in their own lives? What questions were you moved to
explore as you read the story?
166 Chapter 10

2. In a brief memoir, narrate and describe a significant experience in your life

that you reacted to in an entirely unexpected way, perhaps in a way that others
misunderstood. Within your memoir, explain what your reaction to this experience
revealed or reveals about you and why others misunderstood your reaction.

Reading 2
S. Selina Jamal, a professor in the English department of Prince George’s Community College,
teaches courses in first-year composition and American literature. As you read her analysis
of Chopin’s short story, notice how Jamal brings in ideas from other disciplines—psychology
and feminist studies—to shed light on the main character’s “transformation of vision.”

Emotion in “The Story of an Hour”

S. Selina Jamal
In “The Story of an Hour” (1894), Kate Chopin focuses on a late nineteenth-century American
woman’s dramatic hour of awakening into selfhood, which enables her to live the last moments
of her life with an acute consciousness of life’s immeasurable beauty. Mrs. Mallard, who
suffers from a weak heart, seems to live a psychologically torpid and anemic life until she
hears the news of her husband’s death. This news comes from her husband’s friend, who
says that Brently Mallard has died in a railroad accident. Mrs. Mallard’s sister, Josephine,
mindful of Mrs. Mallard’s heart condition, breaks the news to her “in broken sentences”
and “veiled hints” (193). But when Mrs. Mallard hears the shocking news, she undergoes a
profound transformation that empowers her with a “clear and exalted perception” (194). As
Chopin demonstrates, this heightened consciousness comes to the protagonist because of
her awakened emotions. Revealing her own dynamic and avant-garde understanding, Chopin
rejects the tradition of attributing supremacy to the faculty of reason in the act of perception,
and she attributes it instead to the faculty of emotions.
When she hears the news of her husband’s death, Mrs. Mallard’s obliviousness to the
beauty of life breaks down under the powerful impact of emotion. Until this moment, Mrs.
Mallard hardly thinks it worthwhile to continue her existence; as the narrator of the story says,
“It was only yesterday [Mrs. Mallard] had thought with a shudder that life might be long” (194).
Her life until this point seems devoid of emotion, as the lines in her face “besp[ea]k repression”
(193). Upon hearing the news, her sorrow gushes out in a torrent: “She wept at once with
sudden, wild abandonment” (193). The narrator points out, however, that Mrs. Mallard is not
struck, as “many women” have been, by “a paralyzed inability” to accept the painful sense
of loss (193). On the contrary, she is roused from her passivity by an uncontrollable flood
of emotion. This “storm” that “haunt[s] her body and seem[s] to reach into her soul” (193)
ultimately purges her of the sufferance of a meaningless life, as it becomes the impetus for the
revelation that leads to her new freedom.
Until her moment of illumination, Mrs. Mallard’s emotions have been stifled and
suppressed to fit into the mold of hollow social conventions. As Chopin implies, Mrs. Mallard’s
“heart trouble” (193) is not so much a physical ailment, as the other characters in the story
think, as a sign of a woman who has unconsciously surrendered her heart (i.e., her identity as
an individual) to the culture of paternalism. This repression has long brewed in the depths of
Mrs. Mallard’s heart (emotionally speaking), and it causes her to be generally apathetic toward
 Literary Analyses 167

life. The physiological aspect of Mrs. Mallard’s heart ailment appears to be, then, a result of
the psychological burden of allowing another individual’s (i.e., her husband’s) “powerful will”
to smother and silence her own will (194). In the patriarchal world of the nineteenth-century
United States that Chopin depicts, a woman was not expected to engage in self-assertion. As
Norma Basch observes of the American legal and economic milieu of the period, the patriarchy
of that time “mandated the complete dependence of wives on husbands,” making marriage
“a form of slavery” (349, 355). The virtuous wife, in Mrs. Mallard’s world, was the submissive
woman who accepts the convention that her husband has “a right to impose a private will”
upon her—as Mrs. Mallard realizes has been true of her marriage (194). So insistent is this
artificial life of empty conventions for Mrs. Mallard that it tries to assert itself even after its
barriers are broken, as she sits in her room and begins to comprehend the freedom that awaits
her as a widow: “She was beginning to recognize this thing that was approaching to possess
her, and she was striving to beat it back with her will” (194). But the excitement in her heart,
which is supposed to be frail, is uncontrollable, and her fear soon transforms into joy
(193, 194). That is, the power of her emotions conquers the force of conventionality.
As she sets aside the world of social conventions, her emotions underscore the
individuality that is awakening in her. “[T]his thing” that is approaching her is her
consciousness of her own individuality, and she waits for it “fearfully” (193). Accompanying it
is “a monstrous joy” that highlights the colossal significance of self-discovery at the expense
of the hollow conventions that would dismiss her joy as horribly inappropriate and unbecoming
(194). Now, however, joy and hope lead her to an awareness that she has become, as she
realizes, “Free! Body and soul free!” (194). Just as she locks herself in her room and locks
out her social world, she also locks out social conventions. And thus, purging her repressed
emotions, she awakens to all the individual elements of her natural environment: she notices,
as she looks out her bedroom window, the trees, the rain, the air, the peddler’s voice, the
notes of a song, the sparrows, the sky, and the clouds (193). Because her emotions are no
longer bottled, Louise Mallard attends to “the sounds, the scents, the color” in the natural
world (193), and they teach her of the sounds, the scents, and the color within her own soul.
That is, they teach her of the particular combination of attributes within her soul that make her
a unique individual. Clearly, her new emotional freedom leads to the awakening of her mind.
Chopin’s investigation of emotion in this story clearly fits R. J. Dolan’s argument that 5

emotion influences not simply attention, but also “preattentive processing” (1191, 1192). As
Chopin shows through Louise, the act of watching nature and engaging in sense perception is
the act of processing emotional stimuli: “She could see in the open square before her house
the tops of trees that were all aquiver with the new spring life. The delicious breath of rain
was in the air” (193). These objects inspire joy and hope in her, which, in turn, stir Louise’s
attention: “[S]he felt it, creeping out of the sky, reaching toward her through the sounds,
the scents, the color that filled the air” (193). The “it” that she feels emerging from nature
is the vision, or perception, of her freedom, which occurs through her aroused emotions. The
presence of emotion signifies Louise’s sensitivity, responsiveness, and mindfulness.
Indeed, it is not the rational faculty that enables Louise’s discovery of her individuality.
As Chopin carefully points out, the coming of consciousness occurs suddenly, spontaneously,
intuitively. As Louise looks out her window, her face shows “not a glance of reflection, but
rather . . . a suspension of intelligent thought” (193). The discovery of her individuality is “too
subtle and elusive” for the rational faculty to analyze and grasp. It can only be “felt” first
with instinct and then with emotions (193). Alone and unencumbered in her room, Louise
spontaneously opens herself to the sublimity and grandeur of the physical world around her, of
which she herself is a part.
168 Chapter 10

As Chopin demonstrates through the physical changes in Louise, emotion connects the
soul to the body. As her body responds to her emotions, she feels a rhythmic connection to the
physical world. As John Deigh defines emotion, it is “a state through which the world engages
our thinking and elicits our pleasure or displeasure” (829–30), for it is the “turbulence of the
mind” that “captures our attention, orients our thoughts, and touches our sensibilities” (829).
Fittingly, Louise’s emotions enable her to feel harmony between her body and soul. According
to William James, a psychologist who was a contemporary of Chopin’s, “bodily feelings” are
“characteristics” of “various emotional moods” (1066). Fittingly, Chopin underscores Louise’s
physical state: “Now her bosom rose and fell tumultuously” (194). At this point Louise’s
apparent emotional anemia has given way to healthy blood circulation: “Her pulses beat fast,
and the coursing blood warmed and relaxed every inch of her body” (194). Indeed, if James
argues that “the immediate cause of emotion is a physical effect on the nerves” (1073), Chopin
demonstrates that emotion is accompanied by physical changes: Louise’s “coursing blood”
reflects her profound joy about her new sense of life’s sacred beauty (194).
Chopin also shows the influence of Romanticism in her emphasis on the creative role of
emotions. As M. H. Abrams argues, for the Romantics, the poet “modif[ies] or transform[s] the
materials of sense” (55): “objects of sense are fused and remolded in the crucible of emotion
and the passionate imagination” (54). Similarly, Louise’s passion influences her imagination:
“Her fancy was running riot along those days ahead of her” (194). Evidently, her feelings of
curiosity and wonder influence her “fancy,” which here is synonymous with the creative faculty
of imagination. But, in using the word “fancy” instead of imagination, Chopin suggests that it is
emotions that are prompting the creative work. As Abrams interprets the Romantic viewpoint,
“[f]eelings project a light—especially a colored light—on objects of sense” (54). Stepping
beyond the Romantics, not only does Chopin make Louise’s flooding emotions vitalize
the landscape, but she also makes the latter’s emotions create a meaningful, purposeful
landscape: it symbolizes the stirring, creative, dynamic forces of life.
Further, Chopin uses nature—the objects of sense—as a symbol of the powerful faculty of
emotions, which creates design and harmony. Just as spring symbolizes the “new . . . life,” so
the natural world symbolizes the vigor and power of Louise’s “wild abandonment,” her
passionate outburst (193). As nature returns to life after winter, so Louise’s emotions return to life
after a prolonged winter of patriarchal confinement. Furthermore, just as nature awakens
instinctively, so do Louise’s repressed emotions. That is, as nature bursts with energy and
vitality, so does Louise’s love of life. Louise’s emotions bring together all the individual elements
of the natural world in such a way that they form a new pattern, a unique living picture. Because
her husband, the source of her suppressed and repressed emotions, suddenly seems to have
disappeared, her bottled emotions gush out to taste freedom just as the world of nature (“the
sounds, the scents, the color that fill the air”) breaks out spontaneously (193). And yet her society
rejects this natural world of emotions and associates it with illness. Thus Josephine implores,
“Louise, open the door . . . you will make yourself ill” (194). While Chopin associates emotions
with sound health, the nineteenth-century patriarchy associates them with ill health.
10 Louise’s responsiveness to the sounds, scents, and color is her excited and intense
responsiveness to beauty. To feel life’s beauty, then, is to see the beauty of one’s own life. For
to look at the world of nature is to feel life’s innate, spontaneous beauty: “she was drinking in a
very elixir of life through the open window” (194). Indeed, the base metal of her own life is now
transformed to invaluable gold because of her “abandon[ment]” to her own nature (194). As Chopin
illustrates through Louise’s sense of freedom, the latter engages in an interpretive act that shows
how the individual creates meaning for herself through the faculty of emotions. So profound is this
awakening that in that one hour of self-fulfillment, Louise experiences a taste of eternity.
 Literary Analyses 169

In that one hour, then, Louise sees and creates a new identity with her newly awakened
faculty of emotions (193). Chopin illustrates the role of the emotions in creating the moment of
illumination by highlighting the connection between her eyes and her emotions: “The vacant
stare and the look of terror . . . went from her eyes. They stayed keen and bright” (194). The
awareness that transforms Mrs. Mallard into Louise, the individual, and that makes her “[see]
beyond” the stifling past into a promising future is the product of acute emotions: “There was
a feverish triumph in her eyes, and she carried herself unwittingly like a goddess of Victory”
(194). Louise breaks the shackles of the patriarchal culture as she comprehends that she
can “live for herself” instead of living the life that her husband sanctions for her (194). And
this comprehension has to be felt with emotions. Thus Chopin shows how Louise’s faculty
of emotions influences her faculty of reason: she now comprehends her “possession of self-
assertion which she suddenly recognized as the strongest impulse of her being” (194). As
Dolan observes, there is a strong relationship between emotion and cognition: “the growth of
emotional awareness informs mechanisms that underwrite the emergence of self-identity and
social competence” (1194). Standing confidently at the top of the stairs, the height of which
represents Louise’s exalted state, she has reached the zenith of self-awareness.
Thus it is no surprise that Louise suffers an acutely painful—and ultimately fatal—shock
when her husband returns home. It turns out that he has missed his train and thus has been
spared the accident that otherwise would have killed him. He arrives home and enters through
the front door just as Louise, at the end of her “brief moment of illumination” (194), is making
her symbolic descent down the stairs. When she spots her husband, Louise seems to realize
in an instant not only that her husband, as a proponent of patriarchal culture, would never
allow for a woman’s self-discovery, but also that she could never reverse her progress and
once again take up the confinement of her former life. At the sight of her husband she is at
once profoundly aware of her newfound freedom and the fact that it will not last. The shock
that kills her must, then, be the realization that she has lost this freedom, and with it her human
individuality. Her emotions spread through her entire being so profoundly that they lead to
another severe physical change, and she dies immediately.
As Chopin demonstrates, then, so powerful is emotion that it enables clarity of perception
in Louise. It allows her to perceive life’s immeasurable beauty, without which, as she realizes
with the suddenness of acutely shocking pain at the sudden entry of her husband, there is
only death: the “joy” that kills Louise is the joy that (unbeknownst to the doctors who ironically
assume that it is joy at her husband’s return that kills her [194]) she refuses to surrender, as
the patriarchy would require her to do at Brently’s return. But, for one climactic hour of her
life, Louise does truly taste joy. For one hour of emotion, Louise does glimpse meaning and
fulfillment. To be fully alive, then, is to engage in heightened consciousness, to observe and
connect with the world around one’s self. Indeed, Chopin makes clear that to simply observe
the world through one’s rational faculty is nowhere near as powerful as observing it with the
vibrant, vigorous, acute, and heightened awareness that emotion makes possible.

Works Cited
Abrams, M. H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford UP, 1953.
Basch, Norma. “Invisible Women: The Legal Fiction of Marital Unity in Nineteenth-Century America.”
Feminist Studies, vol. 5, no. 2, 1979, pp. 346–66. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3177600.
170 Chapter 10

Chopin, Kate. “The Story of an Hour.” Literature: Reading, Reacting, Writing, edited by Laurie
G. Kirszner and Stephen R. Mandell, Compact 6th ed., Thomson/Wadsworth, 2007, pp. 193–94.
Deigh, John. “Cognitivism in the Theory of Emotions.” Ethics, vol. 104, no. 4, 1994, pp. 824–54.
JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2382220.
Dolan, R. J. “Emotion, Cognition, and Behavior.” Science, vol. 298, no. 5596, 2002, pp. 1191–94.
JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3832941.
James, William. The Principles of Psychology. Vol. 2, Harvard UP, 1981.

A Closer Look at “Emotion in ‘The Story of an Hour’”

1. Jamal states her thesis in more than one place. Locate two or three places where
she states it and then identify the statement that you feel expresses her thesis most
directly and thoroughly. Does her thesis “evolve” as she explores the short story?
2. The author argues that “Chopin makes clear that to simply observe the world
through one’s rational faculty is nowhere near as powerful as observing it with
the vibrant, vigorous, acute, and heightened awareness that emotion makes
possible.” Do you agree that emotions, rather than rationality, can enhance a
person’s awareness and clarity? To make a case supporting or arguing against
this idea, you might describe an incident from your own life, a movie, or other
situation in which emotions took control and changed someone’s outlook
fundamentally.
3. To support her thesis that emotions can enhance one’s vision, Jamal consults and
quotes scientists from psychology and brain science. How do these sources help
support her argument? How does this strategy enhance the author’s ethos and the
persuasiveness of her argument?

Ideas for Writing

1. Jamal argues that Louise Mallard “creates a new identity with her newly awakened
faculty of emotions . . . so powerful is emotion that it enables clarity of perception.”
Write a memoir or profile describing a similar episode experienced by you, someone
you know, or a character in a movie or TV drama. Be sure to describe the scene and
the conflict you or this other person faced. Then describe the ways in which you or
this other person was changed. Overall, what was gained or lost? What questions
will you invite your readers to explore?
2. Practice your summarization skills. Condense this literary analysis into a well-
developed one-paragraph summary that provides an objective description of
the question Jamal explores, how she explores it, and what she concludes. First,
although Jamal does not express her interpretive question as a question, identify
and restate it as clearly and directly as you can. Then describe Jamal’s approach to
exploring that question and her final conclusions. Conclude with a brief statement
explaining whether you agree or disagree and why.
 Literary Analyses 171

Activities for Literary Analyses

Talk About This
1. In a group, consider how you could analyze a movie or TV drama in the same
way that you analyze a literary work. Start out by selecting something that
most of you are familiar with. Then generate an “interpretive question” about
the movie or drama. Ask yourself, “What do I/we want to understand by
going beneath the surface?” In a single sentence, write down your interpretive
question, and in another single sentence, write down your thesis.
2. Ask each member of your group to bring in a short poem. Discuss the poem as a
literary work by paying attention to its genre, plot, characters, setting, and use of
language and tone. What intrigues you about each poem? What new insights did
the poem inspire?
3. Find a literary analysis on the Internet. Point to specific places in the analysis
where it does make or could have made the following moves:
a. Identifies or suggests an interpretive question
b. States a thesis that addresses that question
c. Examines the text itself to support the interpretation
d. Goes outside the text (with information about the author, the social or
historical setting, etc.) to develop the interpretation
e. Provides insights that go beyond the obvious

Try This Out

1. Read Paul Laurence Dunbar’s “We Wear the Mask” near the end of this chapter.
Generate an “interpretive question” about the poem. Ask yourself, “What do
I want to understand by going beneath the surface of the poem?” Focus on just
one question.
a. Address your interpretive question by discussing the specifics of the poem.
Focus at first on the poem itself rather than on what you might know about
the author or the time it was written. Finally, come up with one aspect of
the poem that makes a plausible case about its message and what makes it
effective, thought-provoking, revealing, or enjoyable.
b. In a single sentence, write down your interpretive question. In another single
sentence, write down your thesis.
2. Practice summarizing, describing, and quoting from Chopin’s “The Story of an
Hour.” First, summarize that story as clearly and efficiently as possible in one
paragraph. Second, rework what you’ve written to weave in quoted words and
phrases that are especially important to the summary. Be sure to use quotation
marks and parenthetical citations to show which words are quoted and the pages
where they appear.
3. Search the Internet to find literary definitions of the word “genre.” Cut and
paste those definitions into a single file. Now, look back at the definition of genre
172 Chapter 10

in Chapter 1, “Writing and Genres.” How are the literary definitions of genre
different than the one used in this book? Are there any similarities? In a response
to your professor, try to reconcile these two definitions of genre in a way that
makes both useful.

Explore This
There are many microgenres that are like the literary analyses discussed in this chap-
ter. Choose a microgenre from the following list and find three examples in print or
on the Internet. Using these examples, try to figure out the features common to this
microgenre.
Book cover blurb—designed for the back cover of a book, a one- to five-line
description of a book that tries to capture its spirit and entices potential
­readers to buy it
Movie or TV episode analysis—analysis of a movie or TV episode that uses the
strategies and features of a literary analysis
Literary review—a review that discusses the strengths and weaknesses of a liter-
ary work (novel, short story, or poem) and makes an overall assessment about
its quality
Imitation piece—imitation of a literary work that uses the style, tone, themes,
and structures of the original work (can be serious or humorous)
Literary analysis parody—a ridiculous or overblown literary analysis that is
shallow and full of tired clichés about the literary work

Write This
1. Analyze a short story or poem. Write a literary analysis of a short story or poem
that poses an interesting interpretive question and offers an interpretive thesis
that explains the work’s message or significance or that analyzes its structure
and features (character, symbol, setting, etc.). Be sure to focus on the text itself for
your interpretation.
2. Create a multimedia literary analysis of a song or poem. Drawing on a variety
of media (images, sound, or text), create an electronic multimedia presentation
of a song or poem. Choose whatever medium you are comfortable with (or that
you want to learn), such as a podcast, webpage, or photo essay. Combine these
media to provide your audience with an experience that goes beyond the text
and presents them with something new—a new insight, analysis, or interesting
juxtaposition.
3. Turn a review into a literary analysis. Write an informal two-page review of
a movie, a TV show, or a work in some other medium. Then transform the
review into a more formal two- to four-page literary analysis using the strategies
described in this chapter. Pose an interpretive question and state a thesis that
responds to the question. Quote and describe the text. Then explain the message
or significance of the work you are analyzing.
Chapter 11
Rhetorical Analyses
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

11.1 invent the content of a rhetorical analysis.

11.2 organize and draft your rhetorical analysis.
11.3 create an appropriate style while including images that support the
­written text.

Have you ever criticized an advertisement on television or the speech of a politician? If

you have, you’ve done something similar to a rhetorical analysis. Rhetorical a­ nalyses are
used to determine why some arguments work and others don’t. Advertisers, ­political
scientists, marketing analysts, and public relations agents use rhetorical analyses to
understand how well their messages are influencing their target audiences and the
general public. Similarly, political scientists and business consultants use rhetorical
analyses to determine which ideas and strategies will be most persuasive to voters and
customers.
Ultimately, the goal of a rhetorical analysis is to show why a specific argument is
effective or persuasive. By studying arguments closely, you can learn how writers and
speakers influence others and how you can be more persuasive yourself.
In your college courses, you may be asked to analyze documents, advertisements,
and speeches. These kinds of analytical assignments are not always called “­rhetorical
analyses,” but anytime you are asked to analyze a nonfiction text closely, you will
­probably write something similar to a rhetorical analysis.
In the workplace, your supervisors may ask you to closely critique your organiza-
tion’s messages, including documents, websites, marketing materials, and advertising,
to determine whether they are working as intended. Your ability to write a rhetorical
analysis will help you offer critical insights and suggestions for improvement.
A variety of rhetorical analysis methods are available, such as metaphorical analy-
sis, narrative analysis, pentadic analysis, genre analysis, and others. We cannot discuss
them all here. In this chapter, you will learn a popular and highly useful method called a
“neo-Aristotelian” rhetorical analysis, which uses key concepts defined by the ancient
Greek philosopher Aristotle.

173
174 Chapter 11

At-A-Glance
Rhetorical Analyses
Here are two possible organizations for a rhetorical analysis, but other arrangements of these sections will work,
too. You should adjust these organizational patterns to fit your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context.

Introduction Introduction

Historical context and

Explanation of summary of the text
rhetorical concepts
Explanation of first
rhetorical concept
Historical context and followed by an analysis
summary of the text of the text

Analysis of logos-related Explanation of second

(reasoning) proofs in rhetorical concept
the text followed by an analysis
of the text
Analysis of ethos-related
Explanation of third
(credibility) proofs in
rhetorical concept
the text
followed by an analysis
of the text
Analysis of pathos-related
(emotion) proofs in •
•
the text •
Conclusion
Conclusion

Rhetorical analyses can be written a variety of ways. Nevertheless, they tend to have these common features:
• An introduction that identifies the subject of your analysis, states your purpose and main point (thesis
statement), offers background information on the subject, and stresses its importance.
• An explanation of the rhetorical concepts that you will use to analyze the subject.
• A description or summary of your subject that sets it in a historical context.
• An analysis of the subject through the chosen rhetorical concepts.
• A conclusion that states or restates your main point (thesis statement) and looks to the future.
 Rhetorical Analyses 175

One Student’s Work: Rhetorical Analyses

The Rhetoric of Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address”

Sara Kelley
Advertisements on television, newspaper and magazine articles, Web sites,
conversations, speeches, songs—we are bombarded daily with rhetoric vying
for our attention. Whether we realize it or not, these everyday communica-
tions use the three proofs of rhetoric: the appeal to emotion, the use of char­
acter, and the appeal to reason (pathos, ethos, and logos, respectively). Historic
documents also contain each of the proofs. One well-known speech that read- The topic of the
ily incorporates each of them is the address President Abraham Lincoln gave analysis and its
importance are
at Gettysburg on November 19, 1863, commonly known as the “Gettysburg mentioned up
Address.” front.
In Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, Charmichael suggests, “Greatness in a
speech, like greatness in men, or in events, is usually recognized only when
seen through the haze of distance which the passing years bring” (67-68). It is The thesis makes
often only in retrospect that great speeches are recognized as just that. Though a claim that the
remainder of the
the “Gettysburg Address” is already commonly—and quite deservedly—held analysis will sup-
in high regard, an analysis of its rhetorical proofs will only speak further to its port or prove.
importance.
Although the situation was itself emotional, Lincoln did appeal to the Topic sentences
audience’s emotion in his address. Lincoln’s speech commemorated those like this one make
smaller claims that
lost in one of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War, a war that resulted in more each paragraph
American servicemember deaths than both world wars and the Vietnam War will support.
combined. The audience was already filled with grief—perhaps even anger—at
the devastating loss of so many people. They were perhaps weary of this long Examples and
and trying war. Lincoln first acknowledges this emotional state by lamenting ­reasoning are
used to support
that a nation “conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all the analysis.
men are created equal” was enduring a long, drawn-out war. Lincoln then uses
this emotional state as a springboard to inspire hope in that same audience. He
eloquently encourages the listeners to continue the fight for the sake of those
who already gave the ultimate sacrifice; he evokes confidence in the nation’s
ability to survive. Both these emotions are important ones as identified by
Aristotle (Crowley and Hawhee 205). Although Lincoln chooses not to use
enargeia (the vivid picturing of events), he speaks of the “final resting place”
that those gathered on that day came to consecrate. That phrase carries a great
amount of emotion because the people were actually there; they were standing
that day on that battlefield where so many others gave their lives. Lincoln was
not required to describe the field through enargeia when his audience could
simply look around them and see it quite literally—a very powerful experience.
Though most of the speech uses small common words, much honorific
­language is contained in the “Gettysburg Address,” adding to its effectiveness
through the powerful emotions it too evokes (Kunhardt 222). Examples of this
honorific language include the many references to dedication and the repetition
176 Chapter 11

of the word “consecration.” Emotional words like “nobly,” “devotion,” “­hallow,”

and “honored” also add to the moving appeal. Lincoln is passionately insistent
on how important it is for the audience to continue “the great task” begun by
“the brave men, living and dead, who struggled” at Gettysburg; this imploring
is effective through Lincoln’s use of pathos. The President wanted his audience
to feel the weight of the great responsibility that had fallen to them; he wanted
them to be filled with pride in and gratitude for the sacrifices that their fellow
countrymen had made. As one historian stresses, “There can be little doubt that
the address was recognized from the first as an unusual utterance, even though
time, alone, with the perspective which it brings, could give it that unique place
of honor in the world’s esteem which now it holds” (Carmichael 83).
This topic sentence The second proof Lincoln establishes in his “Gettysburg Address” is ethos.
signals that the Although he does not directly build his own ethos, Lincoln’s position as President
discussion is mov-
ing forward. lends him situated ethos. He was well acquainted with the subject about which
he was speaking, an important aspect of situated ethos. Lincoln was also well
known for his kindness and caring, characteristics that added to his good char-
acter (Kunhardt 223). By using the collective “we,” Lincoln closed the distance
between himself and his audience. He made them feel a sense of belonging: “We
[must] take increased devotion,” “it is for us [ . . . ] to be dedicated,” “we here
highly resolve.” As the book A New Birth of Freedom: Lincoln at Gettysburg states:

Only 271 words—that was the final count in the version that would emerge
as the authorized and official one. And 202 of them so short and simple:
only one syllable to them. Common words—pronouns, prepositions, arti-
cles, conjunctions—little helpful words, Lincoln would have called them:
the, eleven times; that, thirteen; we, ten times; to and here, eight times apiece;
a, seven times; and, six; of, have, can, for, not, it, coming up five; and a good
sprinkling of they, this, these, and, is, are, so, along with but, in, us, and who.
Only seven words of four syllables, thirteen of three. (Kunhardt 222)

But what is so significant about these little words? Lincoln chose the shorter
words intentionally; instead of appearing more intelligent than his audience, he
spoke simply though eloquently. Instead of using fancy or arrogant language,
Lincoln appealed to everyone equally by choosing words that can easily be
understood by all. Through this, he also created good will towards his audience;
he wasn’t condescending or above their level. Lincoln spoke as one of his audi-
ence, closing the rhetorical distance further and being considerate of their needs.
Additionally, shorter sentences are often more understandable and familiar to
general audiences. Each of these techniques helped to build Lincoln’s ethos.
In addition to pathos and ethos, Lincoln used logos in his “Gettysburg
Address” (though to a lesser extent). He calls upon the audience’s sense of
reason and logic by stating some commonly held beliefs. Most reasonable
­people would agree that the battlefield could not be consecrated to the degree
that it deserved by anyone other than those who fought there. Most would
also agree that it was now their duty to finish the work begun by those who
had died. By using deductive reasoning, Lincoln states the major premise that
equality and liberty in a nation are worth fighting for. A minor premise found
 Rhetorical Analyses 177

in the “Gettysburg Address” is that fighting (and dying) for what one believes
in is honorable. Forming an enthymeme, the conclusion is that if equality and
liberty are the honorable characteristics that others fought and died for, then
they are qualities worthy enough to continue fighting for. Lincoln’s use of
­reasoning is designed to encourage the Union to persevere in its struggle for
freedom and equality. Through this address, he sought to preserve the value
of these qualities and, ultimately, his Union.
Abraham Lincoln was very effective in his “Gettysburg Address.” By The thesis is
using ethos, pathos, and logos, he appeals to the audience’s emotions and ability restated with
more emphasis to
to reason, while relying upon his situated ethos as President. Kunhardt sum­ bring closure to
marizes it well: the argument.

Aside from a poetic element, two characteristics mark Lincoln’s literary Quotes from
style, and these stand out preeminent in his Gettysburg Address. In the experts are used
to support the
first place there is the comprehensive and perfect grasping of great ideas; analysis.
then these ideas and their logical relations are expressed in language that
is condensed, crystalline, and perfectly simple. (98)

Lincoln was a great speaker, and one of his greatest speeches was the
“­Gettysburg Address.” An analysis of this speech’s use of ethos, pathos, and logos The main point
is evidence of Lincoln’s persuasiveness. And unlike some of the rhetoric that we of the analysis is
restated in the
see every day in which we must search for the three proofs, they can be easily conclusion.
identified and analyzed in Lincoln’s address. Though his original audience was
limited to those gathered on the battlefield at Gettysburg that day in 1863 and
though Lincoln predicted that no one would remember his simple address, the
“Gettysburg Address” remains one of the most powerful speeches in history.
Works Cited
Carmichael, Orton. Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address. Abingdon, 1917.
Crowley, Sharon, and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary
­Students. 3rd ed., Pearson Longman, 2004.
Kunhardt, Philip Jr. A New Birth of Freedom: Lincoln at Gettysburg. Little, Brown
and Company, 1983.
Lincoln, Abraham. “Gettysburg Address.” 19 Nov. 1863. Gettysburg, PA.

Inventing Your Rhetorical Analysis’s

Content
11.1 Invent the content of a rhetorical analysis.
When preparing to write a rhetorical analysis, the first thing you need to do is closely
read the text you are analyzing. Read through it at least a couple of times, taking special
note of any places where the author seems to make important points or perhaps misses
an opportunity to do so.
178 Chapter 11

Inquiring: Highlighting Uses of Proofs

Now, do some analysis. When looking closely at the text, you will notice that authors
tend to use three kinds of proofs to persuade you:
Reasoning (logos)—appealing to readers’ common sense, beliefs, or values
Credibility (ethos)—using the reputation, experience, and values of the author
or an expert to support claims
Emotion (pathos)—using feelings, desires, or fears to influence readers
Rhetoricians often use the ancient Greek terms logos, ethos, and pathos to discuss these
three kinds of proofs, so we have used them here. Let’s look at these concepts more
closely.

LOGOS: HIGHLIGHTING USES OF REASONING. The word logos in ancient Greek

means “reasoning” in English. This word is the basis for the English word logic, but logos
involves more than using logic to prove a point. Logos also involves appealing to some-
one else’s common sense and using examples to demonstrate a point. Here are some
common ways people use reasoning to influence the beliefs and opinions of others:
If . . . then—“If you believe X, then you should believe Y as well.”
Either . . . or—“Either you believe X or you believe Y.”
Cause and effect—“X is the reason Y happens.”
Costs and benefits—“The benefits of doing X are worth/not worth the cost of Y.”
Better and worse—“X is better/worse than Y because . . . “
Examples—“For example, X and Y demonstrate that Z happens.”
Facts and data—“These facts/data support my argument that X is true or Y is false.”
Anecdotes—“X happened to these people, thus demonstrating Y.”
As you analyze the text, highlight these uses of reasoning so you can figure out
how the writer uses logos to influence people.

ETHOS: HIGHLIGHTING USES OF CREDIBILITY. The Greek word ethos means

“credibility,” “authority,” or “character” in English. It’s also the basis for the English
word ethics. Ethos could refer to the author’s credibility or to citing someone else’s
­credibility to support an argument.
Highlight places in the text where the author is using his or her authority or cred-
ibility to prove a point:
Personal experience—“I have experienced X, so I know it’s true and Y is not.”
Personal credentials—“I have a degree in Z” or “I am the director of Y, so I know
about the subject of X.”
Good moral character—“I have always done the right thing for the right
reasons, so you should believe me when I say that X is the best path to
follow.”
Appeal to experts—“According to Z, who is an expert on this topic, X is true,
and Y is not true.”
 Rhetorical Analyses 179

Identification with the readers—“You and I come from similar backgrounds,

and we have similar values; therefore, you would likely agree with me that
X is true and Y is not.”
Admission of limitations—“I may not know much about Z, but I do know that
X is true and Y is not.”
Expression of goodwill—“I want what is best for you, so I am recommending
X as the best path to follow.”
Use of “insider” language—Using special terminology or referring to informa-
tion that only insiders would understand.
When you are searching for ethos-related proofs, look carefully for places where
the author is trying to use his or her character, expertise, or experience to sway read-
ers’ opinions.

PATHOS: HIGHLIGHTING USES OF EMOTION. Finally, look for places where the
author is trying to use pathos, or emotions, to influence readers. The psychologist Robert
Plutchik suggests that there are eight basic emotions: joy, acceptance, fear, surprise, sad-
ness, disgust, anger, and anticipation. As you analyze the text, highlight places where
the author is using these basic emotions to persuade readers.
Promise of gain—“By agreeing with us, you will gain trust, time, money, love,
advancement, reputation, comfort, popularity, health, beauty, or convenience.”
Promise of enjoyment—“If you do things our way, you will experience joy,
anticipation, fun, surprises, enjoyment, pleasure, leisure, or freedom.”
Fear of loss—“If you don’t do things this way, you risk losing time, money, love,
security, freedom, reputation, popularity, health, or beauty.”
Fear of pain—“If you don’t do things this way, you may feel pain, sadness, grief,
frustration, humiliation, embarrassment, loneliness, regret, shame, vulnerabil-
ity, or worry.”
Expressions of anger or disgust—“You should be angry or disgusted because
X is unfair to you, me, or someone else.”
Some other common emotions that you might find are annoyance, awe, ­calmness,
confidence, courage, delight, disappointment, embarrassment, envy, frustration, glad-
ness, grief, happiness, hate, hope, horror, humility, impatience, inspiration, jealousy, joy,
­loneliness, love, lust, nervousness, nostalgia, paranoia, peace, pity, pride, rage, regret,
resentment, shame, shock, sorrow, suffering, thrill, vulnerability, worry, and yearning.
Frequently, writers will not state emotions directly. Instead, they will inject feel-
ings by using emotional stories about others or by incorporating images that illustrate
the feelings they are trying to invoke. Advertisements, for example, rely heavily on
­emotions to influence viewers (Figure 11.1).

Researching: Finding Background Information

Once you have highlighted the proofs (i.e., logos, ethos, pathos) in the text, it’s time to do
some background research on the author, the text, and the context in which the work
was written and used.
 180 Chapter 11

ONLINE SOURCES. Using Internet

Figure 11.1 Advertising and Emotions
Advertising relies heavily on pathos arguments because there isn’t much
time to persuade readers before they move on.
wavebreakmediamicro/123RF
search engines and electronic databases,
find out as much as you can about the
person or organization that created
the text and any issues that he, she, or
they were responding to. What histori-
cal events led up to the writing of the
text? What happened after the text was
released to the public? What have other
people said about it?
PRINT SOURCES. Using your library’s

catalog and article databases, dig deeper

to understand the historical context of the
text you are studying. How did historical
events or pressures influence the author
and the text? Did the author need to adjust
the text in a special way to fit the audience?
Was the author or organization that pub-
lished the text trying to achieve particular
goals or make a statement of some kind?
EMPIRICAL SOURCES. In person or through e-mail, you might interview an expert
who knows something about the subject, the author, or the context of the text you
are ­analyzing. An expert can help you gain a deeper understanding of the issues
and people involved in the text. You might also show the text to others and note
their reactions to it. You can use surveys or informal focus groups to see how people
respond to the text.

Organizing and Drafting Your

Rhetorical Analysis
11.2 Organize and draft your rhetorical analysis.
At this point, you should be ready to start drafting your rhetorical analysis. As men-
tioned earlier, rhetorical analyses can follow a variety of organizational patterns, but
those shown in the At-A-Glance section earlier in this chapter provide good models to
follow. You can modify these patterns where necessary as you draft your ideas.
Keep in mind that you don’t actually need to use rhetorical terms such as logos,
ethos, and pathos in your rhetorical analysis, especially if your readers don’t know what
these terms mean. Instead, you can use words like “reasoning,” “credibility,” and
“­emotion,” which will be more familiar to your readers.

The Introduction
Usually, the introduction to a rhetorical analysis is somewhat brief. In this part of your
analysis, you want to make some or all of these moves:
 Rhetorical Analyses 181

IDENTIFY THE SUBJECT OF YOUR ANALYSIS AND OFFER BACKGROUND

­INFORMATION. Clearly state what you are analyzing and provide some historical
or other background information that will familiarize your readers with it.
STATE THE PURPOSE OF YOUR ANALYSIS. Explain that the purpose of your anal­
ysis is to determine whether your subject was effective or persuasive.
STATE YOUR MAIN POINT OR THESIS. Rhetorical analyses are generally used in
academic settings, so they often include a clear main point or thesis statement in the
introduction. Here are examples of a weak thesis statement and a stronger one:

Weak: The advertisements for Buffalo Wild Wings are effective because they are funny.

Stronger: Buffalo Wild Wings’ “The Official Hangout of March Madness” campaign
is successful because it humorously shows that B-Dubs is a place where funny,
­unexpected, and even magical things happen to the young people who are there.

STRESS THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TEXT. Tell readers why the rhetorical strategies
used in the text are interesting or worth paying attention to.

Explanation of Rhetorical Concepts

After the introduction, define and explain the rhetorical concepts you are using to ana-
lyze the text. So if you are using logos, ethos, and pathos, you need to explain how these
concepts are defined. For example, here is how a student defined pathos in her rhetorical
analysis:

Pathos, which involves using emotion to influence someone else, is a common rhetorical
tactic in advertisements aimed at teenage girls. Relying on stereotypes about teenage
girls, advertisers use emotional scenes and images to grab the teen’s attention and often
make her feel something negative, like less confident, insecure, undesirable, unattractive,
anxious, or dependent (Holt et al., 84).
Of course, the product being pushed by the advertiser is then put forward as a
­solution to that supposed inadequacy in the teen’s life. For example, as p
­ sychologist
Tina Hanson points out, teenage girls don’t really need a cabinet full of haircare
­products (73). The typical teenage girl’s hair is already healthy, shiny, full, and rich
in color. Yet, social media and magazine advertisements from haircare companies,
which make shampoo, conditioner, and dye, routinely show frustrated teens unsat-
isfied with their hair. Usually, the message being sent to a teen is “You don’t even
know you need this product, but everyone else knows you do.” The images show
a discouraged girl who risks losing friends or being embarrassed because her hair
isn’t perfect.

In your rhetorical analysis, you don’t need to discuss all three of the rhetorical
proofs mentioned in this chapter. Instead, you might decide to concentrate on just
one of them, like pathos, so you can develop a fuller definition of that concept for your
readers.
Also, keep in mind that other rhetorical concepts besides logos, ethos, and
pathos are available. For instance, you could choose to study the metaphors used
182 Chapter 11

in a text or perhaps its genre, style, or use of narrative. If you choose one of these
other rhetorical concepts, you will need to define and explain that concept to your
readers.

Provide Historical Context and Summary

To give your readers an overall understanding of the text you are analyzing, provide
them with some historical background on it. Tell them who wrote it and where and
when it appeared. Then summarize the text for them, following the organization of the
text and highlighting its major points and features.
The aim of this historical context section is to give your readers enough ­background
to understand the text you are analyzing. For example, here is the historical context
and a summary of an anti-smoking campaign called “The Real Cost”:

The Real Cost campaign was created in 2014 by an advertising firm called Draftfcb
for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (AdWeek 2014). The campaign focuses on
the “costs” of smoking to a person’s health. Each ad stresses the effects of smoking
on teeth and skin,
showing teens how
smoking today
will cause their
teeth to turn brown
and their skin to

Courtesy of U.S. Food and Drug Administration

wrinkle. Most of
the advertisements
like the one shown
in fig. 1 use altered
images of teens in
startling ways.
This ad seems
to follow the typical
path, showing a girl
with browned teeth
due to smoking.
People who come
Fig. 1 The Real Cost Campaign
across these side-
by-side images are immediately struck by the differences between the attractive girl
on the left and the much less attractive girl on the right. The written text on the left
says, “See what your SMILE COULD LOOK LIKE . . . ” and on the right it says, “ . . . if
you SMOKE.” Then, the small print explains the possible consequences of smoking,
like yellow teeth, gum disease, and tooth loss.

The length of your summary depends on your readers. If they are already familiar
with the text you are analyzing, your summary should be brief. You don’t want to bore
 Rhetorical Analyses 183

readers by telling them something they already know. If, however, they are not familiar
with the text, your summary should be longer and more detailed.

Analysis of the Text

Now it is time to analyze the text for your readers. Essentially, you are going to inter-
pret the text for them, using the rhetorical concepts you defined earlier in the rhetorical
analysis.
There are two main ways to organize this section:
• You can follow the organization of the text you are analyzing, starting from the
beginning and working to the end of the text. Apply the rhetorical concepts to each
major section of the text.
• You can discuss the text through each rhetorical concept separately. For instance, if
you are analyzing the uses of logos, ethos, and pathos in a text, you would separately
discuss the text’s use of each kind of proof.
For example, here is a discussion of pathos in “The Real Cost Campaign”:
Using Emotions in a Unique Way
At first glance, “The Real Cost” ad doesn’t seem to be doing anything new, but there is
something more subtle and powerful going on. Like other anti-smoking messages, it is
using emotional arguments (pathos) to scare teens into not smoking. Ads like this one
­target the main thing that teens, especially “cool” teens, care about—their looks.
Teens want to be like the girl in the left picture. She looks pretty and fun with ­
perfect teeth and a gleam in her eyes. She could be your best friend, captain of the
volleyball team, and a fashion model at the same time. Even guys identify with her
because she’s the kind of girl they would want to hang out with or even date. She looks
healthy and happy.
The same girl on the right sends a completely different emotional message. This
picture is basically the same, but now the girl’s yellow-brown teeth make her almost ugly.
That gleam in her eye is gone. Even weirder, though, she doesn’t look fun anymore, and
she doesn’t look healthy or happy. She seems to be faking that she is happy. The girl on
the right actually seems unsatisfied with herself and even sad. Not only is this girl much
less attractive, but she looks like she is hiding something.
This use of pathos powerfully taps into teens’ inner anxieties that they will be
exposed as fakers or that other people will see through them in some way. For many
people, but especially females, there is a “terror of being unmasked as an imposter”
(Roche and Whitacre 4). This ad hints that smoking reveals that a person is really not as
happy or healthy underneath as they or others would like to believe.

In this discussion of emotion, the writer is applying her definition of pathos to the
campaign. This allows her to explain how the use of emotion can deter teens from
smoking. She then goes on to discuss the use of logos and ethos in the ad. Or, if she had
more to say about pathos, she might have made her rhetorical analysis about the use of
pathos alone.
184 Chapter 11

The Conclusion
When you have finished your analysis, it’s time to wrap up your argument. Keep this
part of your rhetorical analysis brief. A paragraph or two should be enough. You should
answer one or more of the following questions:
• Ultimately, what does your rhetorical analysis reveal about the text you studied?
• What does your analysis tell your readers about the rhetorical concept(s) you used
to analyze the text?
• Why is your explanation of the text or the rhetorical concept(s) important to your
readers?
• What should readers look for in the future when faced with this kind of text or this
persuasion strategy?
Minimally, the key to a good conclusion is to restate your main point (thesis statement)
about the text you analyzed.

Choosing an Appropriate Style

and Design
11.3 Create an appropriate style while including images that support the
written text.
The appropriate style and visual design of your rhetorical analysis depend on your
readers and where your analysis might appear. If you are writing your analysis for an
online magazine like Slate or The Daily Beast, readers would expect you to write some-
thing colorful and witty. Your analysis would be designed with an attractive layout and
eye-catching images. If you are writing the argument for an academic journal, your tone
would need to be more formal and the design a bit less flashy. Here are some of the
style and design choices you’ll need to make while creating a rhetorical analysis that is
engaging and attractive for your readers:
• Use lots of detail to describe the text—In detail, explain the who, what, where, when,
why, and how of the text you are analyzing. You want readers to experience the text,
even if they haven’t seen or read it themselves.
• Minimize the jargon and difficult words—Remove any unnecessarily complex
words or specialized terminology because they will make your text harder to read.
• Improve the flow of your sentences—The best way to help your sentences flow
is to use the “given-new” strategies that are discussed in Chapter 25, “Developing
Paragraphs and Sections.” Given-new involves making sure the beginning of each
sentence uses something like a word, phrase, or idea from the previous sentence.
• Pay attention to sentence length—If you are writing a lively or witty analysis,
you will want to use shorter sentences to make your argument feel more active
and fast-paced. If you are writing for an academic audience, longer sentences will
make your analysis sound more formal and proper.
 Rhetorical Analyses 185

You want to “show” as much as you “tell” when writing a

rhetorical analysis. Since rhetorical analyses are often used to
Figure 11.2 Adding a Screenshot
to Your Analysis
critique advertisements, political campaign materials, posters,
A screenshot is an easy way to put an image
and other visual documents, you want to show your readers
into your rhetorical analysis.
what you're analyzing.
• Download images from the Internet—If you are review- A New Wrinkle in an Anti-Smoking Campaign
ing a book or a historical document, you can download an Sara Young, English 102

image of it to include in your rhetorical analysis. This way,

Soon-to-be-ex-teens like me have been exposed to a steady stream of anti-smoking
advertisements our whole lives. Countless campaigns since the 1970s have tried to
scare us and use peer pressure to convince us that smoking is bad. These ads are

readers can actually see what you are talking about.

regular intrusions on television. They stalk us on Instagram. We know our DARE officer
by name. The ads are so common that most people don’t even notice them anymore.
However, a recent anti-smoking campaign, “The Real Cost,” breaks through with some
fresh ways to reach teens.

• Add a screenshot—If you are writing about an advertise- The Real Cost campaign was created in 2014 by an advertising firm called Draftfcb
for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (AdWeek 2014). The campaign focuses on
the “costs” of smoking to a person’s health. Each ad stresses the effects of smoking on

ment from the Internet, you can take a picture of your teeth and skin, showing teens how smoking today will cause their teeth to turn brown
and their skin to wrinkle. Most of the advertisements like the one shown in fig. 1 use
altered images of teens in startling ways.

screen (i.e., a screenshot). Then you can include that screen-

shot in your analysis (Figure 11.2).
• Include a link to a podcast—If you are analyzing a video
or audio text (perhaps something you found on YouTube
or TikTok), you can add a hyperlink to that text in your
­analysis. Or you can include the web address so readers
can find the text themselves. Fig. 1. The Real Cost Campaign

Why not be creative? Look for ways to use technology This ad seems to follow the typical path, showing a girl with browned teeth due to
smoking. People who come across these side-by-side images are immediately struck by

to let your readers access the text you are analyzing. the differences between the attractive girl on the left and the much less attractive girl
on the right. The written text on the left says, “See what your SMILE COULD LOOK
LIKE…” and on the right it says, “…if you SMOKE.” Then, the small print explains the
possible consequences of smoking, like yellow teeth, gum disease, and tooth loss.

Microgenre
The Ad Critique
An ad critique evaluates an advertisement to show why it is or is not effective. If the ad is persuasive, show the
readers why it works. You can also use an ad critique to explain why you like or dislike a particular type of adver-
tisement. You should aim your critique at people like you who are consumers of mass media and products.
Today, ad critiques are becoming common on the Internet, especially on blogs. They give people a way to
express their reactions to the many kinds of advertisements bombarding them. Here are some strategies for
writing an ad critique:

Summarize the ad. If the ad appeared on television or the Internet, describe it objectively in one
­paragraph. Tell your readers the who, what, where, and when of the ad. If the ad appeared in a magazine
or other print medium, you could scan it or download the image from the sponsor’s website and insert the
image into your document.

Highlight the unique quality that makes the advertisement stand out. There must be something
remarkable about the ad that caught your attention. What was it? What made it stand out from all the other
ads that are similar to it?

Describe the typical features of ads like this one. Identify the three to five common features that are
usually found in this type of advertisement. You can use examples of other ads to explain how a typical
ad would look or sound.
186 Chapter 11

Show how this ad is different from the others. Compare the features of the ad to those of similar
­advertisements. Demonstrate why this ad is better or worse than its competitors.

Include many details. Throughout your critique, use plenty of detail to help your readers visualize or hear
the ad. You want to replicate the experience of seeing or hearing it.

WRITE your own ad critique. While watching television, streaming videos, or reading a magazine, find
an ad that seems ­different. Then write a two-page critique in which you explain why it is or is not effective.
Don’t forget to scan, download, or take a picture of the ad so you can include it in your critique.

This Wendy’s Ad Campaign Just Feels Right

Theo Jackson

Nolichuckyjake/Shutterstock

Admittedly, when Wendy’s “Square’s the Beef” campaign started a few years ago, I wasn’t impressed. You
have probably seen a huge number of spots from this ad campaign, especially if you watch college and pro
sports. The ads feature red-shirted, visor-wearing employees at a fictional Wendy’s restaurant. When the
campaign began, the characters seemed awkward, and the celebrity cameos with pro athletes felt forced.
But, over time the ads have grown on me, and they show how marketers can use rhetoric and repetition to
get people to buy stuff.
The characters’ familiarity to viewers is probably the ad campaign’s greatest strength because it has built
a sense of ethos with Wendy’s target customers. Of course, celebrity athletes like Reggie Miller and Reggie
 Rhetorical Analyses 187

Bush are already well-known to most sports fans. But the campaign has also filled out the personalities of the
employees who work at this fictional Wendy’s restaurant:
• Willie, the Wendy’s manager played by Willie Earl, Jr., is the middle-aged straight man who is a master at
the double-take.
• Tyler, played by Bill O’Neill, is a young and somewhat nerdy employee who lacks self-awareness and
sometimes violates other people’s boundaries.
• Kathryn, played by Kathryn Feeney, combines a girl-next-door charm with a mild expression of disbelief.
• Toby, played by Chris Kleckner, is a goofy college-aged-looking dude who is somewhat annoying but not
quite.
Over the past few years, these recurring characters have become people viewers like and feel comfortable
with. They make this Wendy’s seem like a familiar place where many of us might want to eat.
These Wendy’s spots are funny but not laugh-out-loud funny, allowing them to deliver a small emotional
hit (pathos) to the viewers without overdoing it. Truly hilarious ads usually wear out their welcome before long.
Viewers may laugh at a hilarious ad the first five or so times they see it, but it soon gets tedious and stale—
kind of like hearing the same joke over and over. Instead, these Wendy’s spots are only mildly funny, so they
can be seen over and over (and over) again. Each is witty enough to get a smile, but they don’t require too
much emotional effort from the viewer. This makes them better suited for the kind of unrelenting barrage of ads
that happens during the college basketball and football seasons.
The ads also use storytelling (narrative) effectively. Each spot begins with a scene setter, usually narrated
by one of the characters, and then it introduces a complication that features a food item (e.g., french toast
sticks, peppermint frosty, pretzel bacon burger). The characters overreact in awkward or surprising ways,
which sets up the spot’s selling point about how the featured food item is delicious but will “only be available
for a limited time.” Potential customers come away thinking, “Hey, I better get to Wendy’s while they still have
that thing on the menu.”
Wendy’s “Square’s the Beef” ads are effective because they tell mildly funny stories that use ethos and
pathos. The stories can be repeated over and over, and the recurring characters have become familiar to us.
We actually like these people and the chill Wendy’s where they work. Eventually, any ad campaign will run its
course, but I expect this one to be around for a while.

Quick Start Guide

Need to write a rhetorical analysis? Here are some steps to get you going.

Find a text you want to analyze. Pick something you find intriguing. The best texts are ones that seem
curiously persuasive to you (or not persuasive at all). You might also look for texts that are historically
important.

Highlight the uses of logos, ethos, and pathos. Read through the text, marking places in the text where
the author uses reasoning (logos), credibility (ethos), or emotion (pathos).

Research the context. Use a variety of sources to do background research on the text you are a ­ nalyzing.
Find out as much as you can about the author and the historical context in which he or she created the
text. Use interviews or surveys to measure how others react to the text you are studying. Interview experts
who know about this kind of text.
188 Chapter 11

Draft your rhetorical analysis. A rhetorical analysis typically has the following sections: I­ntroduction
(with a solid thesis statement), Definitions of Rhetorical Concepts, Historical Context and Summary,
­Analysis, and Conclusion. Draft each section separately.

Choose an appropriate style. Your style depends on your readers, the place where your analysis will
appear, and the text you are analyzing. Use ample details and good pacing to match the style of your
­analysis with its potential place of publication.

Design your rhetorical analysis. Some graphics, especially screenshots, would make the text you are
analyzing easier for readers to understand. If you want to do something more advanced, you might try
­creating a webpage or an audio or video podcast that would make your rhetorical analysis more interactive.

Revise and edit. You have gone this far. Now finish the job. Do some revising and editing to make
your rhetorical analysis shine. Look for any inconsistencies. Fill out places where more information might
be helpful.

Readings: Rhetorical Analyses

Reading 1
A month before his death, sports commentator and former North Carolina State b ­ asketball
coach Jim Valvano offered a moving speech about cancer at the 1993 ESPY Awards.
You can view this speech on YouTube or other video-sharing sites. Valvano’s speech is
often held up as one of the most powerful American speeches on cancer. In this r­ hetorical
­analysis, watch how Amaral uses ancient rhetorical concepts to explain why a modern
speech is so effective.

An Analysis of Jim Valvano’s ’93 ESPY Awards

Speech
Keith Amaral
The cancer epidemic is undeniably one of the biggest exigencies the world currently faces;
­statistics show that it is a leading cause of death in the United States (“Cancer”). Though
­progress has been made in the fight to end cancer, the cure remains elusive. While there are
many champions for the cause, Jim Valvano is remembered by many, especially those involved
in the sporting world, as one of the cause’s premier warriors. Valvano, a successful college
basketball coach and commentator/analyst, died of cancer in 1993, but has nonetheless left
an enduring legacy through his cancer research foundation and his unforgettable Arthur Ashe
Courage Award acceptance speech at ESPN’s ’93 ESPY award ceremony. More than just
a ­simple acceptance speech, Valvano takes advantage of his kairos to further his goals of
improved cancer awareness and research—his Jimmy V Foundation serving as the vehicle—and
he does this through a series of appeals made potent through the style and delivery he employs.
 Rhetorical Analyses 189

ESPN’s Arthur Ashe Courage Award is a televised honor bestowed annually since 1993 to
an individual whose accomplishments transcend sport (Carney), so there is no better o ­ ccasion
for Jim Valvano to set forth his agenda. Rhetorically speaking, Valvano understands his k­ airos,
or the moment most conducive for him to have an impact (Crowley and Hawhee 38), is when
he takes the stage and the sports world collectively casts their eyes and ears on him. This
­scenario is given further credence considering the 1993 ESPY Awards is not only the first
appearance of the Arthur Ashe Courage Award; it is also the first appearance of the ESPY
Awards as a whole. In this regard, one should assume that Valvano is aware of the opportunity
this new televised awards ceremony affords him; many people will tune in just based on the
premise of curiosity surrounding this new event.
The timing of Valvano’s speech has further importance when one realizes this acceptance
speech takes place in the early 1990s, a period when the nation becomes fixated on the AIDS
epidemic; this fixation indirectly takes attention away from cancer, and as a result, the lack of
attention the nation devotes to cancer with the raging AIDS epidemic in effect becomes an
exigence for Valvano; an exigence within the rhetorical situation is any societal defect a rhetor
hopes to change through his/her discourse (Bitzer 5). As far as the realm of sport is concerned,
the early 1990s is known as the point of time when NBA legend Magic Johnson reveals his
HIV-positive status to the world; Johnson’s revelation happens in 1991, two years prior to
Jim ­Valvano’s speech (Sternberg). Though Valvano does not specifically refer to Johnson, he
does reference the heightened sensitivity to AIDS by stating, “[The money pouring in for AIDS
research is] ten times the amount that goes in for cancer research.” By making this statement,
Valvano is attempting to focus the spotlight back on cancer and the battle for a cure.
This shifting of the spotlight requires tact since it could potentially lead to a constraint in
the form of alienating AIDS activists, sympathizers, and sufferers; taking this into account, Jim
Valvano words his speech wisely. Considering a rhetorical constraint is essentially any barrier,
tangible or intangible, which could hinder a rhetor’s goal (Bitzer 6), the rhetor must try the best
he/she can to account for it in his/her discourse. In Jim Valvano’s case, he must be wary of the
attitudes of those who would view his speech as offensive, and by prefacing his statement
regarding AIDS fundraising vs. cancer fundraising with “ . . . the amount of money pouring in
for AIDS is not enough . . . ,” Valvano is smartly seeking to avoid any statements that could be
damaging by offering a disclaimer; he is not attempting to downplay the need for AIDS
research. His comparison is being used strictly to point out how much more attention is
needed in the realm of cancer research.
This call for attention is an aspect of logos, or an appeal to his audience’s logic (Crowley 5

and Hawhee 133). When any rhetor is seeking to move an audience based on creating a l­ogical
argument, they must back up their potentially controversial claim with data that supports it; the
only way a rhetor can be successful is if they effectively link the data to the claim, o ­ therwise
the argument is flimsy. This strategy is known in the field of rhetoric as the Toulmin Model
(Fahnestock and Secor 20). Valvano’s essentially making the claim that cancer research needs
more attention: “I need your help. We need money for research.” To support his claim, he
­delivers uncontroversial facts and statistics: “ . . . I’ll . . . tell you that one in every four [people]
will be afflicted with this disease, and yet, somehow, we seem to have put it in a little bit of a
background.” Without these undeniable statistics, Valvano’s argument becomes baseless.
While providing statistics to support his claim gives him a strong logical platform, V ­ alvano
is also maintaining a strong ethos by doing his homework on the issue. Without maintaining
or inventing good ethos, otherwise known as an honorable character (Crowley and Hawhee
163), a rhetor cannot hope to be successful in moving an audience to act; people are not
190 Chapter 11

likely to follow the lead of someone they do not respect. Valvano’s ethos is also helped
­considerably given the very nature of the occasion; he is the recipient of a humanitarian award.
­Tennis champion Arthur Ashe, the award’s inspiration and namesake, was one of the sporting
world’s premiere social activists. By Valvano accepting the Ashe award, his name is becoming
linked with an historical sports icon. As a result, if the audience was not previously aware of
­Valvano—possibly because they do not follow college basketball—they will instantly respect
Valvano based on the award that he is receiving and who his name is being grouped with.
Jim Valvano attempts to further establish his good ethos through his name-dropping; in his
speech, he states, “I rode on the plane up today with Mike Krzyzewski, my good friend and a
wonderful coach.” By making this choice in his speech, Valvano is showcasing his respected
professional standing among his peers. Furthermore, Valvano goes on to declare his idol is
Vince Lombardi, a football coaching legend and the man the Super Bowl trophy is named after.
In referencing the football coaching icon, Valvano is stepping out from the realm of basketball
and attempting to appeal to other types of sports fans. Football fans watching this speech will
instantly recognize Lombardi, and through Valvano declaring Lombardi as an inspiration, those
fans will be more willing to value Valvano’s ideas. Another important choice Valvano makes
in effectively utilizing ethos is referencing his family. Jim states, “I talked about my family, my
family’s so important. People think I have courage. The courage [is] my family.” Not only does
Valvano establish himself as a respected professional, he establishes himself as someone with
strong family values. All of this adds to Valvano’s ethos in the audience’s eyes, which directly
has an impact in how they react to his overall agenda to improve cancer awareness.
Jim Valvano’s use of pathos, or emotion-based appeals to the audience (Crowley
and Hawhee 205), is by far the most effective form of appeal in his speech. What Valvano
­essentially does is take his audience on an emotional roller coaster ride filled with some laughs
mixed in with some tears. Valvano is very witty, making light of his situation with a reference
to his speech’s time constraint: “I got tumors all over my body. I’m not worried about some
guy in the back going thirty seconds, huh?” Not completely willing to poke fun at his s­ ituation,
­Valvano starts his speech with “Time is very precious to me [and] I don’t know how much
I have left . . . .” Statements like these incite a sentiment of empathy towards Jim and i­nfluence
a desire to support his cause. He ends his speech stating, “Cancer can take away all my
­physical ability. It cannot touch my mind; it cannot touch my heart; and it cannot touch my soul.
And those three things are going to carry on forever. I thank you and God bless you all.” This
ending perfectly exemplifies just how much emphasis is placed on pathos in this speech.
Jim Valvano’s emotional appeals, and speech as a whole, would be useless if his style and
delivery are neither effective nor appropriate for the occasion; realizing this, Jim’s style and
delivery are spot on. Crowley and Hawhee state, “The achievement of an appropriate style
requires rhetors to pay attention to the conventional rules for verbal behavior in a given
­context, rules that have been laid down by their culture” (283). In terms of an award ceremony,
recipients of awards are typically expected to be gracious and humble, giving thanks to those
responsible for the honor. Valvano is very gracious throughout his speech, from acknowledging
ESPN and his family, to speaking of how much of an honor it is to be mentioned in the same
breath as Arthur Ashe. Considering these awards are sports and entertainment based, it is also
expected that the speeches should be sufficiently entertaining; Valvano, through his jokes,
accomplishes this as well.
10 Beyond his jokes, Valvano’s style is conversational and not all that formal, which lends
itself well to the event; he even states that he is not reading off cue cards at the start of his
speech. This allows his audience to feel more connected to him. Another example of just how
 Rhetorical Analyses 191

informal and unrehearsed Jim’s speech can be witnessed on the occasion when he spon­
taneously asks legendary football coach Lou Holtz questions from the podium: “What was it
like, the very first job you had, right?” The sketchy grammar in that question also highlights
the down-to-earth tone that Valvano utilizes. Not just content with being anecdotal, Jim uses
a Ralph Waldo Emerson quote, “Nothing great could be accomplished without enthusiasm.”
In this respect, Valvano injects his speech with a philosophical and poetic component. Adding
to the poetic quality of the speech, probably the most memorable statement Valvano makes is
“Don’t give up, don’t ever give up,” as it is a sound bite utilized frequently to the present day.
As far as delivery goes, Valvano’s movements are animated and his pacing is sometimes very
fast. This combination of formal and anecdotal style elements combined with an animated
delivery works well in entertaining, inspiring, and potentially moving the audience to action.
After examination of Jim Valvano’s ESPY speech, it is no surprise why it is remembered
as one of the most effective award acceptance speeches in history. Valvano utilizes the occa-
sion and takes advantage of his situation and natural charisma to construct a speech that
­audiences cannot help but be emotionally moved by. What he essentially did was take a
tragic event in his life and turn it into a window of opportunity, basically making his cancer
diagnosis a form of kairos—a chance to make an important societal change. Considering
the V ­Foundation has raised over eighty million dollars for cancer research, Valvano took full
advantage of that chance.

Works Cited
Bitzer, Lloyd F. “The Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy and Rhetoric, vol. 1, no. 1, 1968, pp. 1–14.
“Cancer.” World Health Organization, Feb. 2009, www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/en.
Carney, Shane. “The History of the ESPY Awards on ESPN.” Associated Content, 19 Jul. 2006,
www.associatedcontent.com/article/44254/the_history_of_the_espy_awards_on_espn.html?cat=40.
Crowley, Sharon, and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. 3rd ed.,
­Pearson Longman, 2004.
Fahnestock, Jeanne, and Marie Secor. A Rhetoric of Argument: Brief Edition. 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill,
2004.
Sternberg, Steve. “Magic Johnson Combats AIDS Misperceptions.” USA Today, 1 Dec. 2006,
www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-11-30-magicaids_x.htm.

A Closer Look at “An Analysis of Jim Valvano’s ’93

ESPY Awards Speech”
1. On YouTube or another video-sharing site, watch Valvano’s ESPY Awards speech.
With your group, discuss the content and delivery of this speech. In what ways
does Amaral’s rhetorical analysis explain why the speech is effective? What are a
few things you or your group would also point out?
2. This article uses some of the terminology from Greek rhetoric discussed in this
chapter. Find terms like logos, ethos, and pathos in this rhetorical analysis. Discuss
with your group how the author uses these terms to explain the rhetorical strategies
used by Valvano and how he used them to deliver a powerful speech.
3. Cancer is one of the most powerful subjects for emotional articles and speeches.
Find another article or speech about cancer. How is the rhetoric of that article or
speech similar to Valvano’s? In what ways is it different?
192 Chapter 11

Ideas for Writing

1. Imagine that you need to raise money for something you care about deeply. Write
a brief paper in which you describe what kinds of rhetorical strategies you would
use to persuade someone to give money to that cause. Specifically, explain how you
would use logos, ethos, and pathos to appeal to your audience.
2. Watch another speech about cancer that you found on YouTube or another video-
sharing site. How is this speech similar to Valvano’s 1993 speech? How is it dif-
ferent? Write a comparison argument in which you describe how the rhetorical
strategies differ between these two speeches.

Reading 2
In this rhetorical analysis, historian Stephen Mihm explores how the use of war m­ etaphors
may have impeded progress toward understanding and curing cancer. This type of
­rhetorical analysis studies a common use of words or themes across multiple documents
rather than focusing on one document. In this article, pay attention to the ways Mihm
traces the “War on Cancer” language through a century of texts that talk about how to
cure this disease.

America’s Long War on Cancer: What Was

It Good For?
Stephen Mihm
President Joe Biden did not use the word “war” to describe his plans for a “cancer m ­ oonshot”
that aims to “end cancer as we know it.” But his announcement last week quickly drew
­comparisons to the program launched by President Richard Nixon a little over 50 years ago—
known universally as the “war on cancer.” The new initiative also promises to bring the power
of the federal government to bear on the deadly disease. Not to be outdone, the British also
announced their own “national war on cancer” this past week.
All these martial metaphors, though, have a dubious record of success. For many
decades, the war analogy has structured our understanding of cancer in counterproductive
ways. This legacy is worth considering as the U.S. prepares to open yet another front in this
long-running battle.
In the 1920s, cancer was barely understood and rarely discussed; many believed it was
contagious. Few doctors specialized in treating cancer patients. Surgery saved a few, but
most people were diagnosed too late to help. Absent treatments, mortality rates remained
extremely high.
It was in this void that the American Society for the Control of Cancer—forerunner of the
American Cancer Society—sought to raise awareness and funding for research. In 1928, it
adopted the “sword of knowledge” as a symbol of their resolve. The press embraced the mar-
tial theme. A year later, the Chicago Tribune informed readers: “Radium Called Best Weapon in
War on Cancer.”
 Rhetorical Analyses 193

The battle had begun. In 1938, Marjorie Illig, a leader in the society, founded the “Women’s
Field Army,” a group that dressed in military-style khaki uniforms, complete with ranks and
medals.
These early cancer warriors meant well, working to raise awareness of how early s­ creening
and intervention could save lives. But by embracing rhetoric and imagery that framed the
struggle as a battle, such efforts inadvertently set in motion approaches to fighting cancer that
privileged the idea that cancer cells could and should be exterminated at all costs.
During World War II, military doctors at Yale University began studying something they
described in lab notebooks as “Substance X.” Its real name was nitrogen mustard, b ­ etter
known as mustard gas. Though focused on finding antidotes to it on the battlefield, the
­doctors realized it might be able to kill cancer cells.
In 1942, they treated a terminal cancer patient with an intravenous drip containing the
toxin. It worked, sort of: The patient made what looked like a complete recovery. But some
cells survived the onslaught. Now resistant to the chemical therapy, they came roaring back.
Three months after the initial treatment, the patient died. The outcome was a harbinger of
things to come.
Other researchers joined the search for chemical agents that could be used to destroy
cancer cells. Jane C. Wright, a pioneering African American researcher, was one of the first.
She demonstrated that methotrexate could drive cancers into temporary remission in some
patients. A small but growing cadre of researchers began investigating other promising
­compounds as well.
These approaches gave many patients time they would never have enjoyed, prolonging
their lives by months or even years. But victory proved elusive, despite the development of
ever more powerful weapons. One typical account from 1956, for example, described a new
form of radiation therapy as a “cobalt bomb ‘charged’ for war on cancer.”
In 1959, the New York Times described the search for “new cancer weapons” beyond
the “conventional weapons” of surgery and radiation. “Like all wars,” the paper solemnly
intoned, “this one has its victories and defeats, sneak attacks, chemical warfare, logistics, and
­communiques. Though the enemy is retreating on many fronts, he is advancing on others.”
In retrospect, the fixation on characterizing cancer as an enemy beyond ourselves
was bizarre. Unlike external threats like smallpox or polio—which could be driven from our
­environment—cancer was immanent in human biology. Waging a scorched-earth campaign
against it meant waging war against our own bodies. This could buy patients time, but it rarely
left them fully cured.
There were exceptions to this rule. The use of radiation to cure Hodgkin’s disease fueled
hopes that treatments might work on other forms of cancer. Researchers had luck with some
forms of childhood leukemia, though for the most part, cancer won in the long run. Yet the
drive to develop new weapons to destroy cancer cells proceeded apace.
In the process, the most obvious way to combat cancer—prevent it from happening in
the first place when possible or screen to catch it earlier—took a backseat. It was far more
­glamorous to take up arms in the hopes of vanquishing cancer entirely. And in that battle,
nothing less than total victory in the form of a complete cure was acceptable.
This idea drove the campaign launched in the late 1960s by socialite Mary Lasker, head of
the American Cancer Society’s board. In 1969, she began lobbying President Nixon to “cure
cancer.” Her ally in this struggle was Dr. Sidney Farber, who—long before Biden’s announce-
ment last week—urged the nation to launch a campaign against cancer on the scale of the
effort that “went into putting a man on the moon.”
194 Chapter 11

Congress responded with several versions of what became the National Cancer Act,
though the original legislation had more warlike names: the National Cancer Attack Act and
the Conquest of Cancer Act. Nixon never used the phrase “war on cancer,” but the press and
­supportive politicians immediately gave the effort that nickname.
The legislation opened the floodgates of federal funding on research. It also marked the
canonization of what one paper in Frontiers in Oncology recently described as the “scorched
earth, win-at-all-costs ethos” and “war-like cell-kill treatment paradigm” that would come to
define the attitude of cancer research over the past 50 years.
While the resulting research reduced mortality for some cancers and jump-started work
in other fields, we are far from achieving the victory that Nixon envisioned. Cancer is still the
­second leading cause of death in the U.S., and is projected to become the top killer in the
coming decade. Many cancers remain impossible to cure, and significant racial disparities in
treatment meant that whatever the dividends of the “war on cancer,” these have not benefited
all Americans equally.
Moreover, the declines in mortality that many advocates point toward as evidence of
­success have been driven in no small part by better screening and prevention efforts as well as
significant reductions in tobacco use. The development of new, more powerful drugs may well
be the least important factor in these trends, even if such treatments grab all the headlines.
Given this decidedly mixed record, perhaps it’s time to retire the “war on cancer” meta-
phor, with its insistence on total victory. Of course, some cancer warriors may protest. Fear
not. There are other military metaphors more appropriate to our moment. The Cold War offers
the best model: containment, which turns cancer into a chronic, but manageable, condition.

A Closer Look at “America’s Long War on Cancer”

1. This article makes an argument that military terms are actually harming our under-
standing of cancer and our attempts to find a cure. What are three ways in which
the author thinks these military terms have had this negative effect?
2. With your group, discuss whether you agree with the author that using military
terms to talk about curing cancer is problematic. If you agree with the article, what
kinds of examples could you point to that would support the article’s main point? If
you disagree with the article, why do you think these military terms are still useful
when discussing cancer-related issues?
3. At the end of the article, the author offers some other metaphors to talk about
cancer, such as “containment” or “management.” With your group, try to come up
with three other ways to talk about cancer that don’t use military terms.

Ideas for Writing

1. Write an argument in which you use this article’s same logic to change the way
people talk about a different issue. How might people talk differently about issues
like poverty, political partisanship, race, gender, education, food, vaccines, and
body size? Choose a topic that interests you personally.
2. Write a rhetorical analysis of an article or speech from someone who is arguing
a position you disagree with. Try to be as objective as possible, looking at their
use of proofs (logos, ethos, pathos) and other rhetorical devices. Write a reflection
 Rhetorical Analyses 195

about your rhetorical analysis in which you explain whether you believe you were
­objective in your analysis. When was it hardest to be objective? At what points, if
any, did you need to break away from that objective approach because you felt you
needed to signal or even tell the audience that you disagreed?

Activities for Rhetorical Analyses

Talk About This
1. With a group in your class, discuss the ways people try to persuade you. How do
family members try to persuade you? How do your friends try to persuade you?
In what ways do their persuasive strategies differ from the ways advertisers try
to persuade people?
2. List some ways in which people try to use credibility (ethos) or emotion (pathos)
to persuade others. Some people contend that using reason (logos) is the most
reliable way to persuade someone, and yet we use credibility and emotion all the
time to get our points across. Why? When are arguments from credibility and
emotion even more persuasive than arguments that rely on reason?
3. With a group, make a list of your favorite five commercials on television and a
list of five commercials you cannot stand. Why do people in your group find
some of these commercials interesting and worth watching? Why are some
­commercials so irritating that you want to turn the television off? As a group,
­create a list of ten do’s and don’ts of advertising to college students.

Try This Out

1. Find an advertisement that you think is persuasive (or not). Then write a one-
page analysis of the advertisement in which you discuss why you think it is
effective (or not). Look closely at its uses of reasoning, credibility, and emotion.
What kinds of support does the advertiser rely on most? What do these rhetorical
strategies indicate about the people the advertiser is targeting?
2. Imagine that a political candidate has hired you to explain how to persuade
­college students to vote for the candidate. The candidate believes college
­students make up a very important voting bloc but is frustrated by some
­students’ ability to see through the political spin. In a one- to two-page brief,
explain what college students find persuasive these days and what kinds of
­messages would get them to go to the polls.
3. Find a rhetorical analysis on the Internet that you can study. These documents
are rarely called “rhetorical analyses.” Instead, they tend to be critiques of adver-
tisements, speeches, or documents. You can find good examples on websites like
Slate.com or the New York Times (nytimes.com). Write a one-page discussion in
which you study the organization, style, and design of the rhetorical analysis.
How does it work? What kinds of rhetorical elements does the reviewer pay
attention to? Do you agree with the reviewer’s analysis?
196 Chapter 11

Explore This
Try finding your own microgenres. Choose a microgenre from the following list and
find three examples in print or on the Internet. Use these examples to come up with your
own guidelines for writing one of these microgenres, which are similar to r­ hetorical
analyses.
Ad buster—demonstrates whether an ad’s claims are true or false
Critique—brief discussion of a recent speech by a public figure
Song analysis—exploration of the rhetorical meaning of a song
Ad report card—grading of advertisements with a brief explanation of the grade
Pundit’s response—partisan review of a speech by a candidate

Write This
1. Analyze a text. Choose a historical nonfiction text you find interesting and write
a rhetorical analysis of it. In your analysis, define the rhetorical concepts you will
use to study the document. Summarize the text and offer some historical back-
ground on it. Then offer a close analysis of the text, explaining why it is or is not
effective.
2. Analyze something else as a rhetorical text. Find something other than a written
text for your rhetorical analysis. You could study the architecture of a building,
the design of a sculpture, the packaging of a product, the way someone dresses,
or perhaps how someone acts. Using the rhetorical concepts of logos, ethos, and
pathos, discuss how designs or people can be persuasive in nonverbal ways. Write
a paper or create a website or podcast in which you explain the ways in which
reason, credibility, and emotion can be conveyed without using words.
3. Critique an advertisement or advertising campaign. Choose an advertisement
or a series of advertisements that you enjoy or detest. Then write a rhetorical
analysis in which you explain why the rhetorical strategies used in the ad or
series are effective or ineffective. Embed a visual like a screenshot, scan, or video
somewhere in your analysis so your readers can see what you are analyzing.
Chapter 12
Written Exams and
Assessments
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

12.1 prepare yourself to succeed on a written examination.

12.2 begin the exam with confidence while budgeting your time.
12.3 organize your ideas so you can answer questions quickly and effectively.
12.4 wrap up by quickly checking your answers and making minor edits.

Many of your professors will use written exams (also called “essay exams” or “essay
tests”) to evaluate how well you understand the course material and whether you can
apply what you learned. These exams expect you to demonstrate higher-order think-
ing skills such as interpreting ideas, applying new knowledge, analyzing solutions,
synthesizing concepts, and evaluating assumptions.
In some situations, written exams are also used for assessment, which means they
partially measure how well your academic program or school is achieving its goals.
­College-level assessment tests will evaluate your abilities to read critically, use ­analytical
reasoning, and solve problems.
Written exams can be stressful. Succeeding on these exams becomes much easier
when you learn a few helpful test-taking strategies while applying the time-tested rhe-
torical strategies you have learned in this book. In this chapter, you will learn a four-
stage process for doing well on written exams: (1) preparing for the exam, (2) starting
the exam, (3) answering the questions, and (4) finishing the exam (Figure 12.1).

Figure 12.1 A Four-Stage Process for Successful Written Exams

To be successful on written exams, you should think of the writing process in four stages.

Preparing for Starting the Answering the Finishing the

the Exam Exam Questions Exam

197
198 Chapter 12

At-A-Glance
Written Exams
This diagram shows two basic patterns for a written exam, but other arrangements will work, too. The p ­ attern
on the left shows an expository answer in which you are demonstrating that you read and can explain the
material. The pattern on the right shows an argumentative answer in which you are a ­ rguing for one side over
the other. You should alter any pattern to fit your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context.

Expository Answer Argumentative Answer

Introduction Introduction

Explanation of side
Explanation of issue 1 or
A’s position on the topic
time period 1

Explanation of side
B’s position on the topic
Explanation of issue 2 or
time period 2
Your opinion on the
• topic with support
•
•
Conclusion Conclusion

Written exams can be stressful, so you should go into them with both the knowledge you need and a game
plan for answering the questions. They tend to have the following features:
• An introduction that states the issue being explained or argued, including a thesis that states an overall
answer to the prompt’s question.
• An explanation of the issues, time periods, or sides relevant to the topic.
• Your opinion on the topic if you are writing an argumentative answer.
• A conclusion that restates your thesis, states its importance, and looks to the future.
 Written Exams and Assessments 199

One Student’s Work: Written Exams

Environmental Science 230: Mid-Term Examination

Shane Oreck
Question 1 In your opinion, which world region or subregion has the ­greatest
potential to improve its development status over the course of your lifetime?
Why? What environmental, human, and/or economic resources could this region
or subregion depend on in this process? Prominently
identifies which
question he is
Question 1 answering.

The region that has the greatest potential to improve is South America. Introduction
The reasons for this are its abundant natural resources, technological potential, restates the
question, makes
tourism potential, and human resources. a clear main
First, countries within South America have a bounty of natural and claim, forecasts
­biological resources. If these countries eventually become able to excavate the answer, and
uses keywords
these minerals in a more efficient manner, then their economies will boom. In from lectures and
the Amazon, many countries are looking toward this uncharted area in hopes readings.
of finding biological sources that will help in the areas of science and health.
So with time and ingenuity, hopefully this will help South America’s overall
economy as well.
Second, because South America is so close to more ­technologically Each body
advanced countries, they have a great potential for technological ­paragraph begins
with a strong topic
­advancement. This would be better accomplished through a new trade pact sentence that
with countries in North America, China, and even Russia. If South America announces a key
can make trade a more viable source of income, then the continent’s economy point.
will probably grow quickly, bringing with it technological advances and
­outside sources that could be of importance for these countries.
Third, tourism has great potential because of South America’s beautiful The writing style
oceans, views, landscapes, historical attractions, and architecture. They do is simple and
straightforward.
face difficulties in terms of modern facilities and safety for Western guests,
but if they can create the infrastructure, then, like Mexico, they could enjoy
­substantial economic relief from the money generated. Some South American
countries, like Brazil, are already enticing travelers into their areas.
Lastly, South America has a vast array of human resources. Although
­current educational resources are lacking, these countries are heavily
­populated. With improved educational opportunity and greater ­availability
of birth control (so that women can plan families and enjoy educational
­opportunities as well), the people of South America would be an enormous
untapped resource with which to revitalize the region, economically and
culturally.
200 Chapter 12

The conclusion It’s true also that many other regions of the world, including Africa and
wraps up with its India, would be candidates for greatest potential for improving their develop-
main point and a
look to the future. ment status. But because of its location, abundance of mineral and biological
resources, trade and technological potential, tourism, and human resources,
South America certainly has the potential for creating a bright future. Besides,
South America has been underdeveloped for so long, it seems due for a
­resurgence. Where else can it go but up?

Prepping for the Exam

12.1 Prepare yourself to succeed on a written examination.
Studying course materials closely and taking good notes during lectures are the first
important steps for succeeding on exams. You can also internalize the material by being
active with it. Here are some strategies for doing that.

Meet with a Study Group

In your class or where you live, find two to five other dedicated students who are
willing to meet regularly to study together and collaborate on projects. Try to include
group members who understand the material better than you but also members
who understand it less well. People who have already mastered the material can
answer your questions and help you enrich your comprehension. Meanwhile, work-
ing with people who haven’t mastered the material can help you strengthen your
own understanding. Teaching others is one of the best ways to thoroughly learn the
material yourself.
Set up a regular time and place to meet with your study group, perhaps one or
two times a week. Your university’s student union, a library, and a local café are good
places for regular meetings.

Ask Your Professor About the Exam

You can often improve your chances of succeeding by asking your professor about
the exam during class or office hours. Your professor may be willing to provide you
with sample questions or examples from previous semesters’ tests. However, professors
don’t like it when students ask, “Will this be on the test?” Instead, you can respectfully
ask more open-ended questions like these:
• What kinds of questions are likely to appear on the exam?
• What do you expect us to be able to do on the exam?
• How many questions will be on the exam, and how much time should we spend
answering each one?
• What is the best way for us to prepare for this exam?
 Written Exams and Assessments 201

• Can you give us a list of five to ten major concepts or key ideas that we should
concentrate on for this exam?
• Can you describe what a typical answer to the exam question would look like?

Pay Attention to Themes and Key Concepts

As you review your lecture notes and textbook, look for thematic patterns to help you
organize and remember the course material. Ask yourself: Which ideas and topics have
been most stressed by the professor and textbook? Which key concepts seem to be com-
ing up over and over again? When the professor summarizes at the end of each lecture,
which major points seem to be emphasized? What are some larger trends or concepts
that seem to underlie all the ideas and theories learned in this class?

For Standardized Assessments, Study the Rubrics or

Scoring Guidelines
At some point in your college career, you may be asked to sit for a standardized assessment
test, such as the CLA+ or the ETS Proficiency Profile. If you apply to a graduate program
or professional school, you’ll probably need to complete a standardized ­assessment test,
such as the Analytic Writing section of the GRE or the writing sample for the LSAT.1
It’s hard to study for an assessment exam, but you can often find useful tips on the
Internet. To prepare for a graduate-admissions exam, you can find study guides online
or purchase them. For standardized assessments, you can go online to find their rubrics
or “scoring guidelines” for major exams. A rubric is a scoring grid that defines and
describes the criteria being used to evaluate the completed written exams.
You can use these evaluation criteria to shape your answers. For example, if the
rubric states, “Establishes a clear thesis statement that makes an argumentative claim,”
then you know the evaluators will be specifically looking for this kind of argumenta-
tive thesis statement. Knowing what the evaluators are looking for will help you score
higher on the test.

Create Your Own Questions and Rehearse Possible

Answers
You and your study group could also come up with your own sample questions that
might appear on the exam. Then practice responding to them. To get ready for the exam,
you can rehearse your responses a few ways:
• Talk to yourself—Mentally run through your responses and, if possible, explain
your answers out loud.
• Talk to others—Talk through possible answers with members of your study group.
Your roommates and friends might also be willing to listen and offer suggestions.

1These exams are generally known by their acronyms. The full names are the Collegiate Learning ­Assessment

(CLA+), the Educational Testing Service (ETS) Proficiency Profile, the Graduate Records Examination (GRE),
and the Law School Admissions Test (LSAT).
202 Chapter 12

• Outline or plan out responses—By yourself or with others, use outlines to map out
possible responses. Then, practice saying them out loud or writing them.
• Simulate the actual exam—Write sample responses within the allotted amount of
time. If you have test anxiety and tend to go blank before an exam, try to practice
in the actual classroom where you will be taking the test.

Inventing Your Answer

12.2 Begin the exam with confidence while budgeting your time.
So the professor has just handed you the exam. Now what? Take a deep breath and
relax. Avoid the impulse to just dive right in.

Review the Exam Quickly to Gain an Overall Picture

Take a moment to review the entire exam. Pay attention to the kinds of questions and
how much time is recommended for answering each one. Identify questions that are
worth the most points so you can devote extra time to them.
As you read each question, jot down a few quick notes or a brief outline of an
answer. Then move on to the next question. These notes and outlines have two benefits:
First, they help you warm up by putting your ideas down before you start writing,
and, second, they will show your professor where you were going with each answer
even if you run out of time. Your professor won’t give you full credit for an outline or
an incomplete response, but you might receive partial credit if it looked like you were
on the right track.
Also, questions on later parts of the exam will often help you form answers to ques-
tions that appear earlier in the exam. By giving the whole exam a review, you should
begin to see the larger themes that make up the foundation of the exam.

Budget Your Time

Allocate your time properly so you can answer all the questions. As shown in
­Figure 12.2, you might find it helpful to divide the time available into quarters. Spend
some of the first quarter considering each question, jotting down some notes, and

Figure 12.2 Budgeting Your Time

Don’t just dive in and start writing. Take some of your total time to plan your answers, and be sure to
leave time at the end to write conclusions and do some final insertions, editing, and proofreading.

1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter

Review the Exam
and Write Down
Notes
Draft Your
Responses

Wrap Up
and Edit
 Written Exams and Assessments 203

outlining a possible answer for each question. Devote the second and third quarters to
drafting your answers one by one. Save part of the fourth quarter for revising, editing,
and proofreading.

Organizing and Drafting Your Answer

12.3 Organize your ideas so you can answer questions quickly and effectively.
When answering a written exam question, your goal is to demonstrate how much
you know about the course material and how you can apply it. So for most ques-
tions, you will want to keep the organization and style of your response simple and
straightforward.

Organize Your Answer

Use an organizational pattern that’s simple and straightforward. A written exam answer
should always have an introduction, body, and conclusion. This advice might sound
obvious, but under pressure, people often forget these three parts. Instead, they just
start writing everything they know about the topic. This “shotgun” approach often
leads to an unfocused burst of facts, names, and concepts that don’t add up to a coher-
ent response.
As you think about the organization of your answer, keep the following three-part
structure of a written answer in mind:

INTRODUCTION. Your introduction should state your main claim, which the rest of
your answer will support. In your introduction, you might also rephrase the question as
a statement, forecast the organization of your response, and provide some background
information (e.g., historical facts, important people, or key terms). In most cases, your
introduction should be just a few sentences.

BODY. The body should be divided into two to five major points, with each point
receiving a paragraph or two of coverage. Put your major points in the topic sentences
at the beginning of your paragraphs. Then support each major point with facts, data,
reasoning, and examples. Usually, you will find that the professor is asking you to do
one of the following things:
• Explain the importance of an event, person, or place (analysis)
• Describe something or explain how it works (description)
• Define something (definition)
• Divide something into groups or types (classification)
• Compare two or more things (comparison and contrast)
• Argue for or against a point (summary of both sides, argument for one)
• Narrate a historical event, story plot, or process (narrative or summary)
• Solve a problem (description of the problem and argument for a solution)
Once you know what your professor is asking you to do, the best structure for your
answer will become much more obvious.
204 Chapter 12

CONCLUSION. Briefly indicate that you are wrapping up (e.g., “In conclusion,”) and
restate your main point. If time allows, you may also want to raise a new question or
problem, describe the implications of your response, state the significance of the prob-
lem, or make a prediction about the future.

Editing for Clarity and Correctness

12.4 Wrap up by quickly checking your answers and making minor edits.
Save some time at the end of the exam period for revising and quick editing. You won’t
have many minutes left, so focus on improving completeness and clarity.
Remember, racing through the exam and being the first person out the door won’t
earn you any extra points. You won’t look any smarter, and your professor really won’t
be impressed. So you may as well use every minute available to do the best job you can.
The following checklist will help you give your exam a final look:
Checklist for Revising and Editing Written Exams
❒ Reread each prompt to make sure you answered the question.
❒ Look for any missing key points and determine if you have time to add them.
❒ Check whether your ideas are clear and easy to follow.
❒ Emphasize key terms and concepts by repeating them or highlighting them.
❒ Proofread for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and garbled handwriting.

Microgenre
The Short Answer
While you are in college, you will likely be asked to take exams that require “short answers.” A short answer is
usually a one-paragraph response to a prompt. A short-answer exam might include anywhere from five to ten
questions that you need to answer in a limited amount of time. In some cases, an exam with multiple-choice
or true-false questions might also include one or two short answer prompts, usually at the end of the exam.
When writing a short answer, you want to do three things: (1) answer the question clearly and concisely in
the first sentence, (2) use a simple structure to organize the remainder of the paragraph, and (3) include facts,
names, and other evidence to demonstrate that you read and understand the course material.

Answer the question. The first sentence in your short answer should state your response to the prompt
in as straightforward a way as you can. This first sentence is the thesis of your answer that you will support
or prove in the remainder of the answer.

Choose a simple structure for the paragraph. You will notice that almost all short-answer prompts will
ask you to write in a predictable structure:
• Description: Divide the topic into features or steps and then describe each one in one or two sentences.
• Definition: Begin with a sentence definition and then use facts, reasoning, examples, and sensory
­information to extend the definition into a paragraph.
 Written Exams and Assessments 205

• Classification: Divide the topic into groups, categories, or types, and then briefly describe each division
with a sentence or two.
• Comparison: Compare and contrast two or more things by first explaining their similarities and then their
differences.
• Argument: Identify one or both sides of an argument and then use facts, reasoning, examples, and
­rebuttals to explain the strengths and weaknesses of one side or both sides.
• Narration: Use a historical event, personal experience, anecdote, or hypothetical situation to describe
what happened or what could happen.
• Problem/Solution: Identify the problem and its major causes and then offer one or more solutions for that
problem.

Include evidence from lectures or readings. At a basic level, professors want to know how well you
understand the material from the lectures and the readings for the class. So, make sure you refer to what
you learned. You can even add phrases to signal what you learned, such as, “In class, we learned that . . . ”
or “­According to our textbook, people often . . . .”

Use direct or indirect quotations. Where possible, quote something from the materials used in the
course. A direct quote uses the original words, and an indirect quote paraphrases what was said.

Revise and proofread your answers. If time allows, revise your answers to make them better. Minimally,
proofread your answers to remove any spelling or grammar errors.

WRITE an answer to an exam question. You might ask your professor for example short-answer
­questions from a previous exam. Otherwise, exams about almost any topic can be found on the Internet.
Practice writing short answers to as many prompts as you can. Then, compare answers with your study
group or go over them with your professor or a teaching assistant during their office hours.

Quick Start Guide

Written exams can be challenging, but you will be more successful if you prepare properly. To do your best,
follow these steps.

Prepare for the exam. Take good notes on lectures and readings, but also consider the key themes
and issues that your professor keeps returning to. Form and regularly meet with a study group. Go to your
­professor and ask what the exam will look like and what is expected in an exam response.

Start the exam. First read through the entire test to get the big picture, making note of how much time
you have and the point value for each question. Budget your time so you can outline some answers, write
out the exam, and revise and edit.

Answer the questions. Make sure you understand what each question is asking you to do (explain,
describe, define, classify, compare, argue for or against, or solve a problem). As you write, stay focused
and try to maintain a simple, straightforward organization and style.

Finish up with revising and editing. Reread the questions and make sure your responses answer them.
Make any revisions needed and highlight or underline places where you address the question directly. Save
some time for proofreading.
206 Chapter 12

Readings: Written Exams

Reading 1
Have the Political Parties Really Switched Places
in the United States?
Uma Pandit
Question: Pundits often point out that the Republican and Democratic parties have essen-
tially switched political stances since the Civil War. Republicans were a liberal party in the
19th century, being against slavery, for an expanded central government, and for universal
public education. Democrats were conservative on slavery, while being for states’ rights and
against public education. In your response, argue for or against the proposition that the two
major ­parties have traded platforms since the mid-19th century. You can end your answer by
­discussing whether the parties are now in the process of switching places again.

When media pundits are looking for evidence of political hypocrisy, they will often argue that
the two major U.S. parties have essentially changed positions since the Civil War. They will
ask, “Why should Blacks trust the Democrats when the Democratic Party once defended
­slavery?” Or, “Why are Republicans against environmental protection when ­Theodore
­Roosevelt and Richard Nixon, both Republican presidents, signed some of the most
­progressive environmental laws?” As I will argue in this response, the two parties have, on
the surface, changed positions on some key issues, but I will also show that the parties’ core
­values have mostly stayed the same.
From the beginning, the Republican Party has essentially been a pro-business party
that favors industry and trade. The Republican Party emerged from the collapse of the Whig
Party in the 1850s, which came from the pro-business Federalist Party founded by Alexander
­Hamilton. Both the Federalists and the Whigs supported a strong central government and
usually promoted the interests of bankers, investors, and merchants. Both the Federalists and
Whigs were generally law-and-order conservative parties that believed in increasing national
wealth through economic development and industrial growth. They were advocates of a
­market economy that favored the moneyed upper class over small farmers and laborers.
Whigs like Henry Clay and Horace Greeley argued for “traditional moral principles,” while
resisting policies that favored open immigration.
The issue of slavery, however, ultimately split the Whig Party, and the new Republican
Party of the 1850s was essentially the Whig’s anti-slavery wing. Like the Whigs, the new
Republican Party promoted the interests of the industrial and the urbanized North over the
interests of the more agrarian and rural South. Slavery had become a strictly North vs. South
issue because it was not legal in the North. Nineteenth-century Republicans deserve credit for
ending slavery, but they retained much of the original core of the conservative Whig Party’s
pro-business values and pro-federal government stance.
The current Democratic Party has generally been a pro-worker political movement since its
inception. Originally, the Democratic-Republican Party was founded by Thomas Jefferson with
an emphasis on financial egalitarianism and liberal forms of individual freedom. Most w
­ orkers
 Written Exams and Assessments 207

in the early nineteenth century were farmers, so Democratic-Republicans were p ­ rimarily

a populist party that stressed the needs of farmers and agriculture. The Democratic Party
became a rural southern party in the lead-up and aftermath of the Civil War, primarily because
of its focus on workers, who at the time tended to be farmers. However, as work became more
industrialized later in the nineteenth century, the Democratic Party became urbanized and
labor-oriented.
The parties have changed places when it has suited them. Democrats were originally
for states’ rights when they were defending slavery, but they became more federalist when
promoting a stronger federal government during the Civil Rights era. Republicans have only
recently been for states’ rights, usually to resist women’s reproductive rights, environmental
protections, and LGBTQ+ issues. Republicans were once for public education in the nineteenth
century when they needed an educated workforce to strengthen the industrial North. In the
twentieth century, Democrats have been promoters of public education as a means of building
upward social mobility for working-class people.
In sum, the two parties’ core values have mostly stayed the same, but they have changed
positions when convenient. Republicans are still a conservative and pro-business party, and
Democrats are still a progressive and pro-worker party. However, this may be changing now
as the base of the Republican Party becomes more rural and working class. Meanwhile, the
Democratic party seems to be attracting more suburban voters who tend to be pro-business
and pro-industry.

A Closer Look at “Have the Political Parties Really

Switched Places in the United States?”
1. Often an essay-exam prompt will reveal what the exam writer wants to see in the
answer to the prompt. Look closely at the question at the beginning of this example
reading. Highlight any important terms or phrases that catch your attention. With
your group, discuss what information the writer of this exam question wants to
see in the essay.
2. Using your analysis from Question 1 above, go through Uma Pandit’s essay answer
to the question. Does she do a good job of answering the question? Did she address
everything the prompt was asking for, or did she fail with some parts? Did she
include too much information in any places?
3. The answer above is rather long. If this was a short-answer exam, how would you
cut this answer down to one paragraph? With your group, identify the thesis of
the answer and then highlight any additional information you would include in
a short answer. Then, turn this long answer into one that is perhaps five to seven
sentences long.

Ideas for Writing

1. Write three questions for an essay exam about a common topic almost everyone
knows about (e.g., movies, food, commercials, high school, your college’s campus).
Keep the topic PG-13 or tamer. Then, in class, swap your three questions with
someone else. Each of you should write out a short outline that describes how the
question might be answered. Then, when both of you are finished, go over your
outlines to discuss whether they match up with what the exam question asked.
208 Chapter 12

2. The best way to strengthen your essay exam writing skills is to practice. Find
an essay exam on the Internet that is in an area you feel comfortable writing
about. Choose a prompt from this exam and write a long-version answer (about
600 words). Then, turn that long-version answer into a short-answer version
(200 words).

Reading 2
How Mosquitoes Transmit Malaria, and What Can
Be Done About It
Race Jennings
Question: As you learned in lecture, malaria is a significant problem in many parts of the world,
including the United States. In a short answer (250 words maximum) define malaria and explain
how it is spread. Then, identify some of the more common prevention strategies and treatments.

Malaria is a blood-borne infectious disease caused by parasites that are spread to humans
and animals by Anopheles mosquitoes. When a mosquito bites a malaria-infected person or
animal, it picks up parasites, which then multiply in the mosquito’s body. The mosquito can
then transmit the parasites when it bites a person or animal to get a blood meal. Malaria in
humans causes several potentially serious symptoms, such as breathing problems, acute
fatigue, jaundice, seizures, comas, and even organ failure and death.
Preventions and treatments for malaria are well-known and widely available, but they
can be too expensive for people in some parts of the world where malaria is common. As
we learned in lecture, the best way to avoid malaria is by wearing protective clothing, using
­repellents that contain DEET, and sleeping under mosquito nets. As much as possible, any
standing water should be poured out to keep mosquitos from reproducing.
As our textbook mentioned, if a person is infected with malaria, common treatments
include antimalarial drugs such as chloroquine, quinine, and ACTs. While recovering, a patient
with malaria may also need IV fluids, electrolyte replacement, or blood transfusions. In very
serious cases, a patient may need to be put on a ventilator or receive a kidney transplant.
I video streamed a documentary about how genetic engineering could be used to cause
Anopheles mosquitoes to go extinct. This might allow us to end malaria, but scientists are
studying the unexpected consequences of forcing a species into extinction, even one that
transmits a deadly disease like malaria.

A Closer Look at “How Mosquitoes Transmit Malaria,

and What Can Be Done About It”
1. If you look at the exam question, you will notice that the professor is giving hints
about how the question might be answered. Identify those hints with your group.
Then, look at Race’s response. Is Race doing what the professor asked? Is he doing
more than what the professor asked in any places?
 Written Exams and Assessments 209

2. As discussed in this chapter, sometimes it’s a good idea to signal to a professor that
you paid attention in lecture and did the assigned readings. Where does Race make
these kinds of moves in his answer?
3. At the end of his answer, Race discusses something he saw on YouTube that may
or may not answer the professor’s question directly. Do you think including this
additional information was a good idea? What are the pros and cons of referring to
something that was not taught in the class or covered in the readings?

Ideas for Writing

1. Let’s imagine you have been asked to write a web-based article about how to write
short answers for essay exams. Do some research on the Internet to come up with
common advice for doing well on essay exams. Then, draft an article that sum-
marizes the best advice you found. You can also include your own tips and tricks.
Note: Be careful not to plagiarize when writing this assignment. There are many
articles available about succeeding on essay exams. Cite any articles from which
you draw quotes or ideas and make sure you do not duplicate their words or
phrasing.
2. Write a paper in which you argue for or against the use of short-answer questions in
timed exams. Do you think exams should be all multiple choice, all short answer, or
a combination of both? In your argument explore some of the reasons short-answer
questions may be better than multiple-choice questions. Then, turn the tables and
explain why multiple-choice questions may be better than short-answer questions.
In your opinion, what would be the best way to determine if someone has learned
the assignment materials in a course?

Activities for Written Exams

and Assessments
Talk About This
1. Ask each member of your group to freewrite an answer to the following
­question: What is hard or stressful about taking written exams? After you’ve
responded, discuss your answer with your group and come up with three
­strategies for making written exams more manageable.
2. In your group or in an informal written response, examine one of the two student
examples in this chapter. Explain why its structure is appropriate for a written
exam. Then, discuss how you might have written the answer differently.
3. In your group, talk about the two student examples in this chapter in terms of a
genre. What genre, rhetorical patterns, and argumentative strategies are used in
this response? What other genres, rhetorical patterns, or argumentative strategies
could the student have used to organize this response, perhaps in a better way?
210 Chapter 12

Try This Out

1. As an informal writing assignment, create at least two prompts for a written
exam for another course you are taking. Share them with your group.
2. Find a textbook that includes “essay” questions at the ends of the chapters and
choose one question that you think could be used on a written exam. Make
an outline that shows how you would respond to that question. Discuss your
­outline with your group.
3. Type “sample written exam” into an Internet search engine and locate three
examples of written exam questions. Analyze these questions and explain
what kinds of content, organization, and style would be appropriate when
answering them.

Write This
1. Critique an essay-exam response written by an AI application. For practice,
a) come up with an essay-exam prompt that your professor might include on
an upcoming exam and b) submit the prompt to an artificial intelligence (AI)
­application. Give the AI application its role: e.g., “You are a college student
taking a sophomore-level course in . . . .” You might also specify how long the
response should be. After closely evaluating what the application produced.
Write a critique of the response. What did the AI application get right and
wrong? Did the application produce anything surprising? What important
­information was omitted?
2. Argue for or against written exams in college. Write a letter to the editor of your
campus newspaper. In your letter, argue for or against the use of written exams
as a way of testing and assessing students. If you are arguing against using
­written exams, what would be a suitable replacement for them?
Chapter 13
Research Papers
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

13.1 invent the content of your research paper with a wide range of sources.
13.2 develop an organization that fits the content of your research paper.
13.3 use plain and persuasive style to state your ideas, and design the
­document to be accessible and attractive.

The most common large college writing assignment is the research paper, sometimes
called the “term paper.” It’s also one of the most misunderstood college assignments.
When assigning a research paper, professors usually require a number of outside
sources, and they will often allow you to select from among a list of topics or come up
with your own topic. The trick is to figure out what your professor wants you to do
while choosing a topic that you personally find interesting.
When assigning a research paper, professors will typically ask you to do a ­substantial
amount of library and Internet research. Then, they want you to synthesize the results
of your research and explain your subject in a clear and interesting way. ­Professors usu-
ally specify a page length somewhere between eight and fifteen double-spaced pages.
They will also ask you to use a citation system that is common in their discipline (usually
MLA or APA style).
Research paper assignments can be confusing because professors sometimes have
very different expectations about their content, organization, style, and format. For
example, some professors have an “expository” research paper in mind. An expository
research paper explains an issue in a factual way without making an overt argument
for one side or another. Other professors will want you to write an “argumentative”
research paper in which you take a side on an issue and use your research to explore
all sides. So, when you are assigned a research paper, one of your first challenges
is to find out what kind of research paper—expository or argumentative—your
professor expects.
After college, you will be asked to write documents that are similar to research
papers but go by other names, such as research reports, clinical studies, scientific articles,
and white papers. By learning the research-paper genre in college, you’ll prepare yourself
to tackle these projects in your life beyond college.

211
212 Chapter 13

At-A-Glance
Research Papers
Research papers can be organized a variety of ways. These models show two basic patterns that you can
adjust to fit your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context.

Introduction Introduction

First issue or time period Factual overview of issues

Second issue or time period Explanation of opposing views

Third issue or time period Argument for your view

•
• Conclusion
•
Conclusion
Works Cited / References

Works Cited / References

Effective research papers use sources to explain an issue or argue for a position. They tend to have the
­following major features:
• An introduction that identifies your topic and purpose and clearly states the thesis or main point that you
will support or argue for; the introduction should offer background information and explain why the topic
is important.
• Body paragraphs that use an issue-by-issue or chronological pattern to present the results of your
research; the body is usually divided into sections with headings.
• A conclusion that restates the thesis or main point of the research paper and summarizes your major
points.
• A Works Cited or References section that includes a list of works cited or references in a standardized
citation style (usually MLA or APA style).
 Research Papers 213

One Student’s Work: Research Paper

Lives Not Worth the Money?

Katelyn Turnbow
The outbreak and spread of Ebola has brought new attention to ­equally Introduction
lethal diseases that are often forgotten. The idea of a forgotten disease is ­identifies the
topic and why it’s
almost absurd—a disease for which a cure is available and effective but never important, ­ending
given a chance to work. We are often of the belief that human life is invalu- with a clearly
able. In ­reality, however, the cures that do not make money for some manufac- stated thesis.
turers are simply not made at all. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), one need only look at African sleeping sickness. There is a cure, but
the ­victims who would benefit from the drug are poor and considered
“­unprofitable” by the pharmaceutical industry. It remains, however, a drug
company’s ethical responsibility to care for people its drugs can save, even
when helping them is not profitable.
African sleeping sickness, also known as Human African Trypanosomiasis Specific statistics
or HAT, was discovered in 1902 and kills more than 50,000 people a year. from credible
sources provide
These victims, however, are often forgotten because they are poor and live in credibility for
sub-Saharan Africa, not a prosperous Western nation. The disease is caused by the paper’s
a parasite and transmitted to humans by the Tsetse fly. Some ­villages in the arguments.
region report that sleeping sickness is the “first or second cause of mortality,”
and that it is “even ahead of HIV/AIDS” (World, par. 10). WHO estimates that
on top of the 9678 cases reported in 2009, about 20,000 cases were never diag-
nosed (par. 10).
Sleeping sickness manifests in two distinct stages. The haemolymphatic
stage (blood-lymph node) occurs shortly after exposure to the parasite and
causes headache, fever, joint pain, and itching (World). The neurological stage
follows, occurring months or even years after initial infection (see fig. 1). This
phase begins when the deadly parasite invades its host’s central nervous
system (CNS) and is accompanied by a large array of neurological symptoms
including confusion, loss or disturbance of the senses, personality changes,
and decreased coordination as well as the “disturbance of the sleep cycle
which gives the ­disease its name” (par. 17). Sleeping sickness is always fatal
if not treated, and by the time the disease reaches its neurological stage, it is
­usually too late (par. 15).
Effective treatments for sleeping sickness have been available since 1921,
but they are dangerous and extremely painful. If diagnosed and treated in the
early stages, sleeping sickness responds well to Pentamidine or, in extreme
cases, Suramin. Both drugs, while sometimes accompanied by serious side
effects such as heart and kidney failure, are fairly safe and inexpensive
(World). Victims in the CNS stage of HAT, however, have for a long time been
214 Chapter 13

Maps, ­illustrations,
and photographs
should be placed
in the paper where
they provide the
most support for
in-text arguments.

Fig. 1. Life Cycle of T.b. gamienese and T.b. rhodesiense, from da Silva and Moser.

treated with a drug called Melarsoprol. Melarsoprol is widely available and

cheap but is derived from arsenic, and, acting as the potent poison that it is,
can kill 5–20 percent of patients. The drug is also excruciatingly painful,
When there is no described by many victims as “fire in the veins” (“Sleeping Sickness”).
author, use an Although Melarsoprol “wouldn’t pass a single ethical or drug-safety test” in
abbreviated title of
the article. the developed world, it is still used in Africa because it is the only treatment
readily available to victims of this fatal but neglected disease (Gombe).
It is surprising, then, to learn that a new and highly effective treatment was
developed almost 40 years ago. The chemotherapy drug, defluoro-­
methylornithine (DFMO), was developed in the 1970s but failed as a cancer
­treatment, causing only hair loss in patients (Wickware 908–09). It would have
been the end of the pharmaceutical, but in 1983, New York parasite biologist
Cyrus Bacchi discovered DFMO’s effectiveness on the later stage of sleeping
­sickness (Shah 22). Shortly after this discovery, Belgian doctor Henri Taelman
used DFMO to treat an infected woman who had already fallen into a coma, and,
almost miraculously, DFMO brought the woman out of her coma within
24 hours. Dr. Taelman renamed the drug eflornithine, but it quickly became
known as the “resurrection drug” because it was “so effective at reviving even
When quoting comatose patients” (Wickware 909; McNeil A1). Other than the highly toxic
more than one Melarsoprol, eflornithine is the only drug effective against late-stage
author, separate
the citations with ­Trypanosomiasis (McNeil A1). In addition to a much lower drug-induced mor-
a semicolon. tality rate, eflornithine has fewer and milder side effects than Melarsoprol, and
patients who receive eflornithine are more than twice as likely to survive the year
following treatment as those treated with the older drug (Chappuis et al. 748–50).
 Research Papers 215

It is clear that the drug is sorely needed by those who suffer the formidable The topic s­ entence
at the beginning
symptoms of sleeping sickness. Despite this, eflornithine was very short-lived.
of each paragraph
The pharmaceutical company, Sanofi-Aventis, halted production of the resur- should state your
rection drug in 1995 along with two other antitrypanosome drugs (Wickware point.
909). A drug aimed toward treatment of diseases in poor countries was simply
not ­considered to be a profitable venture to many pharmaceutical companies.
This attitude left groups such as WHO and Doctors Without Borders strug-
gling to control the disease and save their dying patients without the drugs
they needed to do so. Once again these organizations were forced to rely on
Melarsoprol, which seemed almost as likely to kill patients as it was to save
them (Jackson and Healy 6).
Although WHO, Doctors Without Borders, and similar groups petitioned
Aventis to continue production of the drug that would save thousands, it was
not until 2001 that production of eflornithine resumed. Aventis had found a
new use for the “resurrection drug”—hair removal. The company was once
again mass producing eflornithine as an ingredient in a $54-a-tube facial hair Statements that
removal cream for women. Aventis was even generous enough to donate support your point
(topic sentence)
60,000 doses to WHO so that its doctors could treat HAT in sub-Saharan Africa can include quota-
(Jackson and Healy 6). Although this in itself was good, the company’s rea- tions, statistics,
sons for doing so are less admirable. It placed “money before all” in all of its figures, and other
evidence.
­decisions, showing the “crass commodification of health” by an industry that
was once “driven by a motive to improve human health” (Gombe). It is clear
from the initial decision to halt production and Aventis’s willingness to donate
When a work has
the drug only after a more cost-­efficient use for it was found, that the com- more than three
pany only helps others when it can make money by being kind. WHO’s agree- authors, use the
ment with Aventis is only guaranteed for five years and the contract will name of the first
author listed fol-
expire soon (Chappuis et al. 751). The drug is already in short supply, and lowed by “et al.”
WHO can only afford to give it to those victims who survive their dose of meaning “and
arsenic and still need to be treated with the safer and more effective alterna- others.”
tive (Gastellu-Etchegorry et al. 958). Aventis claims that the drug is “corrosive
and destroys the equipment used to make it,” suggesting that the pharmaceu- The end of each
tical giant will once again refuse help to those in need and charge WHO and paragraph should
Doctors Without Borders $70.00 a dose (McNeil A1). This is a price that neither explain the signif-
icance of the point
organization can afford and that is far out of reach for the thousands of indi- and support the
gent victims who suffer from trypanosomiasis every year (McNeil A1). paper’s thesis.
Lifestyle drugs currently account for over “eighty percent of the world’s
pharmaceutical market,” while companies are “ignoring diseases, like
­sleeping sickness and malaria, that affect only the poor” (McNeil A1). While
I understand that pharmaceutical companies are big businesses committed
to raising profits, it is unfortunate that the “$406 billion global ­industry” feels
it cannot spare its extra doses of eflornithine, a gesture that would save so
many human lives (Shah 20). The beginning of
A pharmaceutical company, which specializes in manufacturing medical the conclusion is
products, should have at least some commitment to treating those who suffer a summary of the
key arguments,
from strategically forgotten diseases. Because it manufactures treatments for which also reflects
diseases and makes billions of dollars off of health care, Aventis has an the thesis claim.
216 Chapter 13

unspoken responsibility for the people it can afford to save and must continue
to ­provide the drug to the organizations that devote all of their time and money
to fighting diseases in developing countries. Unlike a vial of chemicals, no price
tag can be placed on a human life. Our responsibility is the same, even if those
we help cannot give us anything in return. Here, there are truly no excuses.
Works Cited
Chappuis, François, Nitya Udayraj, Kai Stietenroth, Ann Meussen, and
­Patrick A. Bovier. “Eflornithine Is Safer than Melarsoprol for the
­Treatment of Second-Stage Trypanosoma brucei gambiense Human African
­Trypanosomiasis.” Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 41, no. 5, 2005,
pp. 748–51. Oxford Academic, doi:10.1086/432576.
da Silva, Alexander J,. and Melanie Moser. Centers for Disease Control Public
Health Image Library, 18 Mar. 2005, phil.cdc.gov/details.aspx?pid=3418.
Accessed 10 Oct 2015.
Gastellu Etchegorry, M., J. P. Helenport, B. Pecoul, J. Jannin, and D. Legros.
“Availability and Affordability of Treatment for Human African
­Trypanosomiasis.” Tropical Medicine and International Health, vol. 6, no. 11,
2001, pp. 957–59. Wiley Online Library, doi:10.1046/j.1365-3156.2001.00764.x.
Gombe, Spring. “Epidemic, What Epidemic: Treating Sleeping Sickness.” New
Internationalist, no. 362, Nov. 2003, newint.org/features/2003/11/01/
sleepingsickness.
Jackson, Nicolette, and Sean Healy. “Facial Hair Cream to the Rescue.”
New Internationalist, no. 347, Jul. 2002, newint.org/columns/currents/
2002/07/01/tropical-disease-drugs.
McNeil, Donald G., Jr. “Cosmetic Saves a Cure for Sleeping Sickness.” The
New York Times, 9 Feb. 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/02/09/world/
cosmetic-saves-a-cure-for-sleeping-sickness.html.
Shah, Sonia. “An Unprofitable Disease.” The Progressive, Sept. 2002, pp. 20–23.
“Sleeping Sickness.” Doctors Without Borders, 2014, www.doctorswithoutborders
.org/issue/sleeping-sickness.
Wickware, Potter. “Resurrecting the Resurrection Drug.” Nature Medicine,
vol. 8, no. 9, 2002, pp. 908–09, doi:10.1038/nm0902-908b.
World Health Organization. “Trypanosomiasis, Human African (Sleeping
Sickness).” Feb. 2014, www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs259/en.
Accessed 8 Oct. 2015.

Inventing Your Research Paper’s Content

13.1 Invent the content of your research paper with a wide range of sources.
For just about any research paper, your professor will require you to use sources that
back up your claims and statements. However, she or he will not want you to simply
write your opinion and then sprinkle in a few citations to make it look like you did
research. Professors know the difference between a project that is grounded in solid
research and one that merely drops in a few sources here and there. A solid research
 Research Papers 217

paper weaves together your ideas and the evidence you collected into a well-supported
discussion of the issue. You must do more than parrot what others have already said.
You should become part of and contribute to an ongoing conversation.

Inquiring: Defining Your Topic, Angle, Purpose

Your first task is to figure out what kind of research paper you are being asked to write.
There are two major types of research papers:
Expository research paper—“Expository” means to “exhibit” or “explain.”
­Expository research papers explain an issue, event, or trend without making
an explicit argument for one side.
Argumentative research paper—Argumentation involves choosing one side
of the issue and using your research to support your side while challenging
opposing views.
Usually, the assignment will make clear whether your professor wants you to explain
something (exposition) or argue a point (argumentation). If it’s not clear to you, ask your
professor to clarify how you should write your assignment.
Next, define your topic and figure out your angle. Your professor might have assigned
you a specific topic or a range of topics on which to do research. For example, let’s say you
are studying the causes of the American environmental movement in a sophomore-level
history course. Let’s imagine your professor has asked you to write a ten-page research
paper in which you explain how and why the movement gained momentum in the 1960s.
Topic—The Main Causes of the 1960s–1970s Surge in the Environmental Movement

Possible angles—publication of Silent Spring, formation of Greenpeace and Friends of

the Earth, flooding of Glen Canyon, the influence of anti-Vietnam War sentiments and the
resulting counterculture

Obviously, a topic like this, the rise of environmentalism, is too large to be handled in
a ten-page research paper. So you need to choose an angle that will help you narrow
the topic. Choosing an angle will also help you write your purpose statement. Here is
a possible purpose statement:

My purpose is to demonstrate that the 1960s–1970s surge in the environmental move-

ment was one result of the 1960s anti-Vietnam War counterculture.

Figure 13.1 shows some verbs that could be used as the basis of your research
paper’s purpose statement and thesis statement.

Researching: Finding Out What Others Know

Chapter 30, “Starting Your Research,” explains the research process in depth, so here is
a brief review that focuses on useful sources for writing research papers.
LIBRARY RESEARCH. Use your library’s electronic catalog, usually available through
its website, to search for books on your topic. Similarly, if you find academic jour-
nal articles about your topic through a journal database, look at their Works Cited or
­References list to see if there are other articles and books that might be useful to you.
218 Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Common Verbs Used in Purpose Statements

Expository Research Papers Argumentative Research Papers
to describe to persuade
to explain to convince
to review to evaluate
to instruct to argue
to demonstrate to recommend
to illustrate to change
to inform to advocate
to appraise to urge
to educate to defend
to show to justify
to display to support
to exhibit to propose
to present to encourage

INTERNET RESEARCH. The Internet, of course, has websites and articles about
almost every topic. Some of these articles are more factual and authoritative than
others. Be careful about the online sources you collect, especially for research papers.
Wikipedia and similar websites can be helpful for gaining an initial big-picture under-
standing of your topic, but they are usually not considered authoritative and citable
sources. After all, just about anyone can write or alter an entry on Wikipedia. So,
when collecting sources from the Internet, you should thoroughly check the back-
ground of the organization that offers the information. If you have doubts, ask your
professor to help you determine whether an Internet source is credible and usable
as a source.
If your professor allows you to use an artificial intelligence (AI) application, you
might ask the AI search engine questions about the causes of historical events, cultural
norms, natural phenomena, and other topics. AI applications are able to generate sen-
tences, paragraphs, and whole essays about your topic, but we suggest using AI only to
help you generate ideas and find sources related to your topic.
Keep in mind that AI usually cannot tell if information is true or reliable. Instead, AI
tends to gather what is popular or commonly said on the Internet. Also, if you hand in
AI-written work as your own, your professor may view your research paper as plagia-
rized. AI can be a helpful tool when used for research, but it shouldn’t be a substitute for
gathering your own sources and doing your own writing.

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH. On campus and in your community, you can find experts
on your topic. Set up interviews with these experts or send them questions via e-mail.
Depending on your topic, you might also want to do some field observations that will
help you confirm or challenge the information you found in print and electronic sources.
 Research Papers 219

Organizing and Drafting Your

Research Paper
13.2 Develop an organization that fits the content of your research paper.
When you begin the drafting phase, your first task is to figure out which issues you
want to cover and how you want to organize your research paper. In some situations,
AI applications might be helpful for outlining your research paper. However, if you
simply ask an AI application for an outline of a research paper on your topic, it will
return a generic overview of the topic. You will need to be more specific about the
kinds of information you are seeking. Also, AI-written text may be viewed as a form
of plagiarism if you cut and paste text straight into your research paper. Make sure
you clarify with your professor how AI can be used while organizing and drafting
your research paper.

The Introduction
Your research paper needs an engaging introduction that will clearly identify your
topic, purpose, and main point (thesis). A solid introduction will typically make most
or all of the following five opening moves.
IDENTIFY YOUR TOPIC. Indicate to your readers what your research paper is about
and perhaps what it is not about. For example:
Many people see a direct line between the 1962 publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent
Spring and the creation of Earth Day, which happened in 1970. However, a more c
­ omplex
and interesting story emerges when you examine how conservative politicians and
­activists alike responded to the Vietnam War tensions by focusing their anxieties on the
environment.

STATE YOUR PURPOSE. In one sentence, tell your readers what you are trying to
demonstrate or prove. You should be straightforward with this statement.
In this research paper, I will argue that the Vietnam War stirred up energetic and
­potentially explosive social energies, much of which was diverted—through the efforts
of both conservative politicians and progressive activists—from violent civil unrest to the
more manageable and “safe” environmental movement.

STATE YOUR MAIN POINT OR THESIS STATEMENT. In a research paper, your main
point or thesis should be clearly stated somewhere in the introduction.
Weak—The Vietnam War was partially responsible for the success of the 1960s–1970s
Environmental Movement.
Stronger—The Environmental Movement gained strength and was supported by ­politicians
like President Nixon because they believed that the environmental cause would divert
attention from the Vietnam War by acting as a “safety valve” that relieved the social
­pressures caused by the war.
220 Chapter 13

OFFER BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE TOPIC. Give readers just enough

historical information or factual evidence to familiarize them with the topic.
STRESS THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TOPIC TO YOUR READERS. Briefly mention
why this topic is significant, especially to your readers. You might also consider using
a grabber or a lead to catch readers’ attention at the beginning of your research paper.
These five introductory moves can be made in almost any order. Many research
papers, for example, start out with some background information to catch the readers’
attention. Others begin by identifying the topic and stressing its importance. If you
make these moves, you will probably have a good start to your research paper.

The Body
The body of your research paper is carved into larger sections, which contain several
paragraphs apiece (Figure 13.2). Here are a few common ways to organize your draft:
Issues—Divide your information into two to five major issues that you want to
discuss in your research paper. Specifically, pay attention to issues on which
people tend to disagree. List the major points that people often discuss when
they consider this topic.

Figure 13.2 The Body of a Research Paper

In a large document like a research paper, you should divide the body into two to five sections. Each
section will usually have two to five paragraphs.

Introduction

Sections

Paragraphs
within
sections
 Research Papers 221

Time Periods—Divide your information into two to five historical time p ­ eriods
(e.g., 1980s, 1990s, 2000s; or before the event, start of the event, ­during
the event, end of the event, aftermath of the event). Then arrange your
­information by sorting out what happened in each of those time periods.
Argumentation—Divide your information into three categories: review of
the facts; discussion of how others, especially people with opposing views,
­interpret the facts; and discussion of how you and people who agree with you
interpret the facts.

CARVING THE BODY INTO SECTIONS. The body of your research paper will prob-
ably have two to five major sections. These major sections will then have two to five
paragraphs each.
Each section in your research paper can follow a variety of patterns. The ­following
organizational strategies can be helpful for arranging the material in each section:
Narrative—Use true stories and anecdotes to illustrate your points
chronologically.
Description—Divide something into its major parts and describe them
separately.
Cause and effect—Explain the causes of a problem and the effects.
Classification—Divide something into major and minor categories.
Comparison and contrast—Identify similarities and differences between two
things.
Figure 13.3 shows models for how sections might be organized.

USING AND CITING YOUR SOURCES. While drafting the body of your research
paper, you need to carefully quote and thoroughly cite your sources.

Figure 13.3 Organizing Sections in a Research Paper

Each section in your research paper should have its own organization. These diagrams show a few possibilities.

Narrative Description Cause and Effect Classification Comparison and

Description of Contrast
Set the Scene Overall View What Happened
Whole Group Description of Items
Being Compared
Complication Feature 1 Cause 1 Subgroup 1
Similarities

Evaluation Feature 2 Cause 2 Subgroup 2

Differences
• • •
Resolution • • •
• • •
How Subgroups
Features in Motion Effects
Are Related
Lesson Learned
222 Chapter 13

In-text parenthetical citations—Each time you take an idea or quote from a text,
you need to use an in-text citation to signal where it came from. Chapters 33
and 34 on using MLA and APA styles will show you how to use in-text
citations.
Quotations—Incorporating quotes from experts on your topic enhances your
research paper’s authority. Brief quotations can appear within a sentence and
are marked off by quotation marks. Longer quotations (more than three lines
of text) should be put into block quotes that are indented.
Paraphrasing and summarizing—When you paraphrase or summarize, you
are including a source’s ideas put into your own words. If you use a term or
phrase from the original source, be sure to put quotations around it and cite it.
A paraphrase follows the structure of the source. A summary reorganizes the
information from most important to least important.

The Conclusion
The conclusion of your research paper should reflect the ideas originally presented
in your research paper’s introduction. Restate your main point (thesis) and stress the
importance of your subject one final time. In addition, you can extend your ideas in new
ways by discussing the future or by speculating about a closely related issue.
Your research paper’s conclusion should make up to five moves:
• Make a clear transition from the body to the conclusion.
• State your main point, or thesis statement.
• Stress again the importance of the topic to the readers.
• Call your readers to action (in an argumentative research paper).
• Briefly discuss the future of this topic or speculate about closely related issues.
The transition to your conclusion should be obvious to readers. You can signal
that you are concluding with a heading like “Conclusion: A New Movement Is Born.”
Otherwise, you can start your conclusion with a transitional phrase like “In conclusion,”
“In summary,” or “In closing” to signal that you are making your final points.
Your main point or thesis statement should be similar to the sentence you used in
your introduction, but not exactly the same. State your main point in different words,
perhaps with a little more emphasis.
Finally, you should end your research paper by discussing the future of the
topic or speculating about a related issue. If you’re arguing for a specific point, call
your readers to action (e.g., “Now is the time to do something about this problem”).
You can also discuss what you think will happen in the near future or how your
conclusions connect to a closely related larger issue. If you’re writing an expository
research paper, you can briefly discuss your conclusion’s implications (e.g., “Today,
as in the early 1970s, radical social movements can be ‘tamed’ by the maneuvers of
politicians.”).
Your conclusion should be brief, perhaps one or two paragraphs. Once you signal
that you are concluding, your readers will expect you to wrap up in a short amount
of time.
 Research Papers 223

Works Cited or References

The final page(s) of your research paper will be your list of Works Cited (MLA) or
­References (APA). See Chapter 33, “Using MLA Style,” or Chapter 34, “Using APA
Style,” to determine how to format your list of sources. Your professor may allow you
to use AI applications to generate your Works Cited list or References list. Make sure
you ask if using AI for these kinds of purposes is permitted.

Choosing an Appropriate Style

and Design
13.3 Use plain and persuasive style to state your ideas, and design the document
to be accessible and attractive.
Expository research papers tend to be written in plain style, while argumentative
research papers use both plain and persuasive styles. Plain style is especially helpful
for explaining the facts about your topic and discussing what happened. Use persuasive
style when you are trying to influence readers to accept your point of view.

• Use doers as the subjects of your sentences—When revising, change passive sen-
tences into active voice by moving the doers into the subject of your sentence (e.g.,
“In 1970, multitudes across the globe celebrated the first Earth Day”). Active voice
will make your writing more concise and authoritative.
• Avoid weak sentence constructions—Where possible, avoid starting sentences
with “It is . . . ,” “There are . . . ,” and “This is . . . .” You can strengthen these
sentences by using real subjects and active verbs, such as “Students know . . . ,”
“Researchers discovered . . . ,” and “This experiment demonstrated . . . .”
• Revise sentences to be breathing length—As you revise, look for sentences that are
difficult to say in one breath. Then cut them down or divide them into two sentences.
• Use similes and analogies to explain difficult concepts—If you are trying to
explain something complicated to your readers, try using a simile or analogy. For
example, you might use a simile such as “After the first Earth Day, smaller and
more far-reaching events spread like wildfire throughout the Western nations.”
You could also use analogies, such as “Using brain-enhancing drugs to study for
an exam is like gassing up your car with rocket fuel. The benefits are noticeable but
also short-lived and dangerous.”

More than likely, your professor will give you specific guidelines about how the research
paper should be formatted. Be sure to closely examine the assignment sheet, which will
tell you the kind of format and design your professor wants you to use. Part of your grade,
after all, may be based on whether you followed the assignment’s formatting directions.
If your professor does not spell out a specific format or design, ask for guidance.
Here are some design features you might consider:
• Include a cover page—A cover page, like the one shown in Figure 13.4, can add a
professional touch to your research paper. Your cover page should include the title
224 Chapter 13

Figure 13.4 Designing a Research Paper

Even a traditional design for a research paper, like the one shown here, can be attractive.

The Fog Revolution: How King George III Title and name
Misunderstood the Conflict in the American on first page
Colonies
Clear title The Fog Revolution: How King Sara Rodriguez
George III Misunderstood the Conflict
When schoolchildren in the United States learn about the
in the American Colonies American Revolutionary War, they often hear a sanitized
version that is heavily shaped by lore and legend. Today, the
textbook images of the Founding Fathers make them seem
more like superheroes than the fallible men who actually
founded the country. Similarly, Britain’s King George III is
often portrayed as a kind of supervillian, scheming and
Image that sets manipulating behind a line of ruthless Red Coats and cruel
a tone Hessian soldiers. In this research paper, my aim is to show
that King George III was acting as a typical sovereign at that
time. After all, no king would willingly give up such large
territories without some kind of fight (Hibbert, 145; Cannon
and Griffiths, 510). His missteps in the war, I will show, were
primarily due to his misunderstanding of the nature of the
Name and other Sara Rodriguez American Revolution. He found himself lost in the fog of war.
Professor Gina Jenkins
information History 306 Troubles in London, 1773 A-Heading
Arizona State University
In 1773, the main issue on King George’s mind was not the
November 15, 2023
discontent in the American Colonies. In fact, the protests and
skirmishes in places like Boston or New York probably
seemed like the typical happenings in a large and complex
empire. Interestingly, the main issue on King George’s

1 S. Rodriguez Footer with page

number

of your paper, your name, your professor’s name, and the date the research paper
was submitted. An appropriate image on the cover can also set a specific tone for
the paper.
• Use meaningful headings—The headings in your research paper should be
descriptive and accurate but not boring. For example, instead of “Earth Day,” you
might use “The Earth Day Movement Spreads Across the Globe.” Your headings
should offer readers an overall view of your paper while giving them good reasons
to read each section.
• Add graphs, charts, and images—Look for ways to use graphs and charts to rein-
force your major points. Photographs and other images can enhance the readers’
understanding and add some visual appeal.
• Use page numbers and perhaps a header or footer—All multi-page documents
should have page numbers, but this guideline is especially true with research
papers. Due to their length, research papers need page numbers to make them
easier to discuss. You might also consider adding in a footer or header that includes
your name or a brief version of the title.
• Pay attention to paragraph length—In a research paper, you don’t want your para-
graphs to be too short or too long. Short, choppy paragraphs (only two or three
lines) signal to your readers that your paragraphs probably lack sufficient support.
Long paragraphs (over one page) can signal a tendency toward rambling or a lack
of focus. In some cases, short or long paragraphs are appropriate, but you should
make sure that they have enough supporting information and not too much.
 Research Papers 225

Microgenre
The Annotated Bibliography
Your professor may ask you to prepare an annotated bibliography that summarizes and evaluates the sources
you collected for your research paper. An annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of your sources that
briefly summarizes and sometimes assesses how each will be useful in your research paper.
An annotated bibliography is a great way to collect and better understand the print and electronic sources
available for your topic. It is a good way to sort out the facts about a topic and figure out the larger arguments
and trends that influence it.
Here are some strategies for creating a useful annotated bibliography:

Locate a variety of sources on your topic. Find a variety of print and electronic sources on your topic.
Determine what each source contains and how this information relates to your project. Don’t collect only
web-based sources. You need to go to the library, too.

Avoid using sites like Wikipedia as sources. Wikipedia and similar websites can give you an ­overview
of your topic and help you locate sources. However, since the entries on these websites are written
­anonymously and can be altered by the public, they are usually not considered authoritative.

Format your sources accurately. List your sources and format them in MLA or APA style. If you format
them properly as you are creating your annotated bibliography, they will be easier to include at the end of
your research paper.

Offer a brief summary or commentary on each source. Your summary should run the length of a
­typical paragraph. The first line should state the main point of the text. The remaining sentences should
each express a major point from the source.

Consider each source in depth and figure out how it fits into your research project. Your ­professors
will also use your annotated bibliography to review the kinds of sources you have collected and make
­suggestions about other possible sources. At the end of each source in your list, write a couple of
­sentences about how you might use it in your research paper.

Be careful not to plagiarize your sources. If you take quotes or ideas from a source, carefully label
these items with page numbers and the necessary quotation marks. This labeling is especially important
while writing a research paper because as you draft your text, you may forget which words and ideas
­originally came from your sources.

WRITE your own annotated bibliography. Create an annotated bibliography for the research paper you
have been assigned to write. Your annotated bibliography should include at least ten sources from a variety
of print and electronic texts.

Annotated Bibliography: The Fog of Revolution

Sara Rodriguez
Allen, Thomas. “One Revolution, Two Wars.” Military History, vol. 27, 2011, Full citation in
pp. 58–63. MLA style.
This article points out that the American Revolution was in many ways a civil
war between Patriots, who wanted revolution, and Loyalists who supported
226 Chapter 13

King George III. As Allen points out, “the signers [of the Declaration of
­Independence] knew they did not speak for ‘one people’ but for a people
including Americans who opposed the Revolution” (58). Many members of
established families acted as informants for the British. Many Loyalists would
Summary of the join the British forces in battles against the Patriots. These divisions led to much
article. distrust among the Patriots because they weren’t certain who was on their side
and who was against them (61).
My assessment: This article can be helpful for my argument. Part of my
argument is that we are given a rather cleaned-up version of the American
­Revolution in our classes and textbooks. This article demonstrates that the war
Explains how was not one that pitted American patriots against British oppressors. Instead,
the source might
be used in the there were many factions in the colonies who had reasons to support or fight
research paper. against independence.
Bonwick, Colin. The American Revolution. U of Virginia P, 1991.
This book suggests that the American Revolution is often misunderstood by
the general public. Typically, Bonwick argues, the American Revolution is por-
trayed as an uprising among colonists who were seeking their freedom from
Britain. This revolutionary narrative glosses over the many “internal debates
and processes which gave birth to the United States from 1776 onwards” imply-
ing they “were little more than necessary consequences of independence” (1).
The book steps back and shows that each colony had its own reasons for seek-
ing independence. Overall, though, much of the tension between the colonies
Summary of the and Britain was due to economic rather than ideological reasons (56). The final
book. move toward Revolution was more about preserving economic strength rather
Interpretive than freeing people from any kind of bondage.
comments that My assessment: This book makes a similar argument to the one I am
explain how the ­making. I’m arguing that King George III’s actions, especially increased
source might fit
into the research ­taxation, made the economic situation in the colonies more difficult, which
project. made it easier for arguments for independence to take hold.

Quick Start Guide

Here are some quick strategies to get you going on your research paper.

Define your research topic and find a new angle. Your professor may have given you a topic or asked
you to find one of your own. You should first narrow your topic to something specific that you can handle in
about a ten-page paper. Then look for an angle on that topic that is new or different.

State your purpose. In one sentence, state exactly what you want to achieve in your research paper.
Your purpose statement will evolve as you do research and draft.

State your main point or thesis statement. In one sentence, state exactly what your research paper will
demonstrate or prove. An expository research paper will offer a thesis that guides the discussion. An argu-
mentative research paper will state a thesis that you intend to prove.
 Research Papers 227

Research your topic. Research papers rely heavily on print and electronic sources. Use your computer
to access databases at your campus library. If you use sources from the Internet, make sure they are
­reliable. Go to the library!

Organize your research paper. A variety of organization styles are available for your research paper.
They almost always include an introduction and conclusion. The body should be organized in a way that
allows you to present your research logically.

Choose an appropriate style. The style of a research paper tends to be straightforward and formal. You
can use stylistic devices like similes, metaphors, and analogies. For the most part, though, a plain style is
best.

Design and format the document. Your professor will likely have some specific guidelines for how to
format your paper (e.g., double-spaced, 1-inch margins, 12-point font). You should ask if you can include
images and if there is any flexibility in designing the document.

Revise and edit your writing. Pay special attention to your paragraphs, especially the topic sentences.
Also, your research paper needs to be error-free if you want your readers to take your work seriously.

Readings: Research Papers

Reading 1
Katie Brigham produces articles on environmental issues and clean energy technologies
for CNBC.com, a business news source. In this research paper, she explores the recent
advances in green technologies that remove carbon from the atmosphere, a key aspect
of curbing and perhaps solving the climate crises. In this research paper, watch how she
uses a simple structure to profile four different companies and their different approaches to
solving the same problem.

Why Big Tech Is Pouring Money into

Carbon Removal
Katie Brigham
The market for carbon removal is expanding rapidly, and private money is pouring in from tech
companies seeking to help early-stage carbon capture and storage startups scale up and bring
costs down.
The wave of funding comes as reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change double down on the need to remove billions of tons of carbon dioxide from the air,
emphasizing that emissions-reduction efforts alone are not enough.
“We have to do emissions reduction at a massive scale, at a massive pace period. Full
stop. Unfortunately, because we’ve done such a poor job with that to date, we are now also
going to have to do carbon removal,” said Nan Ransohoff, head of Climate at Stripe, an online
payments company that’s invested millions in carbon removal technologies.
228 Chapter 13

Carbon removal amounts to a process of storing carbon dioxide that’s already been
­ mitted. That’s different than capturing emissions from a smokestack or recycling carbon to
e
make temporary products like carbonated beverages, plastics, or fuels. Planting trees is one
way to go about it, but experts say that’s not enough to address climate change.
In April, Stripe teamed up with Alphabet, Meta, Shopify, and McKinsey to launch an
­initiative called Frontier, which plans to purchase $925 million worth of carbon removal by 2030
from nascent carbon removal companies, in an effort to accelerate research and development
efforts and lower costs (Clifford, 2022).
The technical approaches to permanent carbon removal vary widely, from pulling CO2 out
of the air with giant fans and injecting it into rocks to altering the pH of the ocean so that it
can absorb more carbon from the atmosphere. But no matter the methodology, some subset
of these technologies will likely need to scale up quickly to keep global warming below 1.5 or
even 2 degrees Celsius in the years ahead.
“The scales these are going to have to be built out at almost defy comprehension,” said
Eric Toone, technology lead at Breakthrough Energy Ventures, which has made numerous
investments in the carbon removal space. “To capture something like 30% of emissions in
2050, you’re talking about building an industry that’s three times to five times larger than the
global petrochemical industry today.”

Different Storage Methods

Direct air capture companies like Climeworks and Carbon Engineering are some of the best-
known players in this space. They use giant fans, along with complex chemical processes or
filters, to take CO2 out of the air. But until recently, there’s been no incentive to simply bury
that carbon, so they’ve had to sell it into various markets.

Climeworks is working
with Icelandic company
Carbfix to permanently
sequester CO2 under-
ground at its new direct
air capture and storage
plant in Iceland.
Climeworks

Carbon Engineering, for example, has sold its captured CO2 to oil and gas companies that
use it for “enhanced oil recovery,” in which carbon dioxide is injected underground in order
to extract more oil from petroleum wells. The carbon is sequestered, but since the process
­produces more oil to be burned, it almost never leads to negative emissions, and is therefore
not considered “carbon removal.”

Climeworks
Swiss company Climeworks initially went to market by selling captured CO2 to greenhouses
in Switzerland, where it’s used to grow vegetables, and to beverage companies, which use it
 Research Papers 229

to make carbonated drinks. But in 2017, Climeworks began working with Carbfix, an I­celandic
company that sequesters CO2 permanently by dissolving captured carbon in water and
­injecting it into basalt rock formations.
“The CO2 is injected into these rocks and is then mineralized. That literally means the CO2,
within two years after injection, is turned into stone. So it is solidified a kilometer underground
and thereby it is absolutely, permanently stored for the next hundreds of millions of years,”
said Jan Wurzbacher, Climeworks’s co-founder and Co-CEO.
Partly funded by Stripe, Climeworks launched a new direct air capture and storage plant in
Iceland last year (Stripe Climate, 2022) and recently raised $650 million—the biggest funding
round in the history of the carbon removal industry (Rathi, 2022).

Charm Industrial
Charm Industrial believes that it’s found a cheaper means of carbon removal by sourcing crop
residue like stalks, stems, and leaves from farms. This biomass has already captured carbon
from the atmosphere. Then, Charm converts it to bio-oil, which is stored underground.
“The conversion process from biomass to bio-oil is called pyrolysis or fast pyrolysis. And it’s
where we first grind down the biomass into really, really tiny pieces so that we can push heat
through it really quickly, ” explained Charm CEO Peter Reinhardt. “And then we heat it up from
room temperature to 500 degrees centigrade in less than a few seconds. And that really fast
heating rate vaporizes the cellulose and the biomass. And then we condense it back into a liquid.”
As a last step, the bio-oil is injected deep underground, where it solidifies. Stripe was
Charm’s first customer, and now others like Microsoft and Shopify have also bought in.

Bay Area-based Charm

Industrial sources
biomass from farms,
converts it to bio-oil and
injects it deep under-
ground as a method
of permanent carbon
removal.
Courtesy of Charm Industrial

CarbonCure
Canadian company CarbonCure has a different approach. Unlike Climeworks and Charm,
CarbonCure is putting carbon dioxide to use by injecting it into concrete mixes, which
­permanently stores the CO2, and has the added benefit of making the concrete stronger.
“The CO2 is injected into concrete and it’s reacting with the cement as it’s being batched.
And a chemical reaction occurs where the calcium reacts with the CO2 to form a mineral,”
Robert Niven, CarbonCure founder and CEO explained. “Why that reaction matters is it’s
­actually increasing the strength of concrete.”
That increased strength means concrete producers can use less cement in their mixes,
which helps make the industrial process greener. Stripe also was its first customer, and now
others like Shopify, Mapbox, and Zendesk are on board (CarbonCure, 2022).
230 Chapter 13

Right now, CarbonCure’s concrete producer partners source CO2 from large industrial
facilities like ethanol plants or refineries, where it’s captured from smokestacks. That means
that CarbonCure isn’t removing CO2, but rather it’s preventing new emissions from nearly
600 plants worldwide.
But the company is starting to get involved with carbon removal through a Department of
Energy-funded partnership with California-based direct air capture company CarbonCapture.
(Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management, 2022).

Planetary Technologies
Another emerging method of permanent carbon removal relies on ocean-based capture and
storage.
Canadian-based Planetary Technologies bases its technology on the fact that the relative
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere and the ocean is always in balance, and thus has risen
over time, making the ocean more acidic. But if we can decrease the acidity of the ocean by
lowering CO2 content, the ocean would have more capacity to absorb additional CO2 from the
air. That’s what Planetary is working toward by adding an antacid to seawater.
“So by just simply adding our antacid into seawater, we’re neutralizing this acidic
CO2, we’re turning it into bicarbonate or baking soda, and then that stays in seawater for
100,000 years,” said Mike Kelland, CEO of Planetary Technologies. “And what that means is
that because the concentration in the ocean of CO2 is lower now, more CO2 will invade from
the atmosphere to balance out that concentration.”
Planetary plans to start open-ocean trials this year, by adding its antacid to wastewater
treatment facilities, which already have permits that allow them to clean up water before it
goes into the ocean. Shopify is Planetary’s first customer.

The Business Model Gap: Carbon Markets Needed

It’s an exciting time to be working in this space, but early-stage purchases by tech companies
and others will only go so far.
“There’s no doubt that if we’re going to do this to try and address climate change,
­eventually we’re going to have to just capture this CO2 and pump it into the ground and store it
for eternity. And to do that, we need carbon markets,” said Toone of Breakthrough Energy.
About 40 countries and over 20 cities, states, and provinces already do have some form
of carbon pricing, though in many cases those prices would be too low to incentivize carbon
removal even if these companies were operating at scale (World Bank, 2020).
Many industry leaders hope the U.S. will implement a federal carbon pricing scheme as
well, and increase the current tax credit for carbon storage, which is about $35 per ton of
­geologically sequestered CO2, and about $22 for CO2 that’s used in a product like concrete.
Carbon removal does generally enjoy bipartisan support in Washington, and the
­Department of Energy recently launched a $3.5 billion program to develop four direct air
­capture hubs across the U.S., with each one intended to permanently remove over 1 million
tons of carbon dioxide per year (Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management, 2022).
“I think that government management of a market that prices carbon in a way that results
in its removal happens when people decide that it’s cheaper to deal with the CO2 than it is to
deal with the consequences of the CO2,” said Toone. “And there is absolutely a growing
awareness of exactly what the costs of that carbon are.”
 Research Papers 231

References
CarbonCure. (2022, March 15). CarbonCure celebrates field-leading ­carbon removal partners.
Carboncure.com. https://www.carboncure.com/news/carboncure-celebrates-field-leading-
carbon-removal-partners/
Clifford, C. (2022, April 12). Stripe teams up with major tech companies to commit $925 million
toward carbon capture. CNBC.com. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/04/12/stripe-alphabet-meta-
shopify-mckinsey-spur-carbon-capture-market.html
Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management. (2022). DOE invests $14 million to scale up direct
air capture and storage technology, coupled to low-carbon energy resources. U.S. Department of
Energy. https://www.energy.gov/fecm/articles/doe-invests-14-million-scale-direct-air-capture-and-
storage-technology-coupled-lowEnergyResources
Rathi, A. (2022, Apr. 5). Climeworks raises $650 million in largest round for carbon removal startup.
Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-05/climeworks-raises-650-million-
in-largest-round-for-carbon-removal-startup?sref=ctSjKj2N
Stripe Climate. (2021, Dec. 15). Stripe Climate increases carbon removal commitments to $15 million,
adding four new companies. Stripe.com. https://stripe.com/newsroom/news/fall-21-carbon-
removal-purchases
World Bank. (2020, June 22). Pricing carbon. The World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/­
programs/pricing-cabon#:~:text=Some%2040%20countries%20and%20more,annual%20
global%20greenhouse%20gas%20emissions

A Closer Look at “Why Big Tech Is Pouring Money

into Carbon Removal”
1. With your group, discuss your opinions about the climate crisis. Do the people in
your group believe the climate crisis is an important concern? Do the carbon tech-
nologies discussed in this article seem like part of the solution? How big a part of
the overall solution do people in your group think they will be?
2. The technologies discussed in this article seem promising. With your group, play
the “Believing and Doubting Game” (see page 37 in Writing Today) and consider
each of these technologies separately. Which one seems like it has the most poten-
tial for success? Then consider these technologies together. Discuss whether you
believe they are a reasonable solution to the climate crisis.
3. The author concludes with a quote from an expert: “‘I think that government man-
agement of a market that prices carbon in a way that results in its removal happens
when people decide that it’s cheaper to deal with the CO2 than it is to deal with the
consequences of the CO2.’” With your group, discuss whether you think people will
be able to make that kind of costs-benefits analysis. What might help people decide
to address this crisis before the situation gets worse?

Ideas for Writing

1. The author says that “Carbon removal does generally enjoy bipartisan support in
Washington.” Let’s assume this is true. Write a white paper that would explain this
issue to both conservatives and progressives, showing how both sides can support
this technology.
232 Chapter 13

2. Write a proposal in which you argue to your university or college administrators

that carbon removal would be a good way to go “carbon neutral” or even “carbon
negative” on your campus. Describe one or more of these technologies and encour-
age them to look into the possibilities of building one or more of these kinds of
carbon removal sites on or near your campus.

Reading 2
The writer of this research paper, Michael J. Ard, is a former CIA analyst who also served
as a deputy national intelligence officer for the National Intelligence Council. He is a
U.S. Navy veteran. In this research paper, he explores the bizarre conspiracy theory
QAnon, which became popular in 2019. Pay attention to how he uses his analysis of
QAnon to talk more broadly about conspiracy theories in American culture.

QAnon Is Overrated, and So Are Most

Conspiracy Theories
Michael J. Ard
After last year’s Capitol riot, commentators focused on the role allegedly played in the attack
by the strange QAnon conspiracy. Dozens of those arrested for disorderly and violent behavior
at the Capitol said they were QAnon believers.
Last year, the Brookings Institution (Paresky et al.) declared that its “violent nature and [the]
susceptibility of individuals to the conspiracy theory has made QAnon a significant threat to
democracy.” In 2019 an FBI field office bulletin referred to QAnon as one of several conspiracy
theories constituting a domestic terrorism threat (Winter). Political scientists Russell Muirhead
and Nancy Rosenblum, in their 2019 study “A Lot of People Are Saying,” insisted that QAnon
represents a “new conspiracism” in which bare assertions now replace theory and facts (N.C).
The internet supercharges such assertions into even more outlandish and dangerous beliefs,
they argued.
Does QAnon, and the many conspiracies like it, represent a unique threat to American
democracy? Or, more likely, are conspiracies representative of a long tradition of American
paranoid thinking that we have managed to live with?
A conspiracy theory is a belief in a plot secretly carried out by powerful people for some
nefarious goal. These theories are constantly in the media, and we can find conspiracy theo-
ries on just about anything. Rare is the politician who doesn’t claim a conspiracy is behind
some adverse circumstance, such as inflation or rising gas prices.
QAnon followers believe that since 2017, on message boards administered anonymously
by an American and a South African, a government insider has been sending secret chat
messages about a “deep state” plot of sex-trafficking pedophiles that only Donald Trump can
stop (Kirkpatrick). (Why pedophiles? Couldn’t they be philatelists?) Along the way, QAnon
embraced many other conspiracy theories, including that the 2020 election was rigged in favor
of President Biden.
 Research Papers 233

A Conspiracy for Our Time

Weak on supporting evidence, QAnon’s genius is its low cost of entry. You could become
adept on the message boards quickly, unlike, say, a conspiracist on the Kennedy assassina-
tion or Watergate, which require at least some command of facts and logic. QAnon seems the
perfect conspiracy for our online, attention-deficit age.
QAnon never has been very popular. In 2020 most Americans rejected QAnon, with 57%
saying it was “very bad” and 17% saying “somewhat bad,” according to the Pew Research
Center. Still, the number of QAnon believers is astonishing. A 2021 poll by the Public
­Religion Research Institute indicated that 15% of Americans support the core QAnon belief
that “the government, media, and financial worlds in the U.S. are controlled by a group of
­Satan-­worshipping pedophiles who run a global child sex trafficking operation.”
As for QAnon being a violent threat, the evidence is flimsy. Much of the reputation of
QAnon for violence comes from its precursor, the 2016 “Pizzagate” incident in which a
­troubled man fired a shot in a Washington, D.C., pizza restaurant believing that it was a front
for sex trafficking. Harming no one, he quickly surrendered to authorities. The shooter’s
­conspiratorial beliefs inspired him to act, but his history of depression and drug abuse
­probably played a major role.

Not Prone to Violence

Besides the involvement of some followers in the Capitol riot, most QAnon incidents don’t
constitute political violence, let alone terrorism. Experts at the University of Maryland’s
National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism concluded that
most QAnon-linked violence concerned interpersonal issues (Jensen). “Nine of the 10 v­ ictims
who have been killed or injured in QAnon-related attacks since 2018 had prior relation-
ships with their assailants and all but two of the 10 victims were related to their attackers,”
­according to the study (7). Most QAnon crimes consisted of baseless threats, and few follow-
ers have demonstrated any capacity to successfully attack others. Of the millions of A ­ mericans
­sympathetic to QAnon beliefs, the authors conclude, only a tiny minority have acted out
­violently. Those who have appear to suffer from mental health issues. QAnon may be bizarre
and unhealthy but calling it an inspiration for domestic terrorism appears far-fetched.
QAnon might be an extreme example, but Americans of all classes buy into some con-
spiracy theories. Consider how many journalists, politicians, and security experts fell for the
theory that Trump might have been a Russian asset, which included former Director of National
­Intelligence James Clapper and former CIA Director John Brennan. The “Truther” conspiracy
that the U.S. government contrived 9/11 has a large following in Hollywood. Academia is
­susceptible to conspiracy theories too. All versions of “Critical Theory” posit a non-falsifiable
narrative of a society at war, with one class seeking to dominate another. Linguistics theorist
Noam Chomsky has made a second career out of blaming the U.S. for nearly all the world’s ills.

Getting Duped
Conspiracy theories represent a large pool of fallacies that Americans have long found
­persuasive. They might be based on a poor premise (“international cabal of sex t­ raffickers”),
lack of common sense (“I can’t **** figure out what the theory is here,” William Barr told Trump
about his electoral fraud claims), lack of simplicity (Oliver Stone’s elaborate CIA-coup d’état
theory about the Kennedy assassination), or leaps of logic (why would Barack Obama’s
­parents have arranged for a fake Hawaii birth certificate?).
234 Chapter 13

As conspiracy theory researcher Joseph Uscinski explains, some people instinctively

reject authoritative information sources and others feel disconnected from the political sys-
tem. But he doubts that Americans are more susceptible to these theories today than in the
past. U­ niversity of Chicago researchers J. Eric Oliver and Thomas J. Wood contend that
national surveys from 2006-2011 show that “over half of the American population consistently
endorses some kind of conspiratorial narrative about a current political event or phenomenon
and that these attitudes are predicted by supernatural, paranormal and Manichean sentiments”
(954). Oliver and Wood conclude that far from being cranky outliers, conspiracists make up a
significant body of American public opinion.
With guaranteed free speech and a free press, the U.S. offers a haven for conspiracy
entrepreneurs to publish and promote their theories. Alex Jones, the sinister genius behind
Infowars and the Sandy-Hook-massacre-as-government-plot conspiracy, has many fathers.
Years ago, the science fiction writer Charles Fort pushed many theories on paranormal
­phenomena against conventional science and gained a sizable following. In the 1970s,
Robert Anton ­Wilson gave new life to the 18th-century Illuminati conspiracy. Writer Bill Kaysing
in “We Never Went to the Moon” invented the faked-Apollo moon landing conspiracy. The con-
spiracy gadfly Richard Gage is a major voice behind the 9/11 Truther movement. The modern
anti-vax conspiracy originated with a now-discredited article by Dr. Andrew Wakefield in the
British medical journal Lancet and found a home in the U.S. With all due respect to Muirhead
and Rosenblum’s “new conspiracism” argument, many of these older conspiracies have as
much contempt for facts as QAnon.

Elections Are Always Rigged

Americans have long entertained conspiracy theories to explain election outcomes. Both
Republicans and Democrats often believe the other party is somehow rigging the results.
Uscinski cites a 2012 poll in which 62% of respondents blamed election fraud as having
caused their preferred candidate to lose. He says the more one believes in conspiracy theories,
the more likely a belief in electoral fraud.
Richard M. Nixon thought the 1960 presidential election was rigged in John F. Kennedy’s
favor, and some Americans still believe this, despite slim evidence (Barone). After the 1980
presidential election, National Security Council staffer Gary Sick advanced the theory of an
“October Surprise” in which the Reagan campaign team plotted with Revolutionary Iran to keep
U.S. diplomats hostage until after the election so President Jimmy Carter wouldn’t get a boost
in the polls. Two congressional investigations concluded that the theory was baseless. Many
Democrats still see the 2000 election result as fraudulent, after the Supreme Court ordered
a halt to Florida’s recounts. Hillary Clinton holds the Russians responsible for Trump’s 2016
­victory, and Trump believes that a vast Democratic conspiracy threw the 2020 election to Biden.
All of these elections ended with the winning candidate taking office and the public, albeit
grudgingly, accepting the outcome. Perhaps that’s a good sign we should not put too much
weight on the persuasiveness of conspiracy theories in overtaking most Americans’ innate
common sense. That doesn’t stop analysts, however, from exaggerating the theories’ impact.

A Rumor of War
Take for example “Jade Helm 15,” a 2015 military wargame in southwestern states in which
1,200 special forces practiced irregular warfare against designated targets. Some conspiracists
got their hands on the map, which seemed to show an assault on “red” states, a notion eagerly
promoted by Jones’ Infowars. To appease some worried constituents, Texas’ governor asked
 Research Papers 235

the Texas State Militia to observe the exercise. Texas media outlets covered the o ­ peration, and
The New York Times got it right when it concluded that most Texans didn’t pay Jade Helm
much attention (Fernandez). As a Texas resident at the time, I never heard anyone mention it.
Most Texans strongly support the military and saw the exercise for what it was.
Nevertheless, Muirhead and Rosenblum prominently feature Jade Helm in A Lot of People
Are Saying as a conspiracy theory that unduly panicked people. Even a former director of
the CIA, Michael Hayden, claimed the Russians probably saw the alleged disinformation
­success of Jade Helm as encouragement to disrupt the 2016 presidential election (Pollock and
­Samuels). There is no denying the damage done by some conspiracy theories. Jews and other
minorities have long borne the brunt of many odious conspiracies, as Charles Lipson detailed
in Discourse last year. The Manichean worldview often associated with these theories isn’t
conducive to accepting democratic outcomes and could inspire violence.
It is hard to argue that more education will solve this problem. Some 90% of people in
the U.S. age 25 or older have completed high school, the best level in history (Schmidt). More
Americans have bachelor’s degrees or advanced degrees than ever before.

Democracy Soldiers On
Perhaps more resources committed to mental health might help limit the ill effects of malig-
nant conspiracy theories. Social media companies also could change their algorithms to avoid
encouraging conspiracists to visit similar sites. Muirhead and Rosenblum urge politicians to
“speak truth to conspiracism” by acting more publicly respectful of processes and institutions.
We should nevertheless avoid being too dismissive of some conspiracy theories. The
widely ridiculed 1940s and ’50s “Red Scare” about communist infiltration of the U.S. govern-
ment was validated by the release of the National Security Agency’s Venona intercepts in the
1990s. Even arch-conspiracist Donald Trump appears to be right that the U.S. government
spied on his 2016 presidential campaign (York). And we still are far from having all the CIA and
FBI files on the Kennedy assassination declassified.
Although solutions to more toxic conspiracy theories may be elusive, we should take some
solace in that American democracy today is more inclusive and representative than ever. The
turnout for national elections has been rising. In 2020, despite a pre-election barrage of propa-
ganda that the election might be fixed, 66.8% of eligible Americans went to the polls, the best
turnout of this century. Americans may say they believe elections are stolen, but they act as if
voting matters. Somehow, our habitual dabbling in conspiracy theories hasn’t overtaken our
common sense.

Works Cited
Barone, Michael. “Was Nixon the One in 1960?” Washington Free Beacon, 4 Feb. 2022, https://­
freebeacon.com/culture/was-nixon-the-one-in-1960/.
C., N. “Conspiracy Theories are Dangerous—Here’s How to Crush Them.” The Economist, 12 Aug.
2019, https://www.economist.com/open-future/2019/08/12/conspiracy-theories-are-dangerous-
heres-how-to-crush-them. Accessed 1 July 2022.
Fernandez, Manny. “As Jade Helm 15 Military Exercise Begins, Texans Keep Watch ‘Just in Case.’”
The New York Times, 15 July 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/16/us/in-texas-a-military-
exercise-is-met-by-some-with-suspicion.html?searchResultPosition=3.
Jensen, Michael A., and Sheehan Kane. “QAnon-Inspired Violence in the United States: An Empirical
Assessment of a Misunderstood Threat.” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression,
2021, pp. 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2021.2013292.
Kirkpatrick, David. “Who Is behind QAnon? Linguistic Detectives Find Fingerprints.” The New York Times,
19 Feb. 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/19/technology/QAnon-messages-authors.html.
236 Chapter 13

Lipson, Charles. “Conspiracy Theories and Anti-Semitism.” Discourse, 23 Feb. 2021, https://www
.discoursemagazine.com/culture-and-society/2021/02/22/conspiracy-theories-and-anti-semitism/.
Meigs, James B. “9/11 Truther Movement a Harbinger of Today’s Paranoid Politics.” City Journal,
1 Oct. 2021, https://www.city-journal.org/9-11-truther-movement-a-harbinger-of-todays-paranoid-
politics.
Nicaise, Alexander. “Clear Thinking about Conspiracy Theories in Troubled Times.” Skeptical Inquirer,
5 Jan. 2021, https://skepticalinquirer.org/2021/01/clear-thinking-about-conspiracy-theories-in-
troubled-times/.
Oliver, J. Eric, and Thomas J. Wood. “Conspiracy Theories and the Paranoid Style(s) of Mass
Opinion.” American Journal of Political Science, vol. 58, no. 4, 2014, pp. 952–966.,
https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12084.
Pew Research Center. “5 Facts about the QAnon Conspiracy Theories.” Pew Research Center,
15 Dec. 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/11/16/5-facts-about-the-QAnon-
conspiracy-theories/.
Pollock, Cassandra, and Alex Samuels. “Hysteria over Jade Helm Exercise in Texas Was Fueled by
Russians, Former CIA Director Says.” The Texas Tribune, The Texas Tribune, 3 May 2018, https://
www.texastribune.org/2018/05/03/hysteria-over-jade-helm-exercise-texas-was-fueled-russians-
former-cia-/.
Public Religion Research Institute [PRRI], “Understanding QAnon’s Connection to American
­Politics, Religion, and Media Consumption.” PRRI, 23 Feb. 2022, https://www.prri.org/research/
QAnon-conspiracy-american-politics-report/.
Schmidt, Erik. “For the First Time, 90 Percent Completed High School or More.” Census.gov,
8 Oct. 2021, https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2018/07/educational-attainment.
html#:~:text=For%20the%20First%20Time%2C%2090%20Percent%20Completed%20High%20
School%20or%20More&text=For%20the%20first%20time%2C%20the,reached%2090%20
percent%20in%202017.
Swan, Jonathan. “Off the Rails: Inside the Disintegration of Trump’s Relationship with Bill Barr.”
Axios, 18 Jan. 2021, https://www.axios.com/2021/01/18/trump-barr-relationship-off-the-rails.
U.S. Census Bureau. “2020 Presidential Election Voting and Registration Tables Now Available.”
Census.gov, 8 Oct. 2021, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/2020-­
presidential-election-voting-and-registration-tables-now-available.html.
Uscinski, Joseph. “Lots of Americans Agree with Donald Trump about ‘Rigged Elections.’” The
Washington Post, 7 Dec. 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/
08/08/lots-of-americans-agree-with-donald-trump-about-rigged-elections/?noredirect=on.
Winter, Jana. “Exclusive: FBI Document Warns Conspiracy Theories Are a New Domestic Terrorism
Threat.” Yahoo! News, 1 Aug. 2019, https://news.yahoo.com/fbi-documents-conspiracy-theories-
terrorism-160000507.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZGlzY291cnNlbW
FnYXppbmUuY29tLw&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAE9pIbgVxdCWUqOeelU5Jr7rD9YwCec8HSXK
aFL_lnMRyREd5HRgABUYy_zQ96RrW73B29PvU0WZRFOUqtMOrFAH2J4dk98FwXJJ34cXTxM-
6FAN9RvmAOM71B-4chB0-xNTYU5g8yvOm9RdcfnTy5Stg-Pa7Mmdzj3GTfqmEilLt.
York, Byron. “Of Course They Spied on Trump.” Washington Examiner, 14 Feb. 2022, https://www
.washingtonexaminer.com/opinion/of-course-they-spied-on-trump.

A Closer Look at “QAnon Is Overrated, and So Are

Most Conspiracy Theories”
1. According to Ard’s research, what are three core beliefs of the QAnon conspiracy?
With a group of others, discuss these beliefs. Has anyone in your group heard of
these beliefs before?
2. This research paper was originally published in Discourse, an online magazine that
usually discusses political issues. With a group from your class, look through this
online magazine at www.discoursemagazine.com. Based on the articles you see,
how did Ard, the author of this article, adjust his style to fit the magazine’s readers?
 Research Papers 237

3. Highlight or make a list of the conspiracy theories that Ard mentions in this article.
How many of these conspiracies have you heard of before?
4. After reading Ard’s research paper that essentially argues that conspiracy theories
are common and mostly harmless, in what ways have your views on the topic
changed or not changed? Do you agree with Ard that conspiracy theories are rather
typical and not much to be worried about?

Ideas for Writing

1. Write a rhetorical analysis of this research paper. Be sure to explain Ard’s topic,
thesis, and main point. Describe also the author’s purpose (what he wanted readers
to believe or do) and the persuasive strategies (e.g., ethos, pathos, logos, establishing
goodwill, etc.) he uses to achieve that purpose. Finally, evaluate how effectively
Ard achieves his purpose.
2. Search the Internet for an article that seems to take a conspiracy theory seriously.
Using Ard’s premise that most conspiracy theories are “overrated,” find any flaws in
the methods or conclusions of the article that takes a conspiracy seriously. How does
the article you found seek to excite its readers or sensationalize conspiratorial beliefs?
In what ways does it reinforce and promote the conspiracy it is written about?

Activities for Research Papers

Talk About This
1. Using an Internet search engine, find a research paper written by a college
­student. With your group, discuss the strengths and weaknesses of this research
paper. Determine whether this research paper is expository or argumentative.
Can you find a clear purpose statement or thesis? Do you think the writer cov-
ered the topic in enough depth, or can you find gaps in his or her research?
2. The research paper is often criticized as a genre that is mostly used in school, not
the workplace. With your group, come up with five ways in which a research
paper could be used outside college. What kinds of readers would find a research
paper interesting and worth reading?
3. With your group, discuss the student-written research paper included at the begin-
ning of this chapter. How well did the student follow the research-paper genre, as
described in this chapter? Where does this research paper deviate from the genre? Is
the author creative with the content, organization, style, and design of the document?

Try This Out

1. More than likely, your professor has asked you to write a research paper. With
your group, read through the assignment prompt carefully. List ten topics that
would be appropriate for this assignment. Then identify a new angle for each
238 Chapter 13

of these topics. A good way to find a new angle is to ask, “What is new or has
changed recently about this topic?” After your group chooses the best one or two
angles, your group spokesperson should explain to the class why your group
believes these angles could result in a good research paper.
2. Find an annotated bibliography on the Internet. What kinds of sources did the
author include in the bibliography? Do you find the summaries of the sources
helpful, or could the writer have described the sources in more depth? Using
your library’s website, find five additional sources that could have been included
in this bibliography.
3. Even a brief search on the Internet will turn up many “Buy a Research Paper”
websites. Looking at these websites, write down ten things that would help you
detect whether a research paper was bought or plagiarized. Do these websites
promise results that they cannot possibly deliver?

Explore This
Here’s your chance to play around with some other microgenres. Choose a microgenre
from the following list and find three examples in print or on the Internet. Use these
examples to come up with your own guidelines for writing one of these microgenres,
which are similar to a research paper.
Brief or briefing—answers a scientific or historical question with a factual
response
Abstract—a one-paragraph summary of a book or article, using the original
wording from the source
White paper—a brief report that explains an important concept or event with
factual research
Overview—a concise explanation of an event or phenomenon that gives readers
some helpful background on that subject
Q&A—in a question-and-answer format, addresses potential questions that
might be asked by readers or an audience about a specific topic

Write This
1. Collect sources and create an annotated bibliography. For a research paper you
are writing, collect ten documents from a variety of print and electronic sources.
Read these sources and create an annotated bibliography. Bibliography entries
should be put into MLA or APA bibliographic format. Include a three-sentence or
more summary for each entry.
2. Write a research paper. Research papers can be written on a variety of topics.
More than likely, your professor has asked you to write one for the course you
are taking. Working on your own or in a small group, do these activities:
a. Identify a topic that you would be interested in writing about and come up
with a new angle.
 Research Papers 239

b. In one sentence, write down a statement of purpose that describes what you
want the research paper to demonstrate or prove.
c. Write down two possible thesis statements that could be used to guide this
research paper. Which one is stronger? Why?
d. Create an outline of your research paper. Start out with the diagrams shown
in the At-A-Glance at the beginning of this chapter. Which of these patterns
will be most useful for your project? How can this pattern be modified to fit
your topic’s needs?
e. Find at least ten items from print and electronic sources. Create a Works
Cited or References list from these sources. Then use them as support in your
research paper.
3. Invent an electronic research paper. Research papers have traditionally been
confined to a single medium—words on paper. Consider other mediums and
strategies. If you were to completely “re-mediate” the research paper as an
­electronic document, what would it look like, and how would it work? Write
a two-page proposal for a new kind of research paper that incorporates other
media like video, audio, slides, and images. Your proposal should describe the
choices these new mediums would afford—­written text, images, audio, video,
and interactive features. Then describe and justify the choices you make to create
a document that is more useful, engaging, and dynamic for your readers.
 Chapter 14
Profiles
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

14.1 invent the content of your profile.

14.2 organize and draft your profile in an attention-grabbing way.
14.3 choose a style that captures the essence of your topic while including
images that support the written text.

Profiles are used to describe interesting people, organizations, places, and events. They
are used to create a sketch of a person, place, or event by viewing the subject from a
specific angle. Profiles often reveal something essential through a story or series of
­stories—an insight, idea, theme, or social cause. Some of the best profiles focus on
people, places, or events that seem ordinary but are symbolic of larger issues.
Most profiles are written about people, but places, events, and organizations can
offer interesting subjects, too. For example, you could profile a specific place in your
hometown, a unique building, or a whole town, describing it as a living being. Or you
might write a profile of an event (e.g., a basketball game, a protest, a historical battle,
an earthquake) in a way that makes the subject come alive.
Profiles appear in a variety of print and online publications. They are common in
print magazines like People, Rolling Stone, and Sports Illustrated. They are regularly pub-
lished on websites like Slate.com, National Review Online, and Politico. Profiles are also
mainstays on cable channels like ESPN, A&E, and the Biography Channel.
In college and in your career, you will write profiles for websites, brochures, reports,
and proposals. Profiles are also called “backgrounders” and “bios,” and they appear
on corporate websites under headings or links such as “About Us” or “Our Team.”
You may also want to write your own profile for social networking sites like Facebook,
Instagram, or LinkedIn.

240
 Profiles 241

At-A-Glance
Profiles
Here are two possible organizational patterns for writing a profile. The pattern on the left is good for describing
your subject. The pattern on the right is best for telling a story about your subject. Other arrangements of these
sections will work, too. You should organize your profile to fit your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context.

Introduction Introduction

Description of subject Description of subject

Background information Complication

Anecdote Evaluation

Anecdote Resolution

•
•
• Conclusion

Conclusion

A profile can stick to the basic facts (as in a biographical sketch) or provide an intimate depiction of the
­subject. Profiles have some or all of these features:
• A subject (a person, organization, place, or event) that allows you to explore an issue, idea, or theme
that is interesting to you and your readers.
• An interesting angle that captures a single dominant impression about the subject.
• A description of the subject that allows readers to visualize and imagine it.
• Background information that describes the setting or social context of the subject.
• Anecdotes that reveal the character of the subject through actions and dialogue.
• A main point, or central theme about the subject that goes beyond the surface and factual details to
address larger questions.
242 Chapter 14

One Student’s Work: Profiles

Neil deGrasse Tyson: Sexy Astrophysicist and Defender of Science

Ebony James
Neil deGrasse Tyson is a celebrity scientist and powerful science communi-
cator who has transformed himself into a passionate defender of science itself.
The profile defines Tyson is probably best known for his work on television, such as Cosmos:
the subject up A Spacetime Odyssey (2014), and his very readable books on astrophysics, such as
front and adds
some humor. Merlin’s Tour of the Universe (1998) and Astrophysics for People in a Hurry (2017).
In his day job, he’s the Fredrick P. Rose Director of the Hayden Planetarium in
New York. People Magazine named him the “sexiest astrophysicist alive”
(admittedly, the competition isn’t stiff, but we science majors need to take
these kinds of compliments when they come).
Background infor- According to Biography.com, Tyson grew up in
mation: where New York City and became fascinated with astron-
Kristin Callahan/Everett Collection/Alamy Stock Photo

the subject came

from, the context omy in grade school. When he was nine years old,
of his work. his interest in stars and planets was sparked by a
school field trip to the Hayden P­ lanetarium, and he
Image presents soon had his own telescope. After graduating from
a physical high school, he went to Harvard, where he earned
description.
his bachelor’s degree. In 1991, he earned his doc-
torate in astrophysics from Columbia U ­ niversity.
He was hired by the Hayden ­Planetarium in 1994
and became the director in 1996.
Personal details Tyson is clearly a gifted scientist, educator, and
humanize and writer, but his natural c­ harisma makes him espe-
reveal an overall
impression of the cially influential. On the screen, he is simultane-
subject. ously friendly and serious with an obvious passion for science and the stars. His
energetic personality reaches beyond the screen, and he has a talent for using the
right words to explain complex scientific ideas. He slips jokes into his lectures,
and he holds his viewers’ attention with colorful stories and vivid descriptions.
Last year, he was awarded the Stephen Hawking Medal for Science
­Writing. In his acceptance speech, he used the opportunity to urge science
communicators to stand up for science and challenge science doubters, such as
climate change deniers, anti-vaccine activists, and people who reject evolution.
Profile ends with In this age of “fake news” and “alternative facts,” Tyson stands out like a
the main point (or supernova in a darkened sky.
thesis).

Inventing Your Profile’s Content

14.1 Invent the content of your profile.
Start out by choosing a person, organization, place, or event that you can easily access.
If you are profiling a person, choose someone you can follow online, interview, or
research as the subject for your profile. Or, if you are writing a profile of a historic
 Profiles 243

figure or a celebrity, find someone whose life and times you are interested in exploring.
If you are writing a profile of a place, organization, or event, choose something that you
can portray as a living being that moves, has emotions, and is changing in an interest-
ing way. Make sure you find a subject that is fascinating to you because if you are not
interested, you will find it very difficult to spark your readers’ interest.

Inquiring: Finding Out What You Already Know

Take some time to think about what makes this subject unique or interesting. Try to
develop an angle that will depict your topic in a way that makes your profile thought-
provoking and meaningful. Use one or more invention methods to generate ideas for
your profile. Here are a couple of especially good invention tools for profiles.
ANSWER THE FIVE-W AND HOW QUESTIONS. Journalists often use the Five-W
and How questions (who, what, where, when, why, how) to get started.
Who? Who exactly is this person? What’s the nature of this place or event? Who
has influenced the subject of your profile, and whom has this person influenced? Who is
regularly involved with this person?
What? What exactly are you profiling? What does the person, place, or event look
like? What is unique about this person, place, or event? What has your subject done that
is especially interesting to you and your readers?
Where? Where did this person come from? Where is this person now? Where did
important events happen? Where did the events start and end?
When? When did the major events in the profile happen? When did the story
begin? When did it end, or when will it probably end?
Why? Why did this person or others behave as they did? Why has this person, event,
or organization succeeded or failed? Why has your subject changed in a significant way?
How? How did this person’s background shape their outlook on life? How does
your subject respond to people and events? How will this person, organization, place,
or event be understood or misunderstood in the future?
USE CUBING. Cubing allows you to explore your topic from six different viewpoints
or perspectives (Figure 14.1). Describe your subject by paying attention to your senses.
Compare your subject to someone or something else. Associate this subject with related

Describe your Analyze this Figure 14.1 Using Cubing to

subject subject Inquire About Your Subject
Cubing is a good way to study your
or our
for ly y s topic from different viewpoints or
Compare your r g ue his Associate p p
A st t A ct a perspectives. Each side of the cube
in je
subject to aga bject your subject sub racter urges you to see the person, place,
su a
someone or with related a ch or event you are profiling somewhat
something else issues differently, generating new ideas and
insights.
244 Chapter 14

issues or things you already know about. Analyze this subject, looking for any patterns,
hidden questions, or unique characteristics. Apply your subject as a character by describ-
ing it in action. Argue for or against: Is this person or group of people right or wrong, a
saint or a scoundrel, or has this place helped bring about good or bad results?

Researching: Finding Out What Others Know

Good research is essential to writing an interesting profile. You should begin by
­identifying a variety of online, print, and empirical sources.
ONLINE SOURCES. Use an Internet search engine to gather biographical or historical
information on this person, place, or event. Then gather background information on the
time period you are writing about.
PRINT SOURCES. Consult newspapers, magazines, and books. These print sources
are probably available at your campus library or a local public library.
EMPIRICAL SOURCES. Interview your subject and/or talk to people who can pro-
vide firsthand knowledge or stories about this person, place, organization, or event.
You might also ask whether you can observe or even shadow your subject. For a p
­ rofile
about a place or an event, you can interview people who live in the place you are
­profiling or who experienced the event you are writing about.
Interviewing. An interview is often the best way to gather information for a profile.
If possible, do your interviews in person. If that’s not possible, phone calls, videoconfer-
encing, or e-mails are often good ways to ask people questions about themselves or others.
Remember to script your questions before your interview. Then, while conducting
the interview, be sure to listen and respond—asking follow-up questions that engage with
what the interviewee has told you.
Shadowing. If the subject of your profile is a person, you could “shadow” them
(with the person’s permission, of course), learning more about that person’s world,
the people in it, and how this person interacts with them. For a place or event profile,
spend some time exploring and observing, by either visiting the physical location or
examining pictures and firsthand accounts. Keep your notebook, your phone’s camera,
and perhaps your phone’s sound recorder handy to capture anything that might turn
into an interesting angle or a revealing quotation.
In Chapter 31, “Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence,” you can learn more
about interviewing and other empirical forms of research.

Organizing and Drafting Your Profile

14.2 Organize and draft your profile in an attention-grabbing way.
A well-organized profile will capture the attention of readers and keep it. As you
­organize your ideas and write your first draft, keep these key questions in mind:
What do you find most interesting, surprising, or important? As you researched
your subject, what did you discover that you weren’t expecting? How can you
make this discovery interesting for your readers?
 Profiles 245

What important conflicts does your subject face? People and o ­ rganizations
are most interesting when they contend with important challenges.
­Similarly, places and events are scenes of conflict and change. What is the
principal conflict for your subject?
Keep in mind that the profile is one of the most flexible genres. You can arrange the
information you collected in a variety of ways to suit your topic, purpose, and readers,
as well as the contexts in which they will read the profile.

The Introduction
You want to start strong with a lead that hints at or captures the main point of the
profile.
IDENTIFY YOUR TOPIC AND PURPOSE. Your introduction should identify the
s­ ubject of your profile while directly or indirectly revealing your purpose. You might
also want to show readers why the person, place, or event you are profiling is significant
in some way.
STATE YOUR MAIN POINT OR THESIS. The placement of your main point (thesis)
depends on the type of profile you are writing. In a descriptive profile, you can state
your main point, or thesis, in the introduction. Tell your readers up front what you are
trying to show about your subject. In a narrative profile, you might decide not to state
your main point or thesis in the introduction. Instead, you might wait until the conclu-
sion to reveal your overall point.

The Body
In the body, you can include a variety of moves such as describing your topic, offering
background information, recounting anecdotes, or revealing important ideas through
dialogue.
DESCRIBE YOUR SUBJECT. Use plenty of details to describe how your subject looks,
moves, and sounds. In some situations, you might use your full senses to describe your
subject’s environment, including how things smell, sound, and feel.
OFFER BACKGROUND ON THE SUBJECT. You can tell your readers something
about the time periods and places in which your subject lived or lives now. Explore the
circumstances that led to key events you describe in your profile.
USE ANECDOTES TO TELL STORIES. An anecdote is a small story that reveals some-
thing important about a person or a place. Your anecdotes should also reflect the main
point of your profile by revealing something important about your subject.
REVEAL IMPORTANT INFORMATION THROUGH DIALOGUE OR
QUOTES. Dialogue and quotes are often the best way to reveal something impor-
tant about the subject of your profile without coming out and stating something
directly. However, don’t overuse dialogue or quotes. Because quotes receive spe-
cial attention from readers, reserve them for insights or changes that are especially
important.
246 Chapter 14

The Conclusion
Profiles shouldn’t just end; they should leave your readers with an impression. Your
readers will give your conclusion special attention because they will expect you to
reveal the point you want them to take away from the profile. Conclude with a strong
impression that will stay with your readers.
You should also keep your conclusion brief. State or restate your main point (your
thesis) with emphasis. If you included a thesis statement in your introduction, phrase
your main point differently here. Then offer a look at the future in which you say
­something about what lies ahead for the person, place, or event you profiled.

Choosing an Appropriate Style

and Design
14.3 Choose a style that captures the essence of your topic while including
images that support the written text.
If possible, the style and design of your profile should reflect the essential character
of the person, place, organization, or event you are describing. If you are profiling
an exciting or restless person, you want your tone or voice to be equally exciting and
energetic. If you are profiling someone or something sad or dour, again, your profile’s
tone or voice should match that feeling. Similarly, when designing the document, you
should choose colors and visuals that match your subject’s personality and include an
image of the person, place, or event.
Here are some suggestions for strengthening your style and design:
CHANGE THE PACE. If you want to convey energy and spirit, speed up the pace by
using abrupt, short sentences and phrases that will increase the heartbeat of the text.
If you want your readers to sense a slower pace or thoughtfulness, you can use longer
sentences to slow things down. All sentences, however, should be “breathing length,”
which means they can be read out loud comfortably in one breath.
CHOOSE WORDS THAT SET A SPECIFIC TONE. Think of one word or phrase that
captures the main feeling or attitude you want to express about the subject of your
profile. Do you want to convey a sense of joy, sadness, energy, devotion, goodwill,
seriousness, or anxiety? Pick a word and then use brainstorming or concept mapping
to come up with more words and phrases that associate with that word. You can then
seed those words and phrases into your profile to create this specific tone or feeling.
GET INTO CHARACTER. You might find that the best way to develop a specific voice
or tone is to inhabit the character of the person, place, or event you are profiling. ­Imagine
you are that person (or at the place or event). From this different perspective, how
would you describe the people, objects, and happenings around you? Are you amped
up? Are you anxious or scared? Are you worried? Use words that fit this character.
Profiles usually take on the design of the medium (e.g., magazine, newspaper,
­ ebsite, television documentary) in which they will appear. A profile written for a
w
magazine or newspaper will look different from a profile written to go with a report
 Profiles 247

or proposal. So as you think about the appropriate design for your profile, consider
what will work with the medium in which it will appear.
USE HEADINGS. Your readers may be looking for specific information about the
person, place, or event you are profiling. Headings will allow you to reveal how your
profile is organized while helping your readers locate the information they need.
ADD PHOTOGRAPHS. When writing for most mediums, consider using photo-
graphs, especially images that reflect the profile’s main point. If possible, try to find
photographs that capture the look or characteristic you are trying to convey. Then use
captions to explain each picture and reinforce the profile’s point.
INCLUDE PULL QUOTES OR BREAKOUTS. Readers often skim profiles to see if the
topic interests them. You want to stop them from skimming by giving them an access
point into the text. One way to catch their attention is to use a pull quote or breakout
that quotes something from the text. Pull quotes appear in a large font and are usually
placed in the margins or in a gap in the text. These kinds of quotes will grab the readers’
attention and encourage them to start reading.

Microgenre
The Portrait
A portrait is a snapshot that attempts to reveal a person’s inner nature. In photography and painting, portraits
do more than describe how someone looks. They capture the feeling and emotion of a person in an instant.
Similarly, a written portrait is a visual description that offers insights into someone’s inner being. When
writing this kind of profile, you are trying to describe your subject in a way that reveals their true p ­ ersonality
without coming out and telling the readers directly what that personality is.
In your college classes, you may be asked to write portraits of people you know or meet, as well as
­prominent people, such as famous scientists, political figures, and revolutionaries. In literature classes,
you may be asked to write about fictional protagonists and villains. You may also enjoy writing portraits of
­musicians, sports figures, actors, and fictional characters for popular websites. A portrait is a good way to
explore someone else’s personality, characteristics, and motives.
When writing a portrait, pay attention to how that person looks or presents themself to others. Pay attention to
how this person moves or interacts with others. Look for those moments in which the person behind the mask is
revealed and try to capture that moment in descriptive detail. Keep in mind that the best portraits in photography
and painting capture something “true” that lies beneath the surface. The same is true of a written portrait.

Set the scene. Portraits are usually stories, so your first task is to set the scene. Describe the place and
time in which you are describing your subject.

Describe your subject. Describe your subject within that scene. A detailed visual description is common,
but you can also use sound, smell, and touch to add other qualities for your readers to experience.

Add a complication. People best reveal themselves when they are dealing with a conflict. Show this
­person being challenged in some way. The complication can be a small thing. In fact, people often reveal
their true selves in unguarded moments when they are trying to solve a small problem.

Provide the basic biographical facts. If appropriate, offer the subject’s name, age, and other relevant
biographical details.
248 Chapter 14

Concentrate on the subject’s face. Like a photographic portrait, the face is the focal point of a written
portrait. The face is where subjects will reveal their emotions and tensions. Describe those moments for
your readers through your subject’s face.

Put your subject in motion. Photographic portraits are still but give a sense of motion. Written portraits
should also put the subject in motion, showing how this person moves and interacts with others and the scene.

Use dialogue. People often reveal themselves as they talk. Use quotes from your subject that reveal the
quality you are trying to capture.

WRITE a portrait of a friend or family member. Reflect on a friend or family member who has made
a profound impression on you, positive or negative, at a specific moment in your life. Use description to
­capture that person’s true nature, which was revealed at that time and place.

Beyoncé Brought the Feminine Divine

to the Grammys
Hannah Giorgis
Beyoncé Giselle Knowles-Carter is first and foremost the daughter of Celestine.
And it was “with a mother’s pride” that Ms. Tina herself introduced her daughter’s
celestial performance only an hour into Sunday’s Grammys. With shades of gold and
­yellow radiating out from the stage where she stood, Beyoncé channeled the sacred femi-
ninity she has long celebrated. But tonight, in her first performance since announcing her
pregnancy on February 1, the icon insisted women are not simply powerful—we are divine.
In a monochromatic gold outfit that made [the] Staples Center disappear behind her,
Beyoncé looked regal. The intricate crown atop her head, adorned with both spikes and
roses, was equal parts arresting and angelic. It recalled the ethereal headpiece her sister
Solange wore in her Saturday Night Live performance in November but with a protective
edge. With its juxtaposition of floral fragility and thorned weaponry, Beyoncé’s halo befit
the woman who appeared onstage to the sounds of British-Somali poet Warsan Shire:
“Women like her cannot be contained.”
The performance itself was lavish, engrossing, otherworldly; but it still felt grounded
in the way an Octavia Butler novel does: futuristic but familiar. Flanked by dozens of black
women whose gold accents shone in harmony with her own gold attire, Beyoncé drew
from some of Lemonade’s most powerful imagery: scenes of black women in sync with
one another, dancing, swaying, being. Their bodies moved as a wave underneath her.
When her gold throne tilted so far back it seemed it would rupture the laws of physics not
to fall, the scene still felt imbued with a palpable sense of comfort . . . .
“We all experience pain and loss, and often we become inaudible,” she said a little
later while accepting the award for Best Urban Contemporary Album. “My intention for
the film and album was to create a body of work that would give a voice to our pain, our
struggles, our darkness, and our history—to confront issues that make us uncomfortable.
It’s important to me to show images to my children that reflect their beauty.” If that project
of reflection found a prism in Lemonade, then tonight’s performance was its apex.
 Profiles 249

Quick Start Guide

Want to get going with your profile? Here are some ideas to help you start.

Choose an interesting subject. Find a person, group, place, organization, or event that is fascinating to
you and would be interesting to your readers. Choose someone or something that is unique or symbolic.

Figure out what you already know about your subject. Use invention tools like the Five-W and How
questions, freewriting, and cubing to study your subject from a variety of perspectives.

Research your subject. Find information on the Internet or in print sources. Also, if possible, interview
the individual you are writing about or visit the place. Talk to people who know your subject well.

Draft your profile. Start out strong by grabbing the readers in your introduction. Then, in the body, use
detail to paint a portrait of your profile’s subject. Avoid writing a complete history. Instead, pick an event or
series of anecdotes that capture the essence of your subject.

Develop an appropriate style. The appropriate style for your profile usually reflects the personality of
your subject. You can use word choice and sentence length to portray a specific voice or tone.

Locate some photographs, if available. Look for photographs that illustrate and reinforce what you want
to say about your subject.

Stress your main point. You want your profile to do more than simply describe your subject. Use your
subject’s history and actions as a symbol of something larger or more significant. That’s your point.

Revise and edit. Always remember that your profile needs to capture the essence of the person, place, or
event you are describing. So clarify the content, straighten out the organization, and refine your writing style.

Readings: Profiles

Reading 1
Ashley Collins is a freelance writer who specializes in articles about celebrities, including
this article about Kelsea Ballerini, a rising country music star. In this profile, pay attention to
how she uses a variety of smaller topics to write a larger profile about a dynamic c ­ elebrity
whose career has been evolving quickly. In this profile, Collins mentions that Ballerini and
her husband have been in couples therapy. They have since divorced.

What You Don’t Know About Kelsea Ballerini

Ashley Collins
Country singer-songwriter Kelsea Ballerini—who’s co-hosting for the second time the CMT
Music Awards in 2022 alongside actor Anthony Mackie (per the Tennessean)—is an open book
with fans, sharing glimpses of her personal life and her triumphs and failures on Instagram and
250 Chapter 14

Amiee Stubbs/imageSPACE/Shutterstock

in interviews. However, there’s a lot to the Knoxville native you may not know, like her battle
with an eating disorder as a teen to her decision to drop out of college and move to Nashville
for her music career.
Ballerini has spent all of her young adulthood in the public eye since her debut single,
“Love Me Like You Mean It,” hit the airways in 2014 and topped the Mediabase country radio
singles chart, as reported by The Boot.
Ballerini’s motto has always been to be herself through and through. In an interview with
Shape in 2021, she said: “A lot of artists and public people have a persona that they step into,
but I can’t do that. I don’t want any surprises. I just want it all to be out there.” While Ballerini
shares a lot about herself with fans, here are some things you may not know about her.

Kelsea Ballerini struggled with an eating disorder

Kelsea Ballerini suffered from an eating disorder as a teen until age 18, batting bulimia and
developing unhealthy habits like working out excessively and taking diet pills. She had also
passed out several times until she finally asked for help, the country singer told People in 2021.
“My parents had just gotten divorced, and I think for me, it was a source of control,” Ballerini
told the outlet.
While she no longer deals with an eating disorder, there have been moments in her career
where her body-image issues have resurfaced. After a performance on Today in 2015, B ­ allerini
read an article alleging she was pregnant because of her belly, she told People, adding,
“I reverted back to that 12-year-old version of me.” However, she overcame those insecurities.
Ballerini has been an open book about her struggles with fans. In July 2020, she shared on
Instagram a photo of her in workout clothes. In the caption, she spoke about body image and
how the COVID-19 pandemic took a toll on hers. “If you’ve been silently insecure about the way
your body has handled this year, you’re not alone and I’m sending you a big hug,” she told fans.

She used songwriting to cope as a child of divorce

Songwriting was a source of comfort for Kelsea Ballerini during her parents’ divorce. The song
“Secondhand Smoke” off her debut album, The First Time, was inspired by that time in her life.
“I haven’t been able to sing it live yet, because I sob every time,” Ballerini told Rolling Stone in
2015, adding, “It’s so many people’s story, and a story that needs to be told because I know
when I was 12 and 13 when [the divorce] was happening, I felt super alone.”
 Profiles 251

When Ballerini started songwriting as a teen, she mostly wrote about cute boys, she
told Rolling Stone. As she matured, her songwriting did as well, and she was able to write
“­Secondhand Smoke.”
Ballerini confessed to CBS News in 2016 that she wouldn’t be an artist if not for
­songwriting. “I grew up singing and I always loved it, but it was never anything that I thought,
‘Oh I’m going to be a singer when I grow up,’” she told the outlet, adding, “When I started
­writing I felt like whatever it was that I was going through and writing about was probably what
other people were going through too.”

Kelly Clarkson told her to become an artist

Kelsea Ballerini had an epiphany during a Kelly Clarkson concert—she was going to move to
Nashville.
As a teen, Ballerini attended a show on Clarkson’s “Behind These Hazel Eyes” tour. In
an interview with BuzzFeed, Ballerini said any doubt she had of moving to Nashville washed
away when Clarkson appeared to wink at her through the concert’s massive video screens. “It
was right when I thought I was gonna move to Nashville and be a singer, so I was super into
it, and I remember I was watching her sing one of these songs and I was having a moment of
like, that’s exactly what I’m gonna do with my life, this is it,” she told the outlet. Then Clarkson
winked, and Ballerini took it as a sign. “I swear, true story,” she told the publication.
Later in her music career, Ballerini would meet Clarkson and even take her place (at least
temporarily) on Clarkson’s chair on The Voice. “When @kellyclarkson calls and asks you to
keep her seat warm, you put all those years of being her super fan to work,” she tweeted
before appearing on the NBC show.

Kelsea Ballerini dropped out of college after scoring a record deal

When Kelsea Ballerini landed a record deal at age 19 when she was a sophomore at Lipscomb
University in Nashville (per CMT), she sang goodbye to her studies.
Ballerini was a communications and marketing student, and while school was important,
music was even more so. The country singer told the Chicago Tribune in a 2016 interview that
while she took classes, she worked diligently towards landing a gig in the Nashville music
industry. “It took a long time for people to actually listen to me and actually take me seriously,”
she told the outlet. “But I learned that if I walked into meetings and could sit down and a­ ctually
communicate my dreams and my vision . . . if I took myself seriously, then other people
would, too.”
Ballerini eventually signed a publishing deal, and then a record contract, with the indie
music label Black River. The singer told CMT she only enrolled in college as a deal to her mom.
She promised her mom she’d go to school until she landed a deal. Her mom held her end of
the bargain, and so did Ballerini, who went on to pursue music full time.

She looked up to Taylor Swift early in her career

Country star Kelsea Ballerini is a crossover artist in her own right with pop hits like “The Other
Girl” with pop star Halsey, but she’ll always look up to another crossover icon: Taylor Swift. In
an interview with Buzzfeed in 2018, Ballerini said she’s looked up to the “All Too Well” singer
since well before she made herself a name in Nashville.
“I mean her whole first album, she was like the only young female singer-songwriter in
Nashville,” she said, adding, “And so she was kinda the one that me and I think a lot of the
new girls in country music looked up to, and we were like, ‘She’s doing it! So we can too.’”
252 Chapter 14

She also told the outlet that she received some of the best advice from Swift when she first
started in the industry—to be herself.
In an interview with WWD, the singer said Swift unknowingly inspired her to move to
­Nashville, away from her Knoxville hometown, to pursue a music career. “Until I saw a girl
named Taylor move to Nashville, I didn’t know that I could do that,” she told the outlet.

She was the youngest member to be inducted into the Grand Ole Opry
At 25, Kelsea Ballerini became the youngest country star to be inducted into the Grand Ole
Opry in Nashville, the Tennessean reported. In 2019, country music star and fellow Opry
­member Carrie Underwood did the honors, introducing Ballerini as a member onstage in front
of a live audience after Ballerini graced the stage with her chart-topping hits like “Peter Pan.”
“The Opry has been and always be here, the heart and soul of country music. You are in
it,” Underwood told Ballerini onstage before embracing her and welcoming her into the Opry
family, as seen in a video posted by the Tennessean. It was a full-circle moment for Ballerini,
who wound up backstage with Underwood (their first time meeting) before her debut Opry
performance in 2015. Ballerini told the outlet that moment was “the coolest thing that had ever
happened to me at that point.”
Per another Tennessean article, country band Little Big Town invited her to join the
Opry a month prior following a joint performance on the Opry stage. “This is the home of
country music and I get to be a part of it, which is crazy,” Ballerini said onstage after
accepting the invite.

She doesn’t consider herself a dancer

Kelsea Ballerini may wear many hats—she’s a singer, songwriter, social media influencer, and
published author—but the country music star is the first to confess she’s not so confident
about the dancing aspect of her line of work.
In an interview with CMT in 2020, Ballerini shared her hesitancy with the dance routine for
her “Hole in the Bottle” music video. “I was a little nervous about dancing, I’m not going to lie,
but by that point felt so comfortable with Hannah [Lux Davis, the director] and the incredible
dancers, Lauren and Madison, that we all just hyped each other up and went for it,” Ballerini
told CMT. In one of the scenes from the music video, she did a short routine on a tall staircase
with her backup dancers.
While dancing doesn’t come naturally to the singer, she clearly enjoys the pastime at home
while getting ready for the day. She shared a video post on Instagram in 2021 of her morning
routine, which involved a little impromptu dancing.

She became a published writer with her book of personal poems

Kelsea Ballerini added published author to her resume when she released Feel Your Way
Through: A Book of Poetry in 2021.
The Nashville singer-songwriter told Euphoria in 2021 that she was inspired to write the
book—divided into sections with topics personal to Ballerini, everything from body image
and sexuality to family—in 2020 when the world shut down amid COVID-19. The singer had
just released her new album, kelsea, and was in the process of planning her headlining tour,
but those plans fell by the wayside. So she turned her direction to writing poems instead of
­songwriting and produced a book of poetry in less than a year. “I love making music and I’ll
make records as long as people want to hear music from me, but I have this peace knowing
that when the radio stops playing me one day, I’ll still get to write,” she told the mag.
 Profiles 253

When the Tennessean asked her if she’d ever turn her poems into songs, she told the
outlet, “Maybe,” then added, “ . . . I think because I have all this new space in me—that
I ­discovered—I think there will be a lot of music that comes from that.”

Kelsea Ballerini lived out her teenage dream while touring with the Jonas Brothers
Kelsea Ballerini lived out her teenage dream when she went on tour with the Jonas Brothers
in 2021 (per CMT). To say Ballerini was excited is an understatement. The singer-songwriter
shared with fans on TikTok in August of that year a video featuring a throwback clip of a teen
Ballerini explaining why she loves the Jonas Brothers. Back in 2008, she had sent the video to
a contest in hopes of meeting the Jonas Brothers. While she didn’t win, she won in a big way
over a decade later when she agreed to open for the band.
In the same video shared on TikTok, Ballerini added a clip of her accepting the trio’s invite
to open for them on tour via FaceTime. “I think it sounds like a really good idea,” Ballerini said.
Ballerini hit the road with the trio in August of 2021. Their first performance was in Las
Vegas, according to CMT. The singer documented her journey on social. In an Instagram post,
Ballerini shared a photo of her and the band and wrote: “Only took 12 years to win the JoBro
meet & greet.”

She has dealt with social anxiety

Kelsea Ballerini may be a bonafide star, but she’s got insecurities just like everyone else. In an
interview with People in 2020, the singer-songwriter spoke about her album “kelsea,” which
was released in March of that year. The album was personal for Ballerini, who wrote and sang
about many of her struggles, including social anxiety, prevalent in the song “LA,” which she
wrote while in the city of stars.
“Part of it is I don’t know where I fit in the celebrity culture because [I think] I’m a D-list
country singer and I find myself in a room with A-list people and I don’t know how to navigate
it or how to talk to them,” she told People.
She went more into detail about the inspiration for “LA” in an interview with the Washington
Post in 2020. She recalled that during a rare night off in L.A., she called a couple of her famous
friends, like Taylor Swift. No one answered. “I went into this spiral of like, ‘Oh my God, why did
I think I was cool enough to call Taylor Swift? That was so embarrassing, of course she didn’t
pick up.” In her moments of anxiety, Ballerini said songwriting has been like therapy.

The singer lives with her hubby in the Nashville suburbs

Kelsea Ballerini lives in the Nashville suburbs with her Australian country music artist hubby,
Morgan Evans, and their dog, Dibs. While all we know about their house is that it’s in Nashville,
Ballerini has spoken about their abode on multiple occasions with different outlets. She told
ET in 2021 that they purchased and moved into the house in 2020 after having lived in a down-
town condo since they got married in 2017 (per People). “Having the condo, we loved it. It was
nice to be able to walk to dinner or whatever, but yeah, I just felt like with everything that’s
happened this last year, it was time to get a little piece of land,” she told ET.
The singer-songwriter loves sharing glimpses of her personal life with fans, and as a
result, glimpses of her home life. At the end of 2020, she posted a photo on Instagram of her
­surrounded by moving boxes, and in March of 2022, she posted another photo of her and Dibs
hanging out in bed.
Talking to People in 2020, Ballerini shared one of her home’s must-have items—wallpaper.
“I like a lot going on. I’m not a big minimalist person in a house,” she said.
254 Chapter 14

She’s admitted to going to couples therapy with her hubby, Morgan Evans
Kelsea Ballerini and Morgan Evans enjoyed a whirlwind Nashville romance before tying the
knot in Cabo San Lucas, Mexico, in 2017. And just like any other couple, Ballerini and Evans
have their good and bad days.
Ballerini confessed to People in 2021 that they go to couples counseling. “We have really
good couples friends that we vacation with, but we also can sit down with and have the hard
conversations,” she said. And while the two approach their relationship differently, Ballerini
said of her hubby: “He shows up in every way he needs to.”
She said the COVID-19 pandemic and the shutdowns, which canceled everything, includ-
ing their tours, helped the couple reconnect. “I’m really grateful . . . to be able to have time that
we’d never had before to not just see each other once a week, but see each other every day
and cook together and buy a house together and walk the dog together and just do really nor-
mal things,” she said.

The country star loves her me-time

Kelsea Ballerini makes time for herself to reset and unwind, but that hasn’t always been
the case. When speaking to Shape in 2021, she confessed she used to think me-time was
“­narcissistic,” adding, “Now I realize it’s necessary.” A couple of the ways she takes time for
herself are taking hot baths with essential oils and working out on her SoulCycle bike. And when
she exercises, she doesn’t do it to look a certain way, like she did in the past, but to feel good.
“I don’t ever want working out to feel like a punishment—like I’m doing this because I
didn’t do something else right,” she told the mag.
Like everyone, though, she has her weaknesses with food and indulges in me-time at the
drive-thru. She told ET: “You can’t take the Knoxville out of the girl! I’m a 10-piece nugget
meal, with honey mustard.”

She’s co-hosted the CMT Music Awards before

Kelsea Ballerini is no stranger to hosting award shows, including the fan-voted CMT Music
Awards held in Nashville every year.
The singer-songwriter made her co-hosting debut on the 2021 CMT Music Awards
­alongside country crooner Kane Brown. When news broke that she’d be co-hosting the show
then, she shared her excitement with the outlet and said, “The CMT Awards are so special
because they are truly fan-voted. Following a year plus where we have not been able to be
with the fans and share music, will make this night even more special.”
Previously, the country singer co-hosted the CMA Fest with country star Thomas Rhett
and radio host Bobby Bones in 2019. Years before, in 2016, she dipped her toes into the
world of reality TV and co-hosted an unscripted ABC singing show, “Greatest Hits,” alongside
Arsenio Hall, according to Variety. In an interview with Good Morning America in 2016, the duo
shared that they bonded over their love of Aretha Franklin.

A Closer Look at “What You Don’t Know About

­Kelsea Ballerini”
1. In a way, this profile is about more than Ballerini’s life. It’s also about how people
make their way in the complex world of the music industry. What are five ways
that this profile makes Ballerini more human for the readers?
 Profiles 255

2. As the profile suggests, risk is a big part of any career in music. What are some of
the risks that Ballerini took with her career? How were those risks rewarded, and
in what ways did those risks create complications in her life?
3. Ballerini appeals to a much broader audience than country music fans. What are
some ways, according to the article, that she reaches people outside the country
genre?

Ideas for Writing

1. You have probably experienced situations in which you tried to tell people who
you really are, but they formed a different opinion of you. Write a brief memoir
that recalls one of these situations, the complication that created the problem, and
how the complication was resolved (or wasn’t). Finish the memoir by explaining
what you learned from the experience.
2. Many people look to celebrities for guidance on how they should (and sometimes
should not) live their lives and work through their own problems. Who is a celeb-
rity or other public figure who you look up to? Write a profile in which you identify
the three to five characteristics about them that you like (and perhaps don’t like).
Then discuss how these characteristics help guide your own choices in life.

Reading 2
This profile appeared in an FBI bulletin designed to help law enforcement officers identify
and understand psychopathic behavior. The writers are psychologists who have worked or
consulted with the Federal Bureau of Investigation. As you read the article, notice how the
authors use the overall story of one psychopath to build a general profile that can be used
to identify psychopathic behavior.

The Predator: When the Stalker Is a Psychopath

Sharon S. Smith, PhD, Mary Ellen O’Toole, PhD,
and Robert D. Hare, PhD
Samuel Brown was a top executive of a Fortune 500 company.1 Although he had a net worth
of nearly $10 million, he was a family man with simple tastes and eschewed the trappings of
power and wealth. Brown was a low-risk victim for violence. He resided with his wife in an
affluent neighborhood where violent crime seemed nonexistent.
One morning, as was his custom, Brown dressed, left his home, tossed his briefcase into
his car, and started the engine. As he walked to the end of his driveway to retrieve the morning
paper, Anthony Lake jumped out of a nearby van and drew his gun. In the ensuing struggle,
Lake fired his gun, wounding Brown, then shoved him into the van and drove away. Lake’s
female accomplice, tasked to drive a second (getaway) car, left the scene at the same time.
Brown died a painful death just days after he was kidnapped. Yet, over the next several
weeks, Lake and his accomplice victimized the Brown family with an elaborate extortion
scheme. They made numerous phone calls and sent a number of detailed ransom notes to
256 Chapter 14

the victim’s family and employer, demanding $12 million for his safe release. Nearly 3 months
­following the abduction, Samuel Brown’s decomposed body was found in a shallow grave.

Stalking
This case study examines the implications of psychopathy in crime scene analyses, specifi-
cally of stalking, threatening, and attendant assaultive behaviors. The study also illustrates
specific crime scene behaviors that suggest an offender with psychopathic personality traits,
as well as the implications of these traits for investigators. Psychopaths’ need for sensation
seeking would be embedded in the design of their crime and emerge as a high-risk behavior.
5 Psychopaths’ stalking behaviors tend to be predatory or instrumental in nature. The victim
is viewed more as a possession or target for control, retribution, or revenge, rather than as
the object of a pathologically based fantasy, obsession, or infatuation (Meloy, 2000). Further,
­psychopaths tend to become bored rather quickly and are thought to engage in short-term
stalking with financial goals or those related to power and control.
Though most investigators are not qualified to conduct a formal clinical evaluation for
the presence of psychopathy, even a few traits and behaviors inferred from the crime scene
­analysis may prove sufficient to generate a working hypothesis that the perpetrator of the
crime is psychopathic. False positives concerning the potential presence of p ­ sychopathy
­during a stalking or threat investigation are unlikely to adversely affect the outcome of
the investigation. However, failure to correctly interpret signs of psychopathic traits could
­significantly and negatively impact the outcome of a case, even to the extent of compromising
the well-being of victims.

Victimization
Lake spent a great deal of time, effort, and personal resources while planning his crime. He
watched Brown’s house for months, recorded his routine, and carefully planned the kidnap-
ping down to the smallest detail. Once he abducted Brown, Lake put him in a coffin-like box
he already had constructed. Bound with ropes, blindfolded, and with his mouth covered with
tape, Brown was kept in an unventilated room estimated to reach temperatures in excess of
100°F. Brown’s only sustenance was water, and his only pain relief for his gunshot wound was
over-the-counter medication. Although Lake later insisted that he always intended to release
Brown upon receipt of the ransom, his victim died a few days after the abduction.

Analyzing the Crime

The authors have not made a formal clinical diagnosis of Lake. Instead, they discuss specific
crime scenes and offender behaviors in terms of how they interpret them as characteristics of
psychopathy.

Predatory and Instrumental Violence

Evidence from the crime indicated that the offender had surveilled Brown over a period of
time to obtain information about his habits, lifestyle, and neighborhood. The victimology did
not identify Lake’s abduction of Brown as reactive violence—an immediate reaction to some
real or perceived threat he might have felt. Instead, the primary mode of violence appeared
thoughtful, premeditated, and goal directed, therefore instrumental or predatory. Lake’s goal
was to kidnap Brown, a high-value target, and extort his family and company for money.
­However, during the abduction, Brown was shot in the arm while struggling, a violent subact
by Lake that appeared to have elements of both reactive and instrumental violence.
 Profiles 257

High-Value, High-Risk Target

Selecting Brown as a high-value target offered Lake the possibility of a large financial payoff 10

and media attention. However, executing such an abduction was high risk for the kidnappers.
Their plan was fraught with inherent difficulties in terms of realistically assessing how the victim
would react and maintaining him over a period of time while avoiding detection and arrest.
Brown’s abduction occurred in daylight in front of his residence, located in an e­ xclusive
neighborhood with a low violent crime rate. Lake could not have prepared for all p ­ ossible
­variables and scenarios that could interrupt his plan that morning, despite his prior
­surveillances. By selecting that place and time for the abduction, he put himself in the
victim’s comfort zone and risked identification or apprehension.

Sensation Seeking and Grandiosity

Completing this crime, obtaining the money, and evading capture and prosecution were
­unrealistic goals and grandiose in design. Kidnapping a high-value target certainly would
trigger a quick and powerful response from the media and the law enforcement community,
including the FBI. Lake probably was thrilled with this type of attention. Targeting a lesser
known or less important individual would not have generated such a response and, as a result,
likely would have been less exciting for him.

No Guilt and Callous Lack of Empathy

Brown lay tied up in a wooden box for several days after his kidnapping, entombed in a
­sweltering storage area and dying in his own waste of a gunshot wound. At the same time,
news reports mentioned that he was a heart patient and relied on regular prescription
­medication. Brown did not have this medicine while in captivity, and Lake made no effort
to obtain it for him. Lake’s treatment of the victim showed a significant lack of empathy and
­demonstrated the extent of the physical and emotional pain inflicted.
During the investigation, Brown’s wife made several emotional appeals through the
media for her husband’s safe release. Despite these appeals and Brown’s death just days
after his abduction, Lake continued the extortion for weeks. However, the tone and content
of his demands changed subtly after Brown’s death. He no longer provided current e ­ vidence
of Brown’s well-being, such as having him audiotape the headlines of the daily paper.
­Nonetheless, Lake continued his demands for money using his deceased victim as a pawn. In
his demands, Lake maintained that he would release Brown safely once the money was paid.
This callous and deceptive behavior showed little regard for the victim or the impact of the
crime on Brown’s family or community, which was following the case closely.

Conning and Manipulation

Even after Brown’s death, Lake continued to submit directives to law enforcement and the 15

­victim’s family. The extortion notes he sent contained language that was controlling and devoid
of emotion. Like a puppet master, he attempted to manipulate everything from a distance.
Lake appeared to take particular pleasure in his efforts to deceive the FBI.

Failure to Accept Responsibility

In the end, Lake was defeated by his own elaborate but unrealistic plan for law e
­ nforcement
to deliver the ransom money. The authorities set up surveillance on him after a call he
made from a pay phone. While arresting Lake, they found incriminating evidence in his car,
including Brown’s home address and bags for holding the extortion money. Although Lake
258 Chapter 14

refused to cooperate with authorities, his female companion eventually led them to Brown’s
body. Despite his callous treatment of Brown and his family, Lake portrayed himself to the
­authorities as a normal person driven to desperate measures because of circumstances
beyond his control.

Antisocial Behavior
The case study is not a single offense that took place at one point in time. This crime involved
stalking, abduction, assault, murder, and extortion, which occurred over an extended period
of time. Lake demonstrated an ability to manage and sustain complex, layered criminal
behaviors over a period of weeks. These behaviors suggested an offender who was adapt-
able and criminally versatile and who had a clear disregard for the rules of society and the
rights of others.

Implications for Investigators

Analysis of Lake’s behavior, paired with information from the crime scene, was enough to
imply his psychopathic nature and suggest investigative strategies to move forward. For exam-
ple, it was unlikely that Lake would respond to emotional appeals made by Brown’s family
through the media for his safe release. More fruitful appeals would recognize and concede that
Lake was in control and imply that meeting his demands was a priority for law enforcement.
­Concurrently, any direct or implied challenges to or offensive remarks about the offender from
law enforcement could have resulted in an escalation of the crime.
Law enforcement officers cannot rely on psychopathic offenders to follow through on
reached agreements. They likely will not have an emotional bond with the victim (Meloy, 1988,
2001). Therefore, the possibility of harm to the victim will not diminish with time (Meloy, 2000).
Such offenders are mission oriented and probably will not abandon their crime, at least in the
short run. Any suggestions they make regarding future acts that will be done to continue the
crime should be taken seriously.
20 After apprehending an offender, authorities can devise interview strategies based on
­psychopathic characteristics. Interviewers can assume that the offender may attempt to
manipulate and control the interview with a demeanor of arrogance and superiority. For this
reason, selecting the right interviewer is important. The ideal candidate will remain unhindered
by the offender’s antagonizing nature.
Open-ended questions might encourage offenders to do most of the talking. They likely
will brag about the crime, berate the interviewer, and allege incompetence in the police
­investigation. However, offenders’ arrogance and sense of superiority may compel them to
inadvertently provide information helpful to the investigation.
Investigators’ comments about the fate of victims or the impact of their death on the
family likely will not be productive because of psychopathic offenders’ callousness and lack
of empathy. Focus instead should be placed on complimenting offenders and their supe-
rior abilities to manipulate investigators, particularly the FBI, for such a long period of time.
The interviewer also should devise strategies that appear to minimize the consequences of
offenders’ actions.

Conclusion
Psychopathy is a personality disorder defined by a cluster of interpersonal, affective, lifestyle,
and antisocial traits and behaviors that pose a serious problem for society. The behavioral rep-
ertoire of a psychopath includes charm, manipulation, intimidation, lack of empathy, excessive
 Profiles 259

pride, and violence. Each of these is a tool investigators can use as the occasion demands.
As evidenced in the case study, a psychopath can display a callous disregard for the rights of
others and a high risk for a variety of predatory and aggressive behaviors. Clearly, these char-
acteristics have strong implications for the strategies used by law enforcement and s­ ecurity
professionals when they must deal with stalking, threats, and attacks directed at public figures,
like the late Samuel Brown.

Endnote
1
 his article has been edited from its originally published format. See O’Toole et al. (2008). To pro-
T
tect the identities of all parties, the authors have employed pseudonyms and removed potentially
identifying information while faithfully portraying the important facts of the case.

References
Meloy, J. R. (1988). The psychopathic mind: Origins, dynamics, and treatment. Jason Aronson.
Meloy, J. R. (2000). Violence and risk and threat assessment. Specialized Training Services.
Meloy, J. R. (Ed.). (2001). The mark of Cain: Psychoanalytic insight and the psychopath. The Analytic
Press.
O’Toole, M. E., Smith, S. S., & Hare, R. D. (2008). Psychopathy and predatory stalking of public
­figures. In J. R. Meloy, L. Sheridan, & J. Hoffman (Eds.) Stalking, threatening, and attacking public
figures: A psychological and behavioral analysis (pp. 215–244). Oxford University Press.

A Closer Look at “The Predator: When the Stalker

Is a Psychopath”
1. According to the article, what are three or four traits or behaviors that distinguish
a psychopath from a person who does not have these tendencies?
2. This article was written for law enforcement officers. What are a few lessons about
psychopaths that the authors hope to convey to people who are trying to stop or
negotiate with criminals who have psychopathic tendencies?
3. Have you ever met someone or heard of someone who demonstrates behavior
that could be psychopathic? Without naming the person, discuss with your group
how the traits described in this article could explain the behavior of this person
you know or knew.

Ideas for Writing

1. This profile, like many good profiles, surprises readers by showing that the people
it is profiling are more complex than initially thought. Write a profile that, like this
one, shows how a person, group, event, or place is deeper or more complicated
than expected.
2. A sociopath is someone who is similar to a psychopath but also different in some
key ways. Write a comparison argument in which you explain both the similari-
ties between psychopaths and sociopaths and their differences. Use historical
examples of psychopaths and sociopaths to demonstrate their similarities and
differences.
260 Chapter 14

Activities for Profiles

Talk About This
1. Pair off with a partner. Interview your partner about their life at college. Ask
about their daily routine. Ask about what this person does that’s unique or
­different from a typical college student. Find out what this person believes about
life and the college experience.
2. With your group, discuss the following portrait, taken by Charles C. Ebbets
(1905–1978) of workers perched on a steel beam on the 69th floor of the
­Rockefeller Center in 1932. Considering the historical context—the middle of
America’s Great Depression—what message about America’s people and its
future do you think Ebbets was choosing to convey? What choices did he make
in this portrait that convey this message?

CBW/Alamy Stock Photo

3. With your group, come up with five national issues that you all care about. They
don’t have to be enormous issues. For each of these issues, pick a specific p­ erson,
group, place, or event that is symbolic of that problem or its solution. Then talk
about how a profile of each person could be used to help readers u ­ nderstand the
issue you linked with them.

Try This Out

1. Choose one of the profiles included in this chapter and analyze it using the
­features listed in the At-A-Glance in this chapter. Does the profile adhere exactly
to these features? List three ways the profile reflects this description of the genre.
Then list three ways the profile does not match the description.
2. On the Internet, find a profile of someone who interests you. Present this profile
to your writing group, identifying its strengths and weaknesses. Then identify
 Profiles 261

the main point of the profile and show your group how the author uses the
­profile to make a larger point.
3. With your group, list five places or buildings on campus that seem to come alive
when people are in them. Pick one of these places and describe it as though it is
a person or a living being of some kind. How can a place be similar to a person?
How can personifying a place make it more interesting for readers?

Explore This
Go find your own examples of microgenres! Here are a few microgenres that are related
to profiles. Choose a microgenre from the following list and find three examples in print
or on the Internet. What are some common features of this microgenre?
Self-portrait—a short sketch that describes your own appearance and behavior
Snapshot—a description of a place or event as though everything has stopped
Social networking profile—a brief profile for a social networking site
Obituary—an end-of-life profile for a celebrity or someone you know
Personal ad—a description of yourself or someone else for a dating website

Write This
1. Profile someone you know. Write a profile of someone you know well and like.
Think about why you find this person interesting: they’re quirky, hardworking,
funny, unusual, and so on. Talk to others about this person to collect a variety
of viewpoints and possibly gain new insights. Paint a verbal portrait that views
this person from a specific angle and that captures something ­essential—an idea,
social cause, insight, or theme.
2. Create a profile with graphics or audio/video elements. Write a profile about a
historical figure or place from your state or country. Using the Internet and print
sources, find out as much as you can. Then interview an expert who has studied
this person or place in depth. Paint a verbal portrait, viewing your topic from a
specific angle and capturing something essential—an idea, social cause, insight,
or theme. Add pictures taken from the Internet or elsewhere.
3. Write a profile of a person or group of people who are supposed to represent
your generation. Choose someone or something that is used as a cultural icon to
explain young people in general and your generation in particular. What com-
mon experiences do you and your friends share with this person or group? What
unique experiences or aspects of persona have made this person or group an icon
(for better or worse) for your generation?
 Chapter 15
Explainers
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

15.1 invent the content of your explainer with a wide range of sources.
15.2 develop an organization that fits the content of your explainer.
15.3 use persuasive style and visual design to enhance the tone and appeal
of your explainer.

An explainer is a brief overview that explains what something is, why something
­happened, or how something works. You have probably read these articles online or
seen them on video-sharing sites like YouTube. They usually have titles like “What is
artificial intelligence?” or “Why do people believe in conspiracy theories?” or “How
does TikTok know what you like?” Usually, the article or video is not too technical.
Explainers are typically written for people who are not experts.
Explainers are regularly assigned in college courses, especially in fields like ­science,
business, engineering, and medicine. Professors use explainers as a way to help s­ tudents
understand a topic in greater depth while learning how to explain that topic to nonex-
perts. Explainers are typically around one to two single-spaced pages, and their sources
are embedded as links.
In the workplace, explainers are becoming more and more common. Many corporate
websites and ­YouTube channels include video explainers that describe their products and
services and how they are used. Explainers are also used in the workplace for training
purposes. Subject matter experts (SMEs) will create accessible materials that train people
on how to do specific tasks or show salespeople how to demonstrate a product or service.
Specialized types of explainers are used for content marketing to attract potential
­customers to a company’s or organization’s website by anticipating the kinds of prob-
lems people are trying to solve. The company or organization will then use the explainer
to recommend its own products or services. Content marketing uses “content” to attract
customers and then sell them a product or service.
Explainers are not difficult to write, and they can be fun to create. They give you
an opportunity to really figure out and share what something is, how it works, or
why it h ­ appens. Then you can describe it to other people in a straightforward and
accessible way.

262
 Explainers 263

At-A-Glance
Explainers
Explainers use a variety of organizational patterns. These three models show a topic-based approach and a
sequential approach.

What Explainer Why Explainer How Explainer

Introduction Introduction Introduction

Feature 1 Cause 1 Step or phase 1

Feature 2 Cause 2 Step or phase 2

Feature 3 Cause 3 Step or phase 3

• • •
• • •
• • •

Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion

Usually, writers of explainers use research to support their points. Their sources, however, are embedded
directly into the text with links to websites. Here are their typical features:
• A descriptive title that names the subject and sparks readers’ interest.
• An introduction that identifies your topic and purpose for the explainer. The purpose statement can also
serve as the thesis of the paper.
• Body paragraphs that use a topic-by-topic, feature-by-feature, or step-by-step approach to describe
the topic.
• A conclusion, usually brief, that appeals to the readers by offering a look to the future.
• For further information (optional) that cites sources for more information, usually as links or in a standard
citation style like MLA or APA.
264 Chapter 15

One Student’s Work: Explainer

Sleepless in College Town: Causes and Effects of Poor

Sleep in College Students
Isabella E. Pandolfo
Introduction College students are some of the most sleep-deprived people in the
­identifies the c­ ountry (Otenyo, 2015). In fact, up to 60% of college students suffer from poor
topic and why it’s
important, ­ending sleep quality (Schlarb et al., 2017). Poor quality sleep can result from a number
with a clearly of things, including delayed sleep onset, decreased sleep duration, and
stated thesis. increased number of sleep disturbances. These sleep problems can impact the
Specific statistics health and daily life of college students.
from credible
sources provide Causes of Poor Sleep in College Students
credibility for
the paper’s Napping
arguments. One possible cause of poor sleep is frequent or excessive napping, which college
students often fall victim to. According to the National Sleep Foundation,
napping, especially at night, can alter the sleep cycle by shifting circadian
rhythms. Since napping after 2 pm results in more slow-wave sleep, you might
have trouble falling asleep at a reasonable time later that night (Pacheco, 2020).
This may lead to negative health consequences such as depression, decreased
glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, altered adrenal function, and increased
evening cortisol levels (Ye, 2015). Lastly, longer naps can cause sleep inertia,
which is the transitional state between sleeping and being awake, and often
comes with confusion, grogginess, and cognitive deficits.

Technology
College students are also avid users of technology and social media, both of
which may also prevent them from getting good quality sleep. Research has
demonstrated that individuals who excessively use computers and phones
in their bedroom have later bedtimes and tend to wake up later in the morn-
ing (Dowdell and Clayton, 2019). Having the world at their fingertips, young
adults have developed hypervigilance when it comes to their phones; waking
up at night at the sound of their notifications and keeping phones close dur-
ing sleep only fuels this. In the Dowdell and Clayton study, 72.6% of students
engaged in sleep texting and had lower sleep quality ratings than non-sleep
texting students. In the Adams et al. study, 67% of the sample reported using
their cell phone before going to sleep (Adams et al., 2017). This has been linked
to difficulty falling asleep, frequent awakenings at night, or early wake times.

Social Factors
The social nature of college students’ lives can also contribute to sleep
­problems and lack of good quality sleep. Fear of missing out, or FOMO, is one
aspect of students’ social lives that may get in the way of their sleep. FOMO is
the anxiety that something exciting, interesting, or fun is h
­ appening ­elsewhere
and you’re not involved in it. According to a 2021 study by Fioravanti et al.,
 Explainers 265

a ­majority of students admitted to staying up later in order to socialize with

peers on campus and people from back home via social media, leaving them
­restless and unable to fall asleep once in bed. Another aspect of the social
nature of college students’ lives is community living. Many students live in
dorms and residence halls where people socialize in the halls while o ­ thers
are ­trying to sleep. Living in a social environment can make it difficult to
­prioritize sleep, because of both the physical distractions and the fear of miss-
ing out on ­something happening outside your door.

Possible Solutions
Sleep deprivation in college students is undoubtedly a problem. However,
there may be opportunities to get students sleeping more and sleeping
­better. In a study by Baroni et al. (2017), a group of students participated in a
sleep course designed to teach cognitive and behavioral strategies for better
sleep hygiene, and then put those strategies into practice. The practice of the
strategies taught were measured using individual assessment of sleep
behaviors and sleep hygiene via sleep logs. Students learned how to use a
worry diary to address anxiety that could possibly keep them up, and the
course also addressed historical and cultural elements of sleep, anatomy,
physiology, sleep disorders, and dreams. Control students were enrolled in a
child and adolescent psychopathology course that did not have a sleep
education component. When looking at the students’ sleep logs, there was a
trend of higher total sleep time and greater sense of feeling well rested in the
sleep course students compared with the control group. Control students
who dropped the course had significantly higher PSQI scores than those
who continued participating. ­Additionally, the sleep course students who
dropped the course had significantly lower scores on the ­Morningness
­Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) compared to those who completed the
study. Lastly, sleep course students felt their sleep onset latency was shorter,
and in a follow-up, their MEQ scores were higher. For reference, lower MEQ
scores indicate evening preference while higher scores indicate morning
preference, and higher PSQI scores ­indicate poorer sleep quality. These
The beginning of
­results indicate that interventions that address poor sleep by combining the conclusion is
sleep education and cognitive behavioral strategies have the potential to a summary of the
improve sleep problems or problematic sleep behaviors. Adding a sleep key arguments
and then restates
education component to college curriculums may help students in achieving a version of the
their goals in the healthiest way possible. thesis statement.

Conclusion
With their rigorous schedules and dedication to academics, college s­ tudents
need more sleep than ever before. However, they are i­ ncreasingly sleep
deprived, and this may be due to the various aspects of their busy lives,
such as napping, technology, and their social environments. Sleep depriva-
tion in college students can be remedied with education on the importance
of sleep and how to maintain good sleep habits and hygiene. The hope of
such education measures is to bring awareness to the s­ usceptibility of col-
lege students to become sleep deprived and encourage preventative action
in taking back control of their well-being, starting with their sleep.
266 Chapter 15

References
Baroni, A., Bruzzese, J.-M., Di Bartolo, C. A., Ciarleglio, A., & Shatkin, J. P.
(2017). Impact of a sleep course on sleep, mood and anxiety symptoms
in college students: A pilot study. Journal of American College Health, 66(1),
41–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2017.1369091
Dowdell, E. B., & Clayton, B. Q. (2018). Interrupted sleep: College students
sleeping with technology. Journal of American College Health, 67(7), 640–646.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1499655
Lorenzetti, M. S. (2020). The Effects of Sleep Restriction on Biological,
­Psychological, and Neurocognitive Measures of Health (dissertation).
­NSUWorks.
Fioravanti, G., Casale, S., Benucci, S. B., Prostamo, A., Falone, A., Ricca, V.,
& Rotella, F. (2021). Fear of missing out and social networking sites use
and abuse: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 122, 106839.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106839
Otenyo, J. K. (2015). Sleeping habits and sleep deprivation among college students.
The University of Arizona. Retrieved October 18, 2021, from https://
repository.arizona.edu/arizona/bitstream/10150/579300/1/azu_etd_
mr_2015_0214_sip1_m.pdf.
Pacheco, D. (2020, October 9). Does napping impact sleep at night?
Sleep ­Foundation. Retrieved October 18, 2021, from https://www
.sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works/does-napping-impact-sleep-
at-night.
Schlarb, A., Friedrich, A., & Claßen, M. (2017). Sleep problems in university
students – an intervention. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment,
Volume 13, 1989–2001. https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s142067

Inventing Your Explainer’s Content

15.1 Invent the content of your explainer with a wide range of sources.
Your explainer will probably answer one of three kinds of questions—What is it? Why
does it happen? How to do it or how does it work? So your first challenge is to figure
out what kind of question your explainer will answer. Let’s start with your topic, angle,
and purpose. Then you can get to work researching your topic.

Inquiring: Defining Your Topic, Angle, Purpose

Your first task is to figure out your topic and come up with a new angle on that topic.
Start out by defining your topic with a sentence definition.
Topic—What is mononucleosis?

Possible angle—Recently, our campus has seen an upsurge in cases of mononucleosis,

and students are concerned about catching this infectious virus.
 Explainers 267

Topic—Why do people experience homelessness?

Possible angle—One of the major issues in the last election was homelessness in our
area. To address this problem, we need to know the causes of homelessness.

Topic—How can you make kombucha SCOBY at home?

Possible angle—Kombucha is becoming a popular healthy drink, but it’s really expensive
in the store. By creating your own kombucha starter, called a SCOBY (symbiotic culture of
bacteria and yeast), you can easily make your own kombucha for almost free!

You should narrow your topic down as much as possible. An explainer tends to be
a smaller document or video, so choose a topic that can be handled in a few pages or a
few minutes. Choosing an angle will also help you write your purpose statement. Here
are some example purpose statements:
My purpose is to describe the causes and symptoms of mononucleosis so people on our
campus know when they have it and won’t spread the virus to others.

The aim of this explainer is to get past the political scapegoating of people who are
­experiencing homelessness and identify the major causes of this social problem.

This explainer will show you how to start your own kombucha SCOBY so you can make
as much of this delicious and healthy drink as you want without killing your budget.

Your topic, angle, and purpose will likely evolve as you research your topic and
draft your explainer. That’s fine. Right now, you’re just putting these basic concepts on
your screen or a piece of paper.

Researching: Finding Out What Others Know

The research you do for your explainer depends on what your readers need to know.
Today’s explainers tend to appear on screens, especially websites and video-sharing
sites, so they often rely on online sources for the content. Even the print sources they
use as sources can usually be accessed through links to the Internet. Here are some
strategies you might use to do research on your topic:

INTERNET RESEARCH. A search engine like Google, Bing, Yahoo!, or Baidu will u
­ sually
be your first stop to find information about your topic. Wikipedia and s­ imilar online
encyclopedias can also offer you an overall sense of your topic. As always, though,
you should read online sources critically by checking their reasoning, examples, and
sources. Look into the background of the authors, companies, or organizations that have
posted materials about your topic. Generally, most sources will be credible, but you will
want to cross-check their claims.

PRINT-BASED RESEARCH. Print sources, which can be found at your campus library,
can also be helpful for writing explainers. You can use your library’s electronic catalog,
usually available through its website, to search for books and articles on your topic.
You might also find magazine or journal articles that relate to your topic. These kinds of
print documents are helpful for gaining a more established understanding of your topic
because print documents tend to be better edited and scrutinized before publication.
268 Chapter 15

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH. Explainers also give you an opportunity to do your own

­ rimary research. You could do some field observations if you are describing or explain-
p
ing a local issue. Sometimes interviewing an expert or asking people to fill out a quick
survey can generate some information or opinions that reinforce or challenge what you
are finding in your Internet and print-based sources.
Chapter 30, “Starting Your Research,” explains the research process in depth, so
turn to that chapter for more information on doing research for explainers.

Organizing and Drafting Your Explainer

15.2 Develop an organization that fits the content of your explainer.
An explainer will almost always have a beginning (introduction), middle (body), and
end (conclusion).

The Introduction
Your explainer’s introduction should clearly identify your topic, purpose, and main
point (thesis). It will typically make most or all of the following five opening moves.
GRABBER. The purpose of a grabber is to get your readers’ attention. As discussed
in Chapter 21, ”Organizing and Drafting,” you can use a variety of strategies, such
as a startling statistic, a question, or an anecdote, to bring your readers into your
explainer.

According to a recent study, over 5 percent of college students catch mono and a full
23 percent of those students experience long-term physical and p
­ sychological s­ ymptoms
(“Chronic Fatigue,” 2021). That means you have a 1 in 20 chance of c
­ atching mono in
­college and a 1 in 80 chance of dealing with serious effects of this nasty illness.

IDENTIFY YOUR TOPIC. If your grabber didn’t already, make sure you identify your
topic for the readers. Usually, a definition is the best way to identify your topic. For example,

According to the Mayo Clinic’s website, “Infectious mononucleosis (mono) is often called the
kissing disease. The virus that causes mono (Epstein-Barr virus) is spread through saliva.”

OFFER BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE TOPIC. Give readers just enough

factual information or factual evidence to familiarize them with the topic. You don’t
need to fully explain your topic (save that for the body of your explainer), but you can
offer enough information for them to feel familiar with the topic.
STRESS THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TOPIC TO YOUR READERS. Spend a sentence
or two explaining why this topic should be important to your readers.

Mono can really disrupt a semester or even a year of college because it can make you
really tired, block your breathing, and even cause heart inflammation. This virus is not
something to mess around with!
 Explainers 269

STATE YOUR PURPOSE. In one sentence, tell your readers what you are trying to
demonstrate or prove.

My aim in this explainer is to help you better understand the causes and symptoms of
mono so you can protect yourself from this bothersome disease.

STATE YOUR MAIN POINT OR THESIS STATEMENT. Your main point or thesis
s­ tatement will usually offer a claim that the remainder of the explainer will support
or prove.

Weak—Mono is a sickness that affects many college students.

Stronger—College students are at higher risk for catching mono because they sometimes
do things that involve sharing saliva (e.g., kissing, sharing drinks and food). The complica-
tions from getting mono can have a big impact on your ability to succeed in college.

These introductory moves can be made in almost any order. The grabber and a
definition of your topic will usually be placed at the beginning of your introduction,
but you can use the other introductory moves in just about any order.

The Body
Usually, the body of an explainer will be carved up into about three to seven sub-topics,
with each receiving one or two paragraphs.
What is X?—Divide your topic into its major features. For example, if you are describ-
ing an object or a place, you can divide it into its three to seven major f­ eatures.
Then spend a paragraph or two describing each of those features.
Why does X happen?—Answering the “why” question usually involves figuring
out the major causes of something. Your goal is to identify the three to seven
reasons why something happens. List them out and then explore each of these
causes with a paragraph or two.
How do you do X?—Answering the “how” question involves describing step-by-
step how something works is made. For example, if you are explaining how
to make a pizza, you might divide the task into four steps: make or buy the
dough, mix the sauce, assemble the pizza, and bake the pizza.
How does X work?—Another type of “how” explainer describes how something
works or operates on its own. For example, you might want to explain how a
caterpillar becomes a butterfly or how a volcano erupts. To do this, you should
divide the process into three to seven major phases. Then describe each phase
separately with a paragraph or two.
Do you need to limit yourself to three to seven major features, causes, steps,
or phases? No. That’s just a helpful guideline to help you keep your explainer
manageable for yourself and your readers. The number of features, causes, steps,
or phases you include should fit the needs of your topic.
270 Chapter 15

The Conclusion
Conclusions in explainers tend to be brief, usually only a few sentences. You should
consider making four moves.
• Make an obvious transition from the body to the conclusion.
• Restate your main point, or thesis statement.
• Stress again the importance of the topic to the readers.
• Discuss briefly the future of this topic.
A short and simple conclusion is usually preferred by readers. Since explainers tend
to be short documents themselves, your readers don’t need to be retold things they just
read only a few minutes before. The conclusion is a good place to state your main point
again and perhaps offer a brief look to the future.

Works Cited or References

Your professor may ask you to cite your sources as a Works Cited (MLA) or References
(APA) list. See Chapter 33, “Using MLA Style,” or Chapter 34, “Using APA Style,” to
determine how to format your list of sources. Increasingly, though, the sources refer-
enced in explainers appear as hyperlinks. That way, readers can immediately access
the evidence you are citing. If you’re unsure how your professor wants sources cited,
you should ask them.

Choosing an Appropriate Style

and Design
15.3 Use persuasive style and visual design to enhance the tone and appeal of
your explainer.
The style and design of explainers tend to be upbeat and colorful. You want to catch and
hold your readers’ attention with good imagery, a quicker pace, and graphics that are
supportive and attractive. Here are some good ways to improve the style and design
of your explainer:
• Use people or other doers in the subjects of your sentences—Explainers tend to
be about people and things that are moving or changing, so avoid weak sentence
constructions (e.g., “It is. . . ”, “There are. . . ”, “This is. . . ”) and passive voice as
much as possible. Move those doers, especially people, into the subjects of your
sentences.
• Add visual and other sensory details—Your readers should be able to see what
you are explaining, so use details, color, and movement to describe how it looks.
Other senses, such as sound, smell, taste, and touch can be used to deepen your
readers’ understanding of your topic.
• Use the “you” style to speak directly to your readers—Explainers tend to
speak directly to the readers, so you might try using “you” and “your” in your
 Explainers 271

writing to grab and hold their attention. You can ask them questions—“Have
you ever wondered how humans can balance while riding a bike?”—or you can
put them in the scene you are describing—“Imagine you want to build your
own computer.”
• Make your sentences a bit shorter than usual—To add energy and increase the
pace of your writing, use shorter sentences. You can divide longer sentences into
two or three shorter sentences. You can also look for ways to shorten sentences by
using simpler terms and removing strings of prepositional phrases.
• Use similes and analogies to explain difficult concepts—If you are trying to
explain something complicated to your readers, try using a simile or analogy.
A simile compares one thing to something similar, usually using the word “like.”
For example, “An erupting volcano is like a fireworks display sending up molten
lava.” An analogy similarly compares two different things: “When the volcano
finally blows, the built-up pressure causes lava to gush out of the crater like a soft
drink from a shaken bottle.”
• Use meaningful headings—People tend to scan explainers before they begin
­reading. Headings can offer them an overview of the document while giving them
entry points to start reading. You can help them by adding headings at the begin-
ning of each major section. Usually, your headings will identify the features, causes,
steps, or phases that are being explained in the text.
• Include images—To add a visual element to your explainer, you can take a photo
with your phone or find an image on the Internet. If you are describing how some-
thing is done or how it works, you might show how it looks at various stages in
the process.

Microgenre
The How-To Video
Another common place to find explainers is on video-sharing sites like YouTube, Vimeo, and TikTok. Some of
them are rather amateurish with a speaker talking directly to the camera. Others are much more professional,
using documentary techniques and strategies to explain the what, why, and how questions about specific topics.
If you would like to create a how-to video, you should write a script that you will use to explain or dem-
onstrate your product. Typically, a five-minute explainer will require two to three double-spaced pages. The
script for a ten-minute explainer will need about five to six double-spaced pages.
Here are some ideas for making your own how-to videos:

Pick a task you can explain briefly and clearly. While choosing a topic, make sure you choose
something that can be described in three to ten major steps. Viewers can really only keep a few steps in
mind at any given time, so how-to videos that include long strings of steps tend to be difficult to follow. If
more than ten steps are required, you may need to split up your how-to into two or more separate videos.

Choose a topic that is visual in nature. Almost any topic can be turned into an explainer. However,
some are more appropriate than others because they can be divided into steps that can be shown or
drawn. More conceptual or abstract topics are usually handled better with written text.
272 Chapter 15

Do your research. More than likely, the topic you have chosen is something you already know how to
do, and similar websites can give you an overview of your topic and help you locate sources. But, do some
more background research with authoritative sources so you can make sure the information you are sharing
is correct.

Write a script or storyboard. You have probably seen how-to videos in which the speaker just turns on
the camera and starts talking. Usually, these kinds of how-to videos are too long and wander about. Plus,
the speaker often needs to double back to add steps or elaborate on how a step should have been done.
A written script will help you put all the information in one place and make sure you’re covering everything
needed. Even better, you can use a storyboard (a series of drawings) to show how each scene in the video
will look.

Put any safety information up front in the video. If you are showing anything that could possibly cause
injury or damage to property, you need to put safety warnings before describing any steps that might
cause injury or damage. For example, if you are showing something that involves repairing an electrical
appliance, you should first emphasize that viewers need to unplug it before demonstrating anything else.

Use still photos to show important moments. Often, the most important moments in a how-to video
are also the most difficult to capture in action. Instead of trying to position your phone or video camera
while you are doing a complex step, take photos and splice them into your video during editing.

Consider adding the voiceover after demonstrating the steps. Many creators of how-to videos try to
talk while they are demonstrating the task. In some cases, you might find it easier to record yourself doing
the task and then recording yourself describing what is being shown. This allows you to concentrate on
doing the task correctly and then separately describing it. That’s much easier and less complicated.

Keep it brief. Most viewers are searching for how-to videos that quickly give them the information
they need. If they see that one video is six minutes and another is thirty minutes, they will almost always
choose the shorter video. You want your video to cut out any information that is not need-to-know. Most
importantly, remove any chitchat from the video. Viewers will skip over those comments anyway.

Show the finished product. When you’re done describing how to do the task, spend one more minute
showing what the final product looks like.

WRITE your own how-to video script. Write a script for a how-to video that explains how to do
something that you are familiar with, even enthusiastic about. You can even include the images that will be
shown. Use a two-column table: insert the spoken words on the left-hand side, and on the right-hand side
describe the images that will appear alongside the spoken words.

How to Hang a Hammock on Campus

Huang Xiu
If you’re like most college students, you have some downtime between classes.
Maybe you want to do some studying or reading, or maybe you want to catch a quick nap.
 Explainers 273

­ ammocking is a great way to get some rest without trudging all the way back home. Here
H
is what you need to know to hang a hammock on campus:

1. Borrow or purchase a hammock. If you just want to try hammocking, you can
borrow one from the Equipment Room in the Student Union. You just need to scan
your Wildcat ID, and they will lend you a hammock for up to three hours. If you
want to buy your own, I’m going to recommend Hansen’s Outfitters here in town.
They are a little more expensive than ordering one through Amazon or REI, but it’s
a local company and they will make sure you walk out with the hammock that best
fits your needs.
2. Find your spot. Fortunately, our campus has many trees. The Daily Wildcat has
an article “Where to Hammock on Campus” on the Get Outside tab of its w ­ ebsite.
Everyone has their favorite spot, but some things to keep in mind are a) the diam-
eter of the trees, b) wi-fi access, and c) privacy. The trees need to be at least a foot
in diameter. If you want to do any work or watch a show, you will want a strong
wi-fi connection. And, you will need to decide whether you want to be alone or
with other people.
3. Select your trees. Choose two healthy trees (no dead branches) that are about as
far apart as your hammock’s suspension cords. Most hammocks need about 10 to
15 feet between trees, and you will be able to make adjustments. Check for any
bird, bee, or wasp nests in the trees. If you see a nest of any kind, choose a couple
other trees to avoid disturbing their homes.
4. Wrap a tree strap around each tree trunk just over head high. Tree straps are
wide so they don’t dig into and damage the trees. For most people, each tree
strap should be placed just above the height of their head. Feed the end of the
tree strap with several loops into the end of the strap with one loop. Then pull
it tight.
5. Hook up your hammock. Use carabiners (the metal fasteners included with your
hammock) to hook your hammock into one of the loops on each tree strap. Each
end of your hammock will have a nylon cord with its own loop. The carabiner
­connects a loop from each tree strap to the loop at the end of each nylon cord on
your hammock.
6. Adjust the height of your hammock. When empty, your hammock should hang
about waist to chest high. When you’re in the hammock, it should hang about
18-20 inches off the ground. That’s about knee high for most of us. You can make
adjustments by moving the carabiners further up or down on each tree strap.
7. Climb in and enjoy. Hammocking is fun, especially with friends. However, make
sure you set an alarm on your phone, because you might fall asleep and miss your
next class!

For more tips on hanging a hammock, you can search for other helpful videos on
YouTube.
274 Chapter 15

Quick Start Guide

Here are some quick strategies to get you going on your explainer.

Identify a topic and find a new angle. Usually, explainers are written about topics that are important
right now. As you consider possible topics, identify issues that are currently in the news. What has changed
recently to make this topic especially interesting right now?

State your purpose. Explainers typically answer a question that readers might have, specifically what,
why, and how questions. Complete the sentence “The purpose of this explainer is to. . . ”

Research your topic. If the topic is important right now, you can probably do the majority of your
research on the Internet. Keep in mind that Internet sources should be checked for credibility, while print
and empirical sources might provide you with other kinds of evidence and insights.

Organize your explainer. Explainers tend to have rather simple organizations. They usually discuss a
series of topics (feature by feature, cause by cause) or walk the readers through a series of steps or phases.

Choose an appropriate style. Because they tend to be written on popular topics, explainers often use
an upbeat style and use shorter sentences to increase the pace. Add in visual details and color where
appropriate.

Design and format your explainer. Most explainers are designed to work on screens. Good headings
will give the readers a quick overview of your text and help orient the readers to the text.

Revise and proofread your writing. Compared to many documents, explainers tend to be brief. Put that
extra time into revising and proofreading your work. You can work on crafting your message and eliminating
any typos, misspellings, or grammar errors.

Readings: Explainers

Reading 1
In this explainer, three scientists who study squirrels make their research more accessible
to everyday readers by putting their findings about squirrel acrobatics into non-scientific
language. Notice how they define their technical terms and choose more common words
like “springiness” whenever p ­ ossible. This explainer is fun because it’s about squirrels
making acrobatic leaps, but it also d ­ iscusses potential applications of their research
to robotics.
 Explainers 275

Squirrels, Parkour, and Nimble Robots

Lucia F. Jacobs, Nathaniel Hunt, and Robert J Full
Tree squirrels are the Olympic divers of the rodent world, leaping gracefully among branches
and structures high above the ground. And as with human divers, a squirrel’s success in this
competition requires both physical strength and mental adaptability.
The Jacobs lab studies cognition in free-ranging fox squirrels on the Berkeley
­campus. Two species – the eastern gray squirrel (Scirurus carolinensis) and the fox squirrel
(­Scirus niger) – thrive on campus landscapes and are willing participants in our behavioral
­experiments. They are also masters in two- and three-dimensional spatial orientation – using
sensory cues to move through space.
In a newly published study, we show that squirrels leap and land without falling by making
trade-offs between the distance they have to cover and the springiness of their takeoff perch.
This research provides new insights into the roles of decision making, learning and behavior in
challenging environments that we are sharing with researchers of human movement and with
engineers. At present, there is no robot as agile as a squirrel, and none that can learn or make
decisions about dynamic tasks in complex environments—but our research suggests the kinds
of abilities that such robots would need.

Going airborne
Our new study brought together squirrel psychologists and comparative biomechanists to ask
whether squirrels’ cognitive decision-making extends to dynamic changes in locomotion – the
famous squirrel leap. How do squirrels’ perceived capabilities of their bodies and their guesses
about the stability of the environment shape their decisions about movement?
Robert Full from the PolyPEDAL Laboratory is renowned for studies that extract
­fundamental design principles through experiments on locomotion in species with unique
­specializations for movement, from crabs to cockroaches to leaping lizards. Graduate students
Nathaniel Hunt, who is trained in biomechanics, and Judy Jinn, trained in animal cognition,
took on the challenge of assessing how a leaping squirrel could respond to sudden changes in
the location and flexibility of experimental branches.
To study this question in wild squirrels, we designed a magnetic climbing wall that could
be mounted on wheels and rolled out to the famous Berkeley eucalyptus grove to meet the
squirrels on their own turf. We brought high-speed cameras and peanuts for persuading
­squirrels to patiently wait for their turn on the wall.
Our goal was to persuade squirrels to take off from a flexible springboard attached to the
climbing wall and jump to a fixed perch protruding from the wall that held a shelled walnut
reward. And once again, squirrels surprised us with their acrobatics and innovation.
By increasing the springiness of the springboard and the distance between it and the
goal, we could simulate the challenge a squirrel faces as it races through tree branches that
vary in size, shape, and flexibility. Squirrels leaping across a gap must decide where to take off
based on a trade-off between branch flexibility and the size of the gap.
We found that squirrels ran farther along a stiff branch, so they had a shorter, easier
jump. In contrast, they took off with just a few steps from flexible branches, risking a
longer leap.
276 Chapter 15

Using three branches differing in flexibility, we guessed the position of their takeoff by
assuming equal risk for leaping from an unstable branch and jump distance. We were wrong:
Our model showed that squirrels cared six times more about a stable takeoff position than
how far they had to jump.
Next we had squirrels leap from a very stiff platform. Unbeknownst to the squirrels, we
then substituted an identical-looking platform that was three times more flexible. From our
high-speed video, we calculated how far away the center of the squirrel’s body was from
the landing perch. This allowed us to determine the landing error – how far the center of the
­squirrel’s body landed from the goal perch. Squirrels quickly learned to jump from the very
bendy branch that they expected to be stiff and could stick the landing in just five tries.
When we raised the ante still further by raising the height and increasing the distance to
the goal perch, the squirrels surprised us. They instantly adopted a novel solution: parkour,
literally bouncing off the climbing wall to adjust their speed and accomplish a graceful landing.
Once more, we discovered the remarkable agility that allows squirrels to evade predators in
one of nature’s most challenging environments, the tree canopy.
Millions of people have watched squirrels solve and raid “squirrel-proof” bird feeders,
either live in their backyard or in documentaries and viral videos. Like Olympic divers, squirrels
must be flexible both physically and cognitively to succeed, making rapid error corrections on
the fly and innovating new moves. [Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend. Sign up
for our weekly newsletter.] With the funding this project attracted, we have joined a team of
roboticists, neuroscientists, material scientists and mathematicians to extract design principles
from squirrel leaps and landings. Our team is even looking for insights into brain function by
studying leap planning in lab rats.
Our analysis of squirrels’ remarkable feats can help us understand how to help humans
who have walking or grasping impairments. Moreover, with our interdisciplinary team of
­biologists and engineers, we are attempting to create new materials for the most intelligent,
agile robot ever built – one that can assist in search-and-rescue efforts and rapidly detect
catastrophic environmental hazards, such as toxic chemical releases.
A future vision for our efforts? First-responder robotic squirrels, equipped with the
­physical and cognitive toughness and flexibility of a squirrel at a bird feeder.

Judy Jinn, who participated in this study as a graduate student, is a quantitative UX

Researcher at Facebook.

A Closer Look at “Squirrels, Parkour,

and Nimble Robots”
1. The purpose of this explainer is to answer the question, “How do squirrels’ per-
ceived capabilities of their bodies and the guesses about the stability of the environ-
ment shape their decisions about movement?” Look through the article and find at
least three answers to this how-question. In other words, how do squirrels make
these amazing leaps?
2. The authors describe their research methodology early in the body of the article.
With a group of people from your class, make a numbered list of major steps the
scientists followed. Then, within each of these major steps, list 2–5 minor steps
they followed.
 Explainers 277

3. The scientists mention several findings in this article. With your group, identify
the scientists’ top three findings about the leaping abilities of squirrels. Compare
your list of findings with lists from other groups in the class. What findings did all
groups identify, and what findings were only noticed by one or two groups? Why
do you think some findings stood out more than others in the explainer?

Ideas for Writing

1. What animal fascinates you? Using an Internet search engine or an AI application,
research the reasons this animal behaves this way. Then, write an explainer in
which you answer the why-question about the animal’s behavior to children who
are between the ages of six and eight.
2. Choose a topic that you consider yourself an expert on. Write an explainer in which
you describe what something is, why something happens, or how something hap-
pens. Choose a specific type of reader and use the content, organization, style, and
design of your explainer to appeal directly to their needs and interests.

Reading 2
Zack Wendt works as a mechanical engineer for Arrow Electronics. In this explainer, he uses
a step-by-step approach to explain how hydroelectric dams work. Some of the t­erminology
is a bit technical, but watch how Wendt makes this complex topic simpler for his readers.

Section 1.01 How Do Hydroelectric Dams

Generate Electricity?
Zack Wendt
How do these massive hydroelectric dams work? Let’s explore the fundamental compo-
nents of a hydroelectric dam and the process of creating sustainable, productive power.

Step 1: Harnessing Potential Energy

A roaring river releases potential energy in the form of kinetic energy and sound—­gravity
causes water to flow through a specific path. Dams halt this kinetic energy release and effec-
tively store a river’s potential energy in a lake-like reservoir. Hydroelectric dams work by
“reserving” a river’s water and potential energy. The hydraulic head, created by the depth of
the water and the water’s velocity as it travels through the dam’s penstock, enables the turbine
in the hydroelectric plant to spin.

Step 2: Turning the Hydroelectric Turbine

Mechanical fans vary in shape and size. ­Generally speaking, the larger the fan, the harder it is
to move it. Large fans also require higher voltages and bigger motors to spin them. Large tur-
bines, such as the Francis turbines in Three Gorges and many other hydroelectric dams, also
require more energy to accelerate their movement.
278 Chapter 15

The Francis turbine relies on the hydraulic head

to spin. The hydrostatic pressure ­created by the
dam’s potential energy creates this ­hydraulic head,
which increases as the fluid’s ­velocity grows. In
short, a taller dam produces more hydraulic head
and can spin larger turbines. As the turbine spins,
the hydraulic head converts into kinetic energy.
This conversion effectively ­eliminates the water’s
velocity and hydrostatic pressure, allowing it to
flow out slowly from the base of the dam.

Step 3: The Hydroelectric Turbine Generator

The turbine’s rotational motion generates ­electrical
energy. Turbines are coupled with ­electrical
­generators either directly or via a ­gearbox
or ­transmission that spins the shaft and the
­generator’s armature. The commutator and brush
­assembly capture the flow of electricity, which
is created by the generator’s spinning armature
­relative to its stator.
Massive generators, such as those at work in
hydroelectric dams, create a significant amount of
reluctance—resistance to mechanical spinning―which can only be overcome by large torque
forces as a result of the spinning turbine. Using a transmission system like the one in a car, the
turbine’s rotational motion converts into varying torque and speed ratios.

Step 4: Capturing and Transmitting Hydroelectric Power

Generated electricity quickly transforms into grid-level voltages, which the local power
­company then transmits via power lines. The step-up transformers in hydroelectric dams
­create utility-scale voltages from relatively lower generator output voltages. The higher
­voltages that exit a hydroelectric power plant are ideal for long-distance power t­ ransmission,
given the low electrical current that makes them more efficient. For example, the Glen C ­ anyon
Dam in Paige, Arizona, provides electricity to homes nearly 900 miles away in northern
Nebraska, likely utilizing 500kV transmission as a part of the electricity journey.

Section 1.02 Hydroelectric Renewable Energy

Advancements
Hydroelectric power plants are the largest source of renewable energy in the world. As new
hydroelectric dams and tidal power plants are created and system efficiencies improve, hydro-
electric power’s impact grows. Fluid dynamics modeling is also improving, and manufacturing
tolerances are shrinking, bringing turbine efficiency closer to 100%. Developments in gearbox
manufacturing, lubricant material sciences, and manufacturing tolerances continue to increase
efficiency, as will stronger magnets, more efficient conductors, and better control systems.
As long as flowing water and elevation are available, hydropower will be a valuable option for
sustainable energy.
 Explainers 279

A Closer Look at “How Do Hydroelectric Dams

Generate Electricity?”
1. This explainer is a bit more technical than most explainers. With a group, highlight
five terms or phrases that you believe most people would not know. Look up these
terms in a dictionary or on the Internet. Would this explainer be easier to read if
the technical terms were replaced by more common terms? Or do you believe the
technical terms are appropriate for this kind of text?
2. As the effects of climate change become more apparent, the energy sector is chang-
ing quickly with wind, solar, and other technologies starting to be more p
­ rominent.
Do you think the public needs to have a better understanding of how these
“­alternative” forms of energy are generated? What do you think are the benefits of
educating people about these kinds of new technologies? Are there any downsides
to educating the public with these kinds of explainers?
3. Dams that generate hydroelectric energy also have their downsides, such as effects
on fish migration, dependence on water being available, and the displacement of
­people who live around the dam. Write an argument paper in which you weigh the
pros and cons of hydroelectric power and argue for or against it.

Ideas for Writing

1. Write a rhetorical analysis of this explainer. How would you characterize the
author’s overall purpose, what he was trying to achieve for his readers? What kind
of readers do you think Wendt is hoping to reach? What are some of the strategies
he uses to help people understand this complicated and technical subject? Is his
tone respectful, or does he seem to “talk down” to his readers? In all, evaluate how
effectively you feel he achieves his purpose.
2. Search the Internet for an article explaining a subject that you are very familiar with
but that most people would find obscure, complex, puzzling, or technical. Evaluate
how well they make this subject comprehensible for non-specialists. What orga-
nizational and design strategies do they use to make the subject both interesting
and understandable? In your estimation, what could they have done to make their
explainer more interesting, understandable, or thorough?

Activities for Explainers

Talk About This
1. Using an Internet search engine, find an explainer video on a video-sharing
website like YouTube. With your group, discuss the strengths and weaknesses
of the explainer video. In this video, did the narrator state a clear purpose
for the explainer? What was the main point, if it was expressed? How was
the body of the explainer carved into topics? What moves were made in the
conclusion?
280 Chapter 15

2. Find two written explainers on the same topic and compare them side by
side. You might look at health-care websites like WebMD and the Mayo Clinic.
Find explainers on the same topic on both of the websites and compare and
contrast them. Which one did you think was better? Why do you think it
was better?
3. With your group, discuss the student-written explainer at the beginning of this
chapter. It’s good but not perfect. What are its strengths? Where are some places
where you might suggest improvements? If you were to revise this explainer,
how could you make it better?

Try This Out

1. More than likely, your professor has asked you to write an explainer. List ten
­topics that would be appropriate for this assignment. Then identify a new angle
for each of these topics. A good way to find a new angle is to ask, “What is new
or has changed recently about this topic?” Do some start-up research on this
topic. What are the three to five topics or steps you would include in the body of
your explainer?
2. Find a video explainer on a video-sharing site about a topic that interests you
and that you know a lot about. Watch the video carefully, pausing whenever
the narrator moves from one topic or step to another. Identify places where the
explainer video misses an important fact or a step or doesn’t explain it clearly.
What impact, great or small, does a missed or unclear aspect of the video
explainer have on the viewers?
3. If you were to write a series of explainers that would help first-year students do
important things at your college or university, what kinds of explainers would
you include? Make a list of ten topics. Then, during class with a group of three or
four, compare your list with the lists made by the others in your group. Make a
top-ten list out of your lists. Then, compare your group’s list with other groups in
the class. With your instructor, make a top-ten list for the whole class. How many
of the items on your original list were in the class’s top-ten list? Why do you
think many of the items on the groups’ lists were the same?

Explore This
Here’s your chance to play around with some other microgenres. Choose a microgenre
from the following list and find three examples in print or on the Internet. Use these
examples to come up with your own guidelines for writing one of these microgenres,
which are similar to an explainer.
The animated video—uses cartoon figures to explain or demonstrate a topic
Whiteboard explainer—a video in which the narrator or a hand is writing on a
whiteboard
Listicle—a brief explainer that puts items into a top-five, top-seven, or
top-ten list
 Explainers 281

At a glance—a diagram or captioned photograph that explains a concept in a

way that can be understood in only a few seconds
Product-review video explainer—for an e-commerce site, explain how a product
works and evaluate how well it works

Write This
1. Collect sources and create an annotated bibliography. For an explainer you are
writing, collect five documents from a variety of print and electronic sources.
Read these sources and create an annotated bibliography. Bibliography entries
should be put into MLA or APA bibliographic format. Include a summary of
three or more sentences for each entry.
2. Write an explainer. Explainers can be written on a variety of topics. It’s likely
that your professor has asked you to write one for the course you are taking.
Working on your own or in a small group, do these activities:
a. Identify a topic that you would be interested in writing about and come up
with a new angle.
b. In one sentence, write down a statement of purpose that describes what you
want your explainer to achieve.
c. Write down two possible main points that could be used to guide your
explainer. Which one is stronger? Which one is more focused? What exactly
makes one main point stronger or more focused than the other?
d. Create an outline of your explainer. Start out with the diagrams shown in the
At-A-Glance at the beginning of this chapter. Which of these patterns will be
most useful for your project? How can this pattern be modified to fit your
topic’s needs?
e. Draft out your explainer. As you are drafting, use hyperlinks to include your
sources. With your group, discuss some of the strengths and w ­ eaknesses
of using hyperlinks to show your sources rather than a Works Cited or
­References list.
3. Convert your explainer into a video script and storyboard. If you were to
completely “re-mediate” your explainer into a video explainer, how would you
change the text? What advantages would this new medium afford? Do you think
the time invested into turning your explainer into a video would be worth it?
 Chapter 16
Photo Essays
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

16.1 invent the content of a photo essay.

16.2 use strategies for organizing and drafting your photo essay.
16.3 design a photo essay to set a visual tone and make it accessible to
­multiple audiences.

Photo essays embody the saying “It’s better to show than to tell.” The purpose of a
photo essay is to support a specific point by harnessing the power of various multi-
media resources, like photographs, drawings, graphs, tables, and illustrations. Photo
essays can include video and audio elements, too. Common types of photo essays
include the following:
Slide show—a sequence of still images that explains an issue or argues for a claim.
The images in the slide show are usually accompanied by written or spoken com-
ments that enrich the explanation or shape the overall argument. Slide shows can
also be converted into videos with sound and shared via the Internet. They are
often used to generate new ideas, present information, and encourage a common
understanding of an issue.
Visual narrative—a sequence of images or scenes that illustrates and explains an
event or how something happened. Visual narratives are often used to explain
historical events. Scientists and engineers use them to explain ­natural ­phenomena,
methods, or processes. Marketers use them to promote ­products and services.
­Lawyers often use visual narratives to reconstruct how crimes happened.
Vidcast (VIDeo + podCAST)—a recorded video that is similar to a slide show but
includes media resources beyond still images, such as video clips, music, and sound
effects. Vidcasts are often used to present a position, pitch a product or service, or
introduce readers to a new perspective.

282
 Photo Essays 283

Today, with the design capabilities of computers, photo essays are becoming more
important than ever in college and the workplace. In college, you will be regularly
asked to create slide shows, visual narratives, and even vidcasts about a variety of
topics (Figure 16.1). In your career, you will use visual displays to generate new ideas,
present results, and persuade clients. And, as our society becomes more globalized and
intercultural, the ability to argue through images and share them via the Internet will
become ever more important.
Learning how to blend images and words is a crucial skill. By learning how to
make photo essays, you will improve your ability to use photography, videos, graphics,
and other images in your written texts and presentations. These visual tools give you
powerful ways to get your point across. And while it’s true that making photo essays
can be a lot of fun, a really good photo essay requires as much rigor and care as any
written document.

Figure 16.1 Making Photo Essays

Photo essays, which combine images, written text, and sometimes sounds, often use images to
illustrate complex issues. Like all arguments, they use both generative and persuasive strategies
to achieve their purpose.

Blankenhorn, Craig. “Bringing Child Homelessness into Focus: A Photo Essay” from the Spring 2014, Vo 5.1 edition of
Community, published by the Institute for Children, Poverty & Homelessness. Used by permission.
284 Chapter 16

At-A-Glance
Photo Essays
This diagram shows two basic patterns for creating a photo essay, but you can organize your photo essay
in a variety of ways. The pattern on the left uses a topic-by-topic approach, much like an essay. The pattern
on the right shows an event-by-event narrative pattern in which the photo essay is used to tell a story. You
can alter these patterns to fit your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context of use. Or you can come up
with your own pattern for organizing your photos.

Topic-by-Topic Pattern Narrative Pattern

Introduction Introduction

Topic 1 with photo(s) Set scene with

and written text photo(s) and written text

Topic 2 with photo(s) Show a complication with

and written text photo(s) and written text

Topic 3 with photo(s) Use photos and written text

and written text to describe how people evaluated
the complication with photo(s)
• and written text
•
•

Conclusion Use photos and written text

to describe how people resolved
the complication

Conclusion with lessons learned

Sometimes the best way to explain something is to show it with photos and other images. Photo essays
­usually combine images and written text in ways that explain a topic, tell a story, or make an argument.
They tend to have the following features:
• An introduction that identifies the topic and states a thesis that the photo essay will support or prove.
• A topic-by-topic or event-by-event description of the topic that features photos and images.
• Written text or captions that explain what is shown in the photos and images.
• A conclusion that restates the thesis, provides a lesson to be learned, and looks to the future.
 Photo Essays 285

One Student’s Work: Photo Essay

Hidden in Plain Site: Campus Architecture Around Us An interesting

title grabs the
Ren George audience’s
attention.

As a varsity college athlete, I have opportunities to visit campuses of

other universities. I’m also an architecture major, giving me a working
­knowledge of architectural history, features, and trends. Each time my team
travels, I like to take a jog through the campus (repping our school’s logo, of
course!). College campuses contain an amazing architectural history, but most The introduction
people just seem to walk by without noticing. In a way, campuses are like identifies the topic
and main point.
living time capsules of architectural trends, some better, some worse. In this
photo essay, my aim is to illustrate the campus architecture all around us but
is often hidden in plain sight.

Colonial Period to 1900

The first colleges and universities in the United States tended to follow the Ren arranges the
Georgian architectural style, named after the Kings George I–III of Great B ­ ritain. body into major
topics arranged
The Georgian red-brick style is so common at universities, especially east of chronologically.
the Mississippi River, that many people think it’s just the standard “college
­architecture.” It features red brick buildings with white windows. The buildings
tend to be rigidly symmetrical with slanted roofs and white dormers (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University.

Red brick is common, though white-painted bricks were popular, too.
The dormers stand out from a slanted roof.
365 Focus Photography/Shutterstock

After the Revolutionary War, colleges and universities wanted to look

visually different from British institutions, so many of them adopted the
­Neoclassical style based on Roman temples. Neoclassical buildings often
286 Chapter 16

feature a triangular pediment supported by tall columns. These buildings tend

to be symmetrical and are often limestone in color. Broad stairs lead up to a
portico (a porch). The roof of a rotunda (a round atrium) typically rises behind
and above the pediment (Fig. 2).

The words and Figure 2: Beardshear Hall, Iowa State University.

images work
together to set Buildings in the Neoclassical style were designed to look like Greek
the tone. or Roman temples. In this photo, the roof of the rotunda is green.

Piotr P. Gorecki / Alamy Stock Photo

In the 1860s to 1880s, the Second Empire style imitated buildings from the
Napoleon III period in France. The buildings were non-symmetrical and f­ eatured
inwardly slanted roofs with dormers (Fig. 3). Towers were common, and
upward roof lines were inwardly or outwardly curved. Arched m ­ oldings ­usually
appeared over windows, and decorative cornices were placed under roof eaves.

Figure 3: University Hall, Purdue University.

The Second Empire style included curved roof lines, towers,
and curved moldings above windows.
Jonathan Weiss/Shutterstock
 Photo Essays 287

Later 1900s to 1950s Prominent

­headings help
The 20th century brought in both modern buildings and older-style buildings. make the overall
structure clear
The Art Deco style emerged on many midwestern and southern campuses
and interesting.
with tall, recessed windows and ornamental elements that featured agricul-
tural and labor motifs (Fig. 4). The exteriors of buildings could be white or
red with stepped outlines. Rectangular flat-roof towers would appear on
­prominent campus buildings. Steel and chrome decorative elements were
also common on doors, inside walls, and elevators.

Figure 4: Creighton Hall, Creighton University.

Art Deco style is a modern look. Carved features sometimes
included corn and stalks, hammers, and machinery gears.

Pictures Now / Alamy Stock Photo

Figure 5: Cobb Hall, ­University of Chicago.

At this time, the
Gothic style tends to use gray or dark stone. The windows
Gothic style also became
are tall with flying buttresses. Look for the gargoyles!
popular in many eastern
­universities. With Gothic-
style buildings, the stone
walls tend to be darker
and gray. Tall stained-
glass or leaded windows
are common with pointed
arches called flying but-
tresses (Fig. 5). The real
Thomas Barrat/Shutterstock

tip-off to the Gothic style,

though, are the gargoyles
that sometimes stick out
from outside walls, espe-
cially under the eaves and
other overhangs.
288 Chapter 16

The 1950s to Present

Modernist designs became popular after World War II. Unfortunately,
­ uring the post-war period, many new campus buildings were red brick
d
boxes with featureless aluminum windows. However, a few unique styles
took shape in the 1960s to present day.
The Spanish Revival style became common in the west, especially in C ­ alifornia,
reflecting the look of Spanish missions (churches). This style often uses tan
stone or stucco with slanted roofs with red terracotta tiles (Fig. 6). Windows
Ren uses con- tend to be smaller, and small balconies and chimneys are occasional features.
sistent design
­principles
(­balance, align- Figure 6: Memorial Court, Stanford University.
ment, ­grouping,
The Spanish Revival style features earth-tone walls with arched
and contrast) to
make the photo doors and windows, towers, and slanted red-tile roofs.
essay attractive
and easy to
navigate.
Ken Wolter/Shutterstock

The Pueblo Revival style, also called the Santa Fe style, became common in
Southwestern states like New Mexico. This style echoes Indigenous American
pueblos, with earth tones of brown and sometimes red. Wooden poles called
latillas cross ceilings or porticos, and other wooden beams called vigas some-
times protrude from outside walls (Fig. 7). Pueblo-style buildings tend to not
be symmetrical.

Figure 7: Zimmerman Library, University of New Mexico.

The Pueblo Revival style has slanted lines and wooden latillas and
vigas across doorways and below rooflines.
Underawesternsky/Shutterstock
 Photo Essays 289

The Brutalist style tends not to be a favorite. Built in the 1960s and 1970s,
these modernist buildings feature rough concrete with rigid edges and c­ orners
(Fig. 8). Windows tend to be small and walking ramps are common. ­Brutalist
style is consciously simplistic and unfriendly looking. It usually puts the
­function of the building over its beauty.

Figure 8: Arthur J. Schmitt Academic Center, DePaul

University.
The brutalist style features concrete walls and small windows.
­Brutalist buildings often look stern and unfriendly.

Serhii Chrucky / Alamy Stock Photo

The Modernist style is probably most common today for newer campus
buildings. Modernist style buildings tend to have straight or gradual c­ urving
lines and larger windows (Fig. 9). Glass walls are common features b
­ ringing
in plenty of sunlight and views to the outside. Aluminum and steel are
often used on walls or rooflines where windows don’t appear. The roofs of
­modernist ­buildings tend to be flat but can be angled.
290 Chapter 16

Figure 9: James B. Hunt Jr. Library, North Carolina

State University.
Modernist-style buildings tend to feature walls of glass windows and
metal exteriors. The lines of roofs can be straight, slightly curved,
or angled.

Rose-Marie Murray / Alamy Stock Photo

A brief conclu- Find the Hidden Campus Around You!

sion highlights
the main point If you look up while walking across campus, you may find some
and looks to the a­ rchitectural gems on your college campus. In fact, you may find that your
future. campus is a time capsule that reveals the values, aspirations, and dreams of
past and present generations. Once you know what to look for, the hidden
campus will reveal its mysteries to you.

Inventing Your Photo Essay’s Content

16.1 Invent the content of a photo essay.
Creating a photo essay is similar to creating any written document. You can begin your
­writing process by freewriting, brainstorming, drawing a concept map, or other prewriting
techniques for exploring, narrowing your topic, and then identifying your purpose and angle.
Then start thinking about what you’d like to use for images and other media
resources, including any audio elements—that is, elements that are designed to be
heard, such as music or sound effects. Next, you should start creating and collecting
the images and scenes you need. Good planning will save you time by helping you
invent the content for your photo essay.

Use Storyboards to Sketch Out Your Ideas

You might find storyboarding helpful. Storyboards are used by movie producers and
designers to sketch out their ideas. Making a storyboard is like drawing a comic strip
or creating a comic book (Figure 16.2).
The easiest way to draw a storyboard is to fold a regular sheet of paper into four
panels. Then sketch out the images or scenes you envision for your photo essay. Under
each panel, write a comment or caption that describes what the panel shows.
 Photo Essays 291

Figure 16.2 A Storyboard

You can use a storyboard to sketch out your photo essay.

How to Make Friends in College

At this point, don’t worry about drawing your storyboards in a “correct” order.
You will probably end up moving them around anyway. Some people like to use sticky
notes to draw storyboards. They then stick the notes on a wall or a table. That way, they
can try out various ways to organize the photo essay.
You can also create storyboards with presentation software like PowerPoint, Google
Slides, Keynote, or Prezi. For each panel, make a slide with a title and comment. Your
presentation software’s “Slide Sorter” then allows you to move slides around to find
the best arrangement.
If your professor allows you to use artificial intelligence (AI) applications, image-
generating platforms can help with brainstorming a storyboard. For example, you can
type “Create a six-panel storyboard with line drawings of people doing the following:
1) greeting guests at the door. . . . “ However, keep in mind that you’ll need to adjust
the output using your own creative and critical eye. Also, you should never use an
AI-generated image in your final product unless you label it with details of how it was
generated. Otherwise, you may open yourself up to charges of plagiarism or copyright
infringement.
292 Chapter 16

Make Your Own Media Resources

After finishing your storyboards, it’s time to create and collect the media resources you
need. Photographs and videos are easy enough to create and edit with a s­ martphone
and photo-editing software. For a slide show or vidcast, you can record your own voice
as commentary. If you don’t have your own access to these resources, you can probably
find them in your school’s computer lab.
You can record other sounds as well, such as a setting’s background noise or a
conversation. You can even make your own music and sound effects if you like.
Photographs and audio-video segments—Visit the places and people you are writ-
ing about and take some pictures or record movies or audio. Then download these
resources to your computer and “Insert” them into your photo essay. If you don’t
have a mobile phone or a digital camera, the campus library or audio-visual center
at your college or university may have a camera you can borrow.
Illustrations, graphs, and charts—For illustrations, you can use drawing software
like Adobe Illustrator, Corel Draw, or Inkscape. To create graphs and charts, most word
processors, like Word, WordPerfect, or OpenOffice, are bundled with spreadsheet or
drawing programs that can be used to make these kinds of visuals.
Scanned digital images—You can use a scanner to make digital images of docu-
ments and artifacts. Anything flat can be scanned to create an image. Scanned
images can then be inserted into a document or presentation.
Videos—Video scenes can be inserted into slide shows or visual narratives, or your
video can stand alone. Videos can be edited with Movie Maker, Adobe Premier, or
Corel VideoStudio. You can also use your mobile phone to make a short video.
Voiceover commentary—If you want to record your slide show, use the “Record
Slide Show” feature on your presentation software. This feature will allow you to
add a voiceover to each of your slides.
Other sounds—You can incorporate other sounds into a slide show or vidcast by
using the “Import” feature on your presentation or video-editing app.
In Chapter 23, “Designing Your Document,” you’ll find helpful strategies for ­taking
photographs and making graphs and charts. For ideas or help, turn to that chapter now.

Find the Media Resources You Need

The Internet provides a trove of images and audio that you can use for educational
purposes.
Still images—To find images, click on the “Images” button in an Internet search engine
like Google or Bing. Then, in the search line, type in keywords that describe the kinds of
photographs and other images you are looking for. The search engine should bring up
a wide variety of images related to your topic. You can then drag these images to your
computer’s desktop, or you can save them to a folder on your hard drive.
Video and audio files—To find video and audio files, go to your favorite search
engine and type the words “audio file” or “video file” after your search terms. For
instance, if you were searching for an audio file of dogs barking, you would simply
enter “dogs barking audio file.”
 Photo Essays 293

AI-generated images—Use extreme caution when using AI-­generated images. First, use
these only if your instructor allows it. Also, the AI ­application may claim copyright
over its outputs. In any case, you need to ­thoroughly document the source you’ve
used to generate your image.
Keep in mind that these resources from the Internet are almost always owned by
someone. You can use them without permission only if you are using these images for
educational purposes and aren’t putting them on the Internet. However—and this is
very important—if you plan to use your photo essay in any noneducational way, you
will need to obtain permission from the owners of any visual or audio materials you
copy or download from the Internet. Also, if you want to put your photo essay on the
Internet (even for educational purposes), you will need to ask permission to include
any images, videos, or audios that you didn’t create yourself.
To receive permission, you should contact the people who own the visual or audio
materials you want to use via e-mail, their website, or some other direct-messaging
application. Tell that person or organization how you want to use the resource and
where it will appear. If the owner replies and gives you permission to use it, that’s
­usually enough. However, if the owner doesn’t answer or says no, then you cannot use
it for noneducational purposes or put it on the Internet.
Images and other multimedia resources you find on U.S. government websites
are usually considered “fair use,” which means you can use them without asking
­permission. For example, the U.S. Library of Congress has vast collections of images
you can use for free.
To avoid problems with permissions, you might look for images covered by a
­Creative Commons license. A Creative Commons license gives people permission to use
images, videos, and sound files without asking if they are using them in a way ­acceptable
to the owner. For more information on Creative Commons, go to ­creativecommons.org.

Do Background Research on the Multimedia

You Collected
You should do background research on any photographs, illustrations, graphs, charts,
or audio and video files that you include. Your research will help you fully understand
the context of these resources by exploring their history and backstories.
Electronic sources—Multimedia resources on the web almost always have contex-
tual information around them. In other words, make sure you look at the factual
details that are included. Then run searches on those details. Learn about the people
and places shown. If you are researching the context of a graph or chart, explore
how the data or facts were collected and look for other graphics that present similar
or contrasting information.
Print sources—You can also collect images through print sources, many of which
aren’t available through the Internet. Your college library has books, newspapers,
magazines, and documents in which images can be found.
Empirical sources—You might set up an experiment that observes how other
people react to or interpret the images and sounds you have chosen. People often
respond to photos, graphs, and audio in ways that you wouldn’t expect. What
are their impressions? What do they see and hear that you didn’t? You can also
294 Chapter 16

ask experts, including professors, to help you better understand what a particular
photo, video, or audio resource means.
Research will help you come up with new ways to explore your subject, so look for
any opportunities to find new material or unexpected stories.

Organizing and Drafting Your

Photo Essay
16.2 Use strategies for organizing and drafting a photo essay.
How you organize your photo essay will depend on the kind of point you want to
support or prove. The At-A-Glance diagrams at the beginning of this chapter show
two typical patterns for photo essays. Each kind of photo essay calls for a different
organizational pattern.

The Introduction
In most ways, introductions for photo essays are similar to the introductions used in
other genres. However, your photos will do much of the explaining, so the written
words are usually more concise. Also, you will use your multimedia resources to make
many of the typical introductory moves. Usually, a photo essay will start with a title
slide or scene, which identifies the topic and perhaps your main point. This is followed
by an opening slide that states your main point (thesis) or question (thesis question),
offers background information, and stresses the importance of the topic (Figure 16.3).
Here are some common opening moves that are made in the title and opening slides:
Use an interesting title slide to grab the audience—Your title slide will be one of
the most prominent features of your work, so it should stand out visually. Also,
your title slide might use a play on words to spark your audience’s imagination.

Figure 16.3 A Slide Show’s Title Slide and Opening Slide

Your title slide and opening slide work together as an introduction to your photo essay.
Daniel de la Hoz/123RF

NDAB Creativity/Shutterstock
monkeybusinessimages/
Kai Chiang/123RF

Getty Images
 Photo Essays 295

Identify your topic—Your title slide should clearly identify your topic or main
point. You might also include one or more images to give a quick visual under-
standing of your topic.
Signal your purpose—Photo essays often do not state their purpose directly, but your
purpose should be clear to the audience once they have seen your title or opening slide.
State your main point or thesis—Your main point should appear early, in the
title or somewhere in the opening slide. In some situations, you might use a thesis
­question, which will then be answered in the conclusion of your photo essay.
Weak thesis—Making friends in college can be difficult.
Stronger thesis—College students may have dozens of social-media friends and swarms
of followers, but finding real friends in the age of social networking can be difficult.
Provide background information—Images and sounds are powerful ways to
build a quick and memorable understanding of your subject, so include images
and audio in your title and opening slides that illustrate your topic. In some situ-
ations, you could use written or spoken text to provide background information.
Stress the importance of your topic—Again, images and sounds can express the
importance of your topic in compelling ways. Use these elements to grab readers’
attention and pull them into the discussion.

The Body: Using Images to Carry the Story

The body of your photo essay should be divided into the major topics or scenes that you
want to illustrate. You should first ask yourself whether you are organizing a slide show,
making a vidcast, or telling a story. Answering that question will help you arrange your
multimedia resources.
Slide show or vidcast—For either type of photo essay, you should walk your audi-
ence through a series of visuals and sounds on your topic. Generally, the order goes
from earliest to most recent, or it goes from most important to least important. Each
slide or scene should include a written or spoken comment or a caption that ties
this portion of the work into the overall statement that you are making.
Visual narrative—If you are telling a story, you should arrange the images into
scenes or events that follow the path of the story. The body of a typical story will
include five major moves:
1. Set a scene.
2. Introduce a complication.
3. Show how people evaluated the complication.
4. Show how the complication was resolved.
5. Explain what was learned through the experience.
You can devote more than one slide or video scene to each of these moves. Each slide
or scene should include a comment or caption that explains what is being illustrated.

Conclusion: State or Show Your Main Point

The conclusion of your photo essay usually requires only one or two slides or a brief
video scene. You want to keep your conclusion short and to the point so your audience
will remember your main point.
296 Chapter 16

The visuals, sounds, and text you choose for your conclusion should do four things:
Clearly signal that you are concluding—Your first conclusion slide should signal that
your photo essay is ending. You can signal the conclusion with the title of a concluding
slide or a written or spoken caption. Or you can use phrases like “Overall,” “In conclu-
sion,” or “To sum up” in your verbal comments to indicate that you are wrapping up.
Highlight your main point or thesis—Clearly illustrate or state the main point or
thesis of your photo essay.
Stress the importance of your topic—Your concluding images or final video scene
should show why this issue is important to the audience. Explain or illustrate why
they should care.
Look to the future—If you have images that illustrate the future of the issue, you
could feature them in the final portion of your photo essay. If you don’t have these
kinds of images, then supplement the images you have with your written or nar-
rated comments discussing the future of this issue. What might happen? How will
the lives or beliefs of people be changed?

Style and Design in Photo Essays

16.3 Design a photo essay to set a visual tone and make it accessible
to multiple audiences.
In a photo essay, the written or spoken words often play a supportive role to the images
and other sounds, but style is still important. You will be using fewer words, so you
need to choose them wisely.
Chapter 22, “Choosing a Style,” describes these and other strategies for making
the right impact.
Set a specific tone by using clusters of associated words and phrases to establish
a specific tone for your subject.
Keep sentences brief by trimming your photo essay’s sentences so they can be
spoken out loud in one breath.
Use details to address the reader’s Five-W and How questions about each photo,
drawing, or graphic.
Meanwhile, your photo essay’s design should create an appropriate look for the
topic. The images may be the ­centerpiece of a photo essay, but you’ll also want to cre-
ate an overall visual design that will make an impact on the audience (Figure 16.4).
A consistent and attractive design will draw the audience to your document and help
them find the information they need.
Chapter 23, “Designing Your Document,” offers five principles that you can use to
create and edit the setting for your photo essay:
Balance the features on each page or slide from left to right and top to bottom.
Align visually any photographs and other graphics that are meant to be seen
together or compared.
Group related items on a page or slide by putting them near each other, leaving
white space around them.
Be consistent with visual elements, such as titles, fonts, lists, colors, and lines.
 Photo Essays 297

Use contrast with sizes and colors to make your photo essay “pop” for the ­readers.
In some situations, like the example shown in Figure 16.4, a conscious choice of
contrasting colors can stand out, too.
If you are using presentation software to create your photo essay, you can choose
from several presentation templates. You can modify these templates by changing their
color palette to reflect the subject or tone of your photo essay.

Figure 16.4 Urgently Working to Find and Vaccinate Children Worldwide

With pandemic-related disruptions to vital health services and strained health systems, we lost 30 years of progress made
toward protecting children with immunizations. In every region of the world, outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases are
rising—underscoring an urgent need to find and vaccinate all children who are missing lifesaving vaccines. These photos
provide a look at some of the extraordinary efforts undertaken across the world by CDC and partners to get vaccines to the
people who needed them in 2022.

©UNICEF/U.S.CDC/UN0670551
©UNICEF/U.S.CDC/UN0641063

A three-year-old child receives a polio vaccine as part of
a door-to-door campaign in Malawi. In 2022, a case of
wild polio was detected in Malawi, the first in ­southeastern
Africa since the 1990s. Five countries in southeastern
Africa are now conducting campaigns to vaccinate approxi-
mately 20 million children to prevent further spread of this
devastating disease.
©UNICEF/U.S.CDC/UN0685534
A nurse in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) pro-
vides information about maternal health and the i­mportance
of vaccinating children as early as recommended to a group
of pregnant women, who have come to a health center to
receive tetanus vaccines.

©UNICEF/U.S.CDC/UN0760335

A health worker walks for miles in a remote area of Nepal,
carrying a cooler of routine childhood vaccines, part of
essential health services—including those for typhoid fever, a
life-threatening disease. Nepal is one of the countries hardest
hit by typhoid fever and is one of 5 countries that recommend
and provide typhoid vaccines to children as part of routine
childhood immunization.
A child at school in Indonesia shows a mark on her finger
indicating she has received an oral polio vaccine. While polio
vaccines are r­outinely given to younger children, Indonesia
set out to vaccinate everyone aged 13 years old and under
in certain provinces after an outbreak.
298 Chapter 16

Microgenre
The Infographic
Infographics are used to tell stories about all kinds of information and issues—data, ideas and concepts,
events, narratives, relationships, definitions, causes and effects, and many others. Infographics often
­condense a large amount of information so audiences can readily grasp the meaning of that information.
With some i­magination, almost any kind of information can be displayed and explained in an infographic,
from ­quantitative data to abstract concepts and relationships.
The variety and number of infographics have expanded rapidly. Some people say this proliferation of
infographics is due to the sheer amount of information that has been made available through the Internet.
Others blame the so-called shrinking American attention span. And still others point to the availability of free
or inexpensive software tools that allow people with minimal graphical experience and design skills to c ­ reate
dynamic and compelling infographics. For all reasons, learning to create infographics is becoming increasingly
important, especially in college, at work, and in organizations.
Infographics come in all shapes and sizes. Some can be fit onto a single page of paper, while others can
be reproduced on 15-foot-long posters. Some are clearly intended to persuade, others to merely inform, and
still others to open up concepts and issues for consideration or debate.
Here’s how to create your own infographic:

Find the software tool for creating infographics that’s right for you. Free or inexpensive
­infographic-making tools abound on the Internet. Some of the better ones include BeFunky, Canva,
Snappa, ­PicMonkey, Visme, and Piktochart. Some of these tools are free, and some require a fee. Try out
a few of them to see which ones work for you.

Get inspired. A few minutes spent exploring the wide range of infographics on the Internet will reveal
just how vast and varied are the possible topics, angles, and design strategies. Using your search engine,
you can enter something general (e.g., “cool infographics”) or something more specific (e.g., “infographics
about geology and the age of the Earth”). This is a great way to get some design ideas. Hint: You might
stay away from infographics about your topic so that you won’t be tempted to plagiarize their designs.

Find or create graphics that “visualize” the data and other information. As briefly and compellingly as
possible, express in graphics and words the question or issue you’re exploring. You can do this with your
title, in a brief first paragraph, or even in a graphic. Keep in mind what’s most important—infographics need
to be clear and very concise.

Add in textual elements that help the graphics speak. You don’t want to overwhelm people with too
much text. Keep your words and sentences simple.

Use good design principles to make graphics and text work together synergistically. Chapter 23,
“Designing Your Document,” offers a short list of powerful design principles. They include balance,
­alignment, grouping, consistency, and contrast. Use these principles to create a dynamic design.

Revise, revise, revise. Use your infographic maker to help you tweak your infographic and make it lean
and easy to comprehend. Cut the amount of words to what is absolutely necessary.

CREATE your own infographic. Choose an interesting issue that you would like to explain to others and
create an infographic that explains a concept, process, or other topic.
 Photo Essays 299

A brief introduction
leads off the infographic
and states its main point.

The “6 hours a day”

statement is prominent
because it’s the
main point of the
infographic.

Images grab the

readers’ attention.

Instructions and advice

appear at the end to
help readers make
good decisions.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Quick Start Guide

Haven’t created a photo essay before? Here are the basics to help you get started.

Combine visual and verbal elements. A photo essay combines visual elements (still or movie images)
and sometimes aural elements (sounds); these multimedia elements are supported by verbal elements
(written or spoken text).

Use different forms of photo essays. Photo essays can take many forms. Some of the most common
are the slide show, the visual narrative, and the vidcast.
 300 Chapter 16

Invent your photo essay with storyboarding. Storyboarding is a useful way to envision your photo
essay and identify the kinds of multimedia resources you will need to find or make.

Find visual resources on the Internet or make your own. The Internet can be a good place to find
resources. You can also make your own images, videos, and soundscapes with a digital camera, mobile
phone, or computer apps.

Get permission to use images and sounds. If you are exhibiting your photo essay in a nonacademic
setting (e.g., Internet or public display), you will need to have permission to use any multimedia resources
that are not owned by you.

Make images with scanners. Using a scanner is another good way to make digital versions of artifacts
that you want to show in your photo essay.

Research the background and context of images. You should do research with electronic, print, and
empirical sources to understand the background of the multimedia resources you choose and how people
react to them.

Structure your photo essay with an introduction, body, and conclusion. Just like other documents,
a photo essay typically has an introduction, body, and conclusion.

Set a visual and verbal tone. The style of your written or spoken text should reflect the tone you are
­trying to set with the visual and aural elements you are using.

Establish a consistent look for the photo essay. You can use font choices, color, and page layout to
establish a consistent look for your photo essay.

Readings: Photo Essays

As you look at the photo essays on the following pages, consider the decisions the authors
have made to explain their topics.

Reading 1
This photo essay about American bison was found on the blog from the U.S. ­Department
of the Interior. It introduces people to an animal that they perhaps have only seen in
­pictures. They may not be aware that bison still roam the western parts of North America.
By using a list of “15 facts,” this photo essay both educates people about the history of the
American bison and advocates for the preservation of this iconic animal.
USFWS Photo/Alamy Stock
Nature and Science/Alamy

Jimlop collection/Alamy
Stock Photo

Stock Photo

Photo
 Photo Essays 301

Natural History Library/Alamy

Nature and Science/Alamy

NPS Photo/Alamy
Stock Photo

Stock Photo

Stock Photo
15 Facts About Our National Mammal:
The American Bison
The American bison was named the national mammal of the United States on May 9, 2016.
This majestic animal joins the ranks of the Bald Eagle as the official symbol of our country—
and much like the eagle, they’re a symbol of our American identity and one of the greatest
conservation success stories of all time.
In prehistoric times, millions of bison roamed North America—from the forests of
Alaska and the grasslands of Mexico to Nevada’s Great Basin and the eastern Appalachian
­Mountains. Their history has been inextricably intertwined with many Indigenous c ­ ommunities.
But by the late 1800s, there were only a few hundred bison left in the United States after
European settlers pushed west, reducing the animal’s habitat and hunting the bison to near
extinction. Had it not been for a few private individuals working with Tribes, states, and the
Department of the Interior, the bison would be extinct today.
Explore more fun facts about the American bison:

1. Bison are the largest mammal in North America. Male bison (called bulls) weigh
up to 2,000 pounds and stand 6 feet tall, while females (called cows) weigh up to
1,000 pounds and reach a height of 4-5 feet. Bison calves weigh 30-70 pounds
at birth.
2. Since the late 19th century, Interior has been the primary national conservation
steward of the bison. Public lands managed by Interior support 17 bison herds—or
­approximately 10,000 bison—in 12 states, including Alaska. This is about one-third of all
wild bison in North America.
3. What’s the difference between bison and buffalo? While bison and buffalo are used
interchangeably, in North America the scientific name is bison. Actually, it’s Bison bison
bison (genus: Bison, species: bison, subspecies: bison or athabascae), but only saying
it once is fine. Historians believe the term “buffalo” grew from the French word for beef,
“boeuf.”
4. Yellowstone National Park is the only place in the U.S. where bison have c ­ ontinuously
lived since prehistoric times. What makes Yellowstone’s bison so special is that
they’re the descendants of early bison that roamed our country’s grasslands. In 2021,
­Yellowstone’s bison population was estimated at 5,450—making it the largest bison
population on public lands. This population is allowed to roam relatively freely over the
expansive landscape of Yellowstone National Park and some nearby areas of Montana.
5. What’s a “red dog”? It’s a baby bison. Bison calves tend to be born from late March
through May and are orange-red in color, earning them the nickname “red dogs.” After a
302 Chapter 16

few months, their hair starts to change to dark brown and their characteristic shoulder
hump and horns begin to grow.
6. The histories of bison and Native Americans are intertwined. Bison have been integral to
Tribal culture, providing them with food, clothing, fuel, tools, shelter, and spiritual value.
Established in 1992, the InterTribal Buffalo Council works with the National Park Service
to transfer bison from national park lands to Tribal lands.
7. You can judge a bison’s mood by its tail. When it hangs down and switches naturally,
the bison is usually calm. If the tail is standing straight up, watch out! It may be ready
to charge. No matter what a bison’s tail is doing, remember that they are unpredictable
and can charge at any moment. Every year, there are regrettable accidents caused by
people getting too close to these massive animals. It’s great to love the bison but love
them from a distance.
8. Wind Cave National Park’s herd helped revive bison populations around the c ­ ountry.
The story starts in 1905 with the formation of the American Bison Society and a
­breeding program at the New York City Zoo (today, the Bronx Zoo). By 1913, the
­American Bison Society had enough bison to restore a free-ranging bison herd. Working
with Interior, they donated 14 bison to Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota. More
than 100 years later, the bison from Wind Cave have helped reestablish other herds
across the United States and most recently in Mexico.
9. Bison may be big, but they’re also fast. They can run up to 35 miles per hour. Plus,
they’re extremely agile. Bison can spin around quickly, jump high fences, and are strong
swimmers.
10. Pass the salad, please. Bison primarily eat grasses, weeds, and leafy plants—­typically
foraging for nine to 11 hours a day. That’s where the bison’s large protruding s­ houlder
hump comes in handy during the winter. It allows them to swing their heads from
side to side to clear snow—especially for creating foraging patches. Learn how
bison’s f­eeding habits can help ensure a diversity of prairie plant species, especially
after a fire.
11. From hunter to conservationist, Teddy Roosevelt helped save bison from ­extinction.
In 1883, Teddy Roosevelt traveled to the Dakota Territory to hunt bison. After s­ pending
a few years in the west, Roosevelt returned to New York with a new outlook on
life. He paved the way for the conservation movement, and in 1905, formed the
­American Bison Society with William Hornaday to save the disappearing bison. Today
bison live in all 50 states, including Tribal lands, wildlife refuges, national parks, and
private lands.
12. Bison can live up to 20 years old. The average lifespan for a bison is 10–20 years, but
some live to be older. Cows begin breeding at the age of two and only have one baby at
a time. For males, the prime breeding age is six to 10 years. Learn how Interior works to
ensure genetic diversity and the long-term viability of bison.
13. A little dirt won’t hurt. Called wallowing, bison roll in the dirt to deter biting flies and help
shed fur. Male bison also wallow during mating season to leave behind their scent and
display their strength.
14. The American bison’s ancestors can be traced to southern Asia thousands of years
ago. Bison made their way to America by crossing the ancient land bridge that once
 Photo Essays 303

­ onnected Asia with North America during the Pliocene Epoch, some 400,000 years
c
ago. These ancient animals were much larger than the iconic bison we love today.
­Fossil records show that one prehistoric bison, Bison latifrons, had horns measuring
9 feet from tip to tip.
15. Bison are nearsighted—who knew? While bison have poor eyesight, they have excellent
senses of smell and hearing. Cows and calves communicate using piglike grunts, and
during mating season, bulls can be heard bellowing across long distances.

The Department of the Interior collaborates with other federal, Tribal, state, and conservation
partners to restore large, wild bison herds on appropriate large landscapes to manage bison
as native wildlife, and to strengthen cultural connections of Native American peoples and the
American public to our national mammal. We hope you’ve enjoyed these fun facts about this
amazing animal!

A Closer Look at “15 Facts About Our National

Mammal: The American Bison”
1. This photo essay about American bison seems mostly informational (15 facts), but
the authors are trying to make a point. What is the thesis of this photo essay, and
where do you see that thesis revealed in the photos and the written text?
2. What are five facts about American bison in this photo essay that you didn’t know?
How do the photographs supported by the written text give you a better sense of
these amazing animals than written text alone? If the photo essay included videos,
would that make it even stronger, or do you think the photos are sufficient to tell
the story the authors are trying to tell?
3. You probably don’t have bison roaming in your area, but perhaps you could make
a photo essay about the wildlife on or near your college campus or around your
home. Imagine you have been asked to use seven to ten photos to give readers a
sense of the wildlife where you live. What would you choose to include in those
photos? How would you organize them into a logical pattern?

Ideas for Writing

1. Create your own photo essay in which you show what a day in your life is like.
You can choose a day when something special is going on (like a sports event or a
wedding), or you could just take pictures that illustrate a typical day in the life of
a college student like you. As you take photos, make notes about the Five-W and
How issues are illustrated by each photo. Then create a photo essay in which you
­support a thesis statement about this day in your life.
2. Departments of the U.S. government host many photo essays on their various
­websites. You can find them by using an Internet search engine to search for “photo
essays” and then using the advanced search feature to limit the search engine
to .gov websites. Choose a photo essay that interests you and write a rhetorical
­analysis in which you explain how the document works and how and why you
found it effective or persuasive.
304 Chapter 16

Reading 2
In this photo essay, photographer Craig Blankenhorn reveals the often hidden realities of
child homelessness. His photo essay combines powerful images with written text to show
the lives of people who are struggling to survive in the United States. Blankenhorn also has
an ongoing photo essay on people experiencing homelessness at the Social D ­ ocumentary
Network (www.socialdocumentary.net/exhibit/Craig_Blankenhorn/2333). As you read
his photo essay, pay attention to the ways his photos and their captions reinforce the
­argument he brings forward in his introduction.

Bringing Child Homelessness into Focus:

A Photo Essay
Craig Blankenhorn
There are 1.6 million children experiencing homelessness in the United States.
That one statistic was all it took to change my life.
I began taking pictures of families experiencing homelessness in January 2012, hoping
to put a face to the often invisible and forgotten people combating this growing issue. By
­documenting their daily struggles, I try to show the real people and real suffering that make up
the much broader issue of homelessness.
Over the past two years, I’ve gained a lot of respect for these families. Experiencing
­homelessness is far from easy; it’s a 24/7 job that involves moving constantly from one shelter
to another, looking for a job, and taking care of children.
There’s also the stigma surrounding poverty. Many people would like to believe that the
situations of these families are their own doing. The reality, however, is that bad things h ­ appen
to all of us, be it a job loss, illness, etc. The difference I’ve seen is that those who begin
­experiencing homelessness don’t have family or a social network to turn to for support when
things go wrong. Many don’t know how or where to find the resources that are available to
them or have barriers in the way of options they do know of.
One of the issues I hear about most frequently from parents is the lack of affordable
­childcare. You can’t get a job with kids in tow, but you can’t afford child care without a job,
creating a Catch-22.
The result is tragic. The choice comes down to remaining unemployed and continuing a life
of poverty and homelessness or leaving the children in the care of people they barely know,
risking their safety in the process. I’ve been told stories of children who suffered physical and
sexual abuse by the strangers taking care of them.
For the safety of these children, a lot of parents keep them holed up in motel rooms away
from danger. Unfortunately, this tactic deprives children of necessary social interaction and
mental stimulation.
The age before children even attend school is crucial in their development and future
­success, but oftentimes young homeless children are stunted in this development. How can
children keep up with their peers academically when they face stressful living situations, have
little parental involvement, and are continuously switching schools or missing days?
 Photo Essays 305

Legislation to provide federal funding for universal pre-K has been introduced into
­ ongress, following a plan touted by President Obama earlier in the year. (Although the legisla-
C
tion is currently stalled in Congress, the president recently proposed a budget for fiscal year
2015 that allocates $750 million in funds to pre-K programs.) This seems to be the best and
most immediate solution available for the benefit of homeless children across the country.
The option to send children to pre-K provides safe child care for parents and offers positive
role models, education, social interaction, and development opportunities at a critical age for
children—especially the vulnerable population of home-less children who need it the most.
We have a moral obligation to take care of the poor. My primary concern is to bring awareness
to the plight of child homelessness and to allow others to witness the pain these children are
dealing with on a day-to-day basis as well as their perseverance. My ambition is to create a
sociological chronicle of this devastating moment in history through this visual endeavor—and
for the world to recognize the unimaginable grief of child homelessness.

The Gerstner Family, Scottsdale, Arizona

Despite the stigma surrounding homelessness, the reality is that it can happen to anyone
who faces the wrong set of circumstances. Many parents want to work and support their
­families, if only they can find a job that pays a living wage.
According to Family Promise, the shelter where Syri Gerstner, 41, and her two daughters,
Kari, seven, and Kahlyn, eight, are currently staying, there is no city or county anywhere in the
United States where a worker making the minimum wage can afford a fair market rate one-
bedroom apartment.
Kari is shown here waking up at Family Promise on Christmas morning.
The family had been living in various shelters for two months when I met them. They had
never been homeless before and were grateful for the help they received.

“I’m not asking for a handout, because I’m willing to scrub floors. But I shouldn’t have to,
I’m educated, I’m very personable, I’m not a bad person, and I have some great qualities.
306 Chapter 16

The Keys/Becker Family, Livingston, New Jersey

Don’t just give me food stamps and say, ‘It’s going to be okay, just hold on to that.’ No.
Assist me in getting whatever it is that the people who are hiring, want. Don’t leave me sit-
ting here floundering, wondering why I feel that my country, the one I used to think was so
wonderful and grand, doesn’t care about me at all.”

Lack of access to affordable child care is often a major obstacle for families struggling
to break out of the cycle of poverty. For Guy Keys, 48, one of approximately 8,000 homeless
­veterans living in New Jersey, and Amanda Becker, 24, who attend Drake College of Business
to become a nurse’s aide and a dental technician, respectively, the inability to pay for child
care presents a challenge.
Their two daughters, Taneya, four, and Shyla, two, are not yet old enough to attend
school, requiring either Guy or Amanda to look after the girls while the other attends class.
The ­family’s long day begins when they leave the shelter first thing in the morning with all of
the day’s meals packed. They then spend the day relying on several shuttles to get from place
to place, taking classes, and walking around Newark, New Jersey, with the girls in tow.
Child care and other types of early education, such as the summer camp Tiffani, seven,
shown on the top right, is waiting to attend, offer numerous benefits to homeless children
as well as their p ­ arents. Tiffani’s mother, Rachel, 32, takes the opportunity to attend classes
and search for work while her children are safely cared for. The shelter where she and her
four ­children, Keegan, 12, Arianna, ten, Hunter, eight, and Tiffani have been staying has been
“more of a family than my own family,” according to Rachel.
William Edinger, 44, and Laura Mannetta, 35, had been living in a hotel room for about
one year with their three children—Billy, 12, Jessica, ten, and Melissa, two—when I met them.
The Edinger children are among the approximately 47,000 members of America’s “hotel
­generation.” With very limited safe space to play outdoors, the children have little choice but
to stay in their hotel room with their parents. This can deprive children of much-needed mental
stimulation and social interaction.
 Photo Essays 307

Rachel’s Family, Tampa, Florida

The Edinger Family, Kissimmee, Florida

When a family of five shares one hotel room, it is nearly impossible for anyone to have a
quiet moment or private conversation. Jessica Edinger, shown here, often uses the space behind
the curtain as a temporary “room” to have a moment of privacy. She looks out the w ­ indow to
“imagine sea otters and ducks swimming” in the pond across from the hotel parking lot.
All image credits: Blankenhorn, Craig. “Bringing Chile Homelessness into Focus: A Photo
Essay” from the Spring 2014. Vol 5.1 edition of Community, published by the Institute for
­Children, Poverty & Homelessness. Used by permission.
308 Chapter 16

A Closer Look at “Bringing Child Homelessness

into Focus”
1. In this photo essay, what are three major themes woven into the images and text?
With a group in your class, identify these themes and highlight specific places
where they emerge from the written text. Then look closely at the images. How do
these themes also emerge in the photos themselves?
2. With your group, look closely at the visual backgrounds behind the children in the
photos. These backgrounds were chosen for a reason and not by accident. Explain
why you believe Blankenhorn wanted to use these backgrounds to enhance his
story.
3. What is the main point (thesis) of this photo essay? Find the places where that thesis
is expressed most clearly. Then find five places where various aspects of that main
point are revealed in the body of the photo essay. How do the images intensify that
thesis in a way that makes it more powerful than words alone?

Ideas for Writing

1. Imagine you have been asked to write a photo essay similar to “Bringing Child
Homelessness into Focus.” Create a storyboard in which you draw out the kinds
of photos that you would like to include. Make notes about the kinds of written
comments you would use to enhance and fill out your argument. Then write a
reflection in which you compare and contrast the themes in your argument with
the themes in Blankenhorn’s photo essay.
2. Create your own visual essay that documents some aspect of your own life. You
might take photographs of an activity or an event. You might explore a place that
is important to you. Then write captions that explain these photographs to an
­audience. Your visual essay should state a thesis or main point in words and should
intensify that point with images.

Activities for Photo Essays

Talk About This
1. Have each member of your group bring in an unusual photograph taken from
the Internet or from a personal collection. Let the other members in the group
look at each photograph without knowing the image’s background. Discuss what
each photograph means. Then the person who brought the photograph should
explain the background. How does knowing the context of the photograph
change its meaning?
2. With your group, use Internet search engines to find examples of the three
types of photo essays (slideshow, vidcast, and visual narrative) discussed in
this ­chapter. Which strategies discussed in this chapter do they use? Are there
 Photo Essays 309

any features in these photo essays that were not discussed in this chapter? What
are some other techniques for making photo essays that you might try out in
­addition to the ones mentioned in this chapter?
3. Choose a topic that interests you. Type your topic into an Internet search engine
and click on the “Images” button. Your search should pull up a number of
­multimedia resources related to your topic. Drag the first ten to your computer’s
desktop or hard drive. Then use presentation software (like PowerPoint) or
video-editing software (like iMovie or MS Video Editor) to create a slide show or
brief vidcast that uses these resources to make a specific point. You can reorder
your resources to fit the point you are trying to make. Present your slide show
or video to your group and talk about what kind of essay you made with this
­somewhat random collection.

Try This Out

1. With a group, choose a topic that is interesting to all of you. Then have each
member of the group collect five photographs, illustrations, and graphics about
that topic. Using presentation software, such as PowerPoint, Keynote, or Prezi, turn
your group’s images into a slide-show photo essay. Your group’s photo essay
should have a main point (thesis) of some kind that you are trying to support or
prove.
2. Find a photo essay on the Internet. Write a critique in which you highlight the
rhetorical decisions made by the author. Pay special attention to the content,
organization, style, and design of the photo essay. Also, pay attention to how
effectively the author combines the visual, audio, and written elements together.
Do you think the author’s purpose was successfully achieved? Which aspects
were especially effective, and which could use some tweaking?
3. Attend an event on your campus that you can photograph or video-record
with your mobile phone. Take a series of photographs or videos at the event.
Then ­create a narrative photo essay by putting those images together. What is
the “complication” that happened at the event? How did people evaluate and
resolve the complication—or not? What do you think people learned from the
experience? Hint: The complication doesn’t need to be something wrong or bad.
It simply needs to be the reason an event happened.

Explore This
As visual tools have become more available to everyone, people are exploring ways to
use them to convey information, present an argument, or even make people laugh. You
might explore some of the following microgenres that are related to photo essays and
other kinds of visual documents.
Meme—usually images with written text that reveal a cultural concept or idea,
often in a humorous way. An original image is taken out of context, allowing
the written text to make an unexpected point in an ironic or funny way.
310 Chapter 16

Portrait—one image and a detailed description that attempts to capture the

essence of a person or other living being. Writers of portraits will typically
describe the subject of the image in great detail, trying to demonstrate how the
image reveals the subject’s inner personality.
AI-generated images—images created by an AI application based on a mixture
of prompts. You can enter something like “A Picasso-style painting of Albert
Einstein skateboarding through the Brazilian Amazon,” and the AI algorithm
will create several images that illustrate what that event might look like. You
can use these images as a way to be creative or think ­differently about a topic.
Day in the life—use of photography to capture a day in your own life or the life
of someone else. The series of photos can be used to reveal your or others’
lives through one day of events.
Real life—Social media apps like BeReal will randomly prompt you to take a
photo of whatever you are doing at that moment. You have 60 seconds to take
a picture, showing your real life, not just selfies and highlight moments. You
can use these kinds of apps to capture a sense of who you really are, not just
who you want people to think you are.

Write This
1. Create a photo essay about something broken. Broken things, places, and
­practices are all around us. With your phone, take some pictures of something
or some things that have been broken. In your written comments on each
­photograph, explain the who, what, where, when, why, and how issues involved
with these broken items. Describe how their brokenness makes you feel.
2. Create a photo essay about a historical era or event. Photos, drawings, and
­cartoons are often available about historic events that you can weave together
into an essay about those events. Pick an era or event that has happened in the
past 150 years and search the Internet, books, newspapers, and magazines for
photos and other images. Tell the story of that era or event through pictures and
your written comments.
3. Use a photo essay to argue for change. Think of a problem on your college
­campus or in your hometown that should be solved. Take pictures of the problem
and collect other images about that problem. Then create a photo essay in which
you explain what is causing the problem and its effects. At the end of your photo
essay, offer a few recommendations for solving the problem. If photos or images
of your recommended solutions exist, use them to show that change is possible.
Chapter 17
Proposals
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

17.1 use invention to understand problems and develop solutions.

17.2 organize a proposal by drafting the major sections separately.
17.3 choose a style that will be persuasive to your readers.
17.4 create a design that will make your proposal attractive and accessible.

If you like being creative and solving problems, you’ll enjoy writing proposals.
­Proposals are persuasive arguments that are used to pitch new ideas, take advantage
of new opportunities, and develop plans for the future. They are written and used in
almost all workplaces, from nonprofits to tech start-ups to enterprise companies.
Increasingly, proposals are also being assigned in advanced college courses,
­especially in business, science, healthcare, and technology areas of study. Your profes-
sors will ask you to write proposals that describe new technologies, develop unique
marketing strategies, present new products, and strengthen your community. Profes-
sors don’t always call these assignments “proposals,” but anytime you are asked to
write a document or give a presentation that solves a problem, presents a plan, or
proposes a project, you are being asked to write a proposal.
The aim of a proposal is to persuade your readers to say yes to your ideas. In
college, getting to yes sometimes means allowing you to move forward with a class
project or a club activity. In the workplace, a yes to a proposal means someone is sup-
porting your team’s project, buying your company’s products, using your company’s
services, funding your organization’s project, or supporting your new business start-
up. Proposals are powerful tools that you will use throughout your academic, profes-
sional, and civic life.
When writing a proposal, artificial intelligence (AI) applications can be useful for
doing research, organizing the document, and editing and proofreading. That said, AI
applications often struggle with proposals because these texts are about the future,
especially inventing new solutions and strategies to solve emerging problems. That’s
why humans need to handle the creative work when writing proposals, while AI can
help with gathering information, developing the proposal’s structure, and polishing
up the final version.

311
312 Chapter 17

At-A-Glance
Proposals
This diagram shows a basic pattern for a proposal, but other arrangements of these sections will work, too.
You should alter this organization to fit your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context.

Introduction

Problem analysis
Major causes
Evidence
Effects of the problem

Plan for solving the problem

Major steps
Support
Deliverables

Benefits of the plan

Costs-benefits analysis

Conclusion

A proposal is one of the more complicated genres you will be asked to write. Here are a proposal’s typical
features:
• An introduction that defines a problem, stresses its importance, and offers a brief description of the
­proposed solution (the thesis).
• An analysis of the problem that discusses its causes and its effects.
• A detailed plan that shows step by step how to solve the problem.
• A costs-benefits analysis that measures the benefits of the plan against its costs.
• A conclusion that looks to the future and stresses the importance of taking action.
 Proposals 313

One Student Group’s Work: Proposals

Lighting the Way: A Proposal for Sustainable Campus Illumination

at Franklin Community College
Ahsan Kahn and Joseph Smith, City and Regional
Planning 237, Professor Gina Brown
Have you ever been on the Franklin Community College campus alone at The topic of the
night? Usually, there are people around, but sometimes you’ll find yourself proposal is stated
up front.
in a dark area, especially when you are away from central campus. Or, you
might be forced to go down a dark walkway between buildings, wondering
if someone is waiting in the shadows. Or, you might slip and fall because in
the dark you didn’t see an ice patch or a gap in the sidewalk. Even worse, if
you’re someone who doesn’t see well at night or has a visual impairment, the
campus at night can turn into an obstacle course where a wrong turn or stum-
ble can have very serious consequences.
According to the Franklin CC Campus Police (2023), most outdoor injuries
on campus happen when it’s dark. In the past three years, 253 people have
reported being injured on campus between 6:00 p.m. and 7:00 a.m. That’s
almost certainly an undercount because most people don’t report trips and
falls that didn’t require hospitalization. Most of the reported incidents were
accidents, but 43 people in those three years reported being harassed or
assaulted on our campus after dark.
Over the last three decades, Franklin CC has been expanding enrollments The purpose is
and adding new buildings further away from central campus. The lighting on clearly stated at
the end of the
campus hasn’t kept up with this growth, which has led to an increase in inju- introduction.
ries (“Incidents,” Franklin CC Campus Police, 2023). The purpose of this pro-
posal is to outline a plan to create an illumination roadmap and then develop
a sustainable eco-friendly strategy for using sustainable lighting methods to
help students, faculty, and staff be safer on campus at night.
The Causes and Effects of Inadequate Lighting on Campus
According to Hanna Dixon, the Lead Campus Planner for Franklin ­Community
College, there are two main reasons why lighting is inadequate on campus: The causes of
the problem are
• Legacy Lighting Technologies in Older Parts of Campus—Significant explained.
areas of central campus (mostly built before 1995) are dependent on
15-foot lampstands that use regular light bulbs. Over the years, the incan-
descent bulbs originally used in these old-fashioned lampstands have
been phased out and replaced by light emitting diode (LED) bulbs. LED
bulbs use much less energy and tend to be brighter (Eaton, n.d.). How-
ever, the lampstands in central campus tend to project light sideways and
up rather than down at the walkways below them. They do this because
they were designed to use incandescent bulbs. So, much of the light is not
pointed down on walkways, and the sideways projection causes trees and
buildings to create dark shadows.
314 Chapter 17

• Growth Around Central Campus—Since 1995, the campus has grown by

20 new buildings, but the outdoor lighting has not kept up. Three dorm
buildings were sited east of campus in the early 2000s, and the Science
and Technology campus was developed about 400 meters to the north of
central campus. Since 2010, 10 buildings have been added around central
campus. Unfortunately, the outdoor lighting around these buildings did
not seem to be a priority in the plans. Much of the current illumination
outside of central campus is provided by pathway lights where sidewalks
intersect and flood lamps mounted primarily on the corners of buildings.
This hodgepodge of pathway lights and floodlights creates a patchwork
Here is a major of lit and unlit areas, blinding pedestrians with floodlights in some areas
step in the plan,
followed by the and then forcing them to walk through very dark areas with only distant
minor steps that pathway lights to guide them.
lead to the major
step. The main reason for the lack of adequate outdoor lighting, according to Ms.
Dixon, was that Franklin Community College didn’t offer night classes until 2009,
so outdoor lighting was not a big concern for the architects of new buildings.
However, with the surge in enrollments that followed the 2008 recession, the col-
lege extended the times when courses were offered into the early morning and
night. Many classes now start at 7:00 a.m., especially for students with jobs, and
And here is classrooms are used until 11:00 p.m. So, a lighting problem that didn’t exist when
another major
step, followed by
classes tended to be scheduled during the daytime from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 pm has
minor steps. become a big problem with students now attending classes when it’s dark.
The effects of this problem are serious. First, dimly lit areas create safety
hazards and increase the potential for accidents, while also making individu-
als feel less secure, particularly during late hours. Second, outdated lighting
systems contribute to unnecessary energy consumption and carbon emissions,
driving up energy costs for the college and causing significant light pollution.
Third, the campus just doesn’t look nice at night with older lampstands, path-
way lights, and floodlights providing much of the illumination.

Creating an Illumination Roadmap

The authors use The Campus Lighting team in the course Planning Public Spaces (CRP 237)
reasoning to proposes to develop a “roadmap” for improving lighting on the Franklin
explain why each
major step makes
CC campus. In 2016, Kelly Douglas, a landscape architecture student at
sense. the ­University of Washington, wrote a proposal, “Campus Illumination:
A ­Roadmap to Sustainable Exterior Lighting at the University of Washington
Seattle Campus.” Their roadmap was developed in consultation with many
leading campus planning and lighting experts in the Seattle area.
We believe a similar roadmap should be created for the Franklin CC cam-
pus. Of course, we’re a much smaller campus with different needs, but Douglas’
proposal offers a proven path toward studying and implementing sustainable
lighting solutions on our campus. Here are the major steps in the roadmap:
• Review Outdoor Lighting Research
• Survey Existing Illumination on Campus
• Present Findings from the Campus Illumination Survey
 Proposals 315

• Develop a Vision for Lighting on Campus

• Recommend Lighting Strategies for Specific Space Types Persuasive style
is being used to
By developing this roadmap, we can support the administration with influence the
­hiring a contractor to retrofit our campus with appropriate lighting. readers.

Step 1: Review Outdoor Lighting Research

The conversion to LED lighting nationwide has greatly changed the options
available for outdoor lighting on college campuses. LED lights last longer, and
they are much more affordable than traditional incandescent and fluorescent
lighting methods (Pacific Northwest NL, 2015). The Campus Lighting team
will research the lighting options available and study how other campuses
similar to ours have implemented outdoor LED lighting technologies. We will
write a white paper that describes the lighting options available, especially
technologies that are sustainable and eco-friendly.
Step 2: Survey Existing Illumination on Campus
The Campus Lighting team will then conduct a survey of existing illumination
on campus in two ways.
1. At night, we will use a campus map and basic light meter to measure the
amount of lighting (luminance) every 100 meters on campus sidewalks
and give each area a 1 through 5 rating (1 being “very dark” and a 5
being “bright light”). A 4 or 5 rating will be considered adequate lighting A few outcomes
at night. While surveying the campus, we will also mark any dark areas (deliverables) of
away from the sidewalks where someone might be able to hide. the plan are
discussed.
2. We will set up an online survey with SurveyMonkey and send it to stu-
dents, faculty, and staff to help us identify any areas that people consider
too dark at night. We will then go to those areas with our light meter,
measure their luminance, and put them on our campus map.
This map and data will help us determine which areas are too dark at
night. We can also share it with campus planners and the campus police.
Step 3: Present Findings from the Campus Illumination Survey
When our survey is complete, we will write up our findings as a whitepaper
and poster presentation. Then, we will present them at the Trustee’s C ­ ampus
Safety Committee meeting on March 8th. With the data in hand, we will high-
light areas on campus that should be prioritized for improved lighting in the
short term, preferably being corrected before the start of the Fall 2024 semester.
Step 4: Develop a Vision for Lighting on Campus
Ms. Dixon, the Lead Campus Planner for Franklin CC, and her team have
already agreed to collaborate with us on developing a “Vision for Lighting on
Campus” report similar to the one created by Kerry Douglas at UW Seattle.
This vision will offer a long-term plan for improving lighting on campus. We
understand why the existing inadequate lighting system exists: there was no
overarching lighting strategy when buildings were constructed because the
campus was growing quickly and classes were only held in the daytime.
316 Chapter 17

From now on, Franklin CC will be holding night classes and it needs a
vision or master plan that helps campus planners and architects implement the
right kinds of lighting in outdoor spaces on campus (Chen, 2020). This vision
document can then be modified and updated as the campus and the needs of
students, faculty, and staff continue to evolve.
Step 5: Recommend Lighting Strategies for Specific Space Types
Based on our “Vision for Lighting on Campus,” we will make long-term
recommendations for the types of lighting that should be put into specific
outdoor spaces on campus. Many types of LED outdoor lighting are avail-
The benefits of able and new lighting technologies are being developed all the time. We will
the project are write a report that recommends new lighting that fits the following criteria:
explained.
• Low energy consumption from renewable energy sources
• Low energy costs for the college
• Minimal light pollution
• Aesthetically appeal with existing campus architecture
Our recommendation report, written in collaboration with Ms. Dixon, will be
presented to the Board of Trustees at their June 2024 meeting.
The Benefits of Better Campus Lighting
The authors are Improving outdoor lighting on the Franklin County CC campus will have
“selling” the proj- numerous benefits that will easily outweigh the costs of making these improve-
ect to the readers. ments. These benefits include—
• Enhanced Safety and Security: Improved lighting will create a safer envi-
ronment, reducing accidents and promoting a sense of security among
students, faculty, and staff.
• Sustainability and Cost Savings: Energy-efficient lighting will reduce the
college’s carbon footprint, decrease energy costs, and contribute to Frank-
lin CC’s sustainability goals (Chen, 2020).
• Aesthetic Appeal: A well-lit campus will be more visually appealing,
positively impacting the campus experience for everyone.
• Environmental Responsibility: Embracing eco-friendly lighting practices
aligns with the college’s commitment to environmental stewardship and
sustainability (Lairos, 2020).
Here is a nice look
to the future. • Higher Enrollments, Especially in Evening Courses: More students,
including life-long learners, will want to attend a college where they feel
safe and the campus is attractive.
This campus lighting vision is a comprehensive approach to enhancing the
Franklin CC experience for students, faculty, and staff. We are eager to work
collaboratively with the administration to bring this proposal to life and make
our campus more energy-efficient, safe, and welcoming.
Thank you for considering our proposal, and we look forward to discuss-
The conclusion
returns to the ing this further. When you have considered this proposal, please reach out to
main point. us at askahn@franklincc.edu and jgsmith6@franklincc.edu.
 Proposals 317

References
Chen, J. (2022). Exterior lighting for schools and universities. RDA Lighting.
Retrieved from https://rdalighting.com/exterior-lighting-for-schools-
and-universities/
Douglas, K. (2016). Campus illumination: A roadmap to sustainable exterior
lighting at the University of Washington Seattle campus. Lighting Design
Lab. Retrieved from https://www.lightingdesignlab.com/sites/default/
files/pdf/Campus-Illumination-Roadmap-final.pdf
Eaton. (n.d.). College lighting and outdoor lighting design: Things to consider.
Eaton Lighting Division. Retrieved from https://www.eaton.com/mx/
en-us/company/news-insights/lighting-resource/design/college-
campuses-and-outdoor-lighting-design-things-to-consider.html
Franklin CC Police. (2023). The 2022 Franklin Community College campus inci-
dents report.
Liaros, S. (2020). Implementing a new human settlement theory: ­Strategic
planning for a network of circular economy innovation hubs. In R.
Roggema & A. Roggema (Eds.), Smart and Sustainable Cities and Buildings.
Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-
37635-2
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. (2015). Exterior LED lighting projects at
Princeton University. United States. Dept. of Energy. Office of Scientific and
Technical Information.*

Inventing Your Proposal’s Content

17.1 Use invention to understand problems and develop solutions.
When writing a proposal, your first challenge is to fully understand the problem you
are trying to solve. Once you define the problem and its causes, you can come up with
a plan for solving it.

Inquiring: Defining the Problem

Start by figuring out the boundaries of your topic and what you want to achieve with
your proposal.
STATE YOUR PROPOSAL’S TOPIC AND PURPOSE. A good first step is to state the
topic and purpose of your proposal in one sentence. By taking time to write out this
statement, you can better focus your research and save yourself time.

The purpose of this proposal is to show how college students can help fight the global
climate crisis.

NARROW YOUR TOPIC AND PURPOSE. You can’t solve a problem that is too big or
complex to handle in the time you have available. Look at your purpose statement again.
Can you narrow the topic to something more manageable? Specifically, can you take a local
approach to your subject by discussing how the problem affects people on your campus
or in the area where you live? Can you talk about your topic in terms of recent events?
318 Chapter 17

The purpose of this proposal is to show how engineering students on our campus can
significantly reduce its greenhouse gas emissions, which are partly responsible for the
global climate crisis.

FIND YOUR NEW ANGLE. Your new angle on your topic is likely a unique or innova-
tive way you would approach the problem. What has happened or changed recently
that creates a new opportunity for solving the problem you are writing about?

We believe attempts to conserve energy offer a good start toward cutting greenhouse
emissions, but these efforts will only take us part of the way. The only way to fully
­eliminate greenhouse gas emissions here on campus is to develop local sources of clean,
renewable energy.

Inquiring: Analyzing the Problem

Now you need to identify and analyze the major causes of the problem so you can
explain them to your readers.
IDENTIFY THE MAJOR AND MINOR CAUSES OF THE PROBLEM. A good way
to analyze a problem is to use a concept map to do a causal analysis of the problem.
To ­create a concept map, write the name of the problem you are analyzing in the
middle of your screen or a sheet of paper. Then write the two to five major causes of
that problem around it.
KEEP ASKING, “WHAT HAS CHANGED?” As you fill out your concept map, keep
asking yourself, “What has changed to create this problem?” If you pay attention to
the aspects that are changing about your topic, you will find it easier to identify what
is causing the problem itself.
ANALYZE THE MAJOR AND MINOR CAUSES. Once you have identified two to five
major causes, identify the two to five minor causes of each of these major causes. Ask
yourself, “What are the two to five minor causes of each of these major causes? What has
changed recently that caused each of the major causes to happen or made them worse?”

Researching: Gathering Information and Sources

Your concept map will give you a good start, but you also need to do some solid research
on your topic. When doing research, collect information from a variety of online, print,
and empirical sources. You can then “triangulate” your research by drawing material
from online, print, and empirical sources.
ONLINE SOURCES. Choose some keywords from your concept map, and use Internet
search engines to gather background information on your topic. Pay special attention
to websites that identify the causes of the problem you are trying to solve. Also, look
for documentaries, podcasts, or broadcasts on your subject. You might find these kinds
of sources on YouTube, Hulu, or the websites of television networks.
PRINT SOURCES. For proposals, your best print sources will usually be newspa-
pers and magazine articles, because most proposals are written about current or local
problems. You can run keyword searches in newspaper and magazine archives on the
Internet, or you can use the Readers’ Guide at your library to locate magazine sources.
On your library’s website, you can use research indexes to find articles in academic
 Proposals 319

journals related to your topic. You may also find government or extension reports that
describe research done by scientists and other experts.
EMPIRICAL SOURCES. Set up interviews, do field observations, or survey people to
gather empirical evidence that supports or challenges your online and print sources.
Someone on your campus, perhaps a professor or a staff member, probably has expertise
or insider knowledge about the topic you have chosen to study. So send that person
an e-mail to set up an interview. If you aren’t sure who might know something about
your topic, call the academic department that seems closest to your topic. The staff at
that department can often help you locate a helpful professor.
AI applications can be helpful for finding print and electronic sources, and they can
help you generate questions that you can use on surveys or questionnaires. You might
also use an AI application to help you develop interview questions that you can ask
experts. Before using an AI application, though, ask your professor if you can use this
kind of online tool and what you can use it for.

Inquiring: Creating a Plan to Solve the Problem

With your preliminary research finished, you are ready to start developing a plan to
solve the problem. A plan is a step-by-step strategy for solving the problem or taking
advantage of an opportunity.
LIST A FEW POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS. Usually, there are at least a few different ways
to solve the problem. List the possible solutions and then rank them from best to worst.
Keep in mind that some of the “best” solutions might not work due to how much they
cost and how much time they will require.
MAP OUT YOUR PLAN. Again, a concept map is a useful tool for figuring out your
plan. Start by putting your best solution in the middle of your screen or a piece of
paper. Then ask yourself, “What are the two to five major steps we would need to take
to achieve this solution?” Write those major steps around your solution and connect
them to it with lines (Figure 17.1).

Figure 17.1 Using a Concept Map to Develop a Plan

A concept map is one of the most useful tools available for planning. It will help you figure out the
steps needed to solve the problem.

Step Step Step Step

Step Major Major Step

Step Step

Solution Step
Step

Step Step
Major
Step

Step Step
Step
320 Chapter 17

EXPLORE EACH MAJOR STEP. Now, ask yourself, “What are the two to five minor
steps we need to take to achieve each of these major steps?” For example, if one of
your major steps is “develop alternative sources of energy,” what steps would your
­university need to take to do that?
1. The university might look for grants or donations to help develop research strate-
gies for converting its campus to renewable energy sources like wind power or
solar energy.
2. The university might explore ways to replace the inefficient heating systems in
campus buildings with geothermal heating and cooling systems.
3. The university might convert its current fleet of buses and service vehicles to
­compressed natural gas or plug-in hybrids.
Each major step can be broken down further into minor steps that offer more detail.
FIGURE OUT THE COSTS AND BENEFITS OF YOUR PLAN. With your plan
mapped out, you should now identify its costs and benefits. You want to prove to your
­readers that the benefits are worth the costs. When figuring out the costs and benefits,
­brainstorming is an especially helpful tool. You can use it to list all the benefits of your
plan and then all the costs (Figure 17.2).

Figure 17.2 Brainstorming the Costs and Benefits of Your Plan

Brainstorming can help you list the costs and benefits of your plan. Your goal is to show your readers that the benefits of your
plan outweigh the costs.

Benefits of My Plan to Make Our Campus

Carbon Neutral Costs of My Plan

Help save humanity from apocalyptic end (!) Transformation costs will be high,
perhaps even $100 million
Reduce this university’s dependence on foreign oil
University will need to invest in energy
Help clean up local air, water, and soil
research and training
Widely distributed power sources, which will make
University will need to retrain current
us less vulnerable to energy system failures
power plant employees
Not contribute to ecological destruction involved
University will need to stress energy
with mining coal and drilling for oil
conservation as system evolves
Help create more local jobs for a “green economy”

Save millions of dollars in energy costs within

10 years
Be ahead of energy policy changes that are coming
anyway

Make our campus modern and forward thinking, which

is attractive to top students
 Proposals 321

Organizing and Drafting Your Proposal

17.2 Organize a proposal by drafting the major sections separately.
Proposals are typically larger documents, so organizing and drafting these texts can
be challenging. The best way to draft a proposal is to write each of its major sections
separately. In other words, draft each major section as though it is a small argument
on its own.

The Introduction
An introduction to a proposal will typically make up to five moves, which can be
arranged in just about any order:
State the topic. Tell your readers what the proposal is about.
State the purpose. State the purpose of your proposal in one or two sentences.
Provide background information. Give readers just enough historical information
to understand your topic.
Stress the importance of the topic to the readers. Tell readers why they should
care about this topic.
State your main point (thesis). Offer a straightforward statement that summarizes
your plan and explains why it will succeed.

Weak: We think our campus should convert to alternative energy.

Stronger: We propose the “Cool Campus Project,” which replaces our campus’s
existing coal-fired plant with a local electricity grid that combines an off-campus wind
farm with a network of solar panels on all campus buildings.

In the introduction to a proposal, you should almost always state your topic, purpose,
and main point (thesis). The other two moves are optional, but they become more
important and necessary in larger proposals.

Description of the Problem, Its Causes, and Its Effects

You should now describe and analyze the problem for your readers, showing them its
causes and effects. Look at your concept map and your research notes to identify the
two to five major causes of the problem. Then draft this section of the proposal around
those causes (Figure 17.3).
OPENING PARAGRAPH. Use the opening paragraph to clearly describe the problem
and perhaps stress its importance.

The problem we face is that our campus is overly dependent on energy from the A
­ nderson
Power Facility, a 20-megawatt coal-fired plant on the east side of campus that belches
out many tons of carbon dioxide each year. At this point, we have no alternative energy
source and our backup source of energy is the Bentonville Power Plant, another coal-
fired plant 50 miles away. This dependence on the Anderson Plant causes our campus’s
322 Chapter 17

Figure 17.3 Drafting the Problem Section

An effective analysis of the problem will discuss its causes and effects. Make sure you offer good
­support for your statements. Here are two possible ways to organize this section of the proposal.

Heading Heading

Section opening that states Section opening that states

and defines the problem and defines the problem

Discussion of major Discussion of major

cause 1 cause 1 and its effects

Discussion of major Discussion of major

cause 2 cause 2 and its effects

• •
• •
• •
Discussion of the effects of Closing that stresses the
the problem importance of solving the problem

carbon footprint to be large, and it leaves us vulnerable to power shortages and rising
energy costs.

BODY PARAGRAPHS. Explain the causes of the problem, providing plenty of support
for your claims. Here is an example discussion of one cause among a few others that
the writers want to include.

The campus relies on coal-fired energy because, like many other college campuses in
the United States, it was built in the early twentieth century when coal was cheap and
no one anticipated problems like global climate change. A coal-fired plant, like the
one on the east side of campus, seemed like the logical choice. As our campus has
grown, our energy needs have increased exponentially. Now, on any given day, the
campus needs anywhere from 12 to 22 megawatts to keep running (Campus Energy
Report 22).

CLOSING PARAGRAPH. You might consider closing this section with a discussion
or summary of the effects of the problem if no action is taken. In most cases, problems
tend to grow worse over time, so you want to show readers what will happen if they
choose not to do anything.

Our dependence on fossil fuels for energy on this campus will begin to cost us more and
more as the United States and the global community are forced to address the global cli-
mate crisis. More than likely, coal-fired plants like ours will need to be completely replaced
or refitted with expensive carbon capture equipment (Gathers 12). Also, federal and state
governments will likely begin imposing a “carbon tax” on emitters of carbon dioxide to
 Proposals 323

encourage conservation and conversion to alternative energy. The costs to our university
could be many millions of dollars. Moreover, the costs to our health cannot be overlooked.
Coal-fired plants, like ours, put particulates, mercury, and sulfur dioxide into the air that
we breathe (Vonn 65). The costs of our current coal-fired plant may seem hidden now, but
they will eventually bleed our campus of funds and continue to harm our health.

Figure 17.3 shows two of the more common patterns for the Problem section, but other
patterns will work, too. You can use whichever pattern helps you best explain the causes
and effects of the problem to your readers.

Description of Your Plan

Draft your plan next. In this section, you want to describe step by step how the problem
can be solved (Figure 17.4). The key to success in this section is to tell your readers how
you would solve the problem and why you would do it this way.
OPENING PARAGRAPH. The opening paragraph of this section should be brief. Tell
readers your solution and give them a good reason why it is the best approach to the
problem. Give your plan a name that is memorable and meaningful. For example:

The best way to make meaningful cuts in greenhouse gas emissions on our campus
would be to replace our current coal-fired power plant with a twelve-turbine wind farm
and install solar panels on all campus buildings. The Cool Campus Project would cut
greenhouse gas emissions by half within ten years, and we could eliminate all greenhouse
emissions within twenty years.

BODY PARAGRAPHS. The body paragraphs for this s­ ection

should tell the readers step by step how you would carry
out your plan. Usually, each paragraph will start by stating a
Figure 17.4 Drafting the Plan Section
major step.
Your plan section should walk readers through
Step 3: Install a Twelve-Turbine Wind Farm at the Univer- your solution step by step. After you state
sity’s Experimental Farm each major step, discuss the minor steps and
explain why they are needed.
The majority of the university’s electricity needs would be met
Heading
by installing a twelve-turbine wind farm that would generate
18 megawatts of energy per day. The best place for this wind Section opening that states
your solution to the problem
farm would be at the university’s Experimental Farm, which is
two miles west of campus. The university already owns this
Major step 1 with
property, and the area is known for its constant wind. An added discussion of minor steps
advantage to placing a wind farm at this location is that the
Agriculture Department could continue to use the land as an Major step 2 with
experimental farm. The turbines would be operating above the discussion of minor steps
farm, and the land would still be available for planting crops.
•
CLOSING PARAGRAPH. In the closing paragraph of this •
•
­section, you should summarize the deliverables of the plan.
Closing that summarizes the
Deliverables are the things the readers will receive when the deliverables of the plan
project is completed:
324 Chapter 17

When the Cool Campus Project is completed, the university will be powered by a
­twelve-turbine wind farm and an array of solar panels mounted on campus buildings.
This combination of wind and solar energy will generate the 20 megawatts needed by the
campus on regular days, and it should be able to satisfy the 25 megawatts needed on
peak usage days.

Don’t get locked into the pattern shown in Figure 17.4. It’s a useful pattern, but you
might find other, more effective patterns for describing your plan, depending on the
solution you are proposing.

Discussing the Costs and Benefits of Your Plan

A good way to round out your argument is to discuss the costs and benefits of your
plan. You want to show readers the two to five major benefits of your plan and then
argue that these benefits outweigh the costs.

In the long run, the benefits of the Cool Campus Project will greatly outweigh the costs.
The major benefits of converting to wind and solar energy include—
• A savings of $1.2 million in energy costs each year once the investment is paid off.
The avoidance of millions of dollars in refitting costs and carbon tax costs associated
with our current coal-fired plant.

• The improvement of our health due to the reduction of particulates, mercury, and
sulfur dioxide in our local environment.

• A great way to show that this university is environmentally progressive, thus

­attracting students and faculty who care about the environment.

We estimate the costs of the Cool Campus Project will be approximately $60 million,
much of which can be offset with government grants. Keep in mind, though, that our
coal-fired plant will need to be refitted or replaced soon anyway, which would cost about
$200 million (Harris & Kim, 2022). So, the costs of the Cool Campus Project would be
­easily recouped within a decade.

Costs do not always involve money, or money alone. Sometimes the costs of the
plan will be measured in effort or time.

The Conclusion
Your proposal’s conclusion should be brief and to the point. By now, you have told
readers everything they need to know, so you just need to wrap up and leave your
readers in a position to say yes to your plan. Here are a few moves you might consider
making in your conclusion:
• Restate your main point (thesis). Again, tell the readers what you want to prove
in your proposal. Your main point (thesis) first appeared in the introduction. Now
bring the readers back around to it, showing that you proved your argument.
• Reemphasize the importance of the topic. Briefly, tell readers why this topic
is important. You want to leave them with the sense that this issue needs to be
addressed as soon as possible.
 Proposals 325

• Look to the future. Proposal writers often like to leave readers with a description
of a better future. A “look to the future” should only run a few sentences or a brief
paragraph.
• Offer contact information. Give readers contact information in case they have
questions, want more information, or are interested in discussing the proposal.
Your conclusion should not take more than a couple of brief paragraphs, even in a large
proposal. The goal of your conclusion is to wrap up quickly.

Choosing an Appropriate Style

17.3 Choose a style that will be persuasive to your readers.
Proposals are persuasive documents by nature, so your style should be convincing to
match your proposal’s content. In Chapter 22, “Choosing a Style,” you can learn more
about how to use persuasive style techniques. For now, here are some strategies that
will make your proposal sound more convincing:
CREATE AN AUTHORITATIVE TONE. Choose a tone that expresses a sense of
a­ uthority. Then create a concept map around it. Weave these terms from your concept
map into your proposal, creating a theme that sets the desired tone.
USE METAPHORS AND SIMILES. Metaphors and similes allow you to compare
new ideas to things that are familiar to your readers. For example, calling a coal-fired
plant a “dirty tailpipe” will make it sound especially unattractive to your readers,
encouraging them to agree with your argument. Or you might use a metaphor to
discuss wind turbines in terms of “farming” (e.g., harvesting the wind, planting wind
turbines in a field, gathering the savings) because farming is a familiar concept to
many readers.
PAY ATTENTION TO SENTENCE LENGTH. Proposals should generate excitement,
especially at the moments when you are describing your plan and its benefits. To raise
the heartbeat of your writing, shorten the sentences at these key places in your proposal.
Elsewhere in the proposal, keep the sentences regular length (breathing length). See
Chapter 22, “Choosing a Style,” for more on sentence length and style.
MINIMIZE THE JARGON. Proposals are often technical, depending on the topic. So
look for any jargon words that could be replaced with simpler words or phrases. If a
jargon word is needed, make sure you define it for readers.

Designing Your Proposal

17.4 Create a design that will make your proposal attractive and accessible.
Your proposal needs to be attractive and easy to use, so leave yourself some time to
design the document and include graphics. Good design will help your proposal stand
out while making it easy to read. Your readers will also appreciate graphics that enhance
and support your message.
326 Chapter 17

CREATE A LOOK. Figure out what visual tone your proposal should set for readers.
Do you want it to appear progressive or conservative? Do you want it to look exciting
or traditional? Make choices about fonts, columns, and photographs that reflect that
tone (Figure 17.5).
USE MEANINGFUL HEADINGS. When your readers first pick up your proposal, they
will likely scan it before reading. So your headings need to be meaningful and action-
oriented. Don’t just use headings like “Problem” or “Plan.” Instead, use headings like
“Our Campus’s Global Warming Problem” or “Introducing the Cool Campus Initiative.”
INCLUDE RELEVANT, ACCURATE GRAPHICS. Proposals often discuss trends, so
you should look for places where you can use charts or graphs to illustrate those trends.
Where possible, put data into tables. Use photographs to help explain the problem or
show examples of your solution.
USE LISTS TO HIGHLIGHT IMPORTANT POINTS. Look for places in your proposal
where you list key ideas or other items. Then, where appropriate, put those ideas into
bulleted lists that are easier for readers to scan.
CREATE WHITE SPACE. You might want to expand your margins to add white space.
Readers often like to take notes in the margins of proposals, so a little extra white space
is useful. Also, extra white space will make the proposal seem less dense and easier
to understand.

Figure 17.5 Setting a Proposal’s Tone with Design

Your proposal shouldn’t look boring or intimidating. Use design to create a tone for your proposal that
makes it easier to read. The photographs, bulleted lists, graphic icons, and color used in this proposal
set a professional tone that gives the authors credibility and engages the readers.

Source: National Association of Environmental Law Societies

 Proposals 327

Microgenre
The Pitch
Pitches are brief proposals made to people who can offer their support (usually money) for your ideas. Pitches
tend to be about one minute long, which means you need to be focused, concise, and confident. You’re
­promoting yourself as much as you are selling your idea.
Here are some good strategies for making a persuasive one-minute pitch:

Introduce yourself and establish your credibility. Remember that people invest in other people, not in
projects. So tell them who you are and what you can do.

Grab them with a good story. You need to capture your listeners’ attention right away, so ask them,
“What if ?” or explain, “Recently, happened and we knew there must be a
better way.”

Present your big idea in one sentence. Don’t make them wait. Hit them with your best idea up front in
one sentence.

Give them your best two or three reasons for doing it. The secret is to sell your idea, not explain it.
List your best two or three reasons with minimal explanation.

Mention something that distinguishes you and your idea from the others. What is unique about your
idea? How does your idea uniquely fit in with your listeners’ prior investments?

Offer a brief costs-benefits analysis. Show them very briefly that your idea is worth their investment of
time, energy, or money. If relevant, tell them what you need to make this project a reality.

Make sure they remember you. End your pitch by telling them something memorable about you or your
organization. Make sure you put your contact information in their hands (e.g., a business card or résumé).
If they allow it, leave them a one-page written version of your pitch.

WRITE your own pitch. Think of an original product, company, service, or idea that you can offer
(please keep it PG-13). Then write a one-minute pitch that sells your idea to someone who can say yes
and give you the resources to make it a reality.

Elevator Pitch: Mini Museum

Hans Fex

The pitch shown here was written by Hans Fex, an entrepreneur with a
­successful product idea that he first pitched on Kickstarter, a crowdfunding
­website. Pay ­attention to the strategies Hans used to persuade people to invest
in his company.

What exactly is the mini museum?

The mini museum is a portable collection of curiosities where every item is Fex identifies the
­authentic, iconic, and labeled. It’s been carefully designed to take you on a journey product right away.
328 Chapter 17

of learning and exploration. The idea is simple. For the past 35 years I have collected
He grabs listeners amazing specimens specifically for this project. I then carefully break those specimens
with an interest- down into smaller pieces, embed them in resin, and end up with an epic museum in a
ing story.
manageable space. Each mini museum is a handcrafted, individually numbered limited
edition. And if you consider the age of some of these specimens—it’s been billions of
years in the making. The majority of these specimens were acquired directly from
­contacting specialists recommended to me by museum curators, research scientists,
and university historians.
Details help The collection starts with some of the oldest matter ever collected in the known
­people visualize ­universe—matter collected from carbonaceous chondrites. These meteorites contain
the project.
matter that is over 4 billion years old. Other meteors include some that have skimmed off
the surface of Mars or the moon and then landed on Earth—each containing matter from
those celestial bodies.

What’s next? Specimens from the Strelley Pool stromatolites that contain the earliest
evidence of life on Earth. Also, a piece of a palm tree from Antarctica—yes, Antarctica.
He uses examples Everybody loves dinosaurs and the mini museum contains plenty of unique specimens
to illustrate the
unique nature of from hundreds of millions of years ago, including favorites like the T-Rex and Triceratops.
his product. Even dinosaur poop.
As we migrate from the beginning of the universe to early life on Earth, we discover
Homo Sapiens. Naturally, the mini museum also has many amazing and rare specimens
documenting human history and culture. Mummy wrap, rocks from Mt. Everest, Trinitite,
coal from the Titanic, and even a piece of the Apollo 11 command module to name just
a few.
It’s space and time in the palm of your hand. There is nothing else quite like it.
He concludes The universe is amazing. I really wanted to remind people of that with this collection.
strongly with How awesome would it be to own a group of rare meteorites, dinosaur fossils, and relics
excited statements
and an intriguing of some of the most talked about places and events in human history—all in the palm of
question. your hand?
 Proposals 329

Quick Start Guide

Here are some quick steps to get you working on your proposal.

Identify the problem you want to solve. In one sentence, write down the topic and purpose of your
­proposal. Then narrow the topic to something you can manage.

Analyze the problem’s causes and effects. Use a concept map to analyze the problem’s two to five major
causes. Then use another concept map to explore the effects of the problem if nothing is done about it.

Do your research. Search the Internet and your library to collect sources. Then use empirical methods
like interviews or surveys to help support or challenge the facts you find.

Develop your plan for solving the problem. Using a concept map, figure out the two to five major steps
needed to solve the problem. Then figure out what minor steps will be needed to achieve each of these
major steps.

Figure out the costs and benefits of your plan. Look at your plan section closely. Identify any costs of
your plan. Then list all the benefits of solving the problem your way. You want to make sure the benefits of
your solution outweigh the costs.

Draft the proposal. Try drafting each major section separately, treating each one like a small document
on its own. Your introduction should include a main point or thesis statement that expresses your solution
to the problem in a straightforward way.

Design your proposal. Your proposal needs to look professional and easy to read. Make choices about
fonts, graphics, and document design that best suit the materials you are presenting to your readers.

Revise and edit. Proposals are complicated documents, so leave plenty of time to revise and edit your work.

Readings: Proposals

Reading 1
In this proposal, experts from the Heritage Foundation, an activist conservative think tank,
review the constitutional and privacy issues involving the use of drones in U.S. airspace. As
you read, notice how they marshal their expertise and research to analyze the problem, rec-
ommend a detailed plan for moving forward, and conclude with a costs-benefits analysis.

Drones in U.S. Airspace: Principles for Governance

Paul Rosenzweig, Charles Stimson, Steven Bucci,
and James Carafano
Abstract
Flying drones—unmanned aerial vehicles—have been made famous by their use in the war on
terrorism, notably in operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, but such military drones are a small
330 Chapter 17

fraction of those used by the United States today. Thousands of drones are used for a wide
variety of purposes, from scientific research to military operations. Both the government and the
private sector use drones mostly without weapons capabilities. Because of their wide-reaching
surveillance capabilities, however, even unarmed drones could threaten personal privacy and
civil liberties. As the Federal Aviation Administration develops regulations for the operation of
drones in domestic skies, it should consider constitutional concerns and privacy rights.
Rapidly advancing technology has made it possible to employ pilotless aircraft “drones”
for public missions (such as countersurveillance and strikes on enemy targets) as well as
private purposes (such as crop dusting). As new technologies present these options to
policymakers, it is an opportune time to establish general principles and legal guidelines for the
government’s use of drones in domestic airspace. These guidelines should go beyond safety
and transit issues that are addressed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the agency
that oversees regulation of civil aviation, and should define the scope of permissible federal
activities. Congress should play an active role in establishing the guidelines.
It is no accident that questions of law and policy relating to the domestic use of drones
have moved to the front burner in Washington. The saliency of the issue was heightened
by a little-noticed provision in the congressional bill reauthorizing the Federal Aviation
Administration. A much wider-ranging bill (dealing with funding questions and modernization
of the air traffic control system) contains one little-noticed section directing the FAA to develop
and promulgate a series of regulations that would establish the rules of the road (or, more
accurately, the rules of the airspace) for the operation of drones in domestic skies.1 As framed
in the FAA reauthorization bill, the presumption was, broadly speaking, that domestic drone
use is appropriate and that the only real questions were technical, relating, for example, to
delineating air corridors for drones and standards of reliability for ensuring their safe operation.

Understanding Drones
For most people, the word “drone” conjures up an image of a lethal, missile-armed “­Predator”
or “Reaper” unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) like those used in the Iraq and Afghanistan
­campaigns. Yet they are a small fraction of the types of drones used by the United States today.
The use of drones is not new. Israelis designed the modern, glider-type drone in the 1970s
to be lightweight and small, making it inexpensive to build and difficult to shoot down. After the
United States produced the Predator, UAVs became an indispensable military tool.
Today, there are thousands of drone platforms that are used for a wide variety of p ­ urposes,
from scientific research to military operations. Drones are employed by governments and
by the private sector. The drones themselves are entirely unmanned and are controlled by a
human operator. The remote operators of drones are highly skilled and must be trained not
only to carry out intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions, but also to conduct
or respond to electronic attacks, implement strike missions, conduct search and rescue
operations, and many other tasks. Such remote piloting greatly reduces the risks to the drone
operator and makes the vehicles cheaper to produce.
The Pentagon currently controls some 7,000 military-grade drones—up from fewer than
50 drones just a decade ago.2 The drones have been used increasingly in military missions
overseas, first running reconnaissance and then targeting al-Qaeda operatives in Afghanistan,
Iraq, Pakistan, Somalia, Yemen, and elsewhere.
Domestically, different types of drones are now being used on a noncontroversial limited
basis for border patrol, biological and chemical air testing, geological surveys, livestock and
wildlife monitoring, crop dusting, wildfire containment, and search and rescue operations.3,4
 Proposals 331

These drones are not armed with weapons, nor are they capable of carrying any. Their use
will only increase as drones become smaller and more sophisticated and their cost plummets.
Nongovernmental entities, as well as individuals, can purchase a wide variety of drones for
their own use.
Because of their surveillance capabilities, however, without proper legal guidelines and
oversight, drones could threaten personal privacy and civil liberties. Therefore, as the FAA
develops regulations for the operation of drones in domestic skies, it must also take into
account constitutional concerns and privacy rights. To date, the FAA has interpreted its
­mandate to focus solely on technical issues, such as delineating air corridors for drones and
instituting standards for safe operation.

General Principles
Any guidelines must ensure appropriate protections of the freedoms guaranteed to U.S.
­citizens under the Constitution. The general rule balancing security and freedom is to be
found, in large part, in the structure of the American constitutional government itself. The
protections codified in the Bill of Rights are an additional firewall against any intrusions on
liberty that would unravel the checks in the Constitution. The Fourth Amendment’s prohibition
against unlawful search and seizure is the right most directly implicated by unbounded and
­unrestrained use of domestic drones.
Now is the time to return to first principles of individual liberty in a free society and assess
their interaction with technology and governance in an age of domestic drones. There are
basic first principles that underlie any use of new technology and the existing constitutional
limitations that might apply to drones. An assessment of these principles suggests that
there are:

• Substantial liberty interests;

• Acceptable domestic uses of drone technology that should be permitted and in fact
­fostered, such as the use of drones to search for survivors after a disaster; and
• Prohibited uses of drone technology that raise significant questions of law and policy—
such as the deployment of drones operated by the military within U.S. borders in a
­manner that violates existing rules (such as Posse Comitatus) on the use of military force
domestically.

Beyond these uses, the challenge for the Administration and Congress is to define strict,
appropriate implementation policies and oversight structures that can protect individual
­liberties while allowing appropriate uses of domestic drones with appropriate oversight.

First Principles and Drones

As a practical matter, the FAA has expertise in and is the appropriate forum for considering
safety and technical questions, but other governmental bodies have expertise in and are better
suited to address privacy and civil liberties concerns. Given the potentially wide range of uses
for drones in U.S. territory, resolving air-traffic safety and security issues alone is inadequate.
Washington needs a more comprehensive and thoughtful framework.
Fundamentally, these are questions of law and policy. The issue is not whether the use of
drones is technically feasible: Obviously, it is and will be increasingly so. Nor is it a question of
legality: Most current uses are lawful, and most future uses are likely to be. Rather, the proper
subject for discussion is the extent to which society wants to provide tools to the state that
have beneficial uses and are also susceptible to abuse.
332 Chapter 17

This question is not a new one; it is one that has been a tension point within American
society since the Founding. Americans want a government that fosters liberty and free-
dom and that provides security. Americans want a constrained government that is subject
to checks and balances and one that has “energy in the executive” (to quote Hamilton) to
achieve legitimate governmental objectives. As always, striking the proper balance is both
difficult and essential.
As a first step, several first principles should guide the analysis:5

• No fundamental liberty guaranteed by the Constitution can be breached or infringed upon.

• Any increased intrusion on American privacy interests must be justified through an
understanding of the particular nature, significance, and severity of the threat addressed
by the program. The less significant the threat, the less justified the intrusion.
• The full extent and nature of the intrusion worked by any new technology must be
understood and appropriately limited. Not all intrusions are justified simply because they
are effective. Strip searches at airports would certainly prevent people from boarding
planes with weapons, but they would do so at too high a cost.
• Whatever the justification for the intrusion, if there are less intrusive means of achieving
the same end at a reasonably comparable cost, the less intrusive means ought to be
preferred. There is no reason to erode Americans’ privacy when equivalent results can
be achieved without doing so.
• Any new system that is developed and implemented must be designed to be tolerable in
the long term. The war against terrorism, uniquely, is one with no foreseeable end. Thus,
excessive intrusions may not be justified as emergency measures that will lapse upon
the termination of hostilities. Policymakers must be restrained in their actions; Americans
might have to live with their consequences for a long time.

From these general principles one can derive certain other, more concrete conclusions
­regarding the development and construction of any new technology—principles that are
directly r­ elevant to the deployment of drones domestically:

• No new system should alter or contravene existing legal restrictions on the g­ overnment’s
ability to access data about private individuals. Any new system should mirror and
implement existing legal limitations on domestic or foreign activity, depending on its
sphere of operation.
• Similarly, no new system should alter or contravene existing operational sys-
tem ­limitations. Development of new technology is not a basis for authorizing new
­government powers or new government capabilities. Any such expansion should be
justified independently.
• No new system that materially affects citizens’ privacy should be developed without
specific authorization by the American people’s representatives in Congress and without
provisions for their oversight of the operation of the system.
• Finally, no new system should be implemented without the full panoply of protections
against its abuse. As James Madison told the Virginia ratifying convention in 1788,
“There are more instances of the abridgment of the freedom of the people by gradual
and silent encroachments of those in power than by violent and sudden usurpations.”6

Legal Guidelines and Limits on Use

While widescale domestic drone usage is an emerging phenomenon, the Administration and
Congress are not without legal guidance.
 Proposals 333

There are likely to be few direct constitutional limits on the domestic use of drones. The
nearly parallel case, Dow Chemical Co. v. United States.7 involved the use of helicopters to
survey the walled compound of a chemical facility. The Supreme Court concluded that the use
of helicopters in this manner did not require a warrant.
This is a natural extension of the general rule that law enforcement does not need a warrant
to examine conduct that is exposed to public view—at least in part because by performing
one’s actions in public, one has manifested the absence of a reasonable expectation of
maintaining his privacy. Hence, as someone walks down the street, the police need no warrant
to follow him. Likewise, in pursuit of an escaping criminal, police may follow him by car, and
police helicopters may monitor traffic without a warrant. Extending the warrant requirement to
drone activity would therefore be novel and a significant dislocation of current practice.
Nevertheless, it is also likely that outer limits on the use of drones domestically may exist
if the drones are equipped with advanced sensor technology. In the case of Kyllo v. United
States,8 the Supreme Court considered the use of infrared sensing devices to obtain the
heat signature inside a house. (The signature was indicative of plant-growing lamps used to
cultivate marijuana.) The Court concluded that the use of novel sensors, not generally available
to the public, would implicate the reasonable expectation of privacy. The Court held that a
warrant was required to use an infrared sensor to monitor the heat signature of a house.
One can suggest that Kyllo would support the broader conclusion that placing unusual
sensor arrays on drones (say, a millimeter-wave ground-penetrating radar) might require a
warrant in situations where a more common sensor (such as a camera) would not.
Limits on domestic drone use may also arise when and if drones proliferate such that
widespread and large-scale observation and data-collection mechanisms are enabled. Here,
the Supreme Court doctrine is still in development, but the Court has sounded a cautionary
note. This past term, in United States v. Jones,9 Justice Samuel Alito wrote a concurrence
(speaking for only four Justices) in which he posited that even though the collection of an
individual piece of data might be lawful without a warrant, the collection of numerous such
pieces of data to form a larger mosaic picture would raise constitutional concerns. Under this
so-called mosaic theory, limits on the collection of routine images throughout a city—linked to
a facial recognition program, for instance—might exist.
As mentioned, this legal doctrine has yet to be adopted by the Supreme Court, but it, too,
sounds a cautionary note: Certainly, the routine and systematic use of drones for widespread
surveillance and analysis is likely to be suspect on constitutional grounds.
These precedents clearly suggest a “sweet spot” for lawful domestic drone activity.
Camera-equipped drones used for routine purposes, such as observing public activity,
will likely pass constitutional muster. Legal limits on such use, if any, will come from policy
development or statutory enactments.

Striking the Right Balance

Given these guidelines, acceptable uses that (safety considerations permitting) ought to have
sensible and minimal restrictions, are:

• Border Patrol Security

1. Long-term surveillance of a specified area or route
2. Criminal personnel search and/or pursuit
3. Personnel search and rescue
4. Monitoring of “blind spots”
5. Communications augmentation (e.g., hosting flying cell phone towers10)
334 Chapter 17

• Emergency Preparation and Disaster Response

1. Planning routes and anticipating vulnerabilities
2. Long-term surveillance of a specified area or route
3. Catastrophic effects and remediation planning
4. Criminal personnel search and/or pursuit
5. Personnel search and rescue
6. Emergency cell coverage restoration
7. Deterrence of criminal behavior in unpatrolled areas

• Agriculture
1. Crop dusting (pesticides) or infestation eradication
2. Monitoring of soil moisture levels and crop growth

• Cargo Delivery (private sector)

1. Long-haul trips
2. Transporting hazardous materials
3. Deliveries during hazardous flying conditions and emergencies

• Maritime Domain Awareness

1. Long-term surveillance of a specified area or route
2. Criminal personnel search and/or pursuit
3. Personnel search and rescue
4. Identification and surveillance of low observable vessels (semi-submersibles) and
small craft (under 300 tons)

• Environmental Monitoring
1. Long-term surveillance of a specified area or route
2. Wildlife tracking
3. Monitoring droughts and flooding
4. Monitoring locks, dams, and levees in remote areas

• Law Enforcement
1. SWAT team reconnaissance
2. Long-term surveillance of a specified area or route
3. Criminal personnel search and/or pursuit
4. Personnel search and rescue
5. Communication augmentation

There are, of course, some clear “red lines” where domestic drone use should be p ­ rohibited.
The use of drones in a military capacity (while armed) should be severely restricted to
­situations of actual invasion or insurrection; the use of drones for domestic surveillance of
First Amendment activity is fundamentally at odds with U.S. constitutional principles; drones
equipped with novel sensor arrays ought not to be permitted absent a clearly demonstrated
need and a careful consideration of countervailing privacy and civil liberties concerns; and
drones should not be used as a platform for the collection of massive unstructured data sets
that could form the basis for sophisticated tracking and behavioral analytics.
Finally, drones are unsuitable for use as a routine means of surveillance in nonthreatening
situations. Certainly, one can envision the utility of deploying drones to monitor the progress of
a peaceful protest march on Washington, D.C., but the idea of a watchful “eye in the sky” for
basic crowd control of peaceful activity crosses an indefinable line—at least in part because
 Proposals 335

the cheapness of drone resources (compared to the deployment of police) would make their
ubiquitous use far more likely.
The notion of imposing a warrant requirement on the use of drones is likely a categorical
mistake, as it would involve the application of a Fourth Amendment concept to an area where
the Fourth Amendment simply does not apply. Congress cannot and should not avoid the hard
task of sorting permissible uses from impermissible uses on its own; it is likely that many of the
uses envisioned would not fit in the warrant construct at all. Many of the prohibitions recom-
mended are independent of the existence or lack of probable cause.

Next Steps for Congress

Congress and the executive branch have yet to do the hard work of determining precisely
what those limits on drone use ought to be, and this paper’s outline suggests that the lack of
thought in some of the blunt-instrument proposals currently pending might very well throw the
baby out with the bath water.
The way forward, however, is reasonably clear. Congress should:

• Permit the FAA to continue with its rulemaking regarding the domestic use of drones but
make clear that the rulemaking is limited to issues of safety and airspace use that are
squarely within the FAA’s expertise;
• Condition further expansion of the domestic use of drones in accordance with the FAA’s
rulemaking on the development of clear guidelines on permissible uses for drones and
the development of an oversight and audit mechanism; and
• Task the Administration with the development of guidelines that, at a minimum:
1. Recognize and authorize legitimate uses of drones that pose no appreciable risk to
privacy or civil liberties;
2. Prevent the militarization of the domestic drone air fleet;
3. Prohibit the use of drones to monitor constitutionally protected First Amendment
expression; and
4. Ensure that drones do not become another comprehensive platform for the
­collection of large data sets of unstructured surveillance data.

In the absence of congressional action, the executive branch should reluctantly proceed
independently with the development of its own privacy and civil liberties policies for the use
of drones. What should not happen—what cannot be allowed to happen—is that domestic
drones continue to proliferate without any consideration of privacy and civil liberties. What
also must not happen is that Americans allow an unreasoned fear of hypothetical abuse to
stampede the country into a blanket prohibition on the use of drones for domestic purposes,
depriving all Americans of a wide range of benefits.

Notes
1. Ben Wolfgang, “FAA Chief Says Drones Will Force Change at Agency,” The Washington Times,
August 7, 2012, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/aug/7/faa-chief-says-drones-will-
force-change-at-agency/ (accessed August 17, 2012).
2. U.S. Government Accountability Office, “Unmanned Aircraft Systems: Comprehensive Planning
and a Results-Oriented Training Strategy Are Needed to Support Growing Inventories,” GAO-10-
331, March 2010, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10331.pdf (accessed August 29, 2012).
3. Chad C. Haddal and Jeremiah Gertler, “Homeland Security: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and
Border Surveillance,” Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, July 8, 2010, http://
assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RS21698_20100708.pdf (accessed August 29, 2012).
336 Chapter 17

4. Brian Bennett, “Drones Tested as Tools for Police and Firefighters,” Los Angeles Times,
August 5, 2012, http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-drones-­
testing-20120805,0,6483617. story (accessed August 29, 2012).
5. These principles first appeared in Paul Rosenzweig, “Principles for Safeguarding Liberty in an
Age of Terrorism,” Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum No. 854, January 31, 2003,
http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2003/01/principles-for-safeguarding-civil-liberties.
6. James Madison, Speech in the Virginia Ratifying Convention on Control of the Military,
June 16, 1788, in History of the Virginia Federal Convention of 1788, Vol. 1, p. 130
(H.B. Grigsby ed. 1890).
7. 476 U.S. 227 (1986).
8. 533 U.S. 27 (2001).
9. No. 10-1259, U.S. (2012).
10. See, for example, “Flying Cell Towers,” DailyWireless.org, March 6, 2012, http://www
.dailywireless.org/2012/03/06/flying-cell-towers/ (accessed September 7, 2012).

A Closer Look at “Drones in U.S. Airspace: Principles

for Governance”
1. List three of the constitutional and privacy issues involved in the domestic use of
drones, according to the authors of this report. With your group, discuss whether
you believe these issues are serious problems or issues that will be resolved as
people grow more familiar and comfortable with drones as a technology. How
will cutting-edge technologies, such as artificial intelligence, help resolve these
problems or exacerbate them?
2. The authors devise a detailed plan with specific recommendations to legislators about
how the use of drones should be governed. What are the five most important recom-
mendations? Do you agree with all of these recommendations, or do you believe the
authors are recommending too much government interference in the development
and use of a new technology? What policies would you recommend to lawmakers?
3. With your group, come up with a plan that explains five ways that drones could be
used on your college campus. Discuss the pros and cons of using drones in these
ways. Clarify the costs and benefits of your plan, keeping in mind that costs can
include potential risks. Present your recommendations to the class.

Ideas for Writing

1. The authors of this proposal argue that drones should not be used in any way
that violates the U.S. Constitution. However, there is no way the framers of the
U.S. Constitution could have anticipated new technologies like drones. Write a
commentary in which you discuss how the U.S. Constitution should be flexible (or
not flexible) when it comes to new technologies.
2. This Heritage report focuses on the use of drones in the United States. However,
drones are actively used throughout the world by the United States for surveillance
and military purposes. These kinds of activities would, of course, be unconstitu-
tional inside the borders of the United States. Write a research-based argument
paper in which you discuss whether you believe the rights afforded by the
U.S. ­Constitution should be extended to people around the world. How does your
opinion shape your views on the use of drones outside the United States?
 Proposals 337

Reading 2
Alissa Walker is a journalist who now writes for the news website Curbed. Like many of
us, she is concerned about the future of our planet. In this proposal, written in 2015, she
argues for a radical plan that would significantly change how Americans live and work—for
the better. This article is an opinion piece, but watch how Walker uses the proposal genre
to organize her argument.

Ban Cars
Alissa Walker
In December of 2015, 195 countries announced that even a global effort to reduce emissions
probably won’t prevent the catastrophic warming of the planet. But there is a way we can
reach our climate goals. It’s not a pledge. It’s not a tax. It’s easier than that. We ban cars.
Aside from a single panel discussion, the historic COP21 summit didn’t address cars much
at all. The United Nations issued one statement, reminding us that 25 percent of all energy-
related emissions in the atmosphere are from transportation, a percentage which is expected
to grow to a third. To attempt to reach the climate goals, it says, at least a fifth of all vehicles
worldwide should be electric by 2030. Now consider that there are about a billion cars crawling
the Earth’s surface right now, a number which might double as soon as 2030. How fast that
figure grows depends on how dramatically developing nations like China and India experience
increases in vehicle ownership. But no single country is currently driving more cars around this
planet than the United States of America. 2015 was a year of record-breaking auto sales.
That’s why electrification isn’t really the solution. Right now, virtually every single electric
car—which represent only 0.1 percent of all cars—is still burning fossil fuels. In most of the
US, you are literally shoveling coal into your EV. Even if every car on the planet was magically
converted into an electric vehicle overnight, we wouldn’t have the grid infrastructure in place
to plug all those cars in; we’d have to actually build out the grid to support it. Plus we’d have
to power the factories to make all those electric cars to replace the gas-guzzling ones we have
now. And if we did either or both of those things right now—and we need to do it right now—it
would mean burning a lot more fossil fuels.
Like there is no clean coal, there is no clean car. So we don’t have to get more electric cars
on the road. We have to get more cars off the road. Fast.
Banning cars is as simple as it sounds: It’s restricting private automobiles from entering 5

a geographic area. You might have already seen how this works in a pedestrian-prioritized
historical district, which is common in bigger cities. So we start the ban there, in the biggest
cities: Where about half the world’s population lives now, where car ownership is already low,
and where existing housing density and transit infrastructure allow people to easily live without
automobiles. These are also the places you can make the greatest impact as the p ­ opulation
in cities is growing—70 percent of the world will live in a city by 2050, as part of multiple
­urbanizing trends around the world.
But it’s not just about banning cars. Cities also have to help their citizens live without a
car. This means they must approve taller buildings, get rid of parking minimums, and expand
public transit options. Build rail instead of roads. Turn gas stations into bike kiosks. Convert
338 Chapter 17

parking lots to sidewalks. Provide a fleet of low-speed zero-emission vehicles (like golf carts!)
to make deliveries and help residents get around. And introduce better technology solutions to
help everyone navigate the city more efficiently.
Does it sound impossible? It’s already happening in a lot of places. Oslo is working on
banning all cars from its city center by 2019. So are Helsinki, Madrid, and Hamburg. London
has heavily restricted them in its downtown. Paris has not only restricted vehicular access
but is also prohibiting cars built before 1997. A thriving business district in Johannesburg got
rid of all its cars for a month. Even the US has done this, on a smaller scale: New York City
has barred them from Times Square, and San Francisco has kicked them off a stretch of its
Market Street.
In fact, on any given weekend, cities all over the planet set aside large swaths of their
neighborhoods for walkers and bikers as part of regularly scheduled car-free festivals.
These are bringing about permanent change: Bogotá began banishing cars from its streets
every Sunday and used that momentum to develop one of the most inspiring, low-cost
­transportation systems on the planet in less than 20 years.
Cities are doing this because we know it’s better for the humans who live there. Science
has proven that almost every other way of getting around is better for our bodies and our
minds. Banning cars from major cities worldwide would save millions of lives, and not just by
reducing crashes: Removing cars from roads shows a drastic and immediate improvement in
both carbon emissions and in dangerous particulate matter—the kind that kills about
three m ­ illion people globally a year. Banning cars part of the time, like on alternate days,
doesn’t work in the long run because cities are still allowing some cars in. People find ways to
get around the rules and cities don’t have the money to enforce them. All cars must go.
10 Although we can see with our own eyes how much better the air in our cities will be
­without cars, there’s another crisis happening on the ground. Cities that are built for cars
require goods and services to be moved across farther and farther distances. Each building’s
carbon footprint includes not only the materials and methods which are required to build it, but
all the infrastructural systems required to sustain it. If those systems are served primarily by
cars—deliveries, workers, residents, visitors—the building’s carbon footprint balloons. A city
built for cars requires far more energy to power it.
Making too much room for cars is also making our cities more expensive. Parking, for
example, takes up as much as 14 percent of all land use in some cities. In Los Angeles
County, that’s 3.3 spaces for every vehicle. Less room devoted to cars frees up more space for
the additional housing we so desperately need. A city instantly becomes more accessible to
all when it plans for the well-being of its citizens, without the assumption that everyone has an
extra $9,000 per year to pay for a way to get around it.
The promise of autonomous, zero-emission vehicles can be part of the solution, but only
if we think about them as another form of public transit: As shareable, summonable vehicles
which will replace taxis (or other on-demand rides). By some estimates, when autonomy
arrives, cities will need to dramatically reduce the overall space allotted to cars.
But wait! What if autonomous cars don’t happen—or at least not as quickly as we’d like?
That’s exactly why the process of evicting cars from all major cities right now is more critical
than ever—because this is really about remaking cities into more liveable places long before
that future arrives.
And if you don’t live in a city—or don’t want to—banning cars benefits you, too. Besides
the obvious health benefits, more efficient transportation systems will make it easier to get
where you need to go and reduce the overall costs of goods and services brought to
 Proposals 339

your door. If you need a vehicle out where you live, you can simply borrow one from a local
zero-emission fleet. It will take many years and a lot of work to reverse the US away from
decades of engrained commuting culture, but it can happen. We start with the cities, where
more of the population lives, and let the positive impacts ripple out.
In addition to the 195 heads of state, 1,000 mayors were in Paris for the climate talks, 15

pledging to move their communities towards a renewable energy future—even if an interna-

tional accord wasn’t reached. City leaders have a lot more power to bring about change than
195 countries trying to strike an agreement. A mayor may not be able to shut down a power
plant even if it’s inside city limits. But she can make it impossible to bring one more car into
her downtown.
If you don’t think that one car will make a difference, consider this. Right now, about
3 percent of all trips globally are taken by bike. A big study by UC Davis and the Institute for
Transportation and Development Policy says that reducing car use enough to double that
­figure to 6 percent by 2050 could make a game-changing impact. Cities would save $24 trillion
and the planet would reduce CO2 emissions by nearly 11 percent. That’s enough to prevent
the increase in transportation-related emissions that the UN predicts. And the world would be
happier and healthier for it.
A generation from now we’ll look back on this 100-year blip in human history and shake
our heads. We’ll remember this failed experiment, our temporary lapse in judgment. But we
have to reverse this trend now, before we hand over any more of our cities to an antiquated,
dying technology that’s killing us right along with it.
Cars are an old idea from the past. But believing that cars are the future could destroy our
entire civilization.

A Closer Look at “Ban Cars”

1. Many people believe that drastic measures will be needed to solve the climate
crisis. Like Walker, they argue that we have already passed the point of no return.
What are three solutions to the climate crisis that Walker rules out, and why does
she think they won’t work?
2. With your group, discuss how Walker’s proposal would impact your local com-
munity, likely the city around your university or college. If this “Ban Cars” proposal
were implemented, what would need to change in your city and what would those
changes cost? Overall, what benefits and what harm would result?
3. Though an interesting idea, it is highly unlikely a proposal like this one would be
adopted, even if the ideas it offers are very good. With your group, list five barriers
to making radical changes to American transportation policies and lifestyles that
make this proposal difficult to implement.

Ideas for Writing

1. Write a profile of a person who is an innovator with technology. In your profile,
show how this person’s vision and values are helping shape the world in a positive,
or perhaps negative, way.
2. A great deal has changed since this proposal was published in 2015. The number
of electric cars (EVs) on U.S. roads has increased significantly and continues to
increase each year. Also, the cost of solar and wind power has decreased by a factor
340 Chapter 17

of more than ten and continues to fall. Write a counterstatement rebuttal in which
you agree that cars are still a significant problem but argue these changes make her
radical plan to ban cars unnecessary. In your counterstatement, explore alternative
paths that might allow us to reverse ongoing damage to the Earth’s ecosystems
while not radically upending the economy and our lives.

Activities for Proposals

Talk About This
1. What are some of the problems on your college’s campus? With a group in your
class, list them and pick one that seems especially troublesome. What do you
think are the causes of this problem? What has changed recently to bring this
problem about or make it worse? Discuss this problem with a group of other
people in your class.
2. Now try to figure out a way to solve this campus problem. What would be
a good solution to this problem? Can you think of a few other solutions?
With a small group, discuss the costs and benefits of solving the problem in
different ways.
3. With a group in class, find a proposal on the Internet that you can discuss.
Look closely at the proposal’s content, organization, style, and design. Do you
think the proposal is effective? What are its strengths? What are its weaknesses?
If you were going to revise this proposal, what are some of the things you
would change?

Try This Out

1. Using an Internet search engine, find a proposal by entering the keyword
“­proposal” and the name of a problem that interests you. Write a one-page
­analysis of the proposal, describing how it explains the problem and offers a plan
for solving it. In your analysis, tell readers whether you think the proposal is or
is not effective. Explain why you think so, and offer suggestions about how the
proposal could be improved.
2. List five problems our society is facing right now. Pick one that interests you
and then try to narrow the topic down to something you can manage in a small
­proposal. Use a concept map to explore what you already know about the
­problem, its causes, and its effects. Then do research on the subject by collecting
online and print sources on it. Draft a one- or two-page causal analysis of the
problem that does not offer a solution.
3. Find a proposal on the Internet that is badly designed. Do a makeover of the
design to improve the look and usability of the proposal. What would make it
more appealing to readers? How could design techniques be used to make it
­simpler to scan or easier to understand? Create two sample pages that illustrate
your design.
 Proposals 341

Explore This
Here are some other microgenres that are similar to proposals. Choose a microgenre
from the list below and find three examples in print or on the Internet. Create your own
set of guidelines for writing one of these microgenres.
Outrageous invention proposal—a “mock proposal” for an outrageous
­invention (perhaps an overly complex solution to a simple problem)
Romantic proposal—a romantic proposal to someone you are interested in,
using all the features of a formal proposal. Hint: Think problem, solution,
costs, and benefits
Assignment prospectus—description of your proposed approach to a particular
writing or other assignment, addressed to a professor
Futuristic proposal—a proposal that describes a revolutionary product or service
that is not possible with current technology
Letter to a politician or campus leader—a proposed solution to a pressing
national, local, or campus problem

Write This
1. Propose your own solution. Write a proposal that solves a problem in our
­society or in your life. Explore the causes of the problem and come up with a
plan that solves it. Then identify all the benefits that would come about if the
problem were solved according to your plan. The best topics for proposals are
ones that affect your life in some way. Pick a problem that you feel strongly about
or ­something that affects your everyday life. Include graphics and make sure the
document is well designed.
2. Remake a proposal into a multimedia presentation. Using a search engine,
find a proposal on the Internet. Transform the proposal into a presentation
that ­incorporates multimedia features. You can use presentation software,
­overhead projector slides, flipcharts, or posters. Then write a one-page r­ eflection
that ­introduces the proposal and describes the rhetorical choices you made to
­transform the original proposal’s content, organization, style, and design to make
it work as a multimedia presentation. With each rhetorical choice, be sure to
explain why you felt your choice was appropriate.
3. Propose something absurd. One of the most famous “proposals” is Jonathan
Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” in which he suggests dining on Irish children as a
way to solve the Irish potato famine in the early 18th century. Swift’s intent was
to draw attention to the desperation of the Irish, while shaming absent English
landlords. Write an ironic five-page proposal like Swift’s that proposes an absurd
solution for an important problem. Remember that the key to irony is to bring
about a positive change by shaming the people who are causing or ignoring
the problem.
 Chapter 18
Research Reports
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

18.1 invent the content of your report with solid research.

18.2 use the report genre’s pattern to organize your document.
18.3 develop a writing style that is neutral and sounds objective.
18.4 create a design that makes your report easy to use.

Writing a research report can seem a bit intimidating if you haven’t written one before.
Reports are one of the more complex genres, but that doesn’t mean they are hard to
write. Put in simple terms, a report answers some basic questions:
• What subject did you study?
• How did you study it?
• What did you find out?
• What do your findings mean?
• What do you think we should do now?
The purpose of a research report is to use research to help readers make informed
decisions. There are many kinds of reports, such as research reports, recommendation
reports, completion reports, feasibility reports, and scientific reports. In the workplace,
you will use them to present information, investigate business opportunities, explain
­accidents, and explore trends.
In college, your professors will ask you to write reports for a variety of reasons. In
a sociology class, you might study and explain an uptick in crime around campus. In a
fashion design course, you might describe an emerging street style trend. In a biology
class, you may use a report to explain your experiments with plant breeding and genet-
ics. Reports are written in just about every field.
The heart of any report is solid research. Doing research involves systemati-
cally i­nvestigating your subject by closely observing its behavior, movements, or
­fluctuations. T­ ypically, you will begin your research by asking a specific research
question and then stating a working hypothesis, which is essentially an educated
guess about what you think you will discover. Your report will describe your
research m ­ ethodology, p ­ resent the results of your research, and interpret those

342
 Research Reports 343

results for your readers. Before ­concluding your report, you will likely make a few
­recommendations about what should be done in the future.
Because research reports are so important in the workplace, college is the best place
to learn how to write these longer documents. Once you know how reports work, they
won’t seem so intimidating.

At-A-Glance
Research Reports
To help you remember this structure, you might memorize the acronym IMRaD, which is widely used by
professional researchers. IMRaD stands for “introduction, methods, results, and discussion.”

Summary or abstract

Introduction

Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusions/
Recommendations

End material: References

and Appendices

A typical report tends to have the following features:

• Executive summary or abstract that summarizes the major sections of the report.
• Introduction that defines a research question or problem and explains why it is important to the reader.
The introduction clearly states the purpose and main point of the report while offering background
­information on the topic.
344 Chapter 18

• Methods section that describes how the research was carried out.
• Results or Findings section that presents the results of the research objectively.
• Discussion section that analyzes the results and explains what they mean.
• Conclusion/Recommendations section that restates the main point of the report and offers specific
recommendations.
• End material: References section that provides a list of references or works cited.
• Appendices that offer additional sources and other materials.

One Student Group’s Work: Research Reports

Look Out! The Problem with Motorized Personal Vehicles

on Campus
Alex Johnson, Krista Blackmon, and Dee Hamilton
English 141: Heartland State University
The abstract offers Abstract: In this research report, our aim is to determine just how significant
an overview of the the problem of motorized personal vehicles (MPVs) has become on the Heartland
analytical report.
State University campus. The availability of lithium-ion batteries has significantly
increased the number of MPVs that can go 20 miles per hour or more on campus
sidewalks, bike paths, and streets. Our study involved collecting articles, interviewing
campus police and MPV riders, and observing riders of MPVs on the Central Quad of
HSU. Our results demonstrated that MPV-related problems are significant. We offer
five recommendations that involve a combination of new and clearer rules for using
MPVs on sidewalks, bike paths, and roads.
Introduction
The authors For decades, personal vehicles, such as bikes, skateboards, and scooters,
identify the topic have been common on college campuses. Recently, though, the availability
and stress its
importance. of lithium-ion batteries has significantly increased the number of motorized
personal vehicles (MPV) that can go 20 miles per hour (mph) or more down
campus sidewalks, bike paths, and streets. Pedestrians on campus have
long shared the sidewalks with reckless bicyclists, skateboarders, or scooter
­riders who were going just a little too fast. But, motorized versions of bikes,
­skateboards, and scooters, make the speeds much, much higher, and the risk
of injuries to both pedestrians and MPV riders are much greater.
Recent breakthroughs in lithium-ion batteries mean that any kind of
­personal vehicle that was once peddled or pushed can now be motorized,
allowing them to go upwards of 20 mph. Some fat tire e-bikes, which are
beginning to look like small motorcycles, are now legally able to go 28 mph!
We’ve actually seen a few of them riding on campus sidewalks.
The number of accidents involving MPVs on campus is going up quickly.
Last year, the Heartland State campus police and paramedics were called out for
 Research Reports 345

42 collisions between motorized riders and pedestrians. Last year, there were
28 collisions between MPV riders and cars, and the paramedics were called
out for 38 situations in which someone on an MPV was injured in a solo crash.
Sergeant Tim Reynolds from the HSU Campus Police said, “That’s just the stuff
we were called out for. Those numbers, he said, don’t include the near misses,
collisions with minor injuries, and falls where the riders picked themselves up,
got back on the bike or board, and rode off. Sometimes injured people are left
behind and not counted.”
In this research report, our research question was “Are new policies
needed for using MPVs on the HSU campus, or should they follow the same
policies as non-motorized bikes, skateboards, and scooters?” Our aim was
to determine just how significant the problem of MPVs has become on the
HSU campus. First, we collected published articles on both non-motorized
and motorized personal transportation. Second, we interviewed the campus
police and some MPV riders. Third, we conducted our own observations for a
week on the Central Quad over the lunch hour. Our results are surprising and The research
even scary. Based on these results, we make some recommendations below ­thesis is stated for
readers.
about how to minimize the number of MPV-related accidents on our campus
­sidewalks, bike paths, and streets.
Research Methodology: Collecting Information, Doing Interviews,
and Observing
MPVs on campus are relatively new, which makes gathering data difficult.
The campus police have kept records of all accidents on campus for decades,
including accidents involving bikes, scooters, and skateboards. We devised a
four-step methodology for studying MPVs on campus:
Step One: Do Background Research on Motorized Personal Transportation. We The authors
researched the internet and print sources to learn as much as we could describe their
research methods.
about the differences between MPVs and their non-motorized versions. We
wanted to get a sense of how these motorized versions of personal vehicles
came about. Also, we wanted to determine their speeds and capabilities.
Step Two: Collect Information from Campus Police. We interviewed a few
campus police officers and collected data from the campus police about
accidents involving both non-motorized and motorized personal trans-
portation on campus. Our goal was to determine whether the problem is
worse than in the past and, if so, how much worse.
Step Three: Interview Users of Personal Transportation. We spoke with 10 riders
who use motorized personal vehicles, so we could gain a better understand-
ing of why and how they ride on campus.
Step Four: Conduct Field Observations. We spent five lunch periods (11:30–
1:00) from April 6 to April 10 observing the use of MPVs on the Central
Quad, which is one of the busiest areas of HSU’s campus. We counted all
riders of personal transportation, all riders of MPVs, r­ iders going above
6 mph, reckless riders, near misses between MPVs and ­pedestrians, and
MPV accidents that were solo or involved pedestrians. We chose 6 mph as
a speed limit, because that’s about how fast people can jog. We felt that an
346 Chapter 18

MPV ridden 6 mph or below would be going a relatively safe speed like a
jogger. We used a Bushnell Velocity speed gun to measure how fast MPV
riders were going.
There are limitations to our research methodology. The campus police do not
record all accidents that happen on campus, only the ones for which they are
called. Dangerous riders were not reachable for interviews, so we ended up
interviewing riders who were generally responsible. And, five days of obser-
vations during lunchtime in a limited area like the Central Quad only offers a
small sample of what is actually happening on the whole campus. However,
we did our best to objectively observe and measure what is actually occurring
during a specific time on this part of campus, allowing us to gain a sense of
what is going on with MPVs.

Results and Discussion: What Our Research Shows

Our results allowed us to draw some interesting conclusions about what is
happening with MPVs on our campus.

Finding One: MPVs Are Undergoing a Major Revolution That Makes

Them Much More Dangerous
Personal transportation has been around almost as long as universities have
existed. Bikes with pedals and chain drives were common in the late 1800s
(Andrews, 2021), and skateboards became popular in the 1950s. Motorized
bicycles have been around since the 1880s, both electric and gasoline pow-
ered, but they were a rarity on college campuses until recently. Students have
always been looking for faster and easier ways to get around campus, and fac-
ulty and staff have often found bikes a good way to avoid parking issues and
congestion, save money, and get exercise while riding to and from campus.
The revolution in MPVs has been created by the availability and lower costs
of lithium-ion batteries. The first commercial lithium-ion batteries were sold in
1991 (Reddy et al.). Then, in the 2000s, they started to become much smaller and
more affordable, especially in mobile phones, laptops, and hybrid cars. By 2018,
the price of lithium-ion batteries had dropped 97% from their original cost, and
some major technological breakthroughs around 2016 made them much smaller
and more powerful (Ziegler & Trancik, 2021). Today, lithium-ion batteries are
affordable and easily mountable on MPVs like e-bikes, scooters, and skateboards.
The speeds between non-motorized and motorized personal vehicles are the
main difference. A rider on a non-motorized skateboard or scooter usually goes
an average of 9 mph (mph) on level ground, while a non-motorized bicyclist
averages about 11 mph (Fang, 2018). These non-motorized personal vehicles
can go faster, but the need to push or pedal usually causes riders to slow down.
Quite differently, motorized scooters and skateboards can go up to 18-28 mph,
and a Class 3 e-bike can go up to 28 mph! Without the physical exertion of
pedaling or pushing, riders regularly go 10 mph faster on MPVs than their non-
motorized counterparts. Some riders will go as fast as the MPV allows.
Experts have pointed out that one of the problems with MPVs is that they
appear to be familiar technologies, but they are equipped with powerful e­ lectric
engines (Bogost, 2022). So, riders think of them as they would a typical bike,
 Research Reports 347

skateboard, or scooter, not recognizing that an MPV is going much, much

faster. For example, most e-bikes look like regular commuter bikes with a
­battery mounted to the frame. Maybe they have fatter tires. But, riding 28 mph
or charging up a hill full speed is not possible for almost anyone peddling a
bike. This means riders think of e-bikes as regular bikes, riding on sidewalks
or in bike lanes, while not realizing they are going almost as fast as a car. In an
article for the Atlantic Magazine, Ian Bogost argues that e-bikes have compli-
cated identity, making them “monstrous.” Riders assume they are like regular
bikes, but in some ways they are more like small motorcycles.
The same is true of motorized skateboards and scooters on campuses.
A motorized skateboard or scooter can go 20 mph and even 28 mph—much,
much faster than non-motorized ones pushed by foot. And, just like a regular
skateboard hitting a rock or a scooter running over a sewer grate in the road,
a motorized skateboard or scooter will stop dead, throwing its rider head-
first onto the sidewalk or street. A rider going 6-9 mph might be able to run
fast enough to stay upright. A rider going 20-28 mph, however, is going to
skid, tumble, and get seriously hurt. Any pedestrians in the way will also be
­seriously injured when a human body going 20-28 mph slams into them.

Finding Two: The Campus Police Aren’t Doing Much Because They
Are ­Waiting for Guidance
We interviewed two campus police officers, Estaban Diaz and Sheryl Biggs,
who were patrolling the campus on e-bikes. We asked them what policies had The results and
been established for MPVs ridden in or around HSU. They said the policies discussion are
presented in a
for MPVs are the same as the ones for non-motorized versions. We asked them straightforward
if they thought skateboards zigzagging through campus at 15-20 mph seemed way.
dangerous, and they said, “Yes, but we just enforce the rules. Until there’s a
rule against skateboards going that fast, we can’t do anything.” They said they
can ticket any bike exceeding speed limits on roads and that bikes aren’t tech-
nically allowed on sidewalks, but the laws aren’t usually enforced unless an
accident happens.
Sergeant Reynolds, who we interviewed by phone, confirmed that no
new policies for MPVs were in place, pointing out that bikes by law can be
only ridden on campus streets and on bike paths. He said that skateboards
and scooters are treated more like pedestrians as long as they are being rid-
den responsibly. We asked him what “responsibly” means, and he said that it
means not injuring anyone.
Officers Diaz, Biggs, and Reynolds all agreed that they would welcome
clearer rules about what is allowed for MPVs. Sergeant Reynolds said, “We
can’t enforce rules that aren’t on the books. Maybe people need to advocate
for those kinds of rules.”

Finding Three: Responsible Riders Are Frustrated About Reckless Riders, Too
We tried talking to some of the reckless riders we saw on campus, but we
could never catch up to them. So, we spoke with 10 MPV riders who we saw
going jogging speed or less (6 mph). All of them admitted that some MPV
riders take dangerous risks, and most of them agreed that the university
348 Chapter 18

should establish and enforce rules about how fast all riders, motorized or non-­
motorized, can go. Only one of them agreed that all riders of MPVs should
stay in bike lanes or on the road. All of them, however, thought that going
“jogging speed” (6 mph or less) would be a good way to minimize accidents,
near misses, and solo crashes.
They all said that they were frustrated with the people riding recklessly.
One of them, a 21-year-old female undergraduate, said, “They’re going to ruin
it for everyone. My scooter makes getting to and from my apartment much
easier. I don't want to do that walk back and forth multiple times every day,
and the bus doesn’t work for me.” A 28-year-old male graduate student said,
“This board means I can afford to eat. Even if I could get a parking pass, a car
would be too expensive. Those costs would come out of my food budget.”
Only some MPV riders are reckless and dangerous was the consensus, but
the responsible riders were worried that strict rules or even bans of MPVs on
campus would disrupt their lives.

Finding Four: Reckless Motorized Riding Happens Every Day and Often
For five days, we watched for motorized riders of e-bikes, skateboards, and
scooters on the Central Quad. As shown in Table 1, we determined that 68.4%
of MPV riders were going above jogging speed and therefore riding danger-
ously. Only 26.3% of MPV riders stayed exclusively on the bike paths through
the Quad, while 73.3% rode on pedestrian sidewalks for part or all of their
ride. We witnessed an average of 14.4 near misses each day for all riders, and
we witnessed 3 accidents in which pedestrians were hit by someone riding an
MPV. We did not witness accidents involving any non-motorized bikes, skate-
boards, or scooters, but there were some near misses. The paramedics were
called for one of the MPV-related accidents, but the rider rode away and was
not ticketed. We witnessed 10 riders of motorized skateboarders and scoot-
ers hitting rocks or curbs, which threw them from their boards. Out of the 10

Table 1: Observations of MPV Riders in Central Quad

MPVs Out of
Days All PT MPV Accidents Solo Near
above Bike
Observed Riders Riders with Peds Accidents misses
6 mph Paths
Monday
35 6 4 5 1 2 12
(4/6)
Tuesday
56 9 6 5 0 3 15
(4/7)
Wednesday
51 8 7 6 2 2 18
(4/8)
Thursday
48 8 5 4 0 1 12
(4/9)
Friday
38 7 4 5 0 2 15
(4/10)
 Research Reports 349

who hit rocks or curbs, 7 were able to stay on their feet, but 3 of them fell and
­skidded on the pavement ahead of them. Only 2 of these thrown riders were
wearing helmets.

Recommendations: Policies for MPVs Are Needed

Our study shows that MPVs have become a significant problem, and it’s likely
to get worse as they become more affordable and popular. We believe the core
of the problem is that riders view motorized e-bikes, skateboards, and scooters
similarly to their non-motorized versions. So, they don’t recognize that a
vehicle capable of going 20-28 mph can cause significant injury to themselves
or others. For this reason, we make the following recommendations:
• The university administration should establish clear rules for all motorized
vehicles on sidewalks and bike paths. MPVs should not be able to go faster
than 6 mph on sidewalks and no faster than 10 mph on bike paths. We pre-
fer not allowing MPVs on any sidewalks, keeping them exclusively on bike
paths, but we know that’s difficult to enforce. The authors offer
recommendations
• The campus police should give tickets to any MPV riders who are speeding for the readers to
or riding recklessly. They should set up weekly speed cameras on campus consider.
to catch riders who are riding dangerously. They should also come up with
clear definitions of “dangerous” or “reckless” riding that allow them to give
tickets to riders who are endangering others.
• Helmets should be required for all riders of MPVs on campus, no matter
what speed they are going. We were surprised that of the 10 solo accidents
we observed no one experienced a head injury.
• The university should create a rider safety campaign targeted at people who
use MPVs. The campaign would use posters, social media posts, and videos
to describe the rules of the road, explain the fines, and highlight the danger
of riding too fast or recklessly.
• Register and track all MPVs used on campus with GPS tags. Registration
will help the campus police keep track of riders who are violating the rules.
If they leave the bike paths while riding faster than 10 mph, the violation
will be recorded, and the rider will be fined.
In the end, MPVs are helpful and convenient ways to get to and around the
HSU campus. They are a good way to cut down on the number of cars on
campus and they open up more room on campus busses. But, MPVs are not In the conclusion,
simply bikes, skateboards, and scooters that happen to have motors mounted the research-
on them. The ability to go 20+ mph carrying adult riders means MPVs can ers reiterate the
importance of the
cause significant injuries to both riders and pedestrians. It’s time to do topic and look to
­something about this growing problem. the future.

References
Andrews, E. (2021). The bicycle’s bumpy history. History.com. https://
www.history.com/news/bicycle-history-invention Bicycle’s Bumpy
History
350 Chapter 18

Bogost, I. (2020, October 20). The e-bike is a monstrosity. The ­Atlantic. https://
www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2022/08/ebike-electric-bikes-
climate-change-exercise/671305/
Fang, K. (2018). Faster than walking, more flexible than biking: Skateboarding
as a real mobility mode. Transfers Magazine. https://transfersmagazine.org/
magazine-article/issue-1/faster-than-walking-more-flexible-than-biking-
skateboarding-as-a-real-mobility-mode/
Reddy, M. V., Mauger, A., Julien, C. M., Paolella, A., & Zaghib, K. (2020). Brief
history of early lithium-battery development. Materials, 13(8), 1884–1888.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13081884
Roe, D. (2022, April 14). Everything you wanted to know about e-bike motors,
explained. Bicycling Magazine. https://www.bicycling.com/bikes-gear/
a25836248/electric-bike-motor
Ziegler, M. S. & Trancik, J. E. (2021). Re-examining rates of lithium-ion battery
technology improvement and cost decline. Energy & Environmental Science,
14(4): 1635–1651. doi:10.1039/D0EE02681F

Inventing Your Report’s Content

18.1 Invent the content of your report with solid research.
The content of a report describes your research methods, presents your findings,
­analyzes those findings, and makes recommendations. To gather this information,
though, you first need to identify your research topic, develop an angle, form a research
question, and state your hypothesis.
TOPIC. Define your topic and then narrow it down to something you can handle in
the time you have available. You might be tempted to take on a large topic, but a nar-
rower topic will allow you to focus your research and get the project done.
ANGLE. The best way to narrow down your topic is to find the angle you want to pur-
sue. Completely new topics are rare, but there are always new angles you can explore
on existing topics. To help you find an angle, ask yourself: What has changed about
this topic recently? What makes this topic especially interesting right now? How does
this topic affect us locally?
RESEARCH QUESTION. Now it’s time to develop your research question. Your research
question should state the unknown or intriguing issue that your research will address.
As discussed in Chapter 30, “Starting Your Research,” your research question should
be as focused as possible.
Too broad—Why do people eat so much fast food?
Focused research question—Do college students turn to fast food as a way to help them
handle stressful situations?

Too broad—Why do crows on campus behave the way they do?

Focused research question­—Why do crows tend to live here on campus in the winter,
and how can we encourage them to go somewhere else?
 Research Reports 351

Too broad—Are children becoming more violent?

Focused research question—Do violent video games cause children to act out more
­violently in their everyday lives?

HYPOTHESIS. Once you have figured out your research question, you can turn it into
a hypothesis that will guide your research. Your hypothesis is your best guess—for the
moment—about how your research question will be answered.

My hypothesis is that fast food contains ingredients like salt, protein, carbohydrates, and fat
that give human bodies short-term fuel for overcoming potential threats. When we are anxious
or stressed, we start thinking about the need for short-term survival, not long-term health.

My hunch is that crows congregate on our campus in the winter because there is ample
food available and sources of warmth. Also, they are intelligent birds and they have strong
social bonds, so campus provides a consistently safe place for them to live together
through the winter.

My speculation is that today’s children fantasize more about violence due to video games,
but these games actually make children less violent because kids can work through their
aggression in a virtual environment.

Your hypothesis serves as your report’s “working thesis.” You’re not committed
to proving it. Instead, your hypothesis gives your research a starting point, and you
should expect to modify it as you find evidence that supports or goes against it. You can
turn to Chapter 30, “Starting Your Research,” for help with creating a good hypothesis.

Inquiring: Finding Out What You Already Know

There is a good chance you already know quite a bit about your topic. That’s why you or
your professor chose it in the first place. So your first task is to discover what is already
stored away in your gray matter about your topic.
Begin by brainstorming about your topic (Figure 18.1). Put your topic at the top of a
piece of paper. Then list everything you know about that topic. Do this for five minutes
or more. When you are finished brainstorming, identify two to five major issues on your
list that you could explore further in your research. Circle these issues or make a special
mark next to them. At this point, you could do some freewriting or Internet research to
see which issue would offer the most interesting topic for your report.

Researching: Creating a Research Plan

When you are finished writing down what you already know, you will have a good idea
about where your research project is going. Now it’s time to figure out which methods
you are going to use to test your hypothesis (i.e., how you are going to do your research).
A concept map is an especially useful tool for developing your research methods
because it will help you figure out the steps needed for your research (Figure 18.2). You
can map out your research methods like this:
1. In the middle of the screen or page, write down your research question.
2. Write down the two to five major steps you will need to take to answer that research
question. Circle them.
352 Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Brainstorming on Your Topic

A brainstorming list is a great way to put your ideas on the screen or a piece of paper. It will also help you
identify the two to five major issues you will probably explore as you do research for your report.

Why Fast Food When We’re Stressed?

Issue 1: Craving Tastes good, so it comforts us.
these ingredients
is a natural Fast food has salt, protein, fat, and carbs, which we do need.
response. Our bodies can’t tell the difference between threats that are physical and
Issue 2: Body treats psychological, so it reacts to stress the same way by seeking fuel.
stressful situations Bodies need quick fuel to handle stressful situations.
as a physical threat.
Survival now, deal with consequences later.
Survival requires more short-term fuel, so the body expects to burn it off.
Your body is telling you to eat!
Issue 3: Desire to It’s in your head. Your body isn’t hungry. It’s just getting ready for “fight
“fight or flee” or flight.” It’s anticipating that you’re going to need to move quickly.
causes cravings.
Constant stress causes obesity, which can lead to diabetes (?).
Refined foods, like sugar and white flour, are like rocket fuel. They are
easier to process, and our bodies are very efficient at using and storing
them.
Lack of sleep puts stress on the body, causing us to crave junk food.
High-stress situations, like exams, cause us to look for “comfort food.”
Mentally, an exam is treated as a threat, much like a fight with another
person or getting away from a dangerous animal.
Ironically, the fast food leads to higher stress, because the temporary
high turns into a crash. That’s fine in the wild, where threats tend to be
brief. (“Oh good, you survived. Now rest for a moment.”)
But, in the modern world, stress can continue for a long time, so more
junk food is needed to satisfy the craving and avoid the crash.
Issue 4: Planning
eating will help We need to plan our eating for stressful situations.
avoid coping
What kinds of healthy foods will help us cope without also adding to our
with junk food.
waists?
Issue 5: Exercise Exercise might be a way to satisfy that “fight or flight” urge and
helps cope with overcome stressful moments.
fight or flight feeling.

3. For each major step, write down two to five minor steps needed to achieve that
major step. Circle them and draw lines to connect each one to a major step.
While you are creating your concept map, keep asking yourself, “How?” “How am I going
to answer that question?” “How am I going to find that information?” “How am I going to
generate that data?” Chapter 30, “Starting Your Research,” can give you some helpful
ideas about how to do your research.
You can then turn your concept map into an outline, as shown in Figure 18.3.
 Research Reports 353

Figure 18.2 Inventing Your Methods with a Concept Map

Even the most experienced researchers find it difficult to develop their research m
­ ethods. Making
a concept map allows you to get your thoughts down in front of you and to organize them spatially.

Minor step
Minor step Minor step Minor step

Major step 1 Minor step

Minor step
Major step 2

Main research Minor step

Minor step question

Major step 3
Minor step Major step 4 Minor step

Minor step
Minor step Minor step

Figure 18.3 Outlining a Methodology

A concept map can easily be turned into an outline like the one shown here. List your major steps and
then arrange the minor steps beneath them.

Research Question: Why Do Stressed-Out Students Eat So Much Fast Food?

Major Step 1: Search for Online Sources

• Review hospital Web sites for information about fast food
• Look on WebMD and other medical Web sites
• Find documentaries about fast food at library or through Netflix
• Search fast food companies’ Web sites for nutrition information

Major Step 2: Find Print Sources

• Visit the Student Health Center to collect pamphlets on stress and diet
• Use Readers’ Guide to find articles in health magazines
• Find articles in medical journals at library
• Check out nutrition and health textbooks in library
• Go to bookstore to browse books that discuss stress and food

Major Step 3: Do Empirical Research

• Interview nutritionist here on campus or in the community
• Create survey for college students
• Observe stressed people at the Student Union
• Interview spokesperson for McDonalds, Taco Bell, or Arby’s
354 Chapter 18

Figure 18.4 The Cyclical Nature of Research Researching: Gathering Sources

By the time you have settled on your final hypothesis, and Revisiting Your Hypothesis
you will have cycled through several rounds of invention,
Your research will inevitably turn up new ideas,
research, and reformulation.
­concepts, and evidence that you didn’t expect. That’s
good. Your objective is not to simply find sources that
Formulate
prove your hypothesis. Instead, your objective is to
research
do an open-ended inquiry into your topic, letting the
question and
write it down facts lead you to answers.
Brainstorm,
You should collect evidence from a vari-
talk with friends
and classmates, ety of online, print, and empirical sources. Turn
journal to C
­ hapter 31, “Finding Sources, Collecting
­Evidence,” for help with finding different kinds of
content.
As you do research, you will also find informa-
Reformulate tion and facts that challenge your hypothesis. That’s
research question
Research not a bad thing. Your original hypothesis was only
and write it
down with online, print, your best guess at what you would find when you
and empirical began your research. Now that you know more about
sources your topic, you should be willing to modify or even
completely change your hypothesis to reflect the evi-
dence you’ve collected.
If your instructor allows you to use artificial intelligence (AI), you may be able
to use it to search out arguments on both sides of the issue you’re researching. For
instance, you might make two queries: 1) “What are the major arguments that support
[your side of the issue]?”; 2) “What are the major arguments that support [the opposing
viewpoint]?” Keep in mind, however, that the output of AI applications can be incorrect
or even irrelevant. Like any evidence you find, any AI-generated information needs to
be thoroughly checked out for accuracy and reliability.
Good research is a cyclical process (Figure 18.4). Return to your hypothesis periodically
to see if you have changed your mind about how you will answer your research question.
Your ideas will evolve as you figure things out and gain a better understanding. Eventu-
ally, your hypothesis will solidify and become the main point (or thesis) of your report.

Organizing and Drafting Your Report

18.2 Use the report genre’s pattern to organize your document.
The best way to draft a report is to write each major section separately. If you concentrate
on one section at a time, you will avoid feeling overwhelmed by the size of the report.

Executive Summary or Abstract

Executive summaries usually devote a small paragraph to each major section of the
report. Abstracts tend to be only one paragraph, devoting a sentence or two to each
section of the report. The executive summary or abstract should be written after you
have finished drafting the rest of the report.
 Research Reports 355

Introduction
An introduction in a report will typically make up to five moves.
STATE THE TOPIC. Tell your readers what the report is about.

STATE THE PURPOSE. In one or two sentences, explain what the report is going
to do or achieve.
STATE THE MAIN POINT. State the overall conclusion of your report (i.e., what you
discovered in your research).
Weak—Our research has turned up some interesting reasons why first-year college
­students gain weight.
Stronger—Based on our research, we have found that stress often causes first-year
­students to turn to fast food, which is in part responsible for their “freshman fifteen”
weight gain.

PROVIDE BACKGROUND INFORMATION. Briefly, give readers enough historical

information about your topic to help them understand it.
EXPLAIN WHY THE TOPIC IS IMPORTANT TO READERS. Tell readers why they
should care about this topic.
These moves can be made in just about any order, and you don’t
need to include them all. Minimally, your introduction should tell your Figure 18.5 First Half of a
readers the report’s topic, ­purpose, and main point. Report
In the first half of a report, include an
Methods Section executive summary or abstract, an
introduction, and a detailed descrip-
Explain your research methods step-by-step in a way that would allow tion of your research methods.
your readers to replicate your research. Each major step will usually
receive at least one paragraph of coverage (Figure 18.5). Explain how Title
you did each step and why you did it that way. Executive Summary
or Abstract
Results or Findings Section
Introduction (topic, purpose,
Choose the two to five most important findings or results from your
main point, importance,
research. In larger reports, each major finding should at least receive its background information)
own paragraph. Your job in this section is to describe what you found.
Where possible, use graphics such as charts, graphs, and tables to pres-
Methods
ent the data you’ve collected.
Opening
Discussion Section
Discuss your results and what they mean. Show how your results Major step
answer your research question. Researchers often boil their results
down to two to five “conclusions.” In most reports, each conclusion
will need a paragraph to discuss how it supports the hypothesis and Major step
the implications. As shown in Figure 18.6, the Discussion section can
be merged with the Results or Findings section if the findings and the
discussion of those findings can be handled together.
356 Chapter 18

Figure 18.6 Second Half of a Results/Findings Results and

Report (Two Patterns) Discussion
In the second half of a report, you should Opening
present and discuss your findings. Here Opening
are two possible structures. The one on
Finding 1
the left separates the findings and results Finding 1
from the discussion; the one on the right and discussion of
merges the findings with the discussion. Finding 2 finding 1

Finding 2
and discussion of
finding 2
Discussion

Opening
Conclusion (signal, main point,
recommendations, importance,
Conclusion 1
and look to the future)

Conclusion 2 References or
Works Cited

Appendices

Conclusion (main point,

recommendations, importance,
and look to the future)

References or
Works Cited

Appendices

Conclusion/Recommendations
The conclusion of your report should be brief. It should make all or some of the
­following moves.
RESTATE YOUR MAIN POINT. One more time, state the report’s overall main point
or discovery.
MAKE TWO TO FIVE RECOMMENDATIONS. Using the results of your research,
offer some recommendations about what should be done about this problem, issue, or
trend. Reports often present these recommendations in the form of a list.
REEMPHASIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TOPIC. Explain briefly why your
­readers should care about this topic and take action.
 Research Reports 357

LOOK TO THE FUTURE. Reports often end with a small paragraph that describes
what will happen with this topic in the near and distant future.
Your conclusion should be brief, perhaps only two or three paragraphs. You want to
leave your readers with a clear sense of what you discovered and what should be done
about it. Your conclusion should not summarize your whole report, nor should it add
new evidence that was not mentioned in the report’s introduction or body.

Works Cited or References

Provide bibliographic information for any sources you have cited. For MLA style,
sources should be listed under the centered heading “Works Cited.” For APA style, list
them under the centered heading “References.” Turn to Chapters 33 and 34 for help
with your references.

Appendices
In the appendices, put any other materials you used or created to collect information
such as surveys and questionnaires. Appendices might also contain data charts, graphs,
previous reports, or other documents that your readers might find useful.

Choosing an Appropriate Style

18.3 Develop a writing style that is neutral and sounds objective.
For most reports, you should try to adopt a neutral and objective tone, providing infor-
mation in a straightforward way. For this reason, reports are usually written in plain
style. Here are some plain-style techniques that work particularly well with the report
genre. Consult Chapter 22, “Choosing a Style,” for more strategies.
USE TOP-DOWN PARAGRAPHS. Consistently put each paragraph’s main claim or
statement in the first or second sentence (i.e., the topic sentence). Then use the remain-
der of the paragraph to prove or support that claim or statement. Putting topic sen-
tences at the top of each paragraph will help your readers locate the most important
information. Moreover, if your readers only have limited time to skim your report, they
can get an overall understanding by reading only the topic sentences.
USE PLAIN SENTENCES. Your sentences should be simple and straightforward. In
each sentence, move your subject (i.e., what the sentence is about) to an early position,
and use active verbs where possible. Look for ways to minimize your use of preposi-
tional phrases. Make sure sentences are “breathing length”—able to be said out loud
in one breath.
USE ACTIVE VOICE WHERE POSSIBLE. Passive voice is common in reports (e.g.,
“These field observations were reinforced by our survey.”), especially in scientific
reports. However, active voice is often stronger and easier to understand, so look for
places where you can turn passive sentences into active sentences. Active voice will help
your readers identify who or what did the action (e.g., “Our survey results confirmed
these field observations.”).
358 Chapter 18

GET RID OF NOMINALIZATIONS. Because reports are usually technical, they

s­ ometimes overuse nominalizations, which can cloud the meaning of sentences.
A nominalization happens when the action in the sentence is expressed as a noun rather
than a verb. Hint: Look for words that end in “-tion” or “-sion.”
Nominalization—This report offers a presentation of our findings on the consumption of
fast food by Clemson students.
Revised—This report presents our findings on the amount of fast food consumed by
Clemson students.
Nominalization—We made a decision to focus our attention on junk food consumption in
the dorms, especially during midterms.
Revised—We decided to focus our attention on junk food consumption in the dorms,
especially during midterms.

Nominalizations make your writing less clear because they hide the action of the sen-
tence in a noun. If you move the action into the sentence’s verb, your meaning will be
much clearer to your readers.
DEFINE JARGON AND OTHER TECHNICAL TERMS. In research reports, jargon
words and technical terms are common and often unavoidable. When you use a jargon
word or a technical term for the first time, give your readers a sentence definition or
parenthetical definition to clarify its meaning.
Sentence definition—Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) is a waxy substance that
causes fat to build up in the walls of larger arteries.
Parenthetical definition—The extreme amount of salt in most fast food can cause
­hypertension, a condition in which a person’s blood pressure rises to an abnormally high
level and potentially does damage to the heart.

In moderation, jargon and technical terms are fine. Define these specialized words so
your readers understand what you are talking about. Where possible, though, use sim-
pler words that your readers will find easier to understand.

Designing Your Report

18.4 Create a design that makes your report easy to use.
Reports usually aren’t flashy documents, but their design can still be attractive and
make them easier to read. Your report’s page design and graphics will often determine
whether your readers actually read your report and whether they can quickly find the
information they are looking for.
DESIGN A “RAIDABLE” PAGE LAYOUT. People rarely read reports from front to
back. Instead, they “raid” reports, looking for the information they need. So you should
use clear headings to highlight key sections and important information. Put critical
pieces of information in lists, tables, or graphics to make them easy to find. Figure 18.7
shows a report that uses an attractive, raidable page layout. The headings help readers
 Research Reports 359

Figure 18.7 A Raidable Page Layout

The design of a report needs to be attractive and accessible to readers. In this report, the authors use
headings, graphics, color, and boxes to highlight important information.

locate key information, and the graphics support the written text. The use of color
attracts the reader to the text. With these design features, there are plenty of access points
inviting the reader into this document.
USE MEANINGFUL HEADINGS. Your report’s headings should give readers a clear
idea about what is in each section of the report. You don’t need to use Methods, Results,
Discussion, and Conclusion as headings. Instead, you can give readers a sense of what
they will find in each section with descriptive and interesting headings:
Our Research Methods: Going Undercover in the World of Fast Food
Our Findings: Stress Drives People to Fast Food
Our Recommendations: Battling the Expanding Waistline with Good Information

USE TABLES, GRAPHS, AND CHARTS TO REINFORCE WRITTEN TEXT. Where

­ ossible, find ways to put your data and other facts into tables, graphs, and charts.
p
Your graphics should reinforce the written text, not replace it.
USE PHOTOGRAPHS TO ILLUSTRATE OR EMPHASIZE KEY POINTS. With the
availability of digital cameras and mobile phones, photographs are now common in
reports. If you find something difficult to describe, perhaps you can take a picture of it
and add it to your report.
INSERT A TABLE OF CONTENTS. If your report is over six pages long, insert a table
of contents to help readers gain an overview of its contents and locate specific informa-
tion easily. Most word-processing programs can generate a table of contents for you.
360 Chapter 18

Microgenre
The Abstract
An abstract is a one-paragraph summary of an article that contains original wording from the document itself.
This is what makes an abstract unique from other kinds of summaries. For a regular summary, you would
use your own words to paraphrase elements of the original text. In an abstract, quite differently, you will use
the same words and even whole sentences that appear in the article. The purpose of an abstract is to give
readers a brief overview of the article itself. Many researchers collect abstracts into databases, or they write
their own abstracts of articles they think will be important to their future research. Abstracts are also used by
search Internet engines and databases to locate articles on specific issues and topics.
Here is how to write an abstract:

Identify your topic early in the introduction. The first sentence in an abstract typically identifies the
topic of the article.

Explain why the topic is interesting, important, or timely. The next two to three sentences of an
abstract will often identify the angle of the article by highlighting what is new or has changed recently to
make it relevant right now.

State the purpose of the article. In one sentence, state the purpose of the article. You will usually find it
early in the original article or in the article’s conclusion.

Describe the methodology used in the article. An abstract will usually identify the research methodology
by name or describe it briefly in one or two sentences.

Describe the major results of the study. As objectively as possible, identify the major findings of the
research without going into detail.

Discuss the major conclusions of the study. State the major conclusion or conclusions of the research
without going into too much detail.

WRITE your own abstract. Find an article that uses the IMRaD structure or explores a topic of interest to
you. Write an abstract that closely summarizes the article’s content.

Clark, Caitlyn E., Barker, Aaron, King, Jennifer, & Reilly,

James. Wind and Solar Hybrid Power Plants for Energy
Resilience. https://doi.org/10.2172/1842446
Abstract: Wind-solar-storage hybrid power plants represent a significant and growing share of
new p ­ roposed projects in the United States (U.S.). Their uptake is supported by increasing renewable
energy m ­ arket share, technical abilities for dispatch and control, and decreasing wind, solar, and
battery storage costs. Simultaneously, generation and storage resources are increasingly used in
distributed power systems. While concerns around the reliability of the aging, transforming U.S. electric
grid are growing, diversifying energy resources through hybridization or spatial distribution provides an
opportunity to enhance power system resilience compared to single-source generation. Understanding
 Research Reports 361

where to build hybrids for resilience value, rather than bulk power supply, has not been fully explored
in previous studies. Therefore, in this study, we complete a national complementarity analysis to
identify areas in the U.S. that are particularly suited for wind-solar hybrid power plant development.
We show the importance of seasonal and diurnal patterns in assessing complementarity, and identify
regions in the Great Plains, midwest, and southeast are that particularly suited for hybrid power plants.
We demonstrate the resilience value of hybridization for a reference system based near Memphis,
Tennessee, and show optimal sizing of wind, solar, and storage assets given 1.0 and 0.9 critical load
factors. Results indicate that pairing wind and solar assets better meet constant load demand and
reduce storage requirements compared to solar alone. These results enable future work integrating
complementarity metrics in resilience frameworks and indicate a need for more finer resolution of local
resource, demand, and hazard data.

Quick Start Guide

Here are some quick strategies to get you going on that research report.

Develop your research question and hypothesis. Write an interesting research question about your
topic—a question you would like to answer with some research. Then turn that question into a h
­ ypothesis
(your best guess about how that research question will be answered).

Find out what you already know. Use prewriting tools to get your ideas onto the screen or a piece of
paper. Star or highlight your best ideas. Then share your ideas with your friends and classmates.

Find out what others know. Develop a research plan that uses a combination of online, print, and
­empirical sources to find information. Interview experts on campus to find out more.

Revisit your hypothesis. After you have done a good amount of research, look at your hypothesis again.
Does it need to be modified or refined?

Organize and draft your report. Organize your draft into sections and write one section at a time. The
most common organization for a report is this: Executive Summary/Abstract, Introduction, Methods,
­Results/Findings, Discussion, Conclusion/Recommendations, References, and Appendices.

Choose an appropriate style. Reports are almost always written in plain style because this style sounds
objective and authoritative. Use plain sentences and top-down paragraphs with solid topic sentences. The
best style is one that sounds neutral and objective.

Design the document. Create an attractive and accessible page layout. Use active headings to help
readers locate important information. Put your data and facts into tables, graphs, and charts so your
­readers can see how they support the written text.

Revise and edit. Revise headings so they clearly state the points you want to make. Edit your paragraphs
to make them easy to scan.
362 Chapter 18

Readings: Research Reports

Reading 1
Andrew Gelman, a respected and award-winning professor of statistics and political
­science at Columbia University, wrote on his blog that he created this unpublished paper
to do some “humorous fun-poking” but also to illustrate how a very real cutting-edge
­survey method could be used for solving difficult research problems. As you read this
research report, notice how the authors use the conventions of the scientific article genre.

“How Many Zombies Do You Know?” Using

Indirect Survey Methods to Measure Alien
Attacks and Outbreaks of the Undead
Andrew Gelman and George A. Romero
Introduction
Zombification is a serious public-health and public-safety concern (Romero, 1968, 1978) but
is difficult to study using traditional survey methods. Zombies are believed to have very low
rates of telephone usage and in any case may be reluctant to identify themselves as such to
a researcher. Face-to-face surveying involves too much risk to the interviewers, and Internet
surveys, although they originally were believed to have much promise, have recently had to be
abandoned in this area because of the potential for zombie infection via computer virus.
In the absence of hard data, zombie researchers1 have studied outbreaks and their dynam-
ics using differential equation models (Munz et al., 2009; Lakeland, 2010) and, more recently,
agent-based models (Messer, 2010). Figure 1 shows an example of such work.
But mathematical models are not enough. We need data.

Measuring Zombification Using Network Survey Data

Zheng et al. (2006) discuss how to learn about groups that are not directly sampled in a
survey. The basic idea is to ask respondents questions such as, “How many people do you
know named Stephen/Margaret/etc.” to learn the sizes of their social networks, questions such
as “How many lawyers/teachers/police officers/etc. do you know,” to learn about the proper-
ties of these networks, and questions such as “How many prisoners do you know” to learn
about groups that are hard to reach in a sample survey. Zheng et al. report that, on average,

1By “zombie researchers,” we are talking about people who research zombies. We are not for a moment

suggesting that these researchers are themselves zombies. Just to be on the safe side, however, we have
­conducted all our interactions with these scientists via mail.
 Research Reports 363

Dynamics of Humans vs Zombies with More Education

1 0
Zombies
Humans
Dead
Gone 10
0.8
hwin
20
0.6
30

0.4
40

0.2 50

60
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 nz = 351

Figure 1: From Lakeland (2010) and Messer (2010). There were other zombie graphs at these sites, but
these were the coolest.

each respondent knows 750 people; thus, a survey of 1,500 Americans can give us indirect
­information on about a million people.
This methodology should be directly applicable to zombies or, for that matter, ghosts, 5

aliens, angels, and other hard-to-reach entities. In addition to giving us estimates of the
­populations of these groups, we can also learn, through national surveys, where they are more
prevalent (as measured by the residences of the people who know them), and who is more
likely to know them.
A natural concern in this research is potential underreporting; for example, what if your
wife2 is actually a zombie or an alien and you are not aware of the fact. This bias can be
­corrected via extrapolation using the estimates of different populations with varying levels of
reporting error; Zheng et al. (2006) discuss this in the context of questions ranging from names
(essentially no reporting error) to medical conditions such as diabetes and HIV that are often
hidden.

Discussion
As Lakeland (2010) puts it, “Clearly, Hollywood plays a vital role in educating the public about
the proper response to zombie infestation.” In this article we have discussed how modern
­survey methods based on social networks can help us estimate the size of the problem.
Other, related, approaches are worth studying too. Social researchers have recently used
Google Trends to study hard-to-measure trends using search volume (Askitas & Zimmerman,
2009; Goel, Hofman, et. al., 2010); Figure 2 illustrates how this might be done in the z­ ombie
context. It would also make sense to take advantage of social networking tools such as
­Facebook (Goel, Mason, et. al., 2010) and more zombie-specific sites such as ZDate.
We ­envision vast unfolding vistas of funding in this area.

2Here we are choosing a completely arbitrary example with absolutely no implications about our marriages

or those of anyone we know.

364 Chapter 18

zombie 1.00 ghost 4.10 alien 1.70

Search Volume index Google Trends

7.50 A E
C
D
B F
5.00

2.50

0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
News reference volume

Figure 2: Google Trends report on “zombie,” “ghost,” and “alien.” The patterns show fascinating trends
from which, we feel, much could be learned if resources were made available to us in the form of a
sizable research grant from the Department of Defense, Department of Homeland Security, or a major
film studio. Please make out any checks to the first author or deposit directly to his PayPal account.
Source: Google and the Google logo are registered trademarks of Google Inc., used with permission.

References
Askitas, N., & Zimmermann, K. F. (2009). Google econometrics and unemployment forecasting.
Applied Economics Quarterly, 55, 107–120.
Goel, S., Hofman, J. M., Lahaie, S., Pennock, D. M., & Watts, D. J. (2010). What can search
predict? Technical report, Yahoo Research.
Goel, S., Mason, W., & Watts, D. J. (2010). Real and perceived attitude homophily in social
networks. Technical report, Yahoo Research.
Lakeland, D. (2010, March 1). Improved zombie dynamics. [Models of Reality Web log post].
http://models.street-artists.org/?p=554
Messer, B. (2010, March 10). Agent-based computational model of humanity’s prospects for
post zombie outbreak survival. [The Tortoise’s Lens Web log post]. http://thetortoiseslens
.blogspot.com/2010/03/agent-based-computational-model-of.html
Munz, P., Hudea, I., Imad, J., & Smith, R. J. (2009). When zombies attack!: Mathematical mod-
elling of an outbreak of zombie infection. In J. M. Tchuenche and C. Chiyaka (Eds.), Infectious
disease modeling research progress (pp. 133–150). Nova Science Publishers.
Romero, G. A. (1968). Night of the living dead. [Film]. Image Ten.
Romero, G. A. (1978). Dawn of the Dead. Laurel Group.
Zheng, T., Slaganik, M., & Gelman, A. (2006). “How many people do you know in prison?”:
Using overdispersion in count data to estimate social structure in networks. Journal of the
American ­Statistical Association, 101, 409–423.

A Closer Look at “‘How Many Zombies Do You Know?’”

1. How well does this mock scientific research report use the features (organization,
objective tone and style, visuals, etc.) of the report genre? Where does it differ from
the typical report genre? Finally, how does the author’s choice to use the report
 Research Reports 365

genre to discuss this outlandish topic make it humorous, and does that choice help
us discern the features of the report genre?
2. All of the books and articles cited are real. Some are serious articles written by scien-
tists, and some are added for humorous effect. Run through the References section
and try to predict which are serious and which are silly. Use Google or another search
engine to actually find these articles and test the accuracy of your predictions.
3. The introduction of a report should define a research question and explain why
it is important to the reader. What is the question defined here? Does the author
explain its importance?

Ideas for Writing

1. Write a mock research report in the style of Gelman and Romero’s article. Choose a
silly topic and write a report similar to this one. Be sure to follow the report genre.
Try to make the moves they make, and try to come up with a few of your own moves.
2. Write a bio of Andrew Gelman. Using Google or another search engine, find
­Gelman’s professional page at Columbia University and take a look at his papers
and some of his blog entries. Do Internet research into his areas of specialization.
Try to capture what distinguishes the work that he does and how he approaches
his work. The s­ tereotype for scientists sees them as very serious, even gloomy
figures devoted only to the scientific truth. How does Gelman seem different from
this stereotype?

Reading 2
In this report, researchers explain the results of their survey on hunger at the City University
of New York campuses. Pay attention to their use of plain style to explain their methods and
findings.

Food Insecurity at CUNY: Results from a Survey

of CUNY Undergraduate Students
Nicholas Freudenberg, Luis Manzo, Hollie Jones, Amy Kwan,
Emma Tsui, and Monica Gagnon

“One of the saddest moments that I have experienced recently occurred at a Council
of Presidents meeting when some presidents indicated to me and other members of the
chancellery that more and more students on their campuses are hungry. They have not
had breakfast or may have missed a meal the night before. In light of the difficult e
­ conomic
times facing very low-income students, I have asked the Office of Student Affairs to
develop . . . programs to focus on issues of hunger, nutrition, and homelessness.”

—Chancellor Matthew Goldstein, CUNY Board of Trustees Meeting, April 27, 2009
366 Chapter 18

Introduction
In this series of reports, we present the results of a survey conducted among CUNY
­undergraduate students in summer and fall of 2010 examining food insecurity, housing
­instability, and a range of mental health issues. The motivation for the survey was concern on
the part of the CUNY administration, reflected in Chancellor Goldstein’s comments above,
about student hunger, homelessness, and psychological well-being in light of the economic
recession. F ­ ollowing Chancellor Goldstein’s comments, the Office of Student Affairs created a
committee co-chaired by Hunter College Distinguished Professor of Public Health Nicholas
Freudenberg and Director of CUNY Mental Health and Wellness Services Luis Manzo. The
­formation of this committee was an important early step in the Healthy CUNY Initiative, an
effort sponsored by the CUNY School of Public Health at Hunter College and the CUNY
­Chancellor’s Office, to promote health and well-being among CUNY students, faculty, and
staff. The committee of CUNY faculty, students, and staff met several times in 2009 and 2010
to design the survey and plan initiatives to better meet the food, housing, and psychological
needs of CUNY students. The survey was conducted with support and advice from the Vice
Chancellor for Student Affairs, the Office of Institutional Research and Assessment, the Baruch
College Survey Research Center, and trained CUNY students who served as data collectors.
For each of the key topics covered by the survey—food insecurity, housing instability, and
psychological well-being—we have developed a policy brief describing and interpreting the
survey data. In this brief, we define our use of the term food insecurity, describe the magnitude
of the problem among CUNY undergraduate students, identify subpopulations that experience
high levels of food insecurity, and present data that compares the experiences of food inse-
curity among CUNY undergraduates to the experiences of residents of New York City, other
college students, and other relevant populations. We also describe the kinds of services that
CUNY and other agencies provide to address the problem of food insecurity, and the degree
to which students are using these services and programs to help meet their food needs.
The results reported here reflect the opinions and judgments of the authors, not of the City
­University of New York as an institution.

Survey Design and Methodology

The findings in this report come from a survey that was conducted in the summer and fall of
2010 with two samples of CUNY undergraduate students. The survey questions, developed
by the previously mentioned committee, asked students about their experiences with food
­insecurity, housing instability, and psychological problems in the last 12 months. The survey
also asked students to describe their basic demographic and academic characteristics. We
used the same survey tool with the two samples, which were recruited in different ways to
enable us to get more complete assessments of the food, housing, and psychological needs of
CUNY undergraduates. The first round of the survey, labeled the CUNY Representative Sample,
was carried out by Baruch College Survey Research (BCSR) on behalf of the Healthy CUNY
­investigators. BCSR staff administered the survey via Internet or telephone to a sample of 1,086
CUNY undergraduate students recruited to match all CUNY undergraduates by gender, age,
race/ethnicity, cumulative grade point average, college, type of college, and class standing.
The sample included respondents from all 17 CUNY community colleges and four-year schools
where undergraduates are enrolled. The participating campuses were: Baruch College, Borough
of Manhattan Community College (CC), Bronx CC, Brooklyn College, City College, College of
Staten Island, Hostos CC, Hunter College, John Jay College, Kingborough CC, LaGuardia CC,
Medgar Evers College, NYC Tech, Queens College, Queensborough CC, and York College.
 Research Reports 367

BCSR’s data collection and data management activities were as follows. A total of 6,883
randomly sampled students were invited to participate in the survey by email, of whom a total
of 1,086 responded, a response rate of 15.7%. To ensure that the resulting sample was repre-
sentative of the CUNY undergraduate population as a whole, the data were weighted by key
demographic variables. Of the 1,086 respondents, 620 (57%) completed the survey online and
466 (43%) completed the survey by telephone. The telephone interview option was added for
those who did not respond to the online option within two weeks and for those whose email
addresses were determined to be invalid. The questionnaire was available in English only. All
telephone interviews were conducted by trained interviewers in the BCSR computer assisted
telephone interviewing (CATI) facility.
The second round of the survey, labeled as the CUNY Targeted Sample, was administered 5

by trained CUNY students, who distributed and collected the surveys in person to students on
the eight campuses with the highest rates of students receiving public assistance. This sample
includes 1,114 students from the Borough of Manhattan, Bronx, Hostos, Kingsborough,
La Guardia, and Queensborough Community Colleges, and John Jay and Medgar Evers
Colleges, both of which are four-year schools. While this sample was not representative of all
CUNY students, it allowed us to compare higher-need campuses with all campuses and to
ascertain whether the needs of students who were reached by face-to-face encounters were
significantly different than those of students who were reached by telephone or online.
In this report, we present findings only from the CUNY Representative Sample unless
­otherwise noted. In analyzing the data from this sample, we began with analyses that describe
the sample demographics. We then explored differences in the outcomes (food insecurity,
housing instability, and measures of mental health) by key variables, such as race, age, and
income. Predictors of these outcomes will be examined in future analyses.

Limitations of this Study

Our study has several limitations. It is possible that our sample is biased, with students with
the problems under study choosing to respond to the survey at higher rates than those unaf-
fected. This would overestimate the true prevalence of the outcomes of concern. It is also
possible that students experiencing food insecurity or housing instability would be less likely to
have working email addresses or telephones or would choose not to disclose possibly stigma-
tizing problems, either of which could lead to an underrepresentation in our sample and thus
an underestimate of the true prevalence of these conditions. The low response rate, 15.7%, is
a cause for concern, although we did weight the resulting sample on several key demographic
measures to ensure that it resembled the population of CUNY undergraduates as a whole on
these characteristics.
A comparison of the rates of outcomes of concern between the representative and the
targeted sample shows statistically significant higher rates of the six outcomes of concern in
the targeted sample. Since the targeted sample includes higher proportions of low income and
Black and Latino students, groups with higher rates of food insecurity and housing instability
in the population as a whole, this finding is not unexpected. However, the fact that two
independent survey methods each showed high rates of problems provides some reassurance
that these findings reflect a valid cause of concern. Whatever the limitations of the surveys,
these data are the most complete available on the prevalence of these problems among CUNY
­students. Whether they over- or underestimate the true prevalence of these problems, they
indicate a clear need for action to ensure that all CUNY students can meet the basic needs of
food and shelter that are a prerequisite for academic success.
368 Chapter 18

Defining Food Insecurity

Food insecurity is defined by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) as having
“limited or uncertain access to nutritious, safe foods necessary to lead a healthy lifestyle.” The
USDA notes that “households that experience food insecurity have reduced quality or variety
of meals and may have irregular food intake.” To assess food insecurity, we asked four ques-
tions about food experiences in the past 12 months. These were:

1. How often did you worry that you would not have enough money for food?
2. How often did you cut or skip a meal because you didn’t have enough money to buy
food?
3. How often were you unable to eat balanced or nutritious meals because of a lack of
money?
4. How often did you go hungry because of a lack of money?

We defined a student as “food insecure” if they answered “often” or “sometimes” to two or

more of these four questions.

Findings
Prevalence of Food Insecurity
10 Based on this definition, the survey showed that:
• Overall, 39.2% of CUNY students in our sample, about two in five, reported that they
experienced food insecurity in the past 12 months. Applying this rate to the estimated
enrollment of 250,000 undergraduate students in the Spring 2010 semester, this sug-
gests that almost 100,000 CUNY students experienced some level of food insecurity in
the last year.
• About twice as many students reported that they often or sometimes worried that they
would not have enough money for food (45.1%) as reported that they often or some-
times went hungry because of a lack of money (22.7%), suggesting that the highest level
of food insecurity (hunger) is less common than lower levels.
• In addition, 19.1% of respondents reported that they knew of other CUNY students,
not including themselves, who had food or hunger problems including lack, limited, or
uncertain availability of food in the last year. This suggests that many CUNY students
are unaware of the extent of the problem of food insecurity among their peers.
• Some populations of CUNY students had significantly higher rates of food insecurity
than others. For example, Black and Latino students were about 1.5 times more likely
to report food insecurity than White and Asian students. Students reporting household
incomes of less than $20,000 a year (about 26% of all CUNY undergraduates) were more
than twice as likely to report food insecurity as those with household incomes of more
than $50,000 a year. Students who support themselves financially were 1.6 times as likely
to report food insecurity as those not supporting themselves. Students working more
than 20 hours per week had a higher rate of food insecurity than those who did not work
(44.0% vs. 35.5%). Finally, rates of food insecurity were higher among those reporting
health problems. Students who reported that their health was fair or poor were more than
1.5 times more likely to report food insecurity than those who rated their health as excel-
lent or good. Students who reported common symptoms of depression were more than
2 times as likely to report food insecurity as those without such symptoms.
 Research Reports 369

Prevalence of Food Insecurity by Selected Student Characteristics (%)

60%
54.9 55.5

50% 48
46.3
42.3 44
40% 37.6 39.1
35.5 35.8
30.5 30.6 29
30% 26.5

20%

10%

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• Almost a quarter of CUNY students (24.3 %) reported both food insecurity and housing
instability. CUNY students over the age of 21 and those earning federal work study were
more likely to report both problems than young students and those not receiving work
study support.

CUNY Student Use of Food-Related Services

Despite the prevalence of food insecurity among CUNY students, few reported using food
assistance services and programs. The survey found that:
• Only 7.2% of students reported using the services of a food pantry or other food
­assistance program in the last 12 months.
• Only 6.4% of students reported currently receiving food stamps (i.e., SNAP benefits)
even though 18% thought they were eligible and 16.6% had previously applied for this
benefit.
• Among students currently receiving food stamps, 63% reported food insecurity, sug-
gesting that for almost two-thirds of the recipients, food stamps were not sufficient to
provide food security.

Comparisons
To better interpret the meaning of the findings on food insecurity reported here, we compared
the prevalence of food insecurity among CUNY students to rates for the United States and New
York City populations and to other college students. According to a 2009 USDA Survey, about
20% of US households worried that their food would run out before the family got money to
buy more, and almost 5% of adults reported that in the last year they were hungry because they
could not afford to buy food. According to the USDA, between 2006 and 2008, an average of
1.4 million New York City residents lived in food-insecure households, about 17% of the city’s
370 Chapter 18

population. This suggests that the prevalence of food insecurity among CUNY students (39%)
is substantially higher than among US and NYC households and adults. In its 2010 annual
poll of a sample of New York City residents, the Food Bank of New York City found that 37%
reported difficulty affording food, a rate comparable to the CUNY finding.
In the only other study of food insecurity among college students that was found, a 2008
survey at the University of Hawaii at Manoa found that 21% of students were food insecure
and 24% were at risk of food insecurity.

Next Steps
The data presented here suggest that many CUNY students experience food insecurity and
that existing programs are not adequately addressing the problem of food insecurity. In the
past few years, CUNY has initiated several new programs to address students’ needs. For
example, all CUNY community college campuses now have Single Stop offices, a program that
links eligible students to government programs like the food stamp program and the Women,
Infants, and Children (WIC) supplemental food program. Some campuses, like Kingsborough
Community College and Hostos Community College, also offer food pantries on campus for
students in need. However, the findings from this survey suggest that additional action is
needed to ensure that CUNY students have the food security they need to productively pursue
an education. Among the strategies that warrant discussion are:
• Efforts to enroll more CUNY students in the federal food stamp program
• Partnerships with food companies to provide discounts on healthy foods to CUNY
students
• Increased linkages between New York City’s many food assistance programs and CUNY
campuses
• More on-site food pantries and food assistance programs
15 • Improved availability of healthy and affordable food through CUNY food services
Based on the findings from this survey, the Healthy CUNY Initiative will in the coming months
develop specific recommendations to reduce food insecurity among CUNY students. If you
have suggestions for addressing the needs described in this report or feedback on the sur-
vey, please send them to: healthcunysurvey@gmail.com. We look forward to your comments
and ideas.

A Closer Look at “Food Insecurity at CUNY”

1. The authors conclude rather definitively that a significant number of students at
CUNY are food insecure. Find five pieces of evidence in this report that allow them
to make that conclusion.
2. With your group, discuss whether you think some students are food insecure at
your college or university. If you think hunger is a problem, how significant is the
problem? What kind of research would you do to find out?
3. Make a list of five ways in which hunger on college campuses could be addressed.
Then compare your list with those made by your classmates. What ideas do you
have in common? What ideas seem unique or innovative? With a group, sketch out
a plan for addressing food insecurity at your college or university.
 Research Reports 371

Ideas for Writing

1. Choose a social problem at your campus that you would like to know more about.
Devise a survey that you could give to students on your campus that would help
you collect data on that problem. Then write a reflection in which you explain how
your survey works and what kinds of results you would expect it to gather.
2. Hunger at a college or university seems like a basic problem that should be solved.
Write a proposal in which you come up with a strategy for fighting hunger at
your campus. How would you go about providing food on a temporary basis to
students? What are some of the long-term strategies you might suggest that would
keep food insecurity from being a problem at your college or university?

Activities for Research Reports

Talk About This
1. With your group, brainstorm a list of report types—lab reports, research reports,
recommendation reports, police reports, credit reports, and other types that you
might have come across. Come up with five characteristics that all these reports
have in common. Then list one thing about each kind of report that makes it
unique.
2. Find and download a report from the Internet. To find a report, put “Report” and
a topic that interests you into an Internet search engine like Google, Bing, Yahoo!,
or Baidu. (You might include “.pdf” or “.doc” in the search line to narrow the
search.) A list of reports should pop up. With your group, discuss whether the
report’s topic, purpose, and main point are clearly stated in the introduction.
3. After reading the student group example in this chapter, discuss with your group
how well this report follows the genre of the research report. Separately, consider
its content, organization, and style. What could be improved?

Try This Out

1. Make a list of five topics on which you might want to do research. Then pick
three of these topics, choose an angle, and narrow them down to something that
you could handle in a report. When choosing an angle, try to figure out why this
issue is interesting right now. Share your topic ideas with your group.
2. Devise a research question that interests you. Then turn it into a hypothesis.
Using a prewriting tool, such as brainstorming or a concept map, sketch out a
research methodology that would allow you to answer this question and prove
or disprove your hypothesis. Turn your methodology into an outline. Then write
a one-page memo to your professor that reviews your outline and explains why
you have chosen to pursue your research question this way.
372 Chapter 18

3. Use an Internet search engine to find a report on the issue you are or will be
investigating. Write a one-page analysis of the report. Does the report have all the
elements described in this chapter? Were there gaps in the report? Was the report
organized well? Are the style and design appropriate for the topic?

Explore This
There are many, many microgenres related to the report. Choose a microgenre from the
following list and find three examples in print or on the Internet. Then come up with
your own guidelines that explain how to write one of these microgenres.
Primer—a brief report about a well-understood issue but addressed to an outsider
(e.g., older person, foreigner, extraterrestrial being) who is unfamiliar with it
Incident report—description of an event (an accident or unusual occurrence) that
you witnessed or experienced
White paper—a brief factual report that informs people about problems, issues,
and trends
Consumer report—a report describing head-to-head testing of two or more
products
Research activity report—a report describing how you conducted your print,
online, and empirical research (listing search engines, search terms, etc.) and
how you assessed the reliability of those sources

Write This
1. Turn a print report into a multimedia presentation. On the Internet, find a
report and transform it into a multimedia presentation that has ten to fifteen
slides. Use presentation software like PowerPoint or Keynote to help organize the
information and make it attractive to an audience. Where possible, add graphs,
charts, photographs, and other visuals that will help explain the topic.
2. Write a field research report. A field research report gives you a chance to collect
data about local issues in your community or on campus. To write one, you need
to pose a research question, devise a method for answering it, do the research,
and interpret your findings. With a small group, do these activities:
a. Make a list of interesting or urgent issues or questions that your community
or campus faces. What are some of the more annoying problems on your col-
lege’s campus that you know about or that are in the news?
b. Choose one that seems especially annoying. What has changed recently to
bring this problem to a head?
c. Discuss this problem with a group of other people in your class.
d. Choose one angle of that issue and turn it into a research question that could
be answered by doing field research (interviews, surveys, observations). State
that research question briefly but clearly and thoroughly.
e. Turn your research question into a hypothesis.
 Research Reports 373

Show your research question and hypothesis to your professor. If they approve it,
begin your research. Write an eight-page report on your topic.
3. Answer an eccentric question in an experimental report. Pose an odd
­question that you would like to answer (e.g., “How big are the splatters from
eggs dropped from different heights?” “How do people react when they see a
strangely worded sign?”). Then devise a research methodology and come up
with some results. Write a report that presents your findings. Include pictures or
other graphics.
 Chapter 19
Résumés and
Application Letters
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

19.1 invent the content of your résumé and application letter.

19.2 organize and draft your résumé and application so they work together
effectively.
19.3 establish a tone that reflects your personality and design your materials
to make them attractive and accessible.

If this is your first or second year in college, you might be wondering why you would
need a résumé and an application letter right now. You are probably a few years away
from graduating, which means you’re not currently looking for a professional job.
Creating a résumé and application letter early in college is becoming more and more
important as universities and colleges strive to help students find scholarships, fellow-
ships, and internships while preparing them for professional careers.
• A résumé is a one- or two-page summary that outlines your career objectives,
­qualifications, experiences, skills, and activities. Of course, résumés are used for
job-finding, but they are also useful for pursuing scholarships, internships, and
awards while you are in college. After you graduate, your résumé will be used for
annual reviews and placing you on teams within the company or organization.
• An application letter is a one- to two-page document that explains who you are by
highlighting your achievements, qualifications, and skills. These letters elaborate
on the most important aspects of your résumé, using examples and anecdotes to
explain why you would be a good fit for a job, fellowship, internship, scholarship,
or award. They are also used in applications to graduate schools and professional
schools, including law school and medical school.
Résumés and application letters work hand in hand with each other. Your résumé
offers a factual summary of your background, while your application letter uses

374
 Résumés and Application Letters 375

Mark Bowden/123RF
e­ xamples to tell your story and demonstrate why you are a good fit for a specific
opportunity.
If you are early in your college career, now is a good time to create a starter version
of your résumé and application letter. You may not have many credentials and experi-
ences to put on your résumé, which is fine. Making a starter résumé is a good way to
identify some key experiences (e.g., internship, specialized coursework, activities) that
you want to have before you graduate while highlighting the credentials you want to
earn (e.g., degrees, certificates, and special training). Your professors may also ask you
to create an aspirational resume that predicts what your resume will look like when
you graduate from college or are ten years into your career.
Similarly, writing your application letter will help you think through your future
in college and beyond. Right now, you’re at a pivotal moment in your life. Here’s a
good opportunity to think about who you are, who you want to be, and how you’re
going to get there. Early in college, most people don’t have all these things worked
out yet. Again, that’s normal. Writing a starter version of your application letter is
a good way to look into your future to figure out who you want to be and how you’re
going to get there.
Eventually, you will need a résumé and application letter to find a job, so let’s start
that process right now. The purpose of this chapter is to help you create starter versions
of these important documents. You can modify them as you progress through college.
And you may need them sooner than you think for scholarships, fellowships, intern-
ships, and awards!
376 Chapter 19

At-A-Glance
Résumés and Application Letters
There are many ways to write a résumé and application letter, so we’re going to offer basic patterns for both
here. As you can see in the patterns below, these two documents contain similar kinds of i­nformation. The
résumé puts the facts in a summary form, usually using lists and short phrases or ­sentences. An ­application
letter connects those facts together into a larger story or argument for choosing you over others.

Résumé Application Letter

Name and contact
Introduction
information

Career objective Educational background

Educational background Work experience

Work experience Skills and abilities

Conclusion: Look to
Skills and abilities
the future

Awards and activities

References available

Résumés and application letters work hand in hand to present your career objectives, credentials,
­experiences, and values to people who are reviewing your background. They tend to share the following
features:
• The topic (you) who your readers may not know but want to learn about.
• A career objective or main point that explains what kind of future you are striving to build for yourself.
• A description of your educational achievements, work experiences, and skills that helps the readers
better understand what you have accomplished and are capable of doing.
• Examples in your application letter that explain and illustrate some of the factual information in
your résumé.
• Anecdotes in your application letter that describe your successes and reveal your abilities and values.
• A conclusion in your application letter that states why you are a good fit for the opportunity and looks
to the future.
 Résumés and Application Letters 377

One Student’s Work: Résumé and Application Letter

The career Chris Jenkins Brand

objective
East Hall, Room 210 Mobile: 501-439-9875
offers a
University of Arkansas-Little Rock e-mail: cbrand192@ualr.edu
direction for
Little Rock, Arkansas 72201 LinkedIn: www.linkedin.com/cbrand-3852652
the resume
by explaining
where you Career Objective
want to go. A career as a financial planner who specializes in helping low-income to middle-income clients build
wealth by developing family budgets, starting their own businesses, and investing steadily over time.
Courses are
a good way
to show Education
readers what Bachelor of Business Administration, Walton College, University of Arkansas, expected Spring 2026
you have Major: Finance with Financial Management/Investment Concentration, GPA: 3.8/4.0
learned.
Career-Related Coursework
FINN 2043, Principles of WCOB 1111, Freshman ISYS 1123, Business
Finance Business Connection Application Knowledge
In a starter ACCT 2013, Accounting ECON 2023, Principles of COMM 1313, Public
resume, your Principles Microeconomics Speaking
work
experience Work Experience
may not be
career related, Maître d’ and Shift Supervisor, September 2022 to present
but you can Sunnyside Family Kitchen, Little Rock, Arkansas
show that you • Managed a team of five servers who were responsible for taking orders and delivering
know how to meals to customers
show up • Collaborated with head cook to ensure that meals were ordered properly and presented on time
and work. • Trained new servers in restaurant procedures and etiquette

Server, June 2018 to August 2022

Brand’s BBQ, Nashville, Tennessee
• Greeted guests in person or on the phone and took food and drink orders
Many readers • Offered recommendations of appetizers, meals, desserts, and drinks to guests
will be • Delivered food curbside to guests during the Covid-19 pandemic
looking for
these Computer and Management Skills
computer Computer Experience: MS Office Suite (Word, Excel, Outlook, PowerPoint); Adobe InDesign,
skills and
Photoshop, Acrobat DC, Illustrator, and Dreamweaver; Google Drive Suite (Docs, Slides,
so-called
Sheets); Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, TikTok
“soft skills.”
Management Skills: Public speaking, time management, problem-solving, teaming, and collaboration

Awards, Volunteering, and Memberships

Edwards Scholarship, Walton College, University of Arkansas
Student Member, Financial Planning Association of Middle Tennessee, 2022
Volunteer, Salvation Army dining room, October 2022 to present

References Available on Request

378 Chapter 19

Chris Jenkins Brand

East Hall, Room 210
University of Arkansas-Little Rock
Little Rock, Arkansas 72201

January 23, 2023

Gina Halverson, Academic Outreach Coordinator

The Webber Financial NexGen Scholarship Program
introduction 1231 North Wilson Ave., Suite A
states the Alexandria, Virginia 22314
purpose and
main point Dear Ms. Halverson:
of the letter
I am writing to apply for your Financial Futures NextGen Scholarship. I am currently a first-year
while offering
student at the University of Arkansas-Little Rock, majoring in Finance with a Financial
some
background Management/Investment Concentration. I believe I would be a good fit for your NextGen
information. scholarship because I am a first-generation college student, and I am interested in offering financial
planning services to people who live in low-income and middle-income neighborhoods.

You might My interest in financial planning began when I took a business management course in high school.
describe how As a working-class kid from a family who owned and ran a restaurant, I was both surprised and
you became excited to learn about careers in personal finance. To be honest, my mother and father have worked
interested in hard their whole lives in their restaurant, twelve hours a day, and they are usually only just getting
the career by. The Covid pandemic only made things worse because we needed to close our dining room and
path you serve customers exclusively curbside. My parents don’t have much savings to fall back on, and they
are following. laugh when I ask them about retirement. My mama says, “I’ll be retired when they wheel me outta
here!” My high school business management course showed me that careful planning and investing
can help people like my parents make a budget, create an emergency fund, invest small amounts,
Coursework and set life goals.
and
volunteering At the University of Arkansas-Little Rock, I have been taking the core courses in business and
are good finance at the Walton School, and I am looking forward to moving into advanced courses in
topics to financial planning. I’m doing well in my classes, and I have developed a mentoring relationship
discuss in with Professor Jacob Sensig, who specializes in personal finance. His letter of reference is included
a college in my application. I am working as a maître d’ and shift supervisor at the Sunnyside Family
student’s Kitchen. I also volunteer weekly at the Salvation Army’s dining room in Little Rock, where my
application experience in restaurants has been helpful with organizing and supervising other volunteers.
letter.
I would be a good student ambassador for your scholarship program. I enjoy my schoolwork and
This
paragraph job, but I am essentially responsible for paying for my college education. Your NextGen
states the scholarship would help me avoid taking out student loans. In the future, I hope to serve as a
main point financial planner for people like the folks from my old neighborhood—hardworking people who
and looks often can’t catch a break.
to the future.
Thank you for considering my application. I can be reached at 501-555-9875 or cbrand192@ualr.edu
if you would like more information or would like to schedule an interview.
You can Sincerely,
scan your
signature
and insert
Chris Jenkins Brand
it at the
end of
the letter.
 Résumés and Application Letters 379

Inventing the Content of Your Résumé

and Application Letter
19.1 Invent the content of your résumé and application letter.
Fortunately, you already know quite a bit about the topic of your résumé and application
letter because that topic is you! Now you need to figure out how to put all those things
you already know about yourself into two concise documents. Of course, the readers of
your résumé and application letter don’t need to know everything about you. Instead,
they want to know information that would make you attractive as a potential scholar-
ship winner, award recipient, intern, employee, or a student in their graduate program.
Your goal is to tell them the need-to-know information that they require to make
a decision while giving them a deeper sense of your values and overall mission in life.

Inquiring: Finding Out What You Already Know

About Yourself
Take some time to think about your experiences to this point in life and what makes you
unique or interesting. There’s nobody else quite like you, so you should start by iden-
tifying what you have accomplished so far. Then you want to figure out what makes
you different or unique from others.
Here are a couple of helpful prewriting tools you can use to generate information
about yourself.
ANSWER THE FIVE-W AND HOW QUESTIONS. The Five-W and How questions
(who, what, where, when, why, how) are a good way to begin exploring your back-
ground and values.
Who? Who exactly are you? Who has influenced you in the past, and who do
you consider an important influence or mentor in your life? Who are you hoping to be
in the future?
What? What credentials (diplomas, degrees, certificates) have you earned
already? What are you qualified to do right now, and what do you want to be qualified
to do in the future? What kind of career seems to fit your interests and lifestyle?
Where? Where have important events in your life happened? Where are you
going to college? Where have you traveled to? Where would you like to live someday?
When? When did the major events in your life happen? When will important
dates, such as graduating from college, happen in the future?
Why? Why did you choose to go to college? Why have you succeeded in the past?
Why have you come up short (or even failed) in a few key moments in your life? Why
have you changed at specific points in your life?
How? How have your experiences shaped your outlook on life? How have you
responded to important people and events in your life? How do you want to be viewed
or thought of in the future?
380 Chapter 19

USE FREEWRITING. Freewriting is a good way to reflect on what you have accom-
plished and what kind of future you would like to build for yourself. Your answers
to the Five-W and How questions should have helped you identify many of the basic
details and facts about your past. Now, you can use your answers to these questions as
a foundation for discussing who you are and who you would like to be.
Freewrite about your past—Start by freewriting specifically about your past for five
minutes, using your answers to the Five-W and How questions to generate content.
Open two windows on your screen. In one window, you should show your answers
to the who, what, where, when, why, and how questions. Then, in a blank window,
start typing any stories you can remember about the things you have accomplished
and experienced. Just write for about five minutes, and don’t stop to revise or correct
anything on the screen. Open your mind and let the stories flow out.
Freewrite about your future—Take a break and then freewrite about the future
you imagine for yourself. Specifically, describe the kind of future career you would
like to have. This freewriting will be more difficult than writing about your past
because much of what you are writing about (your future) hasn’t happened yet. Try
to imagine what kinds of courses you will need to take while you are in college and
what kinds of activities or clubs might help you develop career-related qualifica-
tions and experiences. Think about what kinds of internships or work experiences
would look good on your résumé to potential employers.
Figure 19.1 shows a freewrite done by a first-year college student who was imagining
what his future might look like.

Researching: Finding Out What Information About

Careers Is Available
Now is a good time to do some research on a few careers that might interest you. That
way, you will know what kinds of qualifications, experiences, and skills you will need
to enter those professions. The Internet, of course, is a good place to start gathering
information, but you can also use print and empirical sources to find information that
would be useful for building your résumé and application letter.
ONLINE SOURCES. Start by doing some research on careers using an Internet search
engine like Google, Bing, Yahoo!, or Baidu. You probably already have an idea of what
kinds of careers might interest you. Run keyword searches to gather information on
each of those careers. Pay special attention to any qualifications needed for jobs that
interest you. You might also run searches for jobs on career websites like Indeed.com,
Monster.com, and Glassdoor. In these job advertisements, you will find lists of qualifica-
tions and skills that employers are looking for.
PRINT SOURCES. Each department in your college or university will usually have
print sources about majors and minors, such as plans of study, brochures, and pam-
phlets. These print materials might also be available for download on these depart-
ments’ websites. Your advisor can help you decide what majors, minors, or certificates
may be best for you and even give you print or online sources to do your own research
on them.
 Résumés and Application Letters 381

Figure 19.1 Freewriting About Your Past and Future Career

Honestly, until this class, I haven’t ever really thought deeply about my future career. I hate to admit this, but I’ve usually done what my parents and other people
have told me I should do. People would always ask me what I wanted to be when I grew up. After the “I want to be a firefighter” stage that many kids go through,
I began telling people I wanted to be lawyer like my mom. Adults seemed to like that idea, even if they sometimes groaned about “another lawyer” in the world.
My mom is a lawyer, but I really never knew much about what she does and how you become a lawyer. She’s mentioned something about going to law school,
whatever that is. She did say I would need to get into a good college and that meant getting good grades in high school. So, I did that. I was on the dean’s list
more times than not in high school. People also told me I would need to show that I am a well-rounded person. So, I played soccer and golf as a kid and was
the starting as a forward for my high school team. It was fun to be on those teams, but I was just OK, and I wasn’t too disappointed when my days of playing
high school soccer and golf came to an end. I still like to play golf, but I don’t do it competitively. In both sports, I played on the varsity and earned letters my
last two years. I also did stuff with the debate club, because people said that would be a good way to improve my critical thinking and arguing skills for being
a lawyer. I didn’t really enjoy getting up early on Saturdays to go debate kids halfway across the state. But I was in the top 20 percent of debaters in the state.
I competed in the Cross Examination category, which is the most like what a lawyer does in a law court. I was really good if I can say so myself. Normally, I could
get the team on other side to concede the weaknesses in their arguments. I was pretty good at defending my positions, even if I was just making stuff up in the
moment.

Now that I’m in college, I find myself rethinking what I want to do as a career. Maybe I burned out on the lawyer thing in debate club. If you want the truth, I’m
getting more interested in techie stuff, especially startup companies. I think it would be cool to get in on the ground floor of a new tech company and ride that
tiger. So, I’ve been looking into Computer and Information Technology as a major. I’m especially interested in AI-related stuff. But I have to admit that I don’t
know how to get there, except maybe declaring CIT as my major. I also heard there’s a certificate in entrepreneurship that I can get, but I also don’t know much
about how to do that. Obviously, that’s stuff I need to look into. I like playing video games, and I know a lot of the people going into CIT have joined the
Way-Too-Serious Gamers Club here on campus. That’s something I should do. Plus, maybe I could make some friends and talk to people who are a little further
into their major. Maybe they can help me figure out if CIT is for me.

In the end, I guess I could do both and make up my mind later about a career. I could do the pre-law stuff that everyone has always pushed me toward. But
then, I can also get a minor or even double-major in CIT. That might even be an awesome combination. I could be a lawyer who works with startup IT companies.
Or I could be a computer network guy who knows his way around the legal aspects of high tech. Either way, that would be kind of cool.

EMPIRICAL SOURCES. Sometimes the best way to figure out your career path is
to talk to people who are already doing jobs in careers that interest you. Admittedly,
sending an e-mail and talking to strangers about their jobs can be a bit awkward,
but most professionals enjoy talking to college students about their careers. And if
they don’t want to talk, they won’t respond to your e-mail or will turn down your
request.
Informational Interviewing. An information interview involves contacting three
to five people who are already working in the career you imagine for yourself. You
can use an Internet search engine to find people who seem to have the kind of job
you are interested in. Then, send them an e-mail in which you request a half-hour
phone call or video conference. Tell them you are a college student who is inter-
ested in a career like theirs and ask if you can chat briefly with them. You will be
surprised to find out that many of them will say “yes” to the request.
Career Testing. You might also take a career test to determine what kinds of jobs
would fit your interests. If you have a career center at your college or university,
you might check its website to see if career testing is available. Career testing usu-
ally involves answering a series of questions about your interests. Then the career
test will identify a few career paths that fit what you enjoy and like to do. Career
tests are also available for free on the Internet; however, you should be careful
not to reveal personal information about yourself. They may use your answers to
identify you or target you with advertising.
382 Chapter 19

Organizing and Drafting Your Résumé

and Application Letter
19.2 Organize and draft your résumé and application so they work together
effectively.
Even though résumés and application letters share similar information, they are not orga-
nized the same, so let’s talk separately about how to organize each of these documents.

Organizing Your Résumé

A résumé usually includes a few standard sections (Career Objective, Education, Work
Experience, Skills, Activities, etc.) The student example at the beginning of this chapter
and the résumé in Figure 19.2 show examples of how these sections might be organized
in two different résumés by college students. Again, if you are early in your college career,
you won’t have much information to include in some of these sections. Use the headings
anyway and leave those sections empty. The empty sections of your starter résumé will
highlight credentials and experiences you should strive to achieve before you graduate.
NAME AND CONTACT INFORMATION. At the top of the page, your résumé should
include a header that states your name, address, phone number, and e-mail address.
You can also include your social media handles and a personal web address. To catch
the reader’s eye, your name should appear in a larger font size and perhaps a color.
The header can be left-justified, centered, or right-justified, depending on the design
of your résumé.
CAREER OBJECTIVE OR CAREER SUMMARY. A career objective is a phrase or sen-
tence that describes the internship, fellowship, or career you are seeking. Your career
objective should specify the type of position you are applying for and the industry in
which you want to work. Avoid writing a career objective that is too narrow or too
broad. A career objective that is too narrow might eliminate you from some potential
jobs, and one that is too broad will make you sound like you don’t know what kind of
job or opportunity fits your credentials. Here are a couple of good examples:

Seeking a career as an information technology specialist in the video game industry.

Looking for an internship in hospital administration, especially in an urban setting.

A career summary is a sentence or brief paragraph that describes your career to this
point. Career summaries are typically used by applicants with years of experience.

I have worked as an assistant manager in a major hotel chain for four years. Before that,
I was a resident associate in the Eastern Michigan University dorms.
My experience as a shift supervisor for the Grant Street Pizzeria allowed me to learn the
restaurant business from the inside while I was acquiring valuable leadership skills, learn-
ing team management strategies, and developing a sense of poise under pressure.

A career objective or career summary is not required in a résumé, but including one
can help you focus your search for an internship, fellowship, or job while highlighting
experiences or skills that may be valuable to potential employers.
 Résumés and Application Letters 383

Figure 19.2 A Résumé for a Graduating College Student

Su-Ho Kim
576 First Avenue, Rolla, Missouri 65408
Phone: 573-555-4391, e-mail: suhokim1231@umr.edu

Career Summary A paragraph-style

My interest in chemical engineering started with a childhood fascination with plastic
career summary
products. I enrolled at the University of Missouri–Rolla because of its strong chemical can be used to
engineering program, especially in the area of applied rheology and polymeric materials. tell a story.
I have also completed a co-op with Vertigo Plastics in St. Louis. My background
includes computer modeling skills, especially involving polymeric materials.

Work Experience The paragraph

Vertigo Plastics, Inc., St. Louis, Missouri 5/21–1/22, 5/23–1/23 style allows
Co-op Chemical Engineer more information
Performed inspections of chemical equipment and plant equipment affected by to be included,
chemical systems (such as boilers and condensers). Monitored the performance of but it's harder
chemical systems at various sites throughout the Vertigo Plastics system. Performed to read quickly.
calculations and wrote reports summarizing the performance of those systems.
Helped troubleshoot problems.

Other Work Experience Briefly mention

To Go Pizza, Cook, Springfield, Missouri 2/20–7/20 work experience
that is not
Educational Background related to the
University of Missouri–Rolla, Bachelor of Science in Engineering Expected 5/23 desired career.
Major: Chemical Engineering
Advanced Coursework included Chemical Engineering Fluid Flow, Chemical Listing courses
Engineering Heat Transfer, Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics I & II, Process by name can be
Dynamics and Control, Chemical Engineering Reactor Design, Chemical Engineering a good way to
Economics, Chemical Process Safety, Chemical Process Design, and Chemical Process include keywords
Materials. that recruiters
are searching for.
University of Missouri–Online, Certificate in Technology Entrepreneurship 5/22

Activities and Awards

Awarded Stevenson Scholarship in Engineering 2/22
Treasurer, UMR Student Chapter, Am. Inst. of Chem. Engineers (AIChE) 9/21–Present
Member, Tau Beta Pi 11/22

Dossier with References Available at UMR Placement Services

(573-555-2941)
384 Chapter 19

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND. Your educational background should list your col-

lege degree(s) in reverse chronological order (i.e., most recent degree to least recent
degree). You can list the degree you are working toward now as “expected” with the
month and year when you expect to graduate.
Below each degree you may want to list any coursework you have completed that
is related to your desired career. If you list coursework, use both the course numbers
and their titles, not only the course numbers. Potential employers won’t know what the
courses ABAS 239 or ENGR 3785 are without their titles.
A few other items might also be listed in the Educational Background area. Any
specialized training can also be listed here, such as a welding certification and training
with machinery as well as leadership courses or military training. The name of your
high school and date of graduation might be mentioned while you are still in college.
However, any high school information will usually need to be taken off your résumé
when you are applying for jobs after graduating from college.

CAREER-RELATED WORK EXPERIENCE. Any career-related jobs, internships, or

co-ops that you have held should be listed, starting with the most recent and working
backward chronologically. For each career-related experience, include the title of the
position, the company’s name, and dates of employment (month and year).
Below each position, list your workplace responsibilities. As demonstrated in the
example student résumés in this chapter (see Figures 19.1 and 19.2), you can describe
these responsibilities in a bulleted list or a brief paragraph. Use action verbs and brief
phrases to add a sense of energy to your work experience. Also, where possible, add
any numbers or details that reflect the importance of the responsibilities of your job.

Supervised 8 students completing their welding certifications.

Worked with over 100 clients on upgrading their irrigation systems.

Verb-first phrases are usually preferable to full sentences because they are easier
to read and require less space. Some action verbs you might consider using on your
résumé include the following:
adapted devised organized
analyzed directed oversaw
assisted equipped planned
collaborated examined performed
collected exhibited presented
compiled implemented proposed
completed increased recorded
conducted improved researched
constructed instructed studied
coordinated introduced supervised
corresponded investigated taught
designed managed trained
developed observed wrote
 Résumés and Application Letters 385

OTHER WORK EXPERIENCE. Most people have worked at jobs that were not related
to their desired career. If you have worked at a pizza place, waited tables, or painted
houses in the summer, those jobs can be listed in your résumé. But they should not be
more prominently placed than your career-related work experience, nor should they
receive a large amount of space. Instead, simply list these jobs in reverse chronological
order, with names, places, and dates.

Painter. Campus Painters. Omaha, Nebraska. May 2023–September 2023.

Server. Crane River Brewpub and Cafe. Omaha, Nebraska. May 2022–March 2023.

Do not offer any additional description unless you were in a leadership position of
some kind. After all, most people are well aware of the responsibilities of a painter or
server. Any more description will only take up valuable space on your résumé.
SKILLS AND LANGUAGES. Résumés will often include a section that lists career-
related skills and languages. In this area, you should mention your abilities with
­computers, including any software or programming languages you know how to use.
If you know any natural languages other than English, here is a good place to mention
the level of fluency you have reached. Some words that you can use include fluent,
professional, conversational, basic, reading and writing, and reading only. For example:

Computer Skills: Word processing (Word, Google Docs), desktop publishing (InDesign),
web design (Dreamweaver, Wix), and data processing (Excel, Numbers)
Leadership Abilities: President of Wilkins Honor Society, 2021–2022. Treasurer of Lambda
Kappa Kappa Sorority, 2019–2021. Volunteer Coordinator at the Storehouse Food Shelter,
2019 to present.
Natural Languages: Spanish (professional fluency), Italian (reading only)

AWARDS AND ACTIVITIES. List any awards you have won and any organized activ-
ities in which you have participated. Should you list any sports or hobbies? Sure. Today,
employers are looking for people who fit their culture, so listing a couple of sports or
hobbies is appropriate to reveal more about you, especially if your activities are relevant
to the types of jobs you are seeking.

REFERENCES. Your references are the three to five people who employers can call to
gather more information about you. Your references should include current or former
supervisors, instructors, colleagues, and professionals who know you and your work.
References can take up a large amount of space on a résumé, so they are typically
not listed on the résumé itself. Instead, a line at the bottom of your résumé should state,
“References available upon request.” Then your references—listed on a separate sheet of
paper under the heading “References”—can be sent to any employer who requests them.

Organizing an Application Letter

An application letter describes your educational background, work experiences, quali-
fications, and skills while using examples and anecdotes to describe you as a whole
person. Your basic argument in an application letter is that you would be a good fit
for the job, internship, scholarship, or award. Where possible, you should show that
386 Chapter 19

you’re different in some way that makes you a uniquely qualified candidate for the
opportunity.
INTRODUCTION. You should begin your letter by making up to five moves com-
monly found in the introduction of any document:
Topic—Identify yourself and the opportunity you are applying for.
Background information—Tell the readers where you learned about the
opportunity.
Stress the importance of the topic—Briefly highlight why the opportunity is
important to you.
Purpose—Tell the readers that you would like to apply for the opportunity.
Main point—State that your qualifications, experiences, and skills would make
you a strong candidate for the opportunity.
As shown in Figure 19.3, the introduction in an application letter will usually be one
or two brief paragraphs.
BODY. Typically, the body of an application letter will have two to three paragraphs
that use examples and anecdotes to review your educational background, work experi-
ence, and skills and abilities:
Educational background—Again, if you are early in your college career, you prob-
ably don’t have much to talk about regarding your educational background. So, for
now, you may want to talk about coursework you are currently taking and career-
related coursework you will take in the future.
Work experience—Describe any jobs you have now or have had in the past. Use
examples to show the readers your job responsibilities. Also, mention any intern-
ships you will be seeking while in college.
Skills and abilities—Describe some of your current skills, including abilities like
speaking another language, using computers, or working with any kind of technol-
ogy or machinery. You can also describe some of your “soft skills” like leadership,
problem-solving, or the ability to work with teams of other people. Examples and
anecdotes are especially helpful to illustrate these soft skills to the readers.
In the body of your letter, include examples and anecdotes that illustrate your quali-
fications and experiences (Figure 19.3). For instance, you might describe a project you
­completed in a course or your responsibilities at a job or in an internship. Use stories
from your past to illustrate how you are a good leader or how you work well with
a team.
CONCLUSION. The conclusion of your application letter should make up to four
moves: (1) thank the readers for the opportunity to apply, (2) restate why you would
be a good fit for the job, internship, or fellowship, (3) offer contact information so
they can reach you, and (4) tell them you look forward to hearing from them about
the job or opportunity. Your goal is to leave a positive impression. A good conclusion
will be a maximum of three to four sentences. Figure 19.3 shows a brief but effective
conclusion.
 Résumés and Application Letters 387

Figure 19.3 An Application Letter for a Graduating College Student

576 First Avenue

Rolla, Missouri 65408

March 12, 2023

Harold Brown, Human Resources Director

Farnot Solutions
4819 Renaissance Lane
Rochester, New York 14608

Dear Mr. Brown:

Last week, you and I met at the University of Missouri–Rolla engineering job fair. You The introduction
mentioned that Farnot Solutions might be interviewing entry-level chemical engineers this makes the five
spring to work on applications of polymeric materials. If a position becomes available, I introductory
would like to apply for it. With my experience in applied rheology and polymeric moves.
materials, I would be a valuable addition to your company.

My work experience includes working two summers as a co-op at Vertigo Plastics, a company
similar in size, products, and services to Farnot. My responsibilities included inspecting
and troubleshooting the plant’s machinery. I analyzed the production process and
reported on the performance of the plant’s operations. While at Vertigo, I learned to
work with other chemical engineers in a team-focused environment.
The body uses
My education in chemical engineering at the University of Missouri–Rolla would allow me to examples and
contribute a thorough understanding of plastics engineering to Farnot. In one of the best anecdotes to
programs in the country, I have excelled at courses in thermodynamics, chemical describe work
process design, and chemical process materials. In addition, my work in the university’s experience,
state-of-the-art chemical laboratories has prepared me to do the prototype-building and education, and
vacuum-forming, which are specialties of your company. I also have experience working skills.
with the CAD/CAM systems that your company uses.

The enclosed resume highlights my other qualities. I enjoyed speaking with you at the The conclusion
job fair, and I would appreciate an opportunity to talk to you again about opportunities at states the main
Farnot. If you would like more information or you would like to schedule an interview, point and offers
please call me at 573-555-4391 or e-mail me at suhokim1231@umr.edu. contact
information.
Sincerely,
Su-Ho Kim
Su-Ho Kim

Enclosure: Resume
388 Chapter 19

Choosing an Appropriate Style

and Design
19.3 Establish a tone that reflects your personality and design your materials
to make them attractive and accessible.
Generally, the style and design of your résumé and application letter should be upbeat
and professional. Here are some ways to make your materials stand out:
• Use the verb-first style when phrasing items in bulleted lists. To add energy and
motion, use active-voice words like “collected,” “designed,” “investigated,” or
“presented.”
• To establish a tone in your application letter, use a concept map to identify words
that are associated with that tone. For example, if you want your letter to sound
“enthusiastic,” put that word in the middle of a piece of paper or screen and write
related words around it. (Hint: the thesaurus feature of your word processor can
help you find these words.) Then use words from your concept map periodically
in your letter to create the enthusiastic tone you are seeking.
• Use active voice and minimize the use of passive voice. As much as possible, the
subjects of your sentences should focus on you and any teams you have worked
on. Use action verbs to describe what you accomplished.
• Also in your application letter, use smaller sentences to increase the readers’ pace
and heighten the intensity. Your reader will already be reading quickly, so shorter
sentences will match their speed and make your writing feel more active and
intense.
The design of your résumé should match the kind of career you are interested in.
A résumé for an artistic or creative career could show off your design skills, while a
résumé for an engineering or technical career might put function before design. Here
are some design tips that should fit any résumé and application letter:
• On your résumé, balance items on the page so the résumé looks full and not top-
heavy or side-heavy.
• Choose a sans serif typeface for the title and headings in your resume while using
a serif typeface for the body text.
• In your application letter, use the typefaces you used in your résumé so that the
two documents visually complement each other.
• Use color to add some contrast to both your letter and résumé, especially in
headings.
• Create your own letterhead for your application letter and résumé.
Of course, you are probably creating your starter résumé and letter of application
for this class. You should develop a style and design that fits you and the career you
would like.
 Résumés and Application Letters 389

Microgenre
The Personal Statement
A personal statement is a brief essay (usually one page) that describes who you are through your e ­ xperiences
and qualifications. In your personal statement, you’re trying to reveal your personality and values to the
­readers, so they can decide whether you would be a good fit for their scholarship, fellowship, internship,
­academic program, or graduate school.
Most people will tell you that personal statements are hard to write, usually because they feel awkward
when t­alking about themselves at length. So, a good way to overcome this awkwardness is to tell the stories
about yourself that you like to tell your friends and family members. Those stories are probably the ones that
show who you really are. Here are some strategies for writing a solid personal statement:

Introduce yourself with a grabber. In Chapter 21, “Organizing and Drafting,” you can learn about using
grabbers that will catch your readers’ attention. Application letters tend to start with one of a few types
of grabbers:
Childhood event—When I was ten, my parents took me to Ethiopia to visit the village where my
grandfather grew up and emigrated from. I remember watching how people in my extended family
struggled to have enough water for cooking, cleaning, and bathing. Since then, I have always been
interested in water conservation.
Turning point—My whole world changed when my younger brother Thomas was diagnosed with
leukemia. I was a sophomore in high school, and his fight against acute lymphoblastic leukemia
became a calling for me. The more I learned about childhood cancers, the more I wanted to become a
researcher in this area.
Volunteer work, hobby, or work experience—My interest in video production and editing began with
a volunteer job at our local food bank. My aunt was the food bank’s director of communications, and
she was looking for someone to record video testimonials from clients. She asked if I would do it, and I
said yes even though I didn’t know what I was doing. I used my phone and edited the cuts with iMovie.
The videos were really cool, and I was hooked!

At the end of your introduction, you might state the main point or thesis of your personal statement.
­Specifically, you can tell the readers that your experiences and interests would make you a good fit for their
scholarship, fellowship, internship, program, or graduate school.

Describe who you are. The body of your personal statement will usually be anywhere from two to four
paragraphs. Here is where you can describe in more depth your experiences, accomplishments, skills, and
activities that you listed on your résumé. Use details, color, and movement to make your experiences come
to life for the readers.

Use anecdotes to tell stories about yourself. An anecdote is a story that reveals something important
about who you are. Choose one or two stories that you like to tell others about yourself, especially ones
that illustrate your experiences and your values. Look for stories about situations in which you overcame
challenges or recovered from setbacks.
390 Chapter 19

Conclude with a lesson learned. At the end of your personal statement, return to the story in your
­grabber and highlight the main lesson you learned from the experience. If you are applying to graduate
school or for a job in a specific career area, you can show how your life to this point led you to pursue
admission to a graduate school or to seek a career in a specific field.

WRITE a personal statement about yourself. Imagine you are applying for a scholarship, fellowship,
internship, academic program, or graduate school. Write a one-page personal statement about yourself that
would be included with this application.

Why I Want to Be a Dentist

Jasmine Ceballos
OK, this is going to sound a bit weird, but the first time I remember really wanting to
Jasmine starts
become a dentist was while watching that old holiday cartoon, Rudolph the Red Nose
with a grabber ­Reindeer. Even as a small child, I had always been fascinated with people’s teeth. I would
that describes an even ask other kids and adults if I could look in their mouths to see what was in there. Kids’
important early
experience.
teeth were almost always pearly white, but some teeth were crooked. Adults’ teeth were a
bit yellowed, and some of their teeth had cool fillings, bridges, crowns, dentures, and other
repairs.
But I had never met any women dentists. When I was a kid, all the dentists seemed
to be men. Strangely enough, when Hermey the Elf began singing his song with Rudolph
about being a “misfit,” I knew I wasn’t alone. When Hermey said, “I want to be a d ­ entist,”
I realized that maybe I was just a Latina girl who wasn’t fitting in—but that’s all right!
I announced to my parents, “I want to be a dentist,” in that Hermey way, and they gave
me an amused “yeah, sure” look.
But the idea stuck. In school, I was really good at science, especially biology and
anatomy. I studied hard, and I was one of the top kids in my science classes each
­semester. In high school health class, I’m pretty sure I was the only kid who knew the
She relates ­difference between an incisor and a molar. That made me a misfit. Each time one of my
­further relevant biology or anatomy classes discussed teeth, I found myself leaning forward in my seat and
anecdotes that
explain her deci- asking questions. That made me a misfit, too. When one of the girls on my high school
sion to pursue soccer team had her front tooth knocked out from a hard shot during practice, I knew
this career. that the tooth needed to be rinsed off and carefully inserted back into the socket. My
coach was too squeamish to do it, so I rinsed the tooth off and slid it back in. Everyone
around me was groaning and saying “ew.” Then, I told everyone the girl needed to go
to the ­emergency room right away. I was a misfit, but I did save that kid’s smile—before
­homecoming no less!
I decided to go to college at the University of North Carolina because it had one of
Throughout, the best dental schools in the country, and it was in my home state. I’ve done well at
she emphasizes UNC, earning mostly A’s and a few B’s in all of my classes. I was also awarded the Wilkins
what makes her
different and ­Scholarship and I interned at the Urban Smiles Dental Clinic in Charlotte in the summer
qualified. between my junior and senior year. Interning taught me two things. First, I’m still geeked
about teeth. Second, we need more Latinas to be dentists! Most of the patients c ­ oming
 Résumés and Application Letters 391

into the clinic were low-income Latinas and Black women, and I wasn’t sure the male
­dentists, even male dentists of color, really understood these women’s needs and their
anxieties about having their teeth worked on.
In most ways, I’m similar to most people who become dentists. I’m hardworking, detail-
oriented, and not squeamish about putting my fingers into people’s mouths. I want to help The personal state-
people keep their teeth healthy and fix their teeth if needed. Maybe I’m even more motivated ment ends with a
lessons-learned
to be a dentist because I know that who I am brings something different to the dental clinic. conclusion.
When I’m a dentist someday, I’m sure people will give me a second look when I walk
into the treatment room. I’m probably not the kind of person they expected. But then,
I’ve always been a misfit, and I’m proud of it. Thank you for considering me for your
­dental ­program. I believe you will find that my qualifications and experiences make me
a good fit.

Quick Start Guide

Need to write a résumé and application letter? Here are some ideas to help you start.

Figure out your possible career paths. Use the Five-W and How questions to help you determine who
you are and who you want to be.

Freewrite to gain a better understanding of what motivates you. Spend some time freewriting about
your past and future to figure out what gets you excited. When you think about your future, try to i­magine
some experiences you will have in college that can help you develop some of the qualifications and
­experiences needed for the career you have in mind.

Collect information on majors and careers. Department websites or advisor offices often have print
information available for download or as brochures and pamphlets. You can also do some career testing to
see what kinds of jobs you might like.

Organize your résumé. A résumé has several common sections, such as your career objectives,
­educational background, work experiences, skills and languages, and awards and activities. Begin filling
in these sections with details and information about yourself.

Organize your application letter. An application letter typically has an introduction, body, and
­conclusion. The body tends to use details, examples, and anecdotes to describe your qualifications,
­experiences, and skills.

Develop an appropriate style. The appropriate style for your résumé or application letter usually reflects
your personality and the kind of career you want to pursue. You can use word choice and sentence length
to establish a specific voice or tone.

Revise and edit. Always remember that your career materials should be clear, easy to read, and free from
errors in grammar or punctuation. Spend some time revising and editing your materials to make them as
­polished as possible.
392 Chapter 19

Readings: Résumés and Application

Letters

Reading 1
Indeed.com is one of the most popular job-searching websites. In this article, which
appeared on its website, Indeed.com offers ten tips to first-year students on building their
résumés while in college. Often, college students wait too long (their junior or senior year)
to begin doing things that will prepare them for their careers. This article provides an easy
checklist that you can start following right now.

How to Build a Résumé in College

Indeed.com Editorial Team
Be proactive about your future career by taking the steps to build your résumé. Knowing
how to do this strategically can present you with more job opportunities upon your college
­graduation. Use this list of steps to help you gain enough experience and qualifications for
your résumé during college:

1. Join a professional organization

Consider joining a professional organization as a student to gain exposure to your c
­ hosen
industry. Joining a professional organization can help you make professional contacts
and learn more about your prospective field. Not only can you likely enter the organization
with a discounted membership fee, but you can also add the experience to your résumé
post-graduation.

2. Take industry-specific courses

When you sign up for college courses, focus on classes that center on projects, case studies,
and service training. Some college courses also allow you to earn a certification. When you
take these courses, you can include them on your résumé after graduation to highlight your
qualifications to hiring managers.

3. Learn a new language

Spend time learning a new language, either through a college class or online. Being f­luent
in multiple languages can help your résumé stand out to employers. When you know a
­foreign language, in particular, it makes it easier to communicate with your future employer’s
global partners.

4. Study abroad
Study overseas to gain valuable experience and help you impress your future employers. Aim
to find study abroad programs that relate to your studies or your desired profession. It’s also
important to find programs that challenge and teach you about new cultures and ways of
 Résumés and Application Letters 393

thinking. When you add your study abroad experience to your résumé, you can highlight the
courses you took, the projects you completed, and the skills you learned.

5. Get a part-time job

Consider getting a part-time job during college. Part-time jobs give you the opportunity to
learn many transferable skills you can use in your future career. For example, you can learn
how to improve your communication, time management, and organization skills in a part-time
job, regardless of the industry. When you create a résumé, you can highlight the skills you
learned as they relate to the position you’re currently applying for. If possible, look for jobs that
relate to the field you’re interested in to show future hiring managers your industry- and job-
specific qualifications.

6. Become a volunteer
Volunteer in your community to make a difference and help you gain valuable experience. Not
only can volunteering make you feel good, but it can also introduce you to different fields or
industries you may not have previously considered. You also have the opportunity to meet
people and expand your network, which can help you in your future career. In addition, listing a
volunteer position allows you to show future employers both your giving nature and your ability
to handle multiple responsibilities while in college.
Consider volunteer opportunities that are related to your studies or the industry you’re
­interested in. If the volunteer opportunity relates to your desired profession, it can give you
an idea of what to expect when you enter the field.

7. Get an internship
Consider getting an internship to learn first-hand what it’s like to work in your chosen
­profession. It also gives you an opportunity to make professional contacts in your industry.
Since many employers look for entry-level employees with internship experience, adding your
internship experience to your résumé can make you stand out against other job applicants.
If you’re interested in an internship, contact your campus’ career center as they may know
of companies looking to hire interns. They can also connect you with internships offering class
credit. In addition, your professors may know of worthwhile internships or contacts and can
provide you with advice about the interning experience.

8. Learn new skills

Once you know the field you want to pursue, determine which skills you need and look for
related courses that your college offers. For example, if you’re an aspiring lawyer, consider
­taking classes in rhetoric. If you’re an aspiring politician, consider taking public speaking or
communication courses.

9. Get involved in extracurricular activities

Consider getting involved with an extracurricular activity on your campus. Getting involved in this
capacity can help you build your teamwork, leadership, and time management skills. Employers
look for all of these in prospective employees. If you’re athletic, consider playing a team or intra-
mural sport. You can also join clubs that fit your field of study such as a chemistry club if you’re
a chemistry major. Not only can extracurricular activities help you improve your job-related skills,
but you can also highlight them when you list this type of experience on your résumé.
394 Chapter 19

10. Shadow your dream career

If you know someone with the job you want to pursue, consider shadowing them. Doing this
helps you gain a greater understanding of the profession. It also shows your future employers
that you’re dedicated enough to learn more about your future career.

A Closer Look at “How to Build a Résumé in College”

1. Some resume-building activities are easier to do than others. Look through this list
of ten ways to build your résumé. How many of these items do you think you could
accomplish before your last year in college? Can you do them all?
2. Choose three of the items in this list that you would like to accomplish this year.
Search the website of your college or university to figure out what steps you would
need to take to accomplish each of them. Do a presentation to your group in which
you explain how people gain these skills or have these experiences at your college
or university.
3. An internship or cooperative learning experience is often the best way to find a job.
Search the Internet or ask an advisor in your college about the kinds of internships
or co-ops that are available in your field. When do people who are pursuing your
major tend to have these workplace experiences?

Ideas for Writing

1. Imagine you are ten years into your successful career. Write a bio of yourself that
highlights your accomplishments and mentions some of your successes and per-
haps a few setbacks. Tell the readers where you received your degree and the places
where you have been employed. As you are writing your bio, try to imagine what
accomplishments and experiences you want to achieve within ten years after you
graduate from college.
2. Run a search for entry-level jobs in your career area on Indeed.com. Write a brief
report to your instructor and your class in which you compare three different jobs
that you would be interested in pursuing if you were nearing graduation. What are
some of the qualifications these jobs seem to have in common? What are some of
the major differences you see in the responsibilities and expectations listed in these
job ads? Which of these jobs do you find most attractive, and why?

Reading 2
For many students and their families, paying for college can be difficult. Fortunately, the
U.S. government offers a variety of paths students can use to locate scholarships and
other kinds of financial aid for college. In this article, the National Security Administration
offers some helpful tips for students who are looking for scholarships, fellowships, grants,
and loans. Since you are creating your résumé and application letter already, you might
check out some of the resources listed. You might be able to find money for your college
education.
 Résumés and Application Letters 395

Find Help with Educational Costs Using

Benefits.com
Ticket to Work, U.S. National Security Administration
Furthering your education is a great way to learn new skills and advance your career
path. ­However, paying for school or knowing where to get help with your expenses can
be a ­challenge. Did you know that Benefits.gov can help you find information on over
1,000 ­government programs, check your eligibility, and describe the steps to apply for aid?
Start your search on Benefits.gov with information on over 100 scholarships, fellowships,
grants, and loans.
It’s never too early to explore your options for paying for school. The U.S. government
provides many sources of aid to help you along the way. Here are a few ways to find help with
paying for school, specifically for students with disabilities and their families:

Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA)

The FAFSA is an application through the U.S. Department of Education and is used by most
two and four-year colleges, universities, and career schools. Complete the application online
and use it to apply for grants, loans, and work-study opportunities that you may be eligible
for. Each state and school has their own FAFSA deadlines that can be searched through the
­Federal Student Aid website.
The FAFSA can connect you with government and private financial aid options, but
it doesn’t ask for some specifics that may help you get more aid. Other scholarship and
grant opportunities may be based on personal information like disability status, hobbies, or
background. Once you complete the FAFSA, you can apply for academic and need-based
scholarships from schools or other organizations, many of which require the FAFSA to even
be considered. There are many scholarship opportunities for people based on location,
­background, disability, and other factors. To find these opportunities, fill out the FAFSA and
then check out the CareerOneStop.org Scholarship Finder.

CareerOneStop.org Scholarship Finder

The CareerOneStop.org Scholarship Finder, through the U.S. Department of Labor, p ­ rovides
a list of over 8,000 scholarships and financial aid opportunities. This free tool allows you to
­narrow down your search and provides details on how to apply for scholarships you may
­qualify for. There are search filters to view certain award types, locations, and level of study,
and there is a specific category for students with disabilities. You can also sort the list by
­application deadlines to find upcoming opportunities.

TRIO Student Support Services

The TRIO Student Support Services (SSS) program supports low-income students, first-­
generation college students, and students with disabilities enrolled in post-secondary
­education programs. Eligible students may receive personal and academic career counseling,
career guidance, instruction, mentoring, and tutoring. TRIO SSS does not provide financial aid
directly, but they have resources to help eligible students find financial aid and help with other
challenges of enrolling or re-enrolling in college or a technical or trade school.
396 Chapter 19

There are many options available for finding financial aid to help with your educational
expenses. Check out the Benefits.gov Benefit Finder (https://www.benefits.gov/benefit-finder),
a free and easy-to-use tool that will check which benefits and financial aid you may be eligible
to receive. Start your education journey today!

A Closer Look at “Find Help with Educational Costs

Using Benefits.com”
1. In this article, the authors identify several websites where students can search for
financial aid and scholarships to help them pay for college. Identify at least three
places where you can search for financial aid and scholarships. Then try out the
websites associated with them to see what kinds of financial help they offer.
2. With a group of people from your class, discuss some of the struggles involved with
paying for college. Student loans are necessary for many people, but they can also
cause financial struggles down the road. With your group, explore some of the pros
and cons of taking out student loans. What are some of the common recommenda-
tions financial experts offer about how to keep college costs low and how to find
sources of financial aid other than loans?
3. Use the CareerOneStop.org Scholarship Finder mentioned in the article to iden-
tify a scholarship you could apply for. Check whether you are eligible for the
scholarship and make sure the deadline for this year has not passed. If you
think the scholarship would work for you, you might go ahead and send in an
application.

Ideas for Writing

1. College education costs are a serious problem in the United States. In much of
the world, tuition costs for college are relatively low or even free, but college
in the United States can be expensive. Write an argument in which you discuss
the pros and cons of government funding for students to go to college. Try to be
as fair to both sides as you can, explaining why reasonable people might hold
each of these opposing views. Then argue for the side that best fits your opinion
about whether federal and state governments should help pay for students to
attend college.
2. Write a brief report that explores the causes behind the student debt problem
in the United States. Identify three to five reasons why this problem has come
about. Specifically, what has changed that caused this problem to happen? Then
explore a few effects of the problem, especially the effects on college students
and their families. At the end of your brief report, you might offer some recom-
mendations for solving or at least lessening the student debt problem in the
United States.
 Résumés and Application Letters 397

Activities for Résumés and

Application Letters
Talk About This
1. With a group of three or four people from your class, describe the kinds of
jobs that your parents or others who raised you have. What do you think is
­similar about their careers and the career you have in mind for yourself? What
is d
­ ifferent about their jobs from the career you imagine for yourself? What has
changed about the workplace since they began their careers?
2. One of the main reasons students go to college is to have opportunities to gain
the qualifications and experiences to find a meaningful career. Many of the things
you learn in college, however, could be learned from books or the Internet. With
your group, discuss some of the reasons why college is still a good way to enter
the career you have in mind. Discuss what colleges can do better to prepare you
for the future you want to have.
3. Besides qualifications, employers are usually looking for so-called “soft skills”
that set some candidates above others. Soft skills include abilities like clear
communication, innovative thinking, leadership, optimism, conflict resolution,
dependability, and compromise. List out three soft skills that you think you
already have and three soft skills that you would like to gain while in college.
Then compare your list with a group of people from your class. What items do
the members of your group all have in common on their lists? What are some soft
skills they included that you didn’t think of?

Try This Out

1. You can find a wide variety of example résumés on the Internet. Some are good,
and some are not so good. Find one of those not-so-good résumés. What are
the problems with this résumé? How could those problems be fixed? What are
some gaps in the content of this résumé? How might the person who c­ reated the
résumé fill those gaps?
2. Using an Internet job-search engine, find three advertisements for entry-level
jobs that are related to the kind of career you have in mind. Looking over these
job ads, what attracts you to this career? What is something you probably
wouldn’t like about this career? Fold a piece of paper in half and write down
the things that attract you to this career on one half of the paper. Then write the
things that you probably wouldn’t like on the other half. Open the sheet of paper
and discuss with your group whether you think the positives of this career out-
weigh the negatives.
398 Chapter 19

3. Let’s say for one reason or another you cannot pursue the career you have in
mind right now. If you had to pursue a completely different career, what would
it be? What if money wasn’t a consideration? What kind of career would you
­pursue if you had all the money you needed to live comfortably?

Explore This
Go find your own examples of microgenres! Here are a few microgenres that are related
to résumés and application letters. Choose a microgenre from the following list and
find three examples in print or on the Internet. What are some common features of this
microgenre?
Bio—a short sketch that describes your qualifications and experiences
Social media profile—a brief profile for a social networking site that describes
your career and aspirations
LinkedIn Profile—a profile that focuses on your professional skills, experiences,
and accomplishments
Retirement farewell—a farewell to an employee who is retiring, describing their
successes and wishing them well
Roast—a funny description of an employee that gently mocks their
­idiosyncrasies and habits without insulting or embarrassing them

Write This
1. Create your résumé and write an application letter for a scholarship. Hey, we
could all use more money for college, right? On the Internet, find a s­ cholarship
opportunity targeted to people like you. Download the applications and
­instructions for applying for this scholarship. Then create a résumé and an
­application letter that fit that scholarship opportunity.
2. Create a video résumé about yourself. Increasingly, employers are asking job
applicants to upload a video introduction of themselves. A video résumé essen-
tially uses the items on your written résumé to highlight your ­qualifications,
experiences, and skills. With your phone or a video camera, make a video in
which you introduce yourself to a potential employer by highlighting the items
on your written résumé.
3. Write an explainer in which you describe how a new technology is changing
careers related to your major. More than likely a new technology like artificial
­intelligence, robotics, and emerging social media platforms will affect your career
in a significant way. Explain this technology to your readers and show how it
will cause people in your career area to adapt and evolve. Then discuss how you
plan to keep up with new career-related technologies when you are out of college
and pursuing your career.
Chapter 20
Prewriting
and Inventing
Your Ideas
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

20.1 use prewriting techniques to get your ideas flowing.

20.2 develop your ideas with heuristics.
20.3 reflect on your ideas with exploratory writing and extend them in new
directions.

Coming up with new ideas is often the hardest part about writing. You stare at the
screen or page, and it stares back.
Writers can choose from a wide variety of techniques to help them “invent” their
ideas and think about their topics from new perspectives. In this chapter, you will learn
about three types of invention strategies that you can use to generate new ideas and
explore your topic:
Prewriting uses visual and verbal strategies to put your ideas on the screen or
a piece of paper so you can consider them and figure out how you want to
approach your topic.
Heuristics use time-tested techniques that can help you ask good questions
about your topic and figure out what kinds of information you will need to
support your claims and statements.
Exploratory writing uses reflective strategies to help you better understand how
you feel about your topic. This kind of open-ended writing helps you turn
those thoughts into sentences, paragraphs, and outlines.
Some of these invention strategies will work better for you than others. You will also
discover that some of them are better than others for particular kinds of projects. So try
them all to see which ones are most helpful as you tap into your creativity.

399
400 Chapter 20

Prewriting
20.1 Use prewriting techniques to get your ideas flowing.
Prewriting helps you put your ideas on the screen or a piece of paper, often in a
visual way. Your goal while prewriting is to figure out what you already know
about your topic and to start coming up with new ideas that go beyond your current
understanding.

Concept Mapping
One of the most common prewriting tools is concept mapping. To create a concept map,
write your topic in the middle of your screen or a piece of paper (Figure 20.1). Put a
circle around it. Then write down as many other ideas as you can about your topic.
Circle those ideas and draw lines that connect them with each other.
The magic of concept mapping is that it allows you to start throwing your ideas
onto the screen or a blank page without worrying about whether they make sense at
the moment. Each new idea in your map will help you come up with other new ideas.
Just keep going. Then, when you run out of new ideas, you can work on connecting
ideas into larger clusters.

Figure 20.1 Using a Concept Map

A concept map will help you get your ideas onto the screen or a piece of paper. Write down your ideas
and then draw lines to connect larger clusters of ideas.

Open
platform
Racist
Censorship Blogs Bigoted

Sexist language

Student Offensive
Freedom of speech
Publications
press
Transphobic

Free Speech
Shock jocks on Campus
Threatening

Hostile
Reluctant to bar Guest speech
guest speakers speakers
Violence
Hostile
Free to Equal environment Harassment
protest opportunities
 Prewriting and Inventing Your Ideas 401

For example, Figure 20.1 shows a concept map about the importance of free
speech on a college campus. A student made this concept map for an argument paper
with ­Coggle, a free online concept map maker. She started by typing “Free speech on
­campus” in the middle of her screen. Then she began typing anything that came to
mind. ­Eventually, the whole screen was filled out. She then linked ideas into larger
clusters.
With her ideas in front of her, she could then choose the topic and angle that best
suited her audience and purpose. The larger clusters became major topics in her argu-
ment (e.g., guest speakers, student publications, hostile speech, and offensive speech).
She could have also chosen just one of those clusters (e.g., hostile speech) and structured
her entire argument around that narrower topic.
If you like concept mapping, you might try one of the free mapping software
­packages available online, including GitMind, Coggle, Novamind, XMind, MindMeister,
and WiseMapping, among others.

Freewriting
When freewriting, all you need to do is open a page on your computer or pull out a piece
of paper. Then write as much as you can for five to ten minutes, typing or jotting down
anything that comes into your mind. Don’t stop writing, and don’t worry about putting
your ideas into real sentences or paragraphs. If you find yourself running out of words,
try finishing phrases like “What I mean is . . . ” or “Here’s my point. . . .”
When using a computer, try darkening the screen or closing your eyes as you free-
write. That way, the words you have already written won’t distract you from writing
down new ideas. Plus, a dark screen will help you avoid the temptation to go back and
fix any typos and garbled sentences.
Figure 20.2 shows an example freewrite. The text has typos, and some of the
sentences make no sense. That’s fine. The author is just getting her ideas on the
screen.
When you are finished freewriting, go through your text, highlighting or under­
lining your best ideas. Some people find it helpful to do a second, follow-up freewrite
that focuses just on the best ideas.

Brainstorming or Listing
To brainstorm about your topic, open a new page on your screen or pull out a piece
of paper. Then list everything that comes to mind about your topic. As in freewriting,
just keep listing ideas for about five to ten minutes without stopping.
An artificial intelligence (AI) application can be helpful here. If approved by your
instructor, you can ask the AI application to generate a list of items that are related to
your topic. Before using AI, though, you should write down your own list of ideas first.
That way, you can take the topic in the direction you want. Then, you can use the AI
application to fill out your list, following your lead.
When you are finished with your brainstorming list, choose a few of your best ideas
and generate a second brainstorming list on a separate page or sheet of paper. Again,
list everything that comes to mind about these best ideas. Making two lists will help
you narrow your topic and deepen your thoughts about it.
402 Chapter 20

Figure 20.2 Freewriting

When you are freewriting, just let the ideas flow and see where they lead you. In this sample, the writer
didn’t stop to correct typos. She just moved from one topic to the next. The result is a little chaotic, but
now she has several new ideas to work with.

If you like to work on paper, a good technique is to fold the sheet of paper in half
from top to bottom. Generate your first list in one column of the sheet of paper. Star
your three to five best ideas. Flip the paper over so you cannot see your first list and
generate a second list based on those starred items. Then, when you unfold the sheet
of paper, you will have two lists with lots of great ideas to work from!

Storyboarding
Movie scriptwriters and advertising designers use a technique called storyboarding to
help them sketch out their ideas. Storyboarding involves drawing or collecting a set
of pictures that show the progression of your ideas. Storyboards are especially useful
when you are working with genres like memoirs, reports, or proposals because they
help you visualize the “story.”
The easiest way to storyboard about your topic is to fold a regular piece of paper
into four, six, or eight panels (Figure 20.3). Then, in each of the panels, draw a scene or
insert photos that tell a story about your topic. Stick figures or pictures downloaded
from the Internet are fine.
Storyboarding is similar to turning your ideas into a comic strip. You add drawings
or photos to your storyboards and cross them out as your ideas evolve. You can also
add dialogue into the scenes and put captions underneath each drawing or photo to
show what is happening. Storyboarding often works best for people who like to think
visually in drawings or pictures rather than in words and sentences.
 Prewriting and Inventing Your Ideas 403

Figure 20.3 A Storyboard That Illustrates the Major Parts of a Text

Some writers find it helpful to storyboard their ideas with drawings or photos. Each scene in the
­storyboard becomes a major part of the text.

Source: Top row: metamorworks/Shutterstock; Ground Picture/Shutterstock; DW labs Incorporated/Shutterstock;

Bottom row: Matej Kastelic/Shutterstock; fizkes/Shutterstock; Pixel-Shot/Shutterstock.

Using Heuristics
20.2 Develop your ideas with heuristics.
You already use heuristics, but the term is probably not familiar to you. A heuristic is
a discovery tool that helps you ask insightful questions or follow a specific pattern of
thinking. Writers often memorize the heuristics that they find especially useful. Here,
we will review some of the most popular heuristics, but many others are available.

Asking the Journalist’s Questions

The most common heuristic is a tool called the journalist’s questions, sometimes called
the “Five-W and How Questions.” Writers for newspapers, magazines, and television
use these questions to help them sort out the details of a story.

Who was involved? When did it happen?

What happened? Why did it happen?
Where did the event happen? How did it happen?

Write each of these questions separately on your screen or a piece of paper. Then
answer each one in as much detail as you can. Make sure your facts are accurate, so
you can reconstruct the story from your notes. If you don’t know how to answer one
or more of these questions, put down a question mark. A question mark signals a place
where you might need to do some brainstorming or some more research.
AI applications might also help you generate even more answers to these Five-W
and How questions. In an Internet search engine that has AI capabilities, you can ask
Five-W and How questions about your topic. More than likely, the AI application will
404 Chapter 20

come up with items you already thought of, but it might also identify some perspectives
you hadn’t considered. You can then explore these new issues in more depth by asking
further who, what, where, when, why, and how questions.
When using the Five-W and How questions, you may also find it helpful to ask,
“What has changed recently about my topic?” Paying attention to change will also help
you determine your “angle” on the topic (i.e., your unique perspective or view).

Using the Five Senses

Writers also like to use their five senses as a heuristic to explore a topic and invent their
ideas. When trying to describe something to your readers, concentrate separately on
each of your senses:

Sight—What can you see? What does it look like? What colors or shapes do you see?
Hearing—What sounds can you hear? What do people or objects sound like?
Smell—What can you smell? Does anything have a distinctive scent?
Touch—What do things feel like? Are they rough or smooth? Are they cold or hot?
Taste—Are there any tastes? If so, are they sweet, salty, sour, delicious?

Using all five senses will help you (and your readers) experience your topic from
various standpoints. These sensory descriptions will also give you and your readers a
richer understanding of your subject.
Here again, AI applications can help you explore sensory issues about your topic.
Ask the AI system to explore the five senses in relation to your topic. For example, “If
I was living in London in the Renaissance, what would I see?” “What are some common
flavors I would taste while visiting a traditional restaurant in Mumbai, India?”

Investigating Logos, Ethos, Pathos

Aristotle, a philosopher and rhetorician, realized that arguments tend to draw on three
kinds of proof: reasoning (logos), authority (ethos), and emotion (pathos). Today, writers
still use these Greek terms to remind themselves to gather evidence from all three kinds
of proof. This heuristic works especially well for persuasive texts, such as commentar-
ies, argument papers, and proposals.
LOGOS. Logos includes any reasoning and examples that will support your claims.
You can use logical statements to prove your points, or you can use real or realistic
examples to back up your claims. Here are some basic strategies that you can use to
support your ideas with logos:
If . . . then—“If you believe X, then you should believe Y as well.”
Either . . . or—“Either you believe X, or you believe Y.”
Cause and effect—“X is the reason Y happens.”
Costs and benefits—“The benefits of doing X are worth/not worth the cost of Y.”
Better and worse—“X is better/worse than Y because . . . .”
Examples—“For example, X and Y demonstrate that Z happens.”
 Prewriting and Inventing Your Ideas 405

Facts and data—“These facts/data support my argument that X is true

(or Y is false).”
Anecdotes—“X happened to these people, thus demonstrating Y.”
You might use these kinds of logos sentences to explore your topic with an AI
application. For example, you can ask an AI application something like “If I believe in
completely free speech, what are some of the risks involved with allowing people to say
or write anything they want?” or “What are the costs and benefits of going to graduate
school to study anthropology?”
ETHOS. Ethos involves information that will help you build your authority and repu-
tation with readers. If you are an expert on a particular topic, you can use your own
experiences to support your argument. For example, on the topic of clothing, someone
majoring in fashion design would have more ethos than most others. If you are not an
expert on your topic, then you can draw from sources written by experts to add ethos
to your writing. Here are a few ways to use ethos in your writing:
Personal experience—“I have experienced X, so I know it’s true and Y is not.”
Personal credentials—“I have a degree in Z” or “I am the director of Y, so I know
a lot about the subject of X.”
Good moral character—“I have always done the right thing for the right reasons,
so you should believe me when I say that X is the best path to follow.”
Appeal to experts—“According to Z, who is an expert on this topic, X is true,
and Y is not true.”
Identification with the readers—“You and I come from similar backgrounds,
and we have similar values; therefore, you would likely agree with me that
X is true and Y is not.”
Admission of limitations—“I may not know much about Z, but I do know that
X is true and Y is not.”
Expression of goodwill—“I want what is best for you, so I am recommending
X as the best path to follow.”
Use of insider language—When your readers are insiders who know your topic
well, you can use jargon or references to information that insiders would
understand.
PATHOS. Pathos relates to emotional support for your argument. Think about the
aspects of your topic that make people happy, mad, sad, anxious, concerned, surprised,
disgusted, joyful, or fearful. You can appeal to these emotions to persuade people to see
things your way. Here are some strategies for using emotion:
Promise of gain—“By agreeing with us, you will gain trust, time, money, love,
advancement, reputation, comfort, popularity, health, beauty, or convenience.”
Promise of enjoyment—“If you do things our way, you will experience joy,
anticipation, fun, surprises, enjoyment, pleasure, leisure, or freedom.”
Fear of loss—“If you don’t do things this way, you risk losing time, money, love,
security, freedom, reputation, popularity, health, or beauty.”
406 Chapter 20

Fear of pain—“If you don’t do things this way, you may feel pain, sadness,
grief, frustration, humiliation, embarrassment, loneliness, regret, shame,
­vulnerability, or worry.”
Expressions of anger or disgust: “You should be angry or disgusted because
X is unfair to you, me, or others.”
Emotion alone usually won’t create the strongest arguments. Instead, you should
use emotion to support your logos-based or ethos-based arguments. Emotion will add
power and feeling to your argument while heightening the intensity for your readers.
Figure 20.4 shows the introduction to a first draft in which the author uses emotion to
support her logos and ethos arguments.

Figure 20.4 A First Draft That Uses Logos, Pathos, and Ethos for Support
In this first draft of an essay’s introduction, the author uses a combination of reasoning, authority, and
emotional appeals to persuade her readers.

Free speech is something we all value as Americans. However,

recent events on and around our campus have left many of us pathos
wondering where the right to free speech ends and the cruelty of
bigotry begins. A few weeks ago, for example, some students had
homophobic slurs yelled at them from a passing car that was logos
speeding down University Street. And, last week, a scheduled
speech by a radio personality known for using antisemitic tropes
was cancelled because the campus police said they were seeing
threats on Instagram and couldn’t guarantee the speaker’s safety.
Last year, a teaching assistant in the History Department was logos
suspended for arguing that the American Civil War was really
about states’ rights, not slavery.

According to the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU),

“The First Amendment to the Constitution protects speech no ethos
matter how offensive its content.” If we truly believe in free
speech, then we must also believe that people with bigoted views
have a Constitutional right to make people feel unwelcome here
on our campus. Or do we? Shouldn’t our campus be a safe space pathos
where people can learn without feeling harassed or verbally
assaulted? I want to explore this question: where are the bound-
aries between free speech and the right to feel safe? My thesis is logos
that these boundaries need to be always negotiated, because a
right to free speech with no boundaries has never existed in the
United States—or on our campus.
 Prewriting and Inventing Your Ideas 407

Cubing
A cube has six sides, and cubing asks you to explore your topic through six “sides” or
angles.
1. Describe it—What does your topic look like? What are its color and shape? How
big or small is it? What is it made of?
2. Compare it—What is it like? What is it not like? In what ways is it similar to or
different from things that are more familiar to your readers?
3. Associate it—What does it remind you of? What other topics is it related to that
you know something about?
4. Analyze it—What patterns run through your topic? What are its hidden questions
or meanings? Who created it? What has changed that makes it important?
5. Apply it—How could you or someone else use it? Who would use it? What good
would it do them? What harm might it do?
6. Argue for or against it—What arguments could you or someone else make for or
against your topic?

Exploratory Writing
20.3 Reflect on your ideas with exploratory writing and extend them in new
directions.
Exploratory writing helps you reflect on your ideas and get your thoughts on paper
or the screen for further consideration. Essentially, it is “writing about writing,” which
allows you to examine your writing projects from a little more distance and choose the
best options.

Journaling, Blogging, or Microblogging

Some writers find it helpful to keep a regular journal or blog to reflect on their
­experiences and generate new ideas. In these forums, you can write down your
opinions and think about your experiences without the pressure of drafting the full
argument.
JOURNALING. This kind of exploratory writing can be done in a notebook or on your
computer. The key to successful journaling is to add something new almost every day.
You can talk about the things that happen to you and what is going on in your world.
BLOGGING. Blogging is very similar to journaling, but blogs are public texts
(­Figure 20.5). You can sign up for a blog at several blogging websites, usually for free.
You may not want everyone to read your innermost ideas—but then again, you might!
Some personal blogs develop their own cult followings.
MICROBLOGGING. You can use a microblog like Threads, X, Tumblr, Plurk, Qaiku,
­BrightKite, identi.ca, and others to describe what is happening to you. Besides keeping
408 Chapter 20

Figure 20.5 A Blog

Journals or blogs can be helpful for coming up with new ideas and reflections. Some blogs have
evolved into full websites like this one written by Free Speech for People.

Source: Free Speech for People blog

your friends informed about where you are and what you are doing, your microblog
can track your thoughts and experiences.
Before writing a new entry into your journal or blog, go back and read what you
wrote previously. That way, you can build from your previous thoughts or use them as
a springboard for coming up with new ideas.

Writing an Exploratory Draft

Sometimes it is helpful to write an “exploratory draft” before you begin trying to write a
rough draft. In an exploratory draft, write about how you feel about the topic and what
you already know about it. Write down some of the main points you want to make in
your paper and what kinds of information or examples you will need to support your
points. Your exploratory draft is also a good place to express your concerns about the
project and come up with some strategies for handling them.

In this paper, I want to first explain the free speech clause in the First Amendment of the
U.S. Constitution. I’ll then do a pro/con analysis using a few real free speech examples
that involve college campuses. Finally, I’m going to conclude with my own views, which is
that we need to strike a ­balance. The style of my argument will be overall welcoming but
 Prewriting and Inventing Your Ideas 409

maybe a little irritated. After all, we’re now 60 years after MLK’s “I Have a Dream Speech,”
and people are still yelling racist stuff out of their car windows! On a college campus!
I want to express some of that irritation in my tone.

The purpose of an exploratory draft is to explore your topic and sort out your ideas.

Exploring with Presentation Software

Presentation software can be a powerful tool for doing exploratory writing about your
subject. There are many software packages, such as Microsoft’s PowerPoint, Apple’s
­KeyNote, and free programs like Prezi, SlideRocket, Powtoon, and OpenOffice’s Impress.
The software can help you create slides, making a bulleted list of your major subjects
and key points. Then you can fill out the slides with details, pictures, and graphs.
Try this:
1. Create a new presentation in your favorite presentation software.
2. On the title slide, type a title for your paper that identifies your topic. In the subtitle
area, type in your angle on that topic.
3. Think of two to five major topics that you will discuss in your argument. Create a
separate slide for each major topic.
4. On the slide for each major topic, list two to five issues that you might need to talk
about in your paper.
5. As you fill in each slide, look for opportunities to add visuals, such as photographs,
charts, and graphs.
If you don’t have information about one of your major topics, just leave that slide blank
for now. These gaps in slides signal places where you need to do more research.
When you are finished filling in the slides as best you can, you might find it helpful
to change your screen to Slide Sorter View so you can see an overview of your whole
text (Figure 20.6). The Slide Sorter is usually under the “View” menu of your presen-
tation software. It will allow you to move slides around to figure out the best way to
organize your ideas.
When you are finished exploring your topic with the presentation software, you
will have a good outline for writing your paper. Plus, you will have collected the pho-
tographs, charts, and other visuals you need for designing the document.

Taking Time to Invent and Prewrite

When writing a paper, it is tempting to jump straight to the drafting stage of the writing
process. After all, time spent prewriting, using heuristics, and doing exploratory writing
might seem like time away from your real task—getting that assignment finished. In
reality, though, inventing and prewriting will save you time because you will be more
creative and won’t find yourself staring at a blank screen.
By setting aside time to invent your ideas, you’ll be able to see the choices that are
available, and you’ll be able to consciously decide which choices will work best.
410 Chapter 20

Figure 20.6 Outlining with Presentation Software

Presentation software can help you make a quick outline of your argument and insert graphics.
The Slide Sorter View will show an overview of your exploratory writing.

Quick Start Guide

Start developing the content of your document. Here are some techniques for prewriting, using heuristics,
and doing some exploratory writing.

Do some prewriting to get the ideas flowing. Prewriting uses visual and verbal strategies to help you
figure out what you already know about your topic and how you want to approach it. Try making a concept
map, freewriting, doing some brainstorming, or making a storyboard on your topic.

Use heuristics to draw out your ideas. A heuristic is a discovery tool that helps you ask insightful
­questions or follow a specific pattern of thinking. Some of the common heuristics are the Five-W and
How questions, the five human senses, logos/ethos/pathos, and cubing.

Reflect on your topic with exploratory writing. Exploratory writing is “writing about writing,” which
allows you to think about your writing projects from a little more distance. You can do some journaling or
blogging. Or you can write an exploratory draft that lets you talk through what you want to write about.
­Presentation software can be a useful tool for putting your ideas on the screen in an organized way.

Give yourself time to invent your ideas. It’s tempting to jump right to the drafting stage. That deadline is
looming. But you will find that you write better and more efficiently if you give yourself time to sort through
your ideas first.
 Prewriting and Inventing Your Ideas 411

Activities for Prewriting and

Inventing Ideas
Talk About This
1. List three times in your life when you have been especially creative or ­innovative.
Perhaps you did something creative in writing, art, music, or sports. Why did
you decide to take the more creative path rather than the ordinary path? Tell
your group about these creative moments and how they came about.
2. With your group, list five celebrities, artists, or professional athletes who you
think are especially original and innovative. What unique characteristics make
each of them creative? Do some Internet research on these creative people. What
­strategies do they use to “think outside the box”? Can you find any common
characteristics that they all share?
3. What kinds of written invention strategies have you learned previously, and
what has worked for you in the past? With your group, talk about methods you
have used in the past to come up with new ideas for projects.

Try This Out

1. Create a concept map about a topic that interests you. Then identify the one or
two most interesting issues in your concept map. Put one of those issues in the
middle of your screen or a new piece of paper and create a second concept map
on this narrower version of the topic. Ask yourself, “What has changed to make
this topic interesting or important right now?” This will help you find a new
angle on your topic.
2. For about five minutes, use an AI application to make a brainstorming list about
a topic for your next paper in this class. When you are finished, pick the best
ideas and brainstorm for another five minutes. This second b ­ rainstorming list
will help you develop a solid understanding of all the possible topics, purposes,
and angles you can pursue as you write your paper.
3. Check into some of the free blogging services available online. What are some of
the pros and cons of each blogging site? Discuss with your group your current
blog or one that you might enjoy writing.

Write This
1. Invent with presentation software. For your next project in this class, start by
creating a first version of your document with presentation software. Begin with
a title slide that includes your title and main point. Then create slides for the
412 Chapter 20

major points in your paper. Add a slide for the conclusion. Then go back and
fill in the bullet points for each of your major points. Find any graphics you can
and add them to the slides. When you have finished creating your slides, use the
Slide Sorter feature to move them around. When you are finished, talk through
your presentation with your group, classmates, or friends and family.
2. Start keeping a journal or blog. For the next two weeks, keep a journal or
a blog. Each day, spend a few minutes writing about your life and perhaps
­something about the topic of your next paper. Then, as you draft, design, and
edit your paper, describe your successes and challenges while developing the
document. Include your journal or a link to your blog with the final draft of
your paper.
Chapter 21
Organizing
and Drafting
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

21.1 sketch out how your paper will be organized.

21.2 draft an introduction that catches your readers’ attention.
21.3 support your thesis in the body of your paper.
21.4 develop a conclusion that ends your paper on a strong note.

Now that you have invented the content of your paper, it’s time to figure out how
to organize that material and write your first draft. Here’s where the genre approach
to writing can be very helpful because genres offer useful organizational patterns that
you can follow while writing your first draft.
Start by deciding which genre best fits your purpose and your paper’s thesis
­statement. Your thesis statement will usually include a verb like “review,” “argue,”
“propose,” “explain,” or “analyze” that will point you toward the genre (or microgenre)
you should follow. Then you can turn to the chapter of Writing Today that explains
that genre. For example, if you are writing a profile, you can flip to the beginning of
­Chapter 14 and look at the “At-A-Glance” genre diagram. Inside the chapter itself, you
will find plenty of good advice about how to use the profile genre to organize and draft
your assignment.
As you strengthen your writing skills, you will find yourself mastering a genre set
that fits your major, your career, and your life. Keep in mind that genres are flexible
patterns that reflect how people act, react, and interact in the real world. They aren’t
formulas to be followed mechanically. Since no two writing situations are ever exactly
the same, you should alter, bend, and stretch the genre to fit your particular needs.
In this chapter, you will learn some easy strategies for putting your ideas and
research into patterns that will be familiar to you and your readers. You will then learn
some powerful strategies for drafting papers that will save you time and energy.

413
414 Chapter 21

Sketching Out Your Paper’s Organization

21.1 Sketch out how your paper will be organized.
Begin by sketching out a rough outline or diagram that sorts your ideas and helps you
gather input from others. In the workplace, teams often use a whiteboard or a glass wall
to create an outline or draw a diagram. Increasingly, people are also using presenta-
tion software like PowerPoint, Keynote, or Google Slides to outline their projects as slides
(Figure 21.1). The presentation software allows them to organize their ideas as bullet
points and rearrange the slides as needed.
Your outline or diagram can be informal and loosely structured, unless your
­professor wants a formal outline. Most writers type a quick outline on their screen or
scribble one on a sheet of paper or a whiteboard. Minimally, your outline or diagram
should identify the major parts of your paper and sketch in some of the details. Your
notes will then serve as a map that guides your drafting of the paper.
If your professor allows you to use artificial intelligence (AI) applications, they
can be helpful for creating an initial outline for a specific genre. For example, you can
type “Create an outline for a profile about X,” where X is the name of a person or
place. You can then revise the outline provided by the AI application to fit your needs.
However, keep in mind that AI applications are not particularly original or creative.
An AI-assisted search will tend to look for a few texts like the one you asked for and
use their organizations as templates. In some situations, using AI may leave you open
to charges of plagiarism or copyright infringement.

Figure 21.1 Three Ways to Outline a Paper

To sketch out the organization of your paper, you can use a traditional outline, a diagram, or
­presentation software.
 Organizing and Drafting 415

Using the Genre to Create a Basic Outline

Here’s an easy way to start your outline. Type or write “I. Introduction” on your screen
or a piece of paper. Then type or write “X. Conclusion” at the bottom. Why? Because
you already know your document will need an introduction and a conclusion. For now,
use an “X” with the conclusion because at this point you don’t know how many sections
will be needed for the body of your paper.
If you are using presentation software to outline your project, create an
“­Introduction” slide and a “Conclusion” slide. You will be adding slides between these
two as you sketch out the body of your paper.

Filling In Your Outline

Now you’re ready to start listing the major sections that will appear in your ­document.
Give each one an uppercase Roman numeral (e.g., II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, etc.). If you are using
presentation software, create a separate slide for each section of your paper. Include a title
for each slide that describes what that section will be about. The genre you are follow-
ing should give you a good idea about how many sections you will need (Figure 21.2).

Figure 21.2 A Starter Outline

Sometimes professors and supervisors will ask you for a starter outline that describes the major
­sections and topics you will discuss in your paper.

Section

Subsections

Section

Subsections
416 Chapter 21

After you have identified the sections, think about each one separately and list the
topics that might be discussed. Each section should include about two to five topics
for discussion. The “starter outline” shown in Figure 21.2 illustrates how you can use
Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV) and uppercase letters (A, B, C, D) to sort out the items
you will discuss in your paper. Hint: If your Roman numerals are nearing X (that’s ten
sections), you probably have too many sections. If that’s the case, some of your sections
should be combined or removed.
In some situations, you may be asked to hand in a more formal outline for your
paper so your professor can look it over before you begin drafting. Increasingly, pro-
fessors are asking students to hand in “slide deck” or “presentation” versions of their
outlines that show how the document will be organized.

Drafting Your Introduction: Tell Them

What You’re Going to Tell Them
21.2 Draft an introduction that catches your readers’ attention.
The purpose of an introduction is to tell readers what you’re going to tell them. Put
yourself in your readers’ place. When you start reading something, you usually want
answers to a few basic questions: “What is this about?” “What is this author trying to
prove?” “Is this important to me?” “What is this person’s main point?” Your readers
feel the same way. So your introduction should answer these kinds of basic questions
up front, usually in one paragraph. In a longer document, like a proposal or report, your
introduction may even require a few paragraphs.

Six Introductory Moves

You might find it helpful to remember that an introduction usually makes some or all
of the following six moves:
Move 1—Use a grabber to catch the readers’ attention.
Move 2—Identify your topic.
Move 3—Offer background information on your topic.
Move 4—Stress the importance of the topic to your readers.
Move 5—State your purpose.
Move 6—State your main point, thesis statement, or question you will answer.
These opening moves can be made in just about any order. Your topic, purpose, and
main point are the most important moves because they tell readers (a) what you are
writing about, (b) why you are writing, and (c) what you want to explain or prove. The
other three moves, which are optional, will help your readers better familiarize them-
selves with your topic. The following introduction uses all six moves:

Topic identified. Streets of Death: The Perils of Street Racing

Background That night, Davey Yeoman hadn’t planned on almost killing himself. He was out cruising
information.
with a couple of friends in his blue turbo-charged Honda Accord. The other guy was in a
 Organizing and Drafting 417

yellow Pontiac GTO with katana rims. The driver of the GTO asked if Davey wanted to
race. He said yeah. So they agreed to meet at 11:00 that night on a two-laner outside
town. It was a popular place for street racing.
When the stoplight changed, Davey hit 120 mph almost right away. The GTO was
running beside him, just off his right quarter panel. Davey’s Accord was shaking, and its
engine was screaming. Suddenly, ahead, he saw the headlights of a semitrailer turning
into his lane from a side road. The last thing Davey remembered thinking was, “Not me,
God, not me.” He knew he was dead.
Street racing is a craze that has grown steadily in the last decade. Last year, over Importance of the
topic is stressed.
two hundred young people were killed in street racing incidents (FARS 9). Most of the
dead and maimed were the drivers or their passengers, and some were people who just
got in the way. Street racing has turned some of our roads into deadly places. These Purpose ­identified
in the thesis
street racers need to understand the deadly dangers of turning our roads into
statement.
racetracks.

In this three-paragraph introduction, the author grabs the readers’ attention and
then identifies the topic (street racing). Then, the author offers some background informa-
tion and stresses the importance of the topic with a graphic story and real data. Then he
finishes his introduction by stating his purpose and main point.
Generally, your paper’s main point, or thesis statement, should be placed near the
end of the introduction, but you don’t need to put it there. In the sample introduction
here, for example, the writer could move the sentences and paragraphs around to put
the main point earlier if that seemed to work better.

Using a Grabber to Start Your Introduction

To catch readers’ attention, some writers like to use a grabber or hook at the introduction’s
beginning. A grabber can gently spark your readers’ curiosity. Or it can shout, “Hey,
listen to me!” Here are some good grabbers you might try:

ASK AN INTERESTING QUESTION. A question draws readers into the text by

prompting them for an answer.

Have you ever thought about becoming a professional chef? The training is rigorous and
the work can be difficult, but the rewards are worth it.

STATE A STARTLING STATISTIC. An interesting statistic can immediately highlight

the importance of the topic.

A shocking survey recently showed that 73 percent of teens in Bloomington have smoked
marijuana and 23 percent report using it at least once a week (“Weed” A3).

MAKE A COMPELLING STATEMENT. Make a statement that challenges readers at

the beginning of the text.

Unless we take action now on the climate crisis this decade, we are likely to see massive
storms and rising ocean levels that will drown coastal cities within thirty years.
418 Chapter 21

BEGIN WITH A QUOTATION. A quote is a good way to pique your readers’ curiosity.

That great American Ben Franklin once said, “They who would give up an essential liberty
for temporary security deserve neither liberty nor security.” Today, it seems that our fellow
citizens are all too willing to sell their freedom to buy a false sense of security.

USE DIALOGUE. Dialogue can quickly bring readers into the story you are telling.

One morning at breakfast, I heard a couple of other students from my dorm talking about
the terrorist attacks on September 11th. One of them said, “September 11th was just like
when the Germans bombed Pearl Harbor.” The other gave a confused look and asked,
“You mean the Vietnamese, right? That’s when the Vietnam War started.” That’s when
I came to the troubling conclusion that many people my age have a dangerously flawed
understanding of American history.

ADDRESS READERS AS “YOU.” Addressing the readers directly with “you” is a

good way to get their attention.

Has this ever happened to you? You and your friends are going out for a night out on the
town. You’re dressed up, and you’re dining at one of the finest restaurants in the city. But
then the maître d’ escorts you to the worst table in the place, right next to the swinging
doors to the kitchen or the station where they refill drinks. Right away, you realize that
you’re being discriminated against because you’re young.

The best grabber is one that (1) identifies your topic, (2) says something that
intrigues your readers, and (3) captures the point of your paper in a concise way.

Using a Lead to Draw in the Readers

You can also use a lead (sometimes spelled “lede”) to introduce your paper. The lead is
the first one or two paragraphs of a news story in a magazine, newspaper, or website.
Like a grabber, the aim of a lead is to capture your readers’ attention while giving them
good reasons to continue reading. Here are some common types of leads:
SCENE SETTER. A scene setter describes the place in which something important or
interesting happened.

The young men wade through thigh-high grass beneath the firs and ponderosa pines,
calmly setting the forest on fire. With flicks of the wrist, they paint the landscape in flame.
The newborn fires slither through the grass and chew into the sagging branches. Every
few minutes a fire ignites, flames devouring it in a rush of light, the roar of rockets. It is
over in seconds. Only a smoking skeleton remains. (Neil Shea, “Under Fire”)

ANECDOTE. An anecdote launches the introduction with an interesting true story

that happened to the author or someone else.

My parents didn’t know that I was often awake at 4:00 a.m. on school nights. I was inside
an enormous and beautiful world, hanging out with thousands of people I didn’t even
 Organizing and Drafting 419

know. In the summer, I’d often stay there for days, only taking breaks to eat and go to the
bathroom. Yes, League of Legends is an incredibly addictive online game, and you could
say I was one of its willing victims.

CASE HISTORIES. A case history tells two to three very short true stories about
­different people who have had similar problems or experiences.

Fred Jenkins never thought he was the kind of person to declare bankruptcy. He was
a successful entrepreneur with plenty of money in the bank. He wasn’t ready, though,
for the massive medical bills that came after his treatments for bladder c
­ ancer. Within
two years, he was $120,000 in debt and homeless. Mira Johanson took a different
path to bankruptcy. After she graduated from college, she rented an apartment she
could barely afford. She already had $60,000 in student loans and soon racked up
$24,000 in credit card debt. Then, when she lost her engineering job at C
­ aterpillar,
she could no longer make the minimum payments on her credit cards, so she
stopped paying them. That’s when her financial house of cards crumbled and her life
fell apart.

PERSONAL SKETCH. Articles that are about a person often begin with a description
of the person and a small biography.

In mid-January 1959, Fidel Castro and his comrades in revolution had been in power less
than a month. Criticized in the international press for threatening summary justices and
execution for many members of the government of ousted dictator Fulgencio Batista,
Castro called on the Cuban people to show their support at a rally in front of Havana’s
presidential palace.
Castro, 32, wore a starched fatigue cap as he faced the crowd. With him were
two of his most trusted lieutenants, Camilo Cienfuegos, unmistakable in a cowboy hat,
and Ernesto (Che) Guevara in his trademark black beret. (Guy Gugliotta, “Comrades
in Arms”)

The lead usually comes before your main point (i.e., your thesis) in the introduction.
A good lead draws your readers into your paper and encourages them to keep reading.

When Should You Draft Your Introduction?

People have probably told you, “Never write your introduction first!” You might find
that advice helpful or not. Whether you prefer to draft your introduction first or wait
until later is up to you.
Either way, you should start out by writing down your paper’s topic, purpose, and
main point. Those are the three most important introductory moves, and writing them
down first will allow you to “tell them what you’re going to tell them.” With these three
moves figured out, you should be able to draft a version of your introduction as soon
as you feel ready.
Whether you write your introduction first or last is up to you. Choose the strategy
that works for you.
420 Chapter 21

Drafting the Body of Your Paper:

Tell Them
21.3 Support your thesis in the body of your paper.
The body of your paper will give readers the information you promised in the introduc-
tion. In other words, you are now “telling them.” To draft this part of the paper, you
want to carve up the body into two to five topics that you will discuss. A shorter paper
will usually devote one or two paragraphs per topic, while a longer paper will often
devote an entire section to each topic.
Drafting the body can be difficult and even frustrating. Freewriting is usually a
good way to get the words flowing. Just write down everything that comes to mind
without stopping. With some text on the screen, you can then revise the sentences, move
them around, and collect them into paragraphs.
Also, don’t hesitate to go back and use those invention strategies you learned about
in Chapter 20, “Prewriting and Inventing Your Ideas.” Even though you are in the
drafting phase, you can always create another concept map or do more brainstorming
to generate fresh ideas. You can also use the Five-W and How questions or your five
senses to explore new pathways or figure out new ways to describe things.
The drafting phase will trigger many new ideas and issues that you didn’t expect.
Don’t ignore those pesky thoughts! Use them to be creative! That’s your brain doing
its job.

Overcoming Writer’s Block

That said, when you are drafting the body, you might find yourself going blank. That’s
normal. Writer’s block happens to everyone, including the most experienced writers.
Here are some strategies professional writers use to keep the ideas and words flowing:
DRAFTING (ALMOST) EVERY DAY. The worst thing you can do is start drafting the
night before your paper is due. You will often hear people say things like “I write best
under pressure” or “I need to figure out what I’m going to say before I start writing.”
They’re fooling themselves. These kinds of statements are warning signals that the
writer is procrastinating. Most people don’t really write well under pressure, and the
best way to figure out what you have to say is to get started and write something down.
The best way to avoid writer’s block is to write for a half hour to an hour every
day. Set aside a regular time in the morning or evening to work on your writing
­assignments. If you do, you will likely finish all your writing projects with time to spare.
Writing is like exercising at the gym. If you exercise for a half hour to an hour every
day, you will improve steadily, get stronger, and look great. If, however, you try to do
all your exercising on Sunday afternoon, you’ll just get tired and won’t see the results
you want.
Similarly when writing, if you say, “I’m setting aside Sunday afternoon to write
that paper,” you are not going to do your best work. But if you write for a half hour to
an hour every day, you will write better and faster. Try it, and you’ll see that it makes
a big difference.
 Organizing and Drafting 421

HACK YOUR BRAIN. Sometimes you need to trick your brain into getting past a
blank moment as you are writing. Whenever you go blank, finish the sentence “What
I really mean is . . . .” You will discover that simply finishing this sentence will help
you get past the temporary block. Other brain-hacking sentences you can finish are
“There are two ways to look at this . . . ,” “Some people say. . . , but I say . . . ,” and
“As a result, . . . ”
LOWER YOUR STANDARDS WHILE DRAFTING. Stop trying to get it right while
you are drafting. Instead, put your ideas on the screen or paper, and don’t worry
about whether they are intelligent or grammatically correct. Then spend extra time
during the revision phase turning those ideas into a document that has the high qual-
ity you expect.
TALK IT OUT. Professional writers often talk to friends about their work or even talk
into their phones (journaling out loud). Sometimes it helps to just say out loud what
you want to write—to yourself or to someone else who is willing to listen. If you make
an audio recording of your ideas, you can play it back to yourself while taking notes.
Then, after you have listened to your audio recording a few times, you will find it easier
to write your ideas down and expand on them.
CHANGE HOW AND WHERE YOU WRITE. If you normally draft on a computer, try
switching over to pen and paper for a while. If you normally write in your dorm room,
try a change of scenery by going over to the library or to a local café. Sometimes chang-
ing how or where you are writing will help you loosen up.
USE BOTH SIDES OF YOUR BRAIN. The right side of your brain is more visual than
the left, so use invention techniques like concept mapping, freewriting, and cubing to
tap into that visual creativity. These techniques will help you put your ideas on the
screen or paper. Then the left side of your brain can organize them into paragraphs,
sections, and whole documents.
WRITE YOUR PAPER AS AN E-MAIL OR TEXT. Start writing your document as an
e-mail or a text to a friend. E-mail and texting are often more comfortable writing envi-
ronments than a word processor. These less-formal places to write should allow you to
relax as you get your ideas out of your head.
TALK TO YOUR PROFESSORS. Your professors probably have some helpful ideas
about how to draft your papers. Visit your professors during office hours. They are
there to help you.
GO TO THE CAMPUS WRITING CENTER. If your campus has a writing center, you
should drop by for some help. You can talk your ideas over with an experienced writer
who can offer feedback on your ideas or advice and strategies.
STOP PROCRASTINATING. Procrastination is the usual culprit behind writer’s
block. The pressure of a deadline can cause your brain to freeze. So start each writing
project early, and write a little every day. Your writer’s block will usually evaporate
when you stop procrastinating.
Your first year of college is the best time to develop good writing habits. Don’t wait
until your advanced college courses or your first job to form these good habits.
422 Chapter 21

Drafting Your Conclusion: Tell Them

What You Told Them
21.4 Develop a conclusion that ends your paper on a strong note.
Think about this. What happens when one of your professors says, “In conclusion . . . ,”
“Finally,” or “Here is what I really want you to take away from today’s lecture”?
­Everyone in the class starts tuning in and paying closer attention. Why? Because every-
one knows the professor is going to state the main point of the lecture.
The same is true of the conclusion at the end of your paper. When your readers real-
ize they have arrived at the conclusion, they will start paying closer attention because
they know you are going to state your main points.
Here are five moves that you can make in your paper’s conclusion:
Move 1: Signal clearly that you are concluding.
Move 2: Restate your main point or thesis statement with added emphasis.
Move 3: Stress the importance of your topic again.
Move 4: Call your readers to action (if needed).
Move 5: Look to the future.
Your conclusion should be as short as possible, and it should be similar to your intro-
duction in content and tone. In your conclusion, you need to bring readers back around
to the beginning of your argument, showing them that you have achieved your ­purpose.
For example, consider the following conclusion:

Street Racing Must Stop

Signal conclusion. In the end, street racing just isn’t worth it. A few seconds of thrill can cause a lifetime of
Importance of suffering or even get someone killed—maybe you. Davey Yeoman found that out the hard
topic.
way, and he wants his life to be an example to others. He’s paralyzed and eats through a
straw. The Accord he once loved is a mangled heap that is towed around to local high
schools as a warning to others. Davey hopes he can use his experiences to save the
lives of others.
The laws against street racing are already on the books. We don’t need more laws. The
Main point and call things we need are more education and tougher enforcement to stop street racing. Only
to action.
then will we be able to end this dangerous craze that leaves so many lives destroyed.
Look to the future. Only then will our streets be safe again.

This conclusion makes all five concluding moves in two brief paragraphs. First, the
author signals that he is concluding in the first sentence with the phrase “In the end, . . .”
Phrases that signal a conclusion include the following:
In conclusion, Put briefly, Ultimately,
To sum up, In brief, Overall,
In summary, Finally, As a whole,
In closing, To finish up, On the whole,
 Organizing and Drafting 423

Then the author stresses the importance of the topic by returning to the story of
Davey Yeoman, which started the introduction. By returning to this story, the author
also brings the reader around to the beginning of the argument, making the paper feel
complete.
A call to action and the main point appear in the final paragraph. Pairing the main
point (thesis statement) with a call to action gives it more power because the author is
stating it directly and telling readers what should be done.
Finally, the conclusion ends with a look to the future in which the author looks
beyond the boundaries of the argument to talk about what should happen or will hap-
pen in the future.
You don’t have to include all five moves in your conclusion, and they don’t have to
appear in any specific order. However, if you find yourself writing a conclusion longer
than one or two paragraphs, you should consider moving some of the information into
the body of the paper.

Quick Start Guide

Knowing the appropriate genre for your paper is a good way to organize and draft it. Here is what you need
to know.

Use genres to organize your ideas. Genres are not formulas, but they do offer helpful patterns for
­organizing the content of your document. Chapters 6–19 show how various genres are organized.

Divide your document into an introduction, body, and conclusion. Almost all nonfiction genres include
an introduction, body, and conclusion. The introduction “tells them what you’re going to tell them.” The
body “tells them.” And the conclusion “tells them what you told them.”

Sketch an outline. Outlines may seem a bit old-fashioned, but an informal outline is often a good way to
sort your ideas into sections of a document.

Draft your introduction. A typical introduction includes up to five moves: (1) identify your topic, (2) state
your purpose, (3) state your main point or thesis, (4) stress the importance of the topic, and (5) provide
background information on the topic.

Develop a good grabber or lead for your introduction. Your introduction needs to capture the readers’
interest right away, so use a question, intriguing statistic, compelling statement, interesting story, or quota-
tion to hook them.

Overcome writer’s block. Hey, it happens to everyone. The techniques discussed in this chapter should
help you get through those moments.

Draft your conclusion. A conclusion should make up to five moves: (1) signal that you are c ­ oncluding,
(2) restate the main point or thesis with more emphasis, (3) reemphasize the importance of the topic,
(4) include a call for action, and (5) look to the future.

Verify that your introduction and conclusion work together. The introduction and conclusion should
work together, containing similar information, restating your main point, and using a similar tone.
424 Chapter 21

Activities for Organizing

and Drafting
Talk About This
1. With a group, discuss how you were taught to outline papers in high school. Does out-
lining work well for you? In which situations do outlines seem to work best for you?
2. Find a document on the Internet and identify its introduction and conclusion.
With a group of people in your class, discuss the introduction and conclusion.
Could the author have made choices that would improve their effectiveness?
3. When does writer’s block happen most frequently to you? What are your strate-
gies for avoiding writer’s block? When writer’s block happens, which strategies
have you chosen to get yourself “unstuck”?

Try This Out

1. As you draft your next paper, keep a log of how much time you spend drafting.
When you hand in your paper, look at your log. Where have you devoted more
or less time to the project? For your next project, what choices could you make to
spread your time out better and strengthen your writing?
2. Find a text that you think has a weak introduction and/or conclusion. Write a
one-page rhetorical analysis in which you diagnose the structural problems with
the text’s introduction and conclusion. What strategies could the author have
chosen to build a stronger introduction and/or conclusion?
3. Create an outline of the paper you are working on right now. Then, if your pro-
fessor approves, use an AI application to create another outline based on your
topic and the genre you are using. What are the similarities between your outline
and the one generated by the AI application? What are some of the differences?
Did the AI application suggest an organization that is significantly different than
yours? If yes, why do you think it chose a different way to organize the content?

Write This
1. Analyze your writing process. In a brief report, describe how you currently draft
your documents. How much time do you usually devote to drafting? Which
strategies or routines help you draft a paper? Next, offer some ideas for improv-
ing how you draft documents. Which techniques for overcoming writer’s block
in this chapter would be most helpful for you?
2. Interview a professional via e-mail. Set up an e-mail interview with a profes-
sional in your desired career or a professor in your major. Ask that person about
their writing process and pay special attention to what they say about organizing
ideas and drafting documents. Ask how documents are organized in their field.
Ask this person how they learned to write those kinds of documents. In a brief
profile, describe how your subject uses writing in their professional life.
Chapter 22
Choosing a Style
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

22.1 use plain style to write clearly and confidently.

22.2 establish a voice or tone in your papers.
22.3 use persuasive style to add energy and impact to your writing.

Style is the way you express yourself and your beliefs. It is a way of revealing your
attitude, opinions, and feelings about your topic. Your style establishes your character
and can build your credibility with your readers. In a word, style is about the quality
of your writing.
You may believe style is something people have or don’t have. Actually, good style
is something anyone can have, both in their life and in their writing. In your life, being
stylish is a combination of the way you choose to talk, dress, and move. In writing,
style is a combination of the way you express your ideas, present them with clarity and
persuasiveness, and describe movement and change. Style isn’t about using flowery
language or fancy words. It’s not about sprinkling in a few adjectives to make dull
­sentences more interesting or colorful. Style is much deeper than that.
Inexperienced writers sometimes talk about “my style” as though each writer
­possesses just one voice or way of writing. In reality, style is a matter of choice. Writers
should choose the style that best fits their topic, their purpose, and the genre they are
using. Some genres are associated with certain styles. Scientific reports, for example,
tend to be written in a plain, objective style. Movie reviews are often colorful and
upbeat. In some rhetorical situations, though, a scientific report could use an upbeat
style, and a movie review could be serious. Ultimately, the style you choose depends
on what you are trying to achieve with your writing.
Artificial intelligence (AI) applications have recently put a new spotlight on style. AI
applications tend to write in a hollow-sounding or somewhat mechanical voice if a style
is not specified. If the AI application is asked to write “in the style of Dr. Suess” or “like a
pirate,” the results can be funny or bizarre. You’re better off developing your sense of style in
your writing rather than relying on AI. That will help you create a voice that fits your topic
and purpose and be more innovative with stylistic devices like metaphor, simile, and irony.
Just as you can choose to be stylish in your personal life, you can also choose the
style of your writing. In this chapter, you will learn some simple but powerful strategies
for writing clearly, confidently, and persuasively.

425
426 Chapter 22

Writing in Plain Style

22.1 Use plain style to write clearly and confidently.
Plain style is the foundation for all other writing styles. In the past, you have probably
been given the usual advice to “write clearly” or “use concrete language,” as though
making up your mind to do so is all it takes. Actually, using plain style is a skill that
requires some practice. Once you learn a few basic guidelines, writing plainly will
become a natural strength.

Guideline 1: Clarify Who or What the Sentence is About

Often, unclear sentences simply lack an obvious subject. For example, consider the fol-
lowing unclear sentence:

Original:
Seven months after our spring break trip to Vail in which a bunch of us traveled around the
front range of the Rockies, my fond memories of the trip were enough to ignore the nag-
ging reality that the trip itself had yet to be fully paid for.

This is a difficult sentence to read. Who or what is this sentence about? The word
“memories” is currently in the subject position, but the sentence might also be about
“months,” “vacation,” “bunch of us,” “my roommates,” or “trip.” A sentence like this
one is difficult to understand because readers cannot easily locate the subject.
To make this sentence clearer, you first need to decide what the sentence is about.
Then you can move that topic into the subject position of the sentence. For example,
when this sentence is reconstructed around a clear subject, “my spring break trip,” it is
much easier to understand.

Revised:
My roommates and I traveled around the front range of the Rockies during our spring
break trip to Vail, which still brings up fond memories and helps me ignore the nagging
reality that seven months later I haven’t paid for the trip.

This revised sentence is still somewhat difficult to read, but it is clearer because the
subject of the sentence (what it’s about) is in the subject position. In other words, the
subject of the sentence is about the writer and the roommates.

Guideline 2: Make the “Doer” the Subject

of the Sentence
Readers tend to focus on who or what is doing something in a sentence. Whenever
possible, try to move the “doer” into the subject position. For example, which of the
following sentences is clearer?

On Monday morning, her semester project was completed just in time by Rosa.
On Monday morning, Rosa completed her semester project just in time.
 Choosing a Style 427

Most readers would say the second sentence is clearer because Rosa, who is the subject
of this sentence, is doing something. The “doer” in this sentence is Rosa, not her semes-
ter project, so she should be in the subject position of the sentence.

Guideline 3: Put the Subject Early in the Sentence

Subconsciously, your readers start every sentence looking for the subject (i.e., what the
sentence is about). The subject is the anchor of the sentence, so the longer readers have
to wait for it, the harder the sentence will be to read.

Original:
If the Sandia Mountains ecosystem experiences another drought like the one observed
from 2000 to 2009, black bears will suffer severely from a lack of available food and water.

Revised:
Black bears will suffer severely from a lack of available food and water if the Sandia
­Mountains ecosystem experiences another drought like the one from 2000 to 2009.

The second sentence is easier to read because the subject (black bears) appears early
in the sentence. When readers find that anchor, they then know how to read the
sentence.
The subject does not need to come first in the sentence, but it should come early.
Transitions and introductory clauses are fine, but they should be brief so readers can
locate the subject of the sentence.

Guideline 4: State the Action in the Verb

In each sentence, ask yourself what the doer is doing. Then move that action into the
verb position and put the verb as close to the subject as possible.

Original:
The detective is the person who conducted an investigation into the homicide that
­happened last night on 4th Avenue.

Revised:
The detective investigated last night’s homicide on 4th Avenue.

The original sentence is difficult to understand because the action (investiga-

tion) is not a verb and it’s buried later in the sentence. The revised sentence is
easier to understand because the action (investigate) is a verb and it’s close to the
subject.
While revising a sentence, look for the place where the action is expressed and then
turn that action into a verb.

Guideline 5: Eliminate Nominalizations

Nominalizations are perfectly good verbs and adjectives that have been turned into
awkward nouns.
428 Chapter 22

Original:
Students have an expectation that all professors will be rigorous and fair in the
­assignment of grades.

Revised:
Students expect all professors to be rigorous and fair when assigning grades.

Original:
Our discussion about the matter allowed us to make a decision to go to Florida for spring
break this year.

Revised:
We discussed our spring break options and decided to go to Florida this year.

When the nominalizations (“expectation,” “discussion”) are turned into verbs (“expect,”
“discuss”), the revised sentences are shorter, simpler, and active.

Guideline 6: Boil Down the Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases follow prepositions such as in, of, by, about, over, and under. These
phrases are necessary in writing, but they can be overused.

Original:
This year’s increase in the success of the basketball team called the Hokies of Virginia
Tech offered a demonstration of the importance of a coach with a national reputation for
the purposes of recruiting.

Revised:
This year’s successful Virginia Tech Hokies basketball team demonstrated the importance
of a nationally known coach for recruiting.

In the preceding examples, the prepositions have been italicized and the
­ repositional phrases are underlined. Notice how the prepositional phrases can create
p
“chains” of words that make these sentences harder to read.
Try turning some of them into adjectives. For example, “in the success of the basket-
ball team called the Hokies of Virginia Tech” was boiled down to “successful Virginia
Tech Hokies basketball team.” You don’t need to eliminate all prepositional phrases,
but you can simplify a sentence by eliminating some of them.

Guideline 7: Eliminate Redundancies

In an attempt to stress an important idea, some writers mistakenly use redundant phras-
ing. For example, they might say “unruly mob” as though some mobs are controlled
and orderly. Or they might talk about “active participants” as though people can par-
ticipate without doing anything.

Original:
We demand important, significant changes to university policies.
 Choosing a Style 429

Revised:
We demand significant changes to university policies.

Original:
The London plague of 1665 was especially deadly and lethal for the poor, who could not
escape to the countryside.

Revised:
The London plague of 1665 was especially deadly for the poor, who could not escape to
the countryside.

Redundancies should be eliminated because they use two or more words to do the
work that can be done with just one word.

Guideline 8: Use Sentences that are Breathing Length

You should be able to read your sentences out loud in one comfortable breath. If one
of your sentences runs on and on—even if it is grammatically correct—your readers
will feel like they are mentally holding their breath. They will be more concerned about
when the sentence will end than what it means. On the other hand, if you use only short
sentences, your readers will feel like they are breathing too quickly.
Keep in mind that each period signals, “Take a breath.” Long sentences cause read-
ers to feel as though they are holding their breath, while short sentences make them feel
like they are breathing too quickly.
Here are two ways to make your sentences breathing length:
• Sentences that cannot be said out loud comfortably in one breath should be short-
ened or cut into two sentences. (Don’t asphyxiate your readers with overly long
sentences!)
• Sentences that are too short should be combined with other short sentences around
them. (Don’t hyperventilate your readers, either!)
Reading your writing out loud is a good way to identify those sentences that are
too long or too short. By speaking your writing out loud, you will physically feel the
places where your writing is overextending your readers’ ability to breathe and taxing
their patience.

Establishing Your Voice

22.2 Establish a voice or tone in your papers.
When reading silently to ourselves, all of us, including your readers, hear a voice that
sounds out the words. By writing with a distinct and appropriate voice, you can guide
the voice that your readers will use to hear your text.
The best way to create a specific voice is first to choose the tone you want your
readers to hear as they read. In other words, think about how you want your voice
to sound. Do you want to sound excited, angry, joyful, sad, professional, disgusted,
430 Chapter 22

objective, happy, compassionate, surprised, optimistic, aggressive, regretful, anxious,

tense, affectionate, or sympathetic?
After you choose a specific tone, you can create your voice by setting a tone, getting
into character, or imitating other writers.

Set a Specific Tone

One of the easiest ways to establish your voice is to come up with a list of words associ-
ated with the tone you want to set. What is the one word that best describes how you
feel about your topic? Are you excited? Are you disgusted? Are you angry? Are you
delighted?
Write or type that one word at the top of a blank sheet of paper, and brainstorm a
list of 20 other words or phrases that are usually associated with that word (Figure 22.1).
Hint: As shown in Figure 22.1, the thesaurus feature of your word processor can be
especially helpful for coming up with these words or phrases.
Then, while you are drafting or revising your work, look for opportunities to use
these words in your text. If you strategically weave them into sentences throughout
your paper, your readers will subconsciously sense the tone you are trying to create
in your writing. For instance, if you want your argument to sound “optimistic,” keep
using words and phrases associated with optimism and confidence. Readers will then
hear that optimistic tone.
Don’t overdo it, though. If you use these words too often, readers will find your
paper’s tone too obvious, even tedious. Setting a specific tone is like adding spices to food.
A little seasoning makes food taste better, but too much seasoning can be overwhelming.

Figure 22.1 Using Brainstorming to Create a Tone

You can set a specific tone in your writing by using brainstorming to create a list of words that are
associated with the tone you want to establish.

Put the tone you

want to set into
Optimistic
the thesaurus tool.
cheerful
positive
hopeful
enthusiastic
confident
not pessimistic
encouraging
constructive
upbeat You can choose
not negative these words or
clear phrases and also
assured include words that
no doubt associate with them.
assertive
seeing the bright side
composed The list at the far left
looking to the future shows 20 words that
thinking positive can be woven into
sunny sentences to create an
curious optimistic tone.
 Choosing a Style 431

Get into Character

While drafting, one easy way to establish your voice is to imagine yourself playing a
role, as in a movie or a play. You need to get into character before you start drafting.
For instance, perhaps you are writing about a topic that is serious or tragic, but you
happen to be in a good mood that day. Or perhaps you are writing about something that
should be exciting, but you’re feeling tired and cranky. The best way to handle these
situations is to pretend that you are feeling “serious” or “excited” while you are work-
ing on the first draft of your document. You might even imagine that you are someone
else who is serious or excited about your topic. Get into character, and then let that
character compose from his or her point of view.

Imitate Other Writers

Imitation was once a common way for speakers and writers to work on improving
their voice and tone. Teachers of speech and writing would regularly ask their stu-
dents to imitate the style of well-known speakers and writers to practice new stylistic
techniques.
Today, imitation is not widely used to teach writing, but it’s still a useful tool
for improving your own style. Choose an author whose writing style you enjoy. Pay
close attention to his or her way of expressing ideas. How does the author’s choice
of words shape what the writer says? How do the sentences convey his or her mean-
ing? Then, as you are drafting or revising your next paper, use some of those word
choices and sentence strategies to convey your own ideas. When imitating someone
else, you will usually end up blending elements of his or her writing style with
­elements of yours.
Be careful not to use the exact words or ideas of the writer or text you are imitating.
That’s plagiarism. To avoid any chance of plagiarism, try imitating the style of a text
that was written on a different topic than the one you are writing about.

Writing Descriptively with Figures

and Tropes
22.3 Use persuasive style to add energy and impact to your writing.
Figures and tropes, which are usually referred to as “figurative language,” are useful
devices that will help you write more visually and with sound. Figures use words and
phrases in unexpected ways, allowing readers to experience evocative images and lively
sounds as they read. Tropes are special types of figures that are used to bring images
into the minds of the readers.

Use Similes and Analogies

A simile makes a comparison—“X is like Y” or “X is as Y”—asking readers to make
visual connections between two different things. Comparing a car to an old boyfriend,
for instance, calls up all kinds of interesting visual relationships.
432 Chapter 22

My car is like an old boyfriend. I still love it and we’ve had some great times together, but
it’s becoming unreliable and a little clunky. For now, I’m hanging on to it until something
sleeker and sportier comes along.

Up ahead, two dozen white pelicans were creating a spiral staircase as they flew. It looked
like a feathered DNA molecule. Their wings reflected the sun. The light shifted, and they
disappeared. (Terry Tempest Williams, Refuge)

Analogies are similes that work at two levels. When using an analogy, you are
­saying, “X is like Y, as A is like B.”

Like police keeping order in a city, white blood cells patrol your body’s bloodstream,
­controlling viruses and bacteria that want to do you harm.

In the 17th century, England’s reliance on imported salt was similar to the United States’
dependence on foreign oil today. England’s Queen Elizabeth I was especially anxious
about her nation’s reliance on salt from France, her nation’s old enemy (Kurlansky, Salt,
195). So she pushed hard for increased domestic production and sought to open other,
more dependable sources of salt. England’s navy was built in part to protect its salt
­supply, much as the United States’ navy is responsible for ensuring the flow of oil.

Analogies are used to highlight and explain complex relationships. A good analogy
allows readers to visualize similar features between two things.

Use Metaphors
Metaphors are also tropes, but they are more powerful than similes and analogies
because they tend to work at a deeper level. You can use two types of metaphors to
add power and depth to your writing: simple metaphors and cultural metaphors.
A simple metaphor states that one thing is something else: “X is Y.”

Mr. Lewis’s face is an aged parchment, creased and wrinkled from his years of sailing.

Vince, our boss, tossed one grenade after another in our meeting.

This year, my bike is my car—because I can’t afford gas anymore!

On the surface, these metaphors say something obviously false (i.e., a face is a parch-
ment, the boss threw grenades in the meeting, a bike is a car). Their falseness on the
surface urges readers to figure out an alternative meaning.
A simple metaphor can be extended:

Mr. Lewis’s face is an aged parchment, creased and wrinkled from his years of sailing. In
his bronze skin, you can see months spent sailing in the Caribbean. The wrinkles around
his eyes reveal many years of squinting into the wind. His bent nose and a scar on his
chin bear witness to the storms that have thrown him to the deck. His bright eyes peer out
from beneath his white brow, hinting at memories that landlubbers like me will never have.

In this example, you can see the power of a fertile metaphor. A good metaphor can be
used to create a perspective or a unique way of “seeing” something.
 Choosing a Style 433

Larger cultural metaphors also shape the way people think about issues. For
­example, here are some common cultural metaphors that we almost take for granted:

Time is money (e.g., spend time, waste time, saved time, lost time).

Thought is light (e.g., he is bright, she was in the dark, they enlightened me).

Argument is war (e.g., she defended her argument, the data undermined their initial
assumptions, I decided to fall back to my previous position).

Cultural metaphors like the “war on cancer” or the “war on drugs” have become so
ingrained that we rarely notice or challenge them. And yet the “war on X” metaphor
urges readers to think of a subject in a specific way that may distort the point you want
to make. It ­suggests, for example, that our society should respond to illegal drug use or
cancer with ­weapons and surveillance rather than managing them as diseases.

Use Personification
Personification is a trope that uses human qualities to describe something that is not
human. It uses human characteristics to make something appear to be more familiar,
personal, friendly, or threatening.

The hospital seemed to scowl at me, daring me to enter.

Finally, winter released us from its icy grasp, and a warm spring day called us out to dance.

The wolf glared at us, irritated that we had scared off her lunch, a plump rabbit.

The tree groaned in agony as the storm heaved it back and forth.

Use Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia uses words that sound like the things being described.

The fire crackled in the fireplace. She hissed, “I hate this class!”
He shuffled down the hallway. The leaves fluttered in the wind.

Using onomatopoeia is easy and can be powerful. Reflect on the sounds that are associ-
ated with your subject. Then look for words that capture those sounds.

Use Alliteration and Assonance

Alliteration is a figure that uses repeated consonant sounds, such as s, c, t, d, g, usually
within neighboring words. Assonance is the repeated use of the same vowel sounds,
such as a, o, oo, i. When used correctly, alliteration and assonance will make your writ-
ing sound more intense. Here is an example of alliteration from author Annie Dillard:

It is possible, in deep space, to sail on solar wind. Light, be it particle or wave, has force:
you rig a giant sail and go. The secret of seeing is to sail on solar wind. Hone and spread
your spirit till you yourself are a sail, whetted, translucent, broadside to the merest puff. (33)
434 Chapter 22

The repeated use of the “s” sound in this passage weaves this text together, giving it a
consistent tone. The recurrence of “s” words also intensifies the tone by establishing a
consistent sound that the readers can hear.
Here is an example of assonance, also from Dillard:

A male English sparrow, his mouth stuffed, was hopping in and out of an old nest in a
bare tree, and sloshing around in its bottom. A robin on red alert in the grass, trailing half
a worm from its bill, bobbed three steps and straightened up, performing unawares the
universal robin trick. (113)

The “o” sound is repeated here in words that are near each other, such as hopping,
­sloshing, bottom, robin, and bobbed. Again, this repeated use of a vowel sets a particular
sound or tone in the text. Assonance is more subtle than alliteration because vowels
lack the sharp qualities of consonants. But both techniques can be used effectively to
weave the text together with sound.

Improving Your Writing Style

With a little practice, you can dramatically improve the power and intensity of your
writing by simply choosing a style and keeping it in mind as you compose and revise.
You can help your readers “see” and “hear” what you are writing about.
If you practice these techniques, they will become a natural part of your writing
skills. Then, after deciding on the tone and style you want, you can project it to your
readers with just a little effort.

Quick Start Guide

Remember that style is determined by the choices that you can and should make. Style is a way to express
your attitude and feelings about a topic while establishing your character and a sense of authority.

Use plain style. Plain style is the basis of all other writing styles. By choosing an appropriate subject
for each sentence and moving it to an early position in the sentence, you can clarify what or whom the
­sentence is about. Put the action of the sentence in the verb. Then eliminate nominalizations, boil down
prepositional phrases, and eliminate redundancies.

Establish your voice. Choose the voice or tone that would be most appropriate for your text. Then put
that voice into your writing by setting a specific tone, getting into character, or imitating other writers.

Use similes, analogies, metaphors, and personification. Similes, analogies, metaphors, and
­personification highlight relationships among different things and ideas. They allow readers to see your
topic in new and interesting ways.

Explore and challenge cultural metaphors. Pay attention to the cultural metaphors that shape how we
think. You can use those cultural metaphors or challenge them.

Evoke atmosphere with sound. You can also describe something by using sound. An onomatopoeia is a
word that sounds like the thing it is describing (e.g., crackling fire, shuffling walk, hissing voice). Alliteration and
assonance can add intensity and sound to your writing by combining consonants and vowels in original ways.
 Choosing a Style 435

Activities for Choosing a Style

Talk About This
1. With a group of people from your class, make a list of five celebrities and other
people you consider stylish. What about them signals that they have good style?
2. With your group, talk about the ways people adopt a particular style or voice.
Are there situations in your life when you can choose to adopt a different style or
voice than you normally would?
3. Find three texts on the Internet that demonstrate three different styles. Have each
member of your group explain why he or she likes or dislikes the style of each
document. How does the style of each document fit or not fit the needs of its
readers and contexts?

Try This Out

1. Find a text or author that you would like to imitate. Then, with that text on
your desk or screen, write about a different topic, but use the style of that text.
Try to match that author’s use of tone, metaphors, similes, detail, and sentence
length.
2. Search the Internet to explore the different uses of a common cultural metaphor.
What does this metaphor say about how we think about these subjects in our
culture?
3. Come up with your own simile or metaphor—perhaps something absurd. Pick
any metaphor that comes to mind. Try freewriting for three minutes with your
simile or metaphor in front of you. Does the simile or metaphor give you any
new insights? At what point does the simile or metaphor become far-fetched or
absurd?

Write This
1. Analyze a cultural metaphor. Find a common cultural metaphor and write an
analysis in which you discuss its strengths and weaknesses. Where does the
metaphor fail to capture the full meaning of its subject?
2. Review the style of an online document. Choose a document on the Internet
that exhibits good style and write a review of the document’s use of any figura-
tive language, rich descriptions, or other stylistic strategies.
 Chapter 23
Designing Your
Document
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

23.1 use principles of design to lay out a document.

23.2 use photography and images to illustrate ideas.
23.3 enhance and reinforce written text with graphs and charts.

Good design creates a sense of order and gives your readers access points to help them
locate the information they need. Design involves more than how something looks. It’s
also about how people interact, how they create, and how they see and respond to the
world around them. The design of documents, even college papers, is about creating
appealing texts that help readers interpret and engage with your message.
Document design has two primary purposes: (1) to make the information more
accessible so readers can locate what they need and (2) to make the document more
inviting so people want to read it. If your paper looks dense and unattractive, peo-
ple won’t want to read it. However, if your document looks accessible and attractive,
­readers are going to want to spend more time considering your ideas.
We live in a highly visual culture in which printed words alone are no longer
­sufficient. Design is how people see reality and how they engage with what you have
to say. The Five Principles of Design discussed in this chapter are based on the Gestalt
theory of design, which is used by many creative people, including graphic designers,
clothing designers, architects, and artists. Once you learn these principles, you should
find it easy—and even fun—to design your documents.
The good news is that your phone and computer make adding visuals and design-
ing documents easier than ever. With your phone, you can go out and take pictures
of the people, places, and events you are writing about. On the Internet, you can find
­colorful graphics and powerful images that illustrate and support your argument
(­making sure, of course, that you cite the source of the image and ask permission to
use it, where appropriate). And, with desktop publishing software like Adobe InDesign,
MS Publisher, and QuarkXPress, you can create professional-looking documents right
on your screen. Meanwhile, graphic design software programs like Canva, Adobe Spark,
and Visme are great for creating infographics, flyers, invitations, and memes.
436
 Designing Your Document 437

Even if you’re just using word-processing software, like MS Word or Google Docs, a
little time spent on design can quickly make your writing stronger, more colorful, and
more appealing to your readers.

Design Principle 1: Balance

23.1 Use principles of design to lay out a document.
To balance a text, imagine that a page from your document has been placed on a point,
like a pencil point. Everything you add to the left side of the page needs to be balanced
with something on the right. For example, if you add a picture to the left side, you will
need to add text or perhaps another picture on the right.
To illustrate, look at the page from a report shown in Figure 23.1. On this page, the
drawing of a peregrine falcon on the left has what graphic designers call “weight.” This
drawing strongly attracts the readers’ eyes to it. So to offset this drawing, the designers
chose to put a large block of two-column text on the right. Meanwhile, the heavy green
borders at the top and bottom of the sheet balance each other, making the page feel
stable and steady from top to bottom.
Balance is not a matter of making the page look symmetrical (the same on the left
and right). The items should balance, but they shouldn’t simply mirror each other.

Figure 23.1 A Balanced Design

Balance creates a sense of order in documents. This page is balanced both left to right and top
to bottom.

The green header

and footer balance
the page on the
top and bottom.

The drawing of the

falcon is balanced
with the written
text on the right.

Source: Manitoba Conservation.

438 Chapter 23

Balancing a Page
When graphic designers talk about how much the items on the page “weigh,” they are
talking about how strongly these elements will attract the readers’ eyes to them. For
example, on a webpage, animated images weigh more than static images. (That’s why
advertisers often use dancing people in their Internet ads.)
Here are some guidelines for balancing the features on a page:
• Pictures weigh more than written text.
• Color items weigh more than black-and-white items.
• Big items weigh more than small ones.
• Strange shapes weigh more than standard shapes.
• Things on the right side of the page weigh more than things on the left.
• Things on the top of the page weigh more than things on the bottom.
• Moving features, like webpage animations, weigh more than static ones.
You can use these guidelines to help you balance just about any page. Don’t be
afraid to move items around on the page to see how they look.

Design Principle 2: Alignment

Your readers will subconsciously search for visual relationships among items on the
page. If two items line up on the page, readers will assume that those two items are
related in some way. If a picture, for example, is vertically aligned with a caption, list,
or block of text on a page, readers will naturally assume that they go together.
In Figure 23.2, the absence of alignment means the page on the left gives no hint
about the levels of information, making it difficult for readers to find what they are

Figure 23.2 Using Vertical Alignment

Aligning text vertically allows you to show different levels of information in the text, making the
­document easier to read and scan. The page on the left is harder to read because it has minimal
­alignment. The page on the right uses alignment to signal the levels of information in the text.
Levels of information
 Designing Your Document 439

looking for. The page on the right, on the other hand, uses vertical alignment to high-
light the levels in the text. Most readers would find the text on the right page easier to
read because they immediately understand how the information is structured.
To create vertical alignment in your page design:
• Use margins and indentation consistently to highlight the hierarchy of the
information.
• Use bulleted lists or numbered lists to set off related information from the main text.
• Adjust the placement of any photographs or graphics to align vertically with the
text around them so readers see them as belonging together.

Design Principle 3: Grouping

The design principle “grouping” takes advantage of your readers’ tendency to see any
items on a page that are close together as belonging to a group. If a photograph appears
near a block of text, your readers will naturally assume that the image and text go
together. Similarly, if a heading appears near a block of written text, the readers will
see the heading as belonging with the written text.
Figure 23.3 shows a page design that uses grouping well. The “Bee Facts” on the
top left of the page is put close to the picture of a bee pollinating a flower on the top
right, creating a group. The logo and text in the bottom left are grouped together,
forming another unit. Also, the picture and the green headline “Why We Need Bees”

Figure 23.3 Using Grouping

Grouping is a good way to help readers put items together on the page. On this page, you can see four
distinct blocks of information that are grouped together, making the text easier to read.

The photograph and

“Bee Facts” are
grouped.

The photograph is
This is “white space” also grouped with the
that is being used to headline because
frame the content. they are close
together.

The written text

forms its own
group.

Source: Natural Resources Defense Council. Photo credit: guhl/Getty Images

440 Chapter 23

can be seen as one group because they appear close together. Finally, the columns
of text are naturally seen as a group, too, because they are so close together on
the page.
One key to using grouping well is to be aware of the white spaces, areas where no
text or images appear. When areas are left blank, they frame graphics and written words
and catch readers’ eyes.
Look again at Figure 23.3. Notice how the white space in the left margin creates a
frame for the “Bee Facts” and the logo and text in the margin. The white space draws
the readers’ attention to these visual elements by creating a frame around them.

Design Principle 4: Consistency

The principle of consistency suggests that design features should be used predictably
throughout the document:
• Headings should be used in a predictable and repeatable way.
• Pages should follow a unified and predictable design pattern.
• Lists should use consistent bullets or numbering schemes.
• Headers, footers, and page numbers should be used to help make each page look
similar to the others.
Consistency creates a sense of order so your readers know what to expect. If the
page design or features like headings or images are used consistently, your readers will
find it easier to understand how your document is structured.

Choosing Typefaces
A good first step toward consistency is to choose appropriate typefaces. A typeface is the
design of the letters in your written text (e.g., Times Roman, Arial, Bookman, Aptos). As
a basic guideline, you should only choose one or two typefaces for your document. To
add contrast, you might choose one typeface for the headings and a different typeface
for the main text.
There are two basic kinds of typefaces: serif
and sans serif. A serif typeface, like Times Roman,
Figure 23.4 Serif ­Versus New York, or Bookman, has small tips (serifs) at the
Sans Serif Typefaces ends of the main strokes in each letter (Figure 23.4).
Serif fonts, like Times Roman on Sans serif typefaces like Arial and ­Aptos do not have
the left, have serifs, while sans these small tips. (“Sans serif” means “without serifs”
serif fonts, like Arial on the right, in French.)
do not have them. Serif fonts are considered more formal and tradi-

Th
tional. They are useful for the main text and parts of a
document where readability is important. Most people
think sans serif fonts, like Arial and Aptos, look more
modern. These modern fonts are especially useful for
titles, headings, footers, captions, and parts of a docu-
Serifs Sans Serif ment where you want to catch the reader’s eye.
 Designing Your Document 441

Using Headings Consistently

Headings are useful in any kind of technical or lengthy document, but you need to use
them consistently. Make some choices up front about the levels of headings you will use.
TITLE. The title of the document should be sized significantly larger than other head-
ings. You might consider using color to make the title stand out, or you could center it.
FIRST-LEVEL HEADINGS (“A HEADS”). These are the most common headings. They
divide your text into its major sections (Figure 23.5). First-level headings are often bold
and are larger than the text used in the body of the document.
SECOND-LEVEL HEADINGS (“B HEADS”). These are used when you need to divide
a large section in your document into even smaller parts. These headings tend to use
italics and are often slightly larger than the body text.
THIRD-LEVEL HEADINGS (“C HEADS”). These are usually the smallest level of
headings. They are often italicized or boldfaced and placed on the same line as the
body text.
Headings help readers in a few important ways. First, as shown in Figure 23.5, they
offer access points into the text, giving readers obvious places to locate the information
they need. Second, they highlight the structure of the text, breaking the larger document
down into smaller blocks of information. Third, they give readers places to take breaks
from reading sentence after sentence, paragraph after paragraph.
Headings are also beneficial to you as the writer because they help you make transi-
tions between large sections of the document. Instead of a clumsy statement like “And
now, let me move on to the next issue,” you can use a heading to clearly signal the
transition to a new subject.

Design Principle 5: Contrast

The fifth and final design principle is contrast. Using contrast means making different
items on the page look significantly different. Your headings, for example, should look
significantly different than the main text, and subheadings should look significantly
different than main headings (Figure 23.5).
You can use a variety of techniques to create contrast in your document’s design.
You can change the size of the font, add color, use shading, and use highlighting fea-
tures like boldface, italics, or underlining. The sample report shown in Figure 23.5 uses
contrast in several ways:
• The blue banner across the top, “U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service,” stands out because
it contrasts with the rest of the items on the page by adding color and using reverse
white type.
• The title “Lake Umbagog National Wildlife Refuge” with enlarged text and a sans
serif typeface contrasts with the body text, helping it stand out on the page.
• The headings in the body of the text are bolded and use a sans serif typeface, which
contrasts with the serif typeface used in the text below them.
• The box with the blue-gray background on the right side of the page stands out
because it is visually different from the text that is over the white background.
442 Chapter 23

Figure 23.5 Using Consistency and Contrast

Being consistent while adding contrast will make a page look more readable and attractive. This page uses visual elements
consistently, while also using contrast to capture the readers’ attention.

Source: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, 2008.

• The photo at the bottom of the page adds significant color, which contrasts with
the black written type on much of the page.
• The square bullets stand out on the page because they are larger than the printed
type and use a familiar shape.
The secret to using contrast is experimenting with the page design to see how
things look. So be daring and explore how items on the page look when you add con-
trast. Try making visual features larger, bolder, more colorful, or different.

Using Photography and Images

23.2 Use photography and images to illustrate ideas.
With the capabilities of today’s computers, it’s easy to add photographs to your docu-
ment. To add a picture, you can use a digital camera or a mobile phone to snap the
picture, or you can download a picture from the Internet.
 Designing Your Document 443

Figure 23.6 Labeling a Photograph

Proper labeling will help readers understand how the graphic supports the written text.

Figure Fig. 1: A Tiktaalik

number The Tiktaalik was a prehistoric fish that had four Caption and
and title.
legs. Paleontologists think this creature fills the source
fossil gap between fish and early limbed animals. information.
Source: National Science Foundation, 13 Jan.
2014, https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ
.jsp?cntn_id=106807.

You should label each photograph or image by giving it a figure number and a title
(Figure 23.6). The figure number should then be mentioned in the written text so your read-
ers know when to look for the photograph and how it connects to and supports the text.
Captions are not mandatory, but they can help readers understand how the images
relate to the written text and what they should notice in the photographs.

Using Graphs and Charts

23.3 Enhance and reinforce written text with graphs and charts.
Graphs and charts can also be helpful additions to your documents, especially if you are
presenting data to your readers. Some genres, such as reports and proposals, routinely
use graphs and charts to illustrate data. These graphics can also be useful in evalua-
tions and position papers to provide support for claims you make in the written text.

Creating a Graph or Chart

Your best option for making a visual might be to use a spreadsheet program, such as
Excel (Microsoft), Numbers (Apple), or Sheets (Google) (Figure 23.7). Simpler graphs can
be made in presentation software, like PowerPoint, Keynote, or Slides.
These spreadsheet and presentation software packages can help you create quick
graphs and charts from a data set. Then you can insert the graphic right into your docu-
ment. (Your word processor will probably have a Chart feature that will take you to the
spreadsheet program.) Once you have created the graph, you should add a title and
label the horizontal x-axis and vertical y-axis (Figure 23.7).
444 Chapter 23

Figure 23.7 Using Spreadsheet Software to Make a Graph

A spreadsheet is a helpful tool for creating a graph. Enter your data and then click the graphing button to create a graph.
Then you can insert the graph into your document.

Make sure you have labeled your graph properly and provided a citation for the
source of the data. To label the graph, give it a number or letter and a title. For example,
the graph in Figure 23.7 is called “Figure A: Obesity Rates (Percentage) by County.”
After you have labeled the graph, include your source below or beside the graph using
a common citation style (e.g., MLA, APA).
In the written part of your document, refer to the graphic by its number so read-
ers know when to look at it. When you want the readers to consider the graph, write
something like “As shown in Figure A, the local obesity rate. . . .” Or you can simply
put “(Figure A)” at the end of the sentence in which you refer to the graph.

Choosing the Appropriate Graph or Chart

You can use various kinds of graphs and charts to display your data. Each type of graph
or chart allows you to tell a different story to your readers.
LINE GRAPHS. A line graph is a good way to show measurements or trends over
time. In a line graph, the vertical axis (y-axis) displays a measured quantity, such as
temperature, sales, growth, and so on. The horizontal axis (x-axis) is usually divided
into time increments such as years, months, days, or hours. See Figure 23.8.
 Designing Your Document 445

Figure 23.8 Line Graph

A line graph is a good way to show a trend over time. In this graph, the line reveals a trend that would not be apparent from the
data alone.

National Drug-Involved Overdose Deaths*,

Number Among All Ages, 1999–2020

60,000
Synthetic opioids other than
methadone (primarily fentanyl)
50,000 Psychostimulants with abuse
potential (primarily methamphetamine)
Cocaine
40,000
Prescription opioids (natural & semi-
synthetic opioids & methadone)
30,000 Heroin
Benzodiazepines
Antidepressants
20,000

10,000

0
1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020
*Includes deaths with underlying causes of unintentional drug poisoning (X40–X44), suicide drug poisoning (X60–X64), homicide
drug poisoning (X85), or drug poisoning of undetermined intent (Y10–Y14), as coded in the International Classification of
Diseases, 10th Revision.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. Multiple Cause of Death 1999–2020 on CDC WONDER Online Database,
released 12/2021.

BAR CHARTS. Bar charts are used to show quantities, allowing readers to make visual
comparisons among different amounts (Figure 23.9). Like line graphs, bar charts can be
used to show fluctuations in quantities over time.
PIE CHARTS. Pie charts are useful for showing how a whole quantity is divided into
parts. These charts are a quick way to add a visual element into your document, but you
should use them sparingly. They take up a lot of space in a document while presenting
only a small amount of data. See Figure 23.10.
TABLES. Tables provide the most efficient way to summarize data or facts in a small
amount of space. In a table, information is placed in horizontal rows and vertical col-
umns, allowing readers to quickly locate specific numbers or words that address their
interests (Figure 23.11).
446 Chapter 23

Figure 23.9 Bar Chart

A bar chart allows you to illustrate and compare quantities.

Yellowstone National Park Wolf Population

1995–2020
200

180 Yellowstone National

Park
160 Northern Range
Interior
140
# of Wolves

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Source: Yellowstone Wolf Project Annual Report, 2020, Yellowstone Center for Resources.

Figure 23.10 Pie Chart

A pie chart is a good way to show how a whole is divided into parts. When using a pie chart, label the
slices of the pie and add the numerical information that was used to create the chart.

Total U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions

by Economic Sector in 2020
Agriculture
11%
Commercial & Transportation
Residential 27%
13%

Industry
24% Electric Power
25%
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2022). Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2020.
 Figure 23.11 Table
A table offers a great way to summarize a large amount of data in a small space.

Table 31
Fatal Crashes and Percentage Alcohol-Impaired Driving
by Time of Day and Crash Type, 2020
State: USA
Crash Type
Single Vehicle Multiple Vehicle Total
Time of Day Alcohol- Percentage Alcohol- Percentage Alcohol- Percentage
Impaired Alcohol-Impaired Impaired Alcohol-Impaired Impaired Alcohol-Impaired
Number Driving* Driving* Number Driving* Driving* Number Driving* Driving*
Midnight to 2:59 a.m. 2,852 1,520 53 1,019 593 58 3,871 2,113 55
3 a.m. to 5:59 a.m. 1,993 755 38 891 349 39 2,884 1,104 38
6 a.m. to 8:59 a.m. 1,727 285 16 1,470 173 12 3,197 457 14
9 a.m. to 11:59 a.m. 1,437 181 13 1,705 166 10 3,142 347 11
Noon to 2:59 p.m. 2,006 314 16 2,441 293 12 4,447 607 14
3 p.m. to 5:59 p.m. 2,686 695 26 2,911 577 20 5,597 1,272 23
6 p.m. to 8:59 p.m. 3,921 1,272 32 2,602 855 33 6,523 2,127 33
9 p.m. to 11:59 p.m. 3,845 1,556 40 1,947 880 45 5,792 2,435 42
Unknown 286 129 45 27 7 25 313 136 43
Total 20,753 6,706 32 15,013 3,892 26 35,766 10,598 30

*Highest blood alcohol concentration (BAC) among drivers or motorcycle riders involved in the crash was .08 grams per deciliter (g/dL) or greater.
Source: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s Traffic Safety Facts Annual Report, 2022.

447
448 Chapter 23

DIAGRAMS. Diagrams are drawings that

Figure 23.12 A Diagram
show features or relationships that might not be
A diagram is only partially realistic. It shows only the most immediately apparent to readers. The diagram in
important features and concentrates on relationships instead
­Figure 23.12, for example, shows the parts of the
of showing exactly what the subject looks like.
human eye.
Vitreous gel With the capabilities of computer software to
create and add graphs, charts, and diagrams to
Iris
Optic nerve your documents, you should look for opportuni-
Cornea ties to use these illustration methods to enhance
your writing.
Macula Pupil
Fovea
Lens

Retina Iris

Quick Start Guide

Now it’s time to make your document look more accessible and attractive. Here are some basic strategies
for adding design to your writing.

Review your genre, purpose, readers, and context. Your document’s design should reflect and rein-
force the genre and the overall purpose of your text. Design features should also be appropriate for your
readers and the contexts in which your document will be used.

Balance the text. Use design features to balance elements on the left and right as well as at the top and
bottom of the page.

Align items vertically on the page. Look for opportunities to vertically align items on the page. Indenting
text and aligning graphics with text will help create a sense of hierarchy and structure in your document.

Group related items together. Put items that are meant to be viewed together in proximity to each other.
Photos should be near any text they reinforce. Headings should be close to the paragraphs they lead off.
Use white space to frame items you want to be seen as a group.

Check the document for consistency. Your headings and other design features should be used
­consistently throughout the document. Make sure you use a consistent design for lists, headings,
images, and other design features.

Add some contrast. Items on the page that are different should look significantly different. Use color and
font size to make written text stand out.

Include photographs, graphs, and charts. Add your own photographs or images downloaded from the
Internet to your document. Create graphs or charts to illustrate data and complex ideas. Number, title, and
caption these visuals so readers understand how they connect to your text.
 Designing Your Document 449

Activities for Designing

Your Document
Talk About This
1. Ask each member of your group to bring a magazine to class. Discuss the
­magazines’ full-page advertisements and their use of design features. Pay
special attention to the use of balance, alignment, grouping, consistency, and
contrast.
2. Discuss the design of a website for a prominent company or organization. What
kinds of design features make it interesting or fun to read? What design features
help you access information more easily?
3. On campus or in the community, find a flyer or brochure that you think is a
design failure. With your group, discuss how the document could be redesigned
to make it more accessible and attractive.

Try This Out

1. Find a document on the Internet, on campus, or at your workplace that shows
minimal attention to design. Then do a “design makeover” to make the docu-
ment more accessible and attractive to readers.
2. Write a brief critique of the visual elements of a document you found on campus
or at your workplace. Show how each of the five design principles makes the
document’s design effective or ineffective.
3. Get some practice downloading photographs and images and inserting them into
a document. Add figure numbers and titles to the images. Include captions that
explain the images and their relevance to your document.

Write This
1. Review the design of a document. Write an evaluation in which you discuss
the visual design of a document of your choice. Your analysis should consider
whether the design is appropriate for the document’s topic, purpose, readers,
and context.
2. Redesign a document on a computer. Choose a document you wrote earlier this
semester or for another class. Redesign the document using your computer’s
word-processing and graphics software, employing some of the concepts and
principles discussed in this chapter. Then write a brief reflection in which you
discuss your design decisions.
 Chapter 24
Revising and Editing
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

24.1 revise globally to shape a document’s overall approach.

24.2 edit the content, organization, and design of your paper.
24.3 copyedit paragraphs and sentences to make them clearer.
24.4 proofread your work carefully.

One easy trick to great writing is to spend time revising and editing. Even the most
experienced writers usually start out by just throwing their ideas onto the screen. They
know that good writing starts by getting that first draft finished. Once they have a com-
plete draft, they can revise it into a finished paper. In other words, the magic of writing
really happens when you are revising and editing your work. Professional writers will
tell you that completing the first draft means they are only about halfway done.
The revising and editing phase of the writing process is where your paper goes from
“Hmm, not bad” to “Hey, this is looking really great!” In this chapter, you will learn
some powerful revision tools used by professional writers and editors. Specifically, you
will learn how to use the Four Levels of Editing, which move from global issues to the
smallest details. These levels include:
Level 1: Global revision—Adjust your document’s overall approach, using its
genre to sharpen the topic, angle, purpose, thesis, and appropriateness for the
readers and for context.
Level 2: Substantive editing—Focus on your document’s content, organization,
and design.
Level 3: Copyediting—Revise the style for clarity, persuasion, and consistency,
paying close attention to paragraphs and sentences.
Level 4: Proofreading—Inspect your document’s surface features, such as gram-
matical correctness, spelling, and usage.
As shown in Figure 24.1, you should work from the “global level” (global editing) to
the “local level” (proofreading). That way, you can begin by making large-scale changes
to your rough draft. Then, as you move closer to finishing the final draft, you can focus
exclusively on style and correctness.

450
 Revising and Editing 451

Figure 24.1 The Four Levels of Revising and Editing

Whether you are revising and editing your own work or helping others revise and edit their work, the process can be broken down
into four levels. The idea is to move in stages from a rough-draft version of what you have in mind to a final, polished draft. You
need to first address the big issues (topic, purpose, readers) and then move toward final editing and proofreading.

Issues to focus on

Rethinking basic Rethinking and Revising sections, Revising surface

approach: Ideas, genre, changing content, headings, features: grammar,
subject, purpose, organization, and paragraphs, and spelling, usage
readers, angle design sentences for clarity
and persuasiveness

Level 1: Level 2: Level 3: Level 4:

Global Substantive Copyediting Proofreading
Revision Editing

Not so much
Lots of time time

Global Editing Local Editing

Level 1: Global Revision

24.1 Revise globally to shape a document’s overall approach.
Let’s start with your first draft. When revising globally, it’s time to reexamine and
reconsider your project’s topic, angle, and purpose and your understanding of your
readers and the context.
Figure 24.2 shows an excerpt from a student’s first draft of a proposal. Figure 24.3
shows how this same student’s (Zoe’s) original notes helped her challenge her ideas
and rethink how she could persuade her readers to agree with her.
452 Chapter 24

Figure 24.2 Rough Draft

With global revision, you need to look at the big picture and rethink your basic approach. Here is an excerpt from student
writer Zoe’s rough draft of a proposal. Figure 24.3 shows her notes toward her global revision.

Binge Drinking by College Students Zoe realizes her

title is too broad
Let’s face the fact that many college students drink and that and doesn’t forecast
her angle or thesis
most college students are underage and are therefore breaking the (see her notes in
Figure 24.3).
law. Too often on college campuses across the country, this leads to
“binge drinking.” Some people say that we can solve this problem by
encouraging total abstinence or scaring them away from drinking
through education. Others argue that a better strategy is to simply Zoe realizes that her
introduction doesn’t
lower the drinking age to 18, as it was in many states 40 years ago. match up with the
Neither of these proposed solutions will work: Young people naturally issue she really
wants to address.
resist authority, and there is simply no way that politicians today She is addressing
the issue of
will pass a law lowering the legal drinking age. There must be a improving the way
better way. students are
educated about
I think my experience with alcohol education and socializing with alcohol and
zero-tolerance
friends is probably typical. During orientation, there was a whole policies, not the
one-hour session dedicated to scaring us away from drinking on legal drinking age.
She decides she
campus. They showed us statistics about the rise in binge drinking, needs to completely
rewrite this.
followed by pictures of passed-out students lying on a couch and
drooling all over themselves. They told us about the zero-tolerance
policy that would be strictly enforced. Most of the people around
responded with snickers and snarky remarks under their breath. Then,
just a few hours after this session, I went to my first campus party, and
yes there was alcohol—a lot of alcohol and more than a few drunk
people. Then again, people were having fun, shaking off their
inhibitions, relaxing, laughing a lot. The real lesson I learned by the end
of that long day was that the campus authorities talked a big game, but
the reality was far different. So much for their scare tactics, I thought.
Now, months later, I realize binge drinking really is a problem that
needs to be addressed because people are getting hurt. Their grades
suffer, many are driving while very drunk, and it’s leading to unsafe sex and
even sexual assault. People are putting themselves at risk, which makes

(continued)
 Revising and Editing 453

Figure 24.2 Rough Draft (continued)

me realize that they were making a good point after all. They failed to
She recognizes that make a dent in our behaviors, however, because their persuasion
hidden here in the
middle of a strategies were all wrong. Basically, they took a “scared straight”
paragraph are her approach, which they seemed to think would turn us into Puritans who
angle and thesis.
She decides to focus would never touch the “demon rum.” This strategy, of course, only
on this in the next
draft. made alcohol seem more interesting and alluring because they
portrayed it as “forbidden fruit.” Their intentions were good, and their
message was important, but they didn’t understand their audience. In
all, their education achieved exactly the opposite of what they wanted.
She realizes that Also, our supposed zero-tolerance policy fails to prevent anyone
although the
zero-tolerance from drinking. Instead, it only drives student drinking underground, into
policy might be an dorm rooms, off campus, or wherever they think they’re safe from the
important issue, she
needs to focus more authorities. These environments encourage students to binge.
closely on the
education aspect. Basically, they were telling us that the problem was alcohol, and there
was one and only one sane choice: total abstinence. Alcohol is not the
problem, however. The problem is too much consumption of alcohol,
but they never entertained the idea that underage drinkers could in fact
enjoy alcohol if they consumed it in moderation.
But what would be more effective? First, those who are trying to
educate us need to understand who they are talking to and how we
think. You don’t scare young people away from something by
Zoe likes this figure portraying it as an absolute evil. You will never succeed in “scaring
of speech and
realizes it could be them straight,” but you do need to be straight with them. They need to
used as a grabber or acknowledge that the students they are addressing are going to drink.
even part of her
title. They’re going to at least try the “forbidden fruit.” Yes, they should
make students aware that drinking can be dangerous, but they need to
stress that these dangers result almost entirely from drinking in excess,
not from alcohol. Few of us are choosing total abstinence, so we would
She sees that her be better served with strategies for drinking moderately and
proposed plan
needs expanding. responsibly.
454 Chapter 24

Figure 24.3 Global Revision

Zoe’s professor asked her to reflect on her first draft. In these notes, Zoe reflects on what she hopes to accomplish
and how she will accomplish it with a global revision of her draft.

Notes on First Draft (Global Revision) Here are Zoe’s notes

to help her with the
I’m writing a proposal about the ineffective way our college tries to reduce global revision
excessive alcohol consumption. process.

Topic: My topic is how college authorities talk to us students about alcohol. That’s She realizes she
what I need to focus on, not on the zero-tolerance policy, or the legal drinking age, needs to narrow her
which are also important but not something I can address well here or persuade my topic, which means
audience to change. I don’t want to suggest alcohol is not actually a problem. It is. I editing out some of
need to propose how education about this problem can be done more effectively. the content and
extending other
Angle: My angle hinges on the word “straight.” Currently, they are using a “scared parts.
straight” strategy, but instead they should just “be straight with us,” because students
see right through the exaggerations and then dismiss this important message
completely. I can use my own experiences as a first-year student to show why that
doesn’t work.

Purpose: I don’t think my purpose is clearly stated in this draft, but I do finally get
Here Zoe locates her
around to it in the middle of the third paragraph. Here it is in one sentence: The
hidden purpose
purpose of my proposal is to argue that college leaders should change the way they statement, which
frame the issue of excessive alcohol consumption, from urging total abstinence to a will guide her as she
more realistic and effective message about responsibility and moderation. writes her next
draft. As Chapter 2
Thesis statement: The thesis statement has to be placed earlier in the proposal and
explains, the
needs more punch. They need to stop using the “scared straight” approach and treat
“purpose statement
us like adults they can “be straight with.” That could also be a good title that tells
guides you, as the
readers up front what I’m arguing for. writer... Your thesis
statement guides
Readers and Context: I guess I was writing to other students in this draft, but writing
your readers.”
to them would just be complaining because they can’t do anything about this. I’m
going to change the readers to campus officials, maybe the dean of students. These
are the people who need to be convinced.

Needs—First my readers need to understand that the real problem is that their
message is not working and might even be doing more harm than good. They Zoe analyzes her
need to understand that when they simply demonize alcohol, telling us abstinence readers to figure out
is the only path, students just roll their eyes. Instead, they need to be honest with how she can use
us, stop exaggerating, and give us strategies for moderate and responsible their expectations,
values, and
alcohol use. So they need a clear strategy for solving that problem from someone
attitudes to
who understands how students really think.
persuade them.
Values—Even though I disagree with their strategy, their values are really pretty
much the same as my own. They care about student safety and well-being, but I
think they also understand that abstinence, which might be ideal, is just not
realistic. They want to do what’s best. They really do care about us.

Attitudes—They are probably frustrated and disgusted by binge drinking as much

as I am. They’re trying to do what’s right and I’m sure they suspect their approach
is not working. If I just rant and complain about how stupid they’ve been, they
won’t listen, but they’ll be open to my argument if I show that I understand and
respect their values and needs, and that in the end we both want the same thing.
 Revising and Editing 455

Challenge Your Draft’s Topic, Angle, and Purpose

You need to challenge your first draft to make sure it’s doing what you intended. Reread
your draft, paying special attention to the following global issues:
TOPIC. How has your topic evolved since you started? Do you now have a better
understanding of the boundaries of your topic? Can you sharpen the topic, or does it
need to be broadened a little and extended in new directions? Can you find any places
where your paper strays from the topic? Can you find any gaps in coverage where you
don’t address a key issue about your topic?
ANGLE. Have you shown what is new about your topic or what has changed
recently? Have you connected your paper to any recent or local events or changes in
our society? Have you uncovered any unexpected issues that complicate or challenge
your own views?
PURPOSE. Is your purpose clear in the introduction of your paper, and have
you achieved that purpose by the conclusion? Does your purpose need to be more
focused?
THESIS STATEMENT. Is your thesis statement or thesis question clear and prominent?
Have you considered what kind of thesis statement to use: informative, argumentative,
question/open-ended, or implied?

Think About Your Readers (Again) and the Context

As you drafted your paper, chances are good that you gained a better understanding
of your readers’ needs, values, and attitudes. Now try to put yourself in your readers’
place to imagine how they will react to your ideas and the way you have expressed them.
NEEDS. Have you considered how the genre and topic will lead readers toward cer-
tain expectations and needs? Have you given readers all the information they require to
make a decision? What additional information do they need if they are going to agree
with you? Do they expect an explicit thesis statement?
VALUES. Are your readers’ values different from yours? If so, have you anticipated
how their values might cause them to react to your ideas differently than you would?
Can you add anything that would help build trust between you and your readers?
ATTITUDES. Have you adjusted the text to fit your primary readers’ attitudes about
your topic? If they have a positive attitude about your topic, have you reinforced that
attitude? If they have a negative attitude, have you given them good reasons to think
differently about your topic?
Now look at the context for your document to check whether you have addressed
issues of place, medium, and social and political influences.
PLACE. How will the physical place in which readers experience your document
shape how they read it? What will they see, hear, and feel? How will the history and
culture of this place shape how readers will interpret what you are saying?
456 Chapter 24

MEDIUM. How will the medium (e.g., paper, podcast, presentation) influence how
people react to your message or interpret what you have to say?
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCES. How will current social, economic, and
political trends influence how your readers feel about what you have to say?
If you need more help profiling your readers, turn to Chapter 3, “Readers, Contexts,
and Rhetorical Situations.”

Level 2: Substantive Editing

24.2 Edit the content, organization, and design of your paper.
When doing “substantive editing,” you should look closely at the content, organization,
and design of your paper.

Determine Whether You Have Enough

Information (or Too Much)
Your paper should have enough information to support your claims and explain your
ideas to readers, but you don’t want to include more content than you need.
• Do your thesis statement and main claim (usually in the introduction and/or the
conclusion) describe what you’re trying to achieve in this paper?
• Are your claims in the body of the paper expressed completely and accurately?
Could you express them in a more prominent, precise, or compelling way?
• Can you find any places where your ideas need more support or where your thesis
and claims need more evidence drawn from sources?
• Are there any digressions you can remove? Can you trim the text down?
If you need more information or sources to back up your ideas, turn to Chapter 31,
“Finding Sources, Collecting Evidence.”

Reorganize Your Work to Better Use the Genre

Your readers will expect your document to conform to the genre’s typical organizational
pattern. This does not mean mechanically following a formula. It does mean that your
document should reflect the features that readers expect to find in a document that
uses this genre.
• Does your draft have each of the sections included in this genre? If not, are you
making a conscious choice to leave out a section or merge it with something else?
• Does your introduction make the opening moves expected of this genre? Does it
draw your readers in, introduce them to the topic, state the thesis and main claim,
and stress the importance of the subject?
 Revising and Editing 457

• Are your main ideas prominent enough? If not, can you move these main ideas to
places where your readers are more likely to see them?
• Does the conclusion do its job according to the conventions of the genre? Does it
restate the thesis or main point, reemphasize the importance of the topic, and offer
a look to the future?
• Do the introduction and conclusion reflect each other? If not, can you adjust them
so they reflect the same topic, angle, purpose, and thesis?
Chapter 21, “Organizing and Drafting,” offers strategies for writing good introduc-
tions and conclusions, and Chapter 25, “Writing Paragraphs and Sections,” has some
helpful advice.

Look for Ways to Improve the Design

Review how your document looks, focusing on whether the design is a good fit for your
readers. The design should make your text easier to read and more attractive.
• Does the design of the document match your readers’ expectations for the genre?
Is the visual “tone” of the design appropriate for this genre?
• From a distance, does the text look inviting, interesting, and easy to read? Can you
use page design, images, or color to make it more attractive and readable to your
readers?
• Have you used the design principles of balance, alignment, grouping, consistency,
and contrast to organize and structure the page layout?
• Have you used graphics and charts to reinforce and clarify the written text while
making your text more visually interesting?
Chapter 23, “Designing Your Document,” offers some helpful strategies for improv-
ing the design of your document.

Ask Someone Else to Read Your Work

Substantive editing is a good time to ask others to review your work. Ask a friend or
classmate to read through your paper. Tell him or her to concentrate on content, orga-
nization, and design. Your editor can ignore any typos or grammatical errors because
right now you need feedback on higher-level features and problems.
Figure 24.4 shows some helpful substantive editing comments from Cruz, a fel-
low student in Zoe’s class, on her second draft. Zoe has made significant improve-
ments to her first draft. Cruz’s thorough comments will help her improve it even
more because they highlight the proposal’s weaknesses in content, organization,
and design.
458 Chapter 24

Figure 24.4 Substantive Editing

Zoe revised her first draft for a peer-review session the next day. Here are the second draft and substantive editing
­comments from Cruz, a classmate in her writing group.

Rethinking How We Frame the Problem of Binge Drinking:

A Proposal for a More Effective Approach
Cruz
On our campus, like most every campus nationwide, binge drinking I like how you explain
this problem and connect
remains a significant problem. The National Institute on Alcohol and our problems to national
problems. I think you
Alcoholism (NIAA) explains that college drinking affects all students, not could start faster with a
just those who drink. In fact, according to the NIAA, 80% of college grabber, maybe a “scene
setter” describing the
students consume some alcohol, and 40% of all college students engage passed-out kids you saw
at the party. Also, don’t
in binge drinking. This results in drunk driving, physical injuries and forget to cite your source
and maybe even quote
mental health problems, poor grades, and even sexual assault. Judging from it.
from what we have seen in our college newspaper and from the experiences
Cruz
of most students here, the students here also suffer these consequences. I It seems like you’re
stating your thesis here,
recognize that our campus leaders take this issue very seriously and have but it’s stated more
strongly and specifically
devoted a great deal of effort into addressing the problem. I believe, below. It might work
better placed here.
however, that we could address the problem more effectively by changing
the way we talk to students about this issue. Cruz
You’re making a good
During orientation, we all were exposed to the same “Alcohol Awareness” point about how the
session and approach are
message. Frankly, that one-hour session was not effective. In some places,
ineffective, but you say in
graphs and statistics were dry and boring. In other places, it felt like you your reflection you need
to show them you respect
were trying to scare us away from using alcohol altogether, arguing that their efforts if they’re
going to be open. I agree.
abstinence was the only sane path. I remember looking around and seeing But when you say things
like “every single person,”
everyone rolling their eyes, smirking, and making snarky comments. “completely unrealistic,”
Honestly, I feel the session had zero impact, because we felt you were and “zero impact,” that
sounds disrespectful. Can
talking at us, not to us. In fact, because the issue was presented in you use words like “many
of us,” “may have,” and
black-and-white terms, it felt completely unrealistic to every single person “perhaps”?

there. Also, just a few hours later, many of us went to parties and
witnessed binge drinking firsthand. There, we saw students drinking a Cruz
This would be a good
great deal and having fun. With all due respect to your intentions, at the place to include some
empirical research,
end of that day, our experiences did not match up with the exaggerations maybe an interview with
students. Then you could
we heard at the session. By stigmatizing alcohol as the problem, the quote them and show
this is what others think,
not just you.

(continued)
 Revising and Editing 459

Figure 24.4 Substantive Editing (continued)

Cruz
session leaders only portrayed alcohol as “forbidden fruit,” and we all know I’d like to hear more
about this. This could be
how young people are attracted to anything that is forbidden. I agree that a new paragraph where
you describe what you’ve
binge drinking is a serious problem on our campus. Since that day, I’ve seen in more detail. This
been to parties where I saw disgusting and destructive behaviors. would show them that
you share their concerns
I respectfully suggest students would respond more positively if you and values.

abandoned the “scared straight” approach and adopted an approach that

showed you were “being straight” with us. Yes, we understand drinking alcohol
Cruz
is illegal and is a drug. We’ve heard that message many times before. I am sure These two sentences
sound like your main
that you share my belief that there is simply no way that you will succeed in point, your thesis. Could
you state this succinctly
persuading students that they should completely stop drinking alcohol. and place it at the end of
I believe students would respond more positively to a frank, honest the first paragraph?

conversation that shows you value both total abstinence and drinking in Cruz
I think your readers
moderation by discussing with us realistic and useful strategies for either would like to hear about
some more specific
abstaining or drinking in moderation. I think you’ll agree that alcohol
strategies. You could also
itself is not the problem; excessive drinking is the problem. Would it be bring in your research
from the NIAA and other
possible for you to frame the problem and solutions this way instead? experts that describe
these educational
Students are going to drink alcohol. Let’s help them understand that they programs and how they
work at other colleges.
can still enjoy alcohol by drinking moderately. Then you could explain
Thank you for considering my ideas for more effectively addressing this how to use those
strategies here.
very serious problem on our campus. I would be happy to meet with you to
Cruz
discuss my ideas further. Perhaps you can say
more here about the
benefits of your plan. This
OVERALL COMMENT: I love this idea, Zoe, and I’m convinced your plan would be a might help win over your
much better way to talk to us. readers.
But sometimes I got confused by your organization, which could be clearer, perhaps
using headings. First describe the PROBLEM nationally and here. Then do your
ANALYSIS (ineffective message), followed by your DETAILED PLAN backed up by further
research. Finally, don’t forget to stress the BENEFITS.
Also, your tone wanders from respectful in places to disrespectful. Tone down the
criticism and highlight the positive aspects of your solution. I hope they consider your
ideas because they’re important and realistic. Good luck with this! -- Cruz
460 Chapter 24

Level 3: Copyediting
24.3 Copyedit paragraphs and sentences to make them clearer.
Copyediting involves improving the “flow” of your text by making it clear, concise,
consistent, and correct (sometimes called the “Four Cs”). When copyediting, you should
focus exclusively on your document’s title, headings, paragraphs, and sentences. Your
ideas need to be as clear as possible and stated as concisely as possible. Also, make sure
your ideas are consistent and that your facts are accurate.
You might also ask your professor if you can use artificial intelligence (AI) applica­
tions to help you copyedit your work at the paragraph and sentence levels. AI ­applications
may be able to help you identify wordy phrases or overly complex or convoluted
­sentences. They might also help you structure paragraphs so they flow. However, don’t
just accept what the AI application suggests. Make sure the suggested improvements
actually make your writing clearer, more concise, more consistent, and correct.

Review Your Title and Headings

Your title should grab readers’ attention, and the headings in your document should
help them quickly grasp your ideas and understand how the document is structured.
• Is the title unique, and does it grab readers’ attention? If your readers saw the title
alone, would they be interested in reading your paper?
• Do the headings accurately forecast the information that follows them?
• Do the headings grab the readers’ attention and forecast the content or main point
of the section?
• Are the headings consistent in grammar and parallel to each other in structure?
You can learn more about using effective titles and headings in Chapter 21,
“­Organizing and Drafting,” and Chapter 23, “Designing Your Document.”

Edit Paragraphs to Make Them Concise

and Consistent
Work through your document paragraph by paragraph, paying attention to how each
one is structured and how it works with the paragraphs around it.
As you read through each paragraph, ask yourself these questions:
• Would a transition sentence at the beginning of the paragraph help make a bridge
from the prior paragraph?
• Is each paragraph unified? Does each sentence in the paragraph stick to a consistent
topic? Do any sentences seem to stray from the paragraph’s topic sentence?
• Does each paragraph logically follow from the paragraph that preceded it, and does
it prepare readers for the paragraph that follows?
• If the paragraph is long or complex, would it benefit from a “point sentence” at its
end that states or restates the paragraph’s overall point?
You can learn more about writing better paragraphs in Chapter 25, “Writing
­Paragraphs and Sections.”
 Revising and Editing 461

Revise Sentences to Make Them Clearer

After you reshape and refine each paragraph, focus your attention on the clarity and
style of individual sentences.

• Are the subjects of your sentences easy to locate? Do they tend to be placed early
in the sentences where your readers can easily find them?
• Do the verbs express the action of the sentence? Can you remove any passive verbs
(e.g., is, was, be, has been) by replacing them with active verbs?
• Can you eliminate any unnecessary prepositional phrases?
• Are your sentences breathing length? Are any sentences too long (i.e., do they take
longer than one breath to say out loud)?

In Chapter 22, “Choosing a Style,” you can find some “plain style” techniques for
improving the clarity of your sentences while making them more concise.

Revise Sentences to Make Them More Descriptive

Now, work on giving your sentences more impact and power.

• Do your sentences use sensory detail to help readers see, hear, touch, taste, and
smell what you are writing about?
• Would any similes, metaphors, or analogies help your readers to understand or
visualize what you are talking about?
• Do your sentences generally use a consistent tone and voice? Can you describe in
one word the tone you are trying to set in your paper?

Level 4: Proofreading
24.4 Proofread your work carefully.
Proofreading is the final step in editing your document, during which you should
search for any typos, grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and word usage problems.
Proofreading takes patience and practice, but it is critical to successful writing.

Read Your Writing Out Loud

Your ear will often detect problems that slip past your eyes. Read your work out loud
to yourself or have someone else read it to you.

Read Your Draft Backwards

Aloud or silently, read the last sentence, then the next-to-last, all the way through to the
first. Reading “backwards” helps you focus on sentence constructions and misspelled
words rather than their meaning.
462 Chapter 24

Read a Printed Copy of Your Work

If you have been drafting and editing on your screen, reading a printed-out copy will
help you to see your writing from a fresh perspective. You might even try changing the
font or line spacing to give the text a different look.

Know Your Grammatical Weaknesses

If you know you tend to make certain grammatical mistakes, devote one proofreading
pass to those problems alone. For instance, if you tend to use run-on sentences, devote
one entire proofreading session to looking only for that kind of mistake.

Use Your Spellchecker and Grammar Checker

Spellcheck has become a reliable tool over the years. A spellchecker can flag most of
those annoying typos and spelling errors. (Look for the squiggly red lines that h ­ ighlight
potential problems.) More advanced grammar applications like Grammarly and AI
­applications can also find and correct typos, spelling errors, and grammar errors.
You should not rely exclusively on your spellchecker or grammar checker for proof-
reading. Spellcheckers sometimes flag technical terms that are not included in their
spelling dictionaries. Grammar checkers sometimes flag constructions such as passive
voice that may be appropriate for the genre. Unlike these electronic tools, you are able to
use your judgment and take into account the genre, purpose, and context of your project.
Instead, read through your document looking for possible spelling and grammar
issues. If you aren’t sure about a flagged word or sentence, use your best judgment,
consulting a dictionary or a usage guide for help. You can use online dictionaries and
usage guides to find quick answers about spelling, grammar, and word usage.

Peer Review: Asking for Advice

The keys to productive peer review are focus and honesty. As the writer, you need to tell
your reviewers specifically what kind of help you need. For example, you might say:
• “This is an early draft, so don’t pay any attention to the grammar and wording.
Look at my ideas and my thesis. Could they be stronger or sharper?”
• “My readers are high school students who are considering skipping college. Do you
think this draft addresses their needs and answers the questions they would have?”
• “My thesis is X. What can I do to make sure that it comes through clearly and
persuasively?”
• “Please look at the introduction closely. Do I introduce the topic clearly and grab
the readers’ attention?”
Encourage your reviewers to be honest about your draft. You need them to do more
than say “I like it,” “It looks good,” or “I would give it an A.” Ask them to be as tough
as possible so you can find places to improve your writing.
When you are editing someone else’s paper, write your comments and suggestions for
improvements on a sheet of paper or in an e-mail so the author has something concrete to
work with while revising the draft. Also, make sure you tell the author what you liked about
his or her paper, not just the negative stuff. Authors need to know what they are doing well.
 Revising and Editing 463

Quick Start Guide

Ready to finish your document? Use the Four Levels of Editing to revise and edit your text like a
professional.

Revise globally (level 1). Revision means “re-visioning” the text from a fresh perspective. Challenge your
draft’s topic, angle, purpose, and thesis. Then think further about your readers and the contexts in which
they will read or use your document.

Edit the content, organization, and design (level 2). Substantive editing involves looking closely at the
content, organization, and design of your document. Determine whether you have enough (or too much)
content. Then make sure the organization of your document highlights your major ideas. Also, look for ways
you can improve the design.

Copyedit paragraphs and sentences (level 3). Copyediting involves improving the “flow” of your text
by making it clear, concise, consistent, and correct. Review your title and headings to make sure they are
meaningful and consistent. Work paragraph by paragraph to make the text concise and consistent. Then
revise the style of your sentences to make them clear and descriptive.

Proofread your work (level 4). As a last step, proofreading is your final opportunity to catch any errors,
including typos, grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and word usage problems. To help you proofread,
try reading your document out loud, reading the draft backwards, and reading a hard copy of your work.
Be aware of your grammatical weaknesses and look for those specific errors. Meanwhile, your computer’s
grammar and spelling checkers can detect smaller errors, but always double-check these tools to make
sure they are flagging real errors.

Ask someone else to review your work. As the author of your document, you may no longer be able to
view it objectively, so have someone else look over your work and give you an honest assessment. Your
professor may even give you and the members of your group time to “peer review” each other’s writing.

Activities for Revising and Editing

Talk About This
1. On the Internet, find a document that seems to be poorly edited. With your
group, discuss the impact that the lack of editing has on you and other readers.
What do the errors say about the author and perhaps the company or organiza-
tion they work for?
2. Choose a grammar rule with which you have problems. Explain in your own
words what the rule is. Use an online writing lab (like the Purdue OWL) or the
“Handbook” section of this book for help. Then explain why you have trouble
with it. What might you do while editing to keep this grammar rule in mind?
464 Chapter 24

3. Find a text on the Internet that you think is pretty strong but that lacks a clearly
stated thesis. As a group, write a few thesis statements about the main claim that
could help guide readers. Try the different kinds of thesis statements described
in Chapter 2: an informative, argumentative, or question/open-ended thesis.
­Discuss which would work best for this text and explain your reasons.

Try This Out

1. On your own or with another student, choose a draft of your writing and decide
which level of revising and editing it needs. Then, using the appropriate section
in this chapter, walk through the steps for editing the document at that level.
2. With your professor’s permission, try using an AI application to copyedit and
proofread a paper you wrote in the past or one you are writing right now. What
kinds of changes did the AI application suggest? Did you agree with all of the
suggested changes? What were some changes you disagreed with? What can you
learn about your own writing idiosyncrasies by paying attention to the changes
the AI application suggests?
3. Find a text on the Internet that you think is poorly written. Using the Four Levels
of Editing, read through the text four separate times. Each time, explain what
you would need to do to revise the text to make it stronger.

Write This
1. Edit a text from someone in your class. Exchange drafts with another person or
within a small group during peer review. In addition to the draft, write a memo
to your reviewers telling them exactly what you’d like them to focus on. Use the
language from this chapter (“level 1,” “level 2,” “global,” “local,” etc.) and define
as precisely as you can what you think might be an issue.
2. Copyedit a text onscreen with Track Changes. Find a rough draft (one of your
own, another student’s draft, or a document from the Internet) and use Track
Changes to do a level 3 edit (copyediting) on it. When you have finished, write
an e-mail to your professor explaining your edits.
Chapter 25
Developing
Paragraphs
and Sections
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

25.1 write a paragraph with an effective topic sentence and support.

25.2 get paragraphs to flow from one sentence to the next.
25.3 combine related groups of paragraphs into sections.

Paragraphs and sections are the building blocks of documents. You can use them to
divide your papers into blocks of ideas that help your readers quickly understand how
you have organized your text. They also help your readers figure out your main points
and how you are supporting them.
A paragraph’s job is rather straightforward: A paragraph presents a major idea or
claim and then supports it with examples, data, facts, reasoning, anecdotes, quotations,
or descriptions. Usually, a paragraph will include a topic sentence that states its major
idea or claim. The other sentences in the paragraph are used to support or prove that
topic sentence. A solid paragraph works as a single unit that is built around a central
topic, idea, issue, or question.
A section uses paragraphs as its building blocks to support an even larger idea or
claim. Usually, each section includes a heading (or title) that names what the section will
describe, show, or argue. The opening paragraph offers an overall statement or claim,
which is followed by a series of paragraphs that give further support. Longer college-
length papers and workplace documents, such as reports and proposals, are carved
up into several sections to develop larger ideas and make them easier to understand.
In this chapter, you will learn how to develop smooth-flowing paragraphs and
­sections that will help you organize your ideas and strengthen your writing.

465
466 Chapter 25

Creating a Basic Paragraph

25.1 Write a paragraph with an effective topic sentence and support.
Paragraphs usually include up to four kinds of sentences: a transition, a topic sentence,
support sentences, and a point sentence. The diagram in Figure 25.1 shows where these
kinds of sentences usually appear in any given paragraph. Here is a typical paragraph
with these four elements highlighted.

Of course, none of this happened overnight (transition). In fact, more important than the
commercialization of rap was the less visible cultural movement on the ground in a
­ nyhood
USA (topic sentence). In rap’s early days, before it became a thriving commercial entity,
dj party culture provided the backdrop for this off-the-radar cultural movement (­support).
What in the New York City metropolitan area took the form of dj battles and the MC
chants emerged in Chicago as the house party scene, and in D.C. it was go-go (support).
In other regions of the country, the local movement owed its genesis to rap acts like Run
DMC, who broke through to a national audience in the early 1980s (support). In any case,
by the mid-1980s, this local or underground movement began to emerge in the form of
cliques, crews, collectives, or simply kids getting together primarily to party, but in the
process of rhyming, dj-ing, dancing, and tagging (support). Some, by the early 1990s,
even moved into activism (support). In large cities like Chicago, San Francisco, H
­ ouston,
Memphis, New Orleans, Indianapolis, and Cleveland and even in smaller cities and
­suburban areas like Battle Creek, Michigan, and Champaign, Illinois, as the ’80s turned
to the ’90s, more and more young Blacks were coming together in the name of hip-hop
(point sentence). (Bakari Kitwana, Hip Hop Generation)

Figure 25.1 The Shape of a Paragraph

Although the function and structure of paragraphs vary, the core of a paragraph includes the topic
­sentence with a claim followed by support sentences. Transition and point sentences can, in many
cases, improve the flow of the paragraph.

A transition is a word,
phrase, or sentence
that appears very The topic sentence
early in the with its claim comes
paragraph. very early; it is rarely
omitted.

A point sentence
sometimes
appears at the
end to reinforce Support sentences
or put a twist on come after the topic
the paragraph’s sentence.
claim.
 Developing Paragraphs and Sections 467

Transition or Transitional Sentence (Optional)

The purpose of a transition or transitional sentence is to make a smooth bridge from
the prior paragraph to the current paragraph. Transitions signal to readers how two
paragraphs are related or alert them to a shift in direction.
A transition, if needed, should appear near the beginning of the paragraph. It might
be a complete sentence placed at the start of a paragraph, or it might be a single word
or phrase placed at the start of the topic sentence (e.g., finally, in the past). A transitional
sentence might ask a question or signal a turn in the discussion:
If fast food is responsible for America’s expanding waistlines, what can we do to change
how much fast food young people eat?

A question like this one sets up the topic sentence, which usually follows
­immediately. Here is a transitional sentence that signals a turn in the discussion:
Before moving ahead, though, we first need to step back and discuss some of the root
causes of poverty in the United States.

A transitional sentence often redirects the readers’ attention to a new issue while set-
ting up the paragraph’s topic sentence. The topic sentence usually appears soon after
the transition sentence.
A transitional word or phrase can also make an effective bridge between two para-
graphs. Here are some transitional words and phrases that you can try out:
For example The next step Specifically
To illustrate In any event On the contrary
For this reason On the whole Nevertheless
As an illustration Likewise To summarize
Besides Accordingly Equally important
Of course In conclusion As a result
In the past More specifically Consequently
In the future In other words Meanwhile

Topic Sentence (Needed)

A topic sentence announces the paragraph’s subject and makes a statement or claim
that the rest of the paragraph will support or prove.
At the beginning of his presidency, Joe Biden was faced with a number of pressing
­economic issues (statement).

A good first step would be to reduce the number of general education courses required in
many college majors (claim).

Credit card debt is the greatest threat to the American family’s financial security (claim).

The topic sentence will be the first or second sentence in most paragraphs. You
have probably been told that a topic sentence can be put anywhere in a paragraph.
That’s sometimes true, but you should put the topic sentence early in the paragraph if
you want your readers to understand the paragraph’s subject and be able to identify its
key statement or claim quickly. Putting the topic sentence in the middle or at the end of
a paragraph makes your main ideas harder to find.
468 Chapter 25

Of course, any guideline has exceptions. For example, if you are telling your readers
a story or leading them toward a controversial or surprising point, your topic sentence
might be better placed at the end of the paragraph or even omitted altogether.

Support Sentences (Needed)

Support sentences will make up the body of your paragraphs. These sentences back
up the paragraph’s topic sentence with examples, details, reasoning, facts, data, quota-
tions, anecdotes, definitions, descriptions, and anything else needed to provide support.
­Support sentences usually appear after the topic sentence.

Walking daily is usually the best form of exercise for weight control, despite what the f­itness
industry is trying to sell you (topic sentence). Advertisements for fitness centers always show
people sweating away on spin bikes, squatting weights, flipping tractor tires, and doing
­whatever that thing is with ropes (support). But those kinds of intense exercise routines are not
sustainable, and most people give up after a couple of weeks (support). A brisk daily walk has
been proven to strengthen the heart and lungs, increase energy ­levels, strengthen immunity to
disease, and even help with stress management and g
­ etting a good night’s sleep (Mayo Clinic)
(support). The best thing about daily walking, though, is that it’s free, it’s just outside your front
door, and it’s something you will do your entire life (unlike flipping over tractor tires) (­support).
A regular brisk walk will help you burn calories and maintain a healthy weight (support).

Point Sentence (Optional)

Point sentences state, restate, or amplify the paragraph’s main point at the end of the
paragraph. A point sentence is especially useful in longer paragraphs when you want
to reinforce or restate the paragraph’s topic sentence in different words.

That early anti-commercial intent symbolized the ethos of the alternative music scene
(topic sentence). In 1990, Grohl became the drummer for the Seattle-based band
­Nirvana, which had been formed by singer Kurt Cobain and bass player Krist Novoselic
in 1987 (support). Nirvana had already released a debut album, Bleach (1989), and the
­three-piece—Cobain, Novoselic, and Grohl—toured small venues in a tiny van (support).
It was a love of music that fueled them, not the desire to become rich, famous rock stars
(point sentence). (Wilkinson, “David Grohl”)

As shown in the preceding paragraph, a point sentence is a good way to stress the point
of a complex paragraph. The topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph states a
claim, and the point sentence drives it home.

Getting Paragraphs to Flow (Cohesion)

25.2 Get paragraphs to flow from one sentence to the next.
Getting your paragraphs to flow is not difficult, but it takes a little practice. Flow, or
cohesion, is best achieved by paying attention to how each paragraph’s sentences are
woven together. You can use two techniques, subject alignment and given-new chaining,
to achieve this feeling of flow.
 Developing Paragraphs and Sections 469

Subject Alignment in Paragraphs

A well-written paragraph keeps the readers’ focus on the central subject, idea, issue, or
question. For example, the following paragraph does not flow well because the subjects
of the sentences are inconsistent:

Watching people at the park on a Saturday afternoon is a true pleasure. Frisbee golf is
played by a group of college students in a nearby stand of trees. Chatting with each
other and laughing are dog owners with their pets running around in playful packs. Picnic
blankets have been spread out, and parents and their kids are chatting and enjoying their
lunch. The playground is full of children climbing around on the play structure and digging
in the sand.

You can get a paragraph to flow by aligning the paragraph’s sentences around a com-
mon set of subjects.

Watching people at the park on a Saturday afternoon is a true pleasure. College students
play Frisbee golf in a nearby stand of trees. Dog owners chat and laugh with each other as
their pets run around in playful packs. Parents and their kids enjoy their lunch on spread-
out picnic blankets. On the playground, children climb around on the play s­ tructure and
dig in the sand.

This revised paragraph flows better (it is coherent) because the subjects of the sentences
are all people. The paragraph is about the people at the park, so making people the
subjects of the sentences creates the feeling that the paragraph is flowing.

Given-New in Paragraphs
Another good way to create flow is to use something called “given-new chaining” to
weave together the sentences in a paragraph. Here’s how it works.
Each sentence starts with something that appeared in a prior sentence (called the
“given”). Then the remainder of the sentence offers something that the readers didn’t
see in the prior sentence (called the “new”).

Recently, an art gallery exhibited the mysterious paintings of Irwin Fleminger, a

­modernist artist whose vast Mars-like landscapes contain cryptic human artifacts. One
of F
­ leminger’s paintings attracted the attention of some young schoolchildren who
­happened to be walking by. At first, the children laughed, pointing out some of the strange
artifacts in the painting. Soon, though, these artifacts in the painting drew the students
into a critical awareness of the painting, and they began to ask their bewildered teacher
what they meant. Mysterious and beautiful, Fleminger’s paintings have this effect on many
people, not just schoolchildren.

In this paragraph, the beginning of each sentence takes something “given” from the
previous sentence or an earlier sentence and then adds something new. This creates a
given-new chain, causing the text to feel coherent and flowing. The chaining of sen-
tences makes the paragraph feel like it’s moving smoothly from one idea to the next.
A combination of subject alignment and given-new chaining will allow you to
­create good flow in your paragraphs.
470 Chapter 25

Organizing a Section
25.3 Combine related groups of paragraphs into sections.
A section is a group of paragraphs that supports a major point in your text. When used
properly, sections break a larger document into manageable portions. They also provide
readers with an overall view of the document’s structure, allowing them to gain an
understanding of a longer document at a glance.

Opening, Body, Closing

You might think of a section as a smaller document that is part of the larger ­document
paper and that has its own opening paragraph, body paragraphs, and closing ­paragraph.
The opening paragraph usually includes an overall statement, claim, or question that
the section will discuss, prove, or answer. Then the section’s body paragraphs each con-
tribute a major idea that supports the statement or claim or answers the question.
Finally, an optional closing paragraph, which tends to be only a couple of sentences, can
be used to state or restate the section’s major point.

Organizational Patterns for Sections

When organizing a section, begin by asking yourself what you want it to achieve. Then
identify a pattern that will help you structure and fill out that space. Figure 25.2 shows
a variety of patterns that you might consider when organizing sections in your text.
These are some of the most common patterns, but others, including variations of the
ones shown here, are possible.

Using Headings in Sections

Headings are like the titles of your sections: They identify what the section will show,
explain, or prove. By clearly showing where sections begin and end, they help both you
and your readers understand how the sections connect with each other. Your sections
should work together to provide an overview of the document’s overall structure.
All headings within a certain level should follow consistent phrasing patterns.
A consistent pattern might use gerunds (-ing words), questions, or statements.
Inconsistent headings Performance Enhancement
Is Performance Enhancement Unethical?
Kinds of Performance Enhancement

Consistent headings Defining Performance Enhancement

that use gerunds Understanding the Ethics of Performance Enhancement
Determining the Downside

Consistent headings What Is Performance Enhancement?

that use questions What Are the Risks?
What’s Really the Issue Here?

Consistent headings Cognitive Performance Enhancement Is Possible

that use claims Enhancement Will Improve Student Performance
A Better National Conversation Is Needed
 Developing Paragraphs and Sections 471

Figure 25.2 Organizational Patterns for Sections

Simple patterns like these can help you organize sections in your document. These patterns should not be followed
­mechanically, though. You should adapt them to suit your purpose.

Cause and Effect Comparison Summary of an Argument Chronological

Opening Opening Opening Opening

Causes Similarities Side A Time Period 1

Effects Differences Side B Time Period 2

•
Closing Closing Closing •
•

Closing

Description Problem and Solution Narrative Process

Opening Opening Scene Opening

Feature A Problem Complication Step 1

Feature B Needs Evaluation Step 2

• •
• •
• Solution Resolution •

Closing Closing
Closing Closing

Headings should also be specific, clearly signaling the content of the sections that
follow them.
Unspecific headings Fast Food
The High School Scene
Solutions

Specific headings Fast Food and High School Students: A Bad Mix
The Effects of Fast Food on Health and Performance
Alternatives to Fast Food
472 Chapter 25

Consistent and specific headings will help your readers easily find the information
they are looking for while giving them a quick overview of your argument’s structure.
Visually, they also give your readers a welcome break from too many blocks of text.

Quick Start Guide

Here are some basic strategies for creating clear, logical paragraphs and sections in your documents.

Identify the four kinds of sentences in a paragraph. A typical paragraph has a topic sentence and
­support sentences. If necessary, a paragraph can also include a transition sentence, phrase, or word and
a point sentence.

State each paragraph’s topic sentence clearly. A topic sentence announces the paragraph’s subject—
the central idea or issue covered in the paragraph. Your topic sentences should make a statement or claim
that the rest of the paragraph will support or prove.

Develop support sentences for each paragraph. Support sentences make up the body of most
­paragraphs. These sentences provide examples, details, reasoning, facts, data, anecdotes, definitions,
descriptions, and anything else that backs up the paragraph’s topic sentence.

Decide if a transition sentence or transition is needed. If the prior paragraph is talking about
­something significantly different from the current paragraph, you might consider using a transition
­sentence or a transitional word or phrase to bridge the gap.

Decide if a point sentence would be helpful. In a longer paragraph, you might decide to use a point
sentence to state or restate the paragraph’s main point. Usually, the point sentence makes a claim that is
similar to the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph.

Revise paragraphs so they flow. Use subject alignment and given-new techniques to help paragraphs
flow better.

Combine paragraphs into sections. Larger documents should be carved into sections with d ­ escriptive
headings. A typical section has an opening paragraph and body paragraphs. A closing paragraph is optional.

Activities for Developing

Paragraphs and Sections
Talk About This
1. In studies of high school students’ writing, researchers have found that inexperi-
enced writers tend to place topic sentences at the end of their paragraphs, not the
beginning. With your group in class, come up with two or three theories about why
inexperienced writers would tend to put their topic sentences late in paragraphs.
 Developing Paragraphs and Sections 473

2. In this chapter, you learned that topic sentences should usually appear at the
­beginning of a paragraph and occasionally at the end. Can you think of any
­situations in which putting the topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph would
be a good idea? Are there times when topic sentences should be omitted altogether?
3. With your group, choose a document you find on the Internet and analyze five
of its paragraphs, identifying their topic sentences, support sentences, transition
sentences, and point sentences. Are the paragraphs’ structures different from the
structures described in this chapter? Does a document’s genre and medium affect
how paragraphs tend to be structured?

Try This Out

1. Collect some interesting paragraphs from the Internet. Identify the topic s­ entence
and support sentences in each paragraph. If transition sentences and point
­sentences are used, highlight them, too. In a presentation to your class, choose
one of your paragraphs and evaluate the effectiveness of its structure.
2. In a printed or online text, find a paragraph that has at least six sentences and is
badly written. First, improve the flow of the paragraph by aligning the subjects
of the sentences. Second, use given-new strategies to revise the paragraph’s
­sentences. Finally, use a combination of subject alignment and given-new
­strategies to improve its flow. Offer a brief reflection explaining which of these
methods (subject alignment, given-new, or a combination) worked best and why.
3. On the Internet or on campus, find a document that is divided into sections. Look
at each section carefully to determine what patterns are used. Which patterns for
sections described in this chapter are most common? Are the sections f­ ollowing
any patterns that aren’t shown in this chapter? Do the section headings help
readers easily identify the pattern?

Write This
1. Diagnose and solve a paragraph’s organizational problems. Find a p ­ aragraph
that has a confusing organization (one of your own, another student’s, or
­something from the Internet). Diagnose the paragraph’s problems using the
guidelines given in this chapter. Then write a one-page reflection in which you
speculate about why the author made inappropriate choices. Then explain the
strategies you would use to improve the paragraph and explain why you would
choose those strategies.
2. If allowed by your instructor, use an artificial-intelligence (AI) application
to revise the structure of a section. Find a poorly organized multiple-page
­document on the Internet that is divided into sections. Copy and paste one
or two of the sections into the AI application and instruct it to evaluate the
­organization and recommend a better one. Now it’s your turn to evaluate the
AI’s ­evaluation and recommendations. Write a brief (two- to four-paragraph)
report that summarizes the AI’s performance and explains which evaluations
and ­recommendations would be helpful and which ones would not.
 Chapter 26
Using Basic Rhetorical
Patterns
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

26.1 use the narrative pattern to tell a story.

26.2 describe something with the senses and tropes.
26.3 define a word or concept.
26.4 use classification to put things into categories.
26.5 explain what caused something and its effects.
26.6 compare and contrast two or more things.
26.7 combine rhetorical patterns to make sophisticated arguments.

You can use a variety of rhetorical patterns to organize your ideas and evidence in ways
that readers will find easy to follow and understand. Ancient rhetoricians called these
patterns topoi, or commonplaces (from the Greek word “place”). Rhetorical patterns are
familiar places (topoi) that you use to develop and organize your ideas.
A variety of rhetorical patterns are available, but the six most common are:
Narrative Classification
Description Cause and effect
Definition Comparison and contrast

You may already be familiar with these patterns because they are often used
to teach high-school students how to write essays, such as cause and effect essays or
­comparison and contrast essays.
Keep in mind, though, that rhetorical patterns are not formulas to follow
­mechanically. You can alter, bend, and combine these patterns to fit your purpose and
the genre you’re using.

474
 Using Basic Rhetorical Patterns 475

Narrative
26.1    Use the narrative pattern to tell a story.
Using narrative to tell a story is a good way to organize information into a familiar
pattern for readers. A narrative describes a sequence of events or tells a story in a way
that illustrates a specific point.
Stories can be woven into almost any genre. In a review, narrative can be used to
summarize or describe what happens in a movie, book, or performance. In a proposal
or a report, narratives can be used to describe an event or provide historical background
on a topic. Memoirs and profiles often rely on narrative to organize the entire text.
The diagram in Figure 26.1 shows the most familiar pattern for a ­narrative. When using
this pattern, you would start out by setting the scene and ­introducing a complication that pres-
ents people with a problem to solve or a challenge to overcome. Then you’d describe char-
acters evaluating the complication, assessing the nature of the situation. You could then show
how people resolved the c­ omplication by describing how they solved the problem or overcame
a ­challenge. At the end of the narrative, you would state the point of the story or
the overall meaning you want the readers to take away from it. Keep in mind
Figure 26.1 The
that these elements can be moved around if it better suits the situation. ­Narrative Pattern
Consider, for example, the following paragraph, which follows this
Narratives tend to have these five
basic and familiar narrative pattern: parts, but parts can be moved
Yesterday, I was eating at Paisano’s Pizza on Wabash Street (scene). around or removed altogether to
fit the rhetorical situation.
­Suddenly, some guy started yelling for everyone to get on the floor because
he was robbing the ­restaurant (complication). At first, I thought it was a joke
(evaluation). But then I realized all the other customers were diving under Set the Scene
their tables. The guy was waving a gun around, and I realized he was seri-
ous. So I crashed down to the floor and crawled under our table (­resolution).
Introduce a Complication
Fortunately, the guy just took the money and ran. That evening, on the news,
I heard he was arrested a few miles away. This brush with crime opened my
eyes and made me realize that we all need to be prepared to deal with crime,
Evaluate the Complication
which can happen anywhere, anytime (point).

The conventional narrative pattern is probably already familiar to you.

This is the same pattern used in television sitcoms, novels, jokes, and just Resolve the Complication
about any story. In nonfiction writing, though, narratives are not “just sto-
ries.” When used strategically, they help writers make specific points for
their readers. The chart in Figure 26.2 shows how narrative can be used in State the Point
a few different genres.

Description
26.2 Describe something with the senses and tropes.
Descriptions often rely on details drawn from the five senses—seeing, hearing, touch-
ing, smelling, and tasting. You can also use rhetorical devices called “tropes,” like meta-
phor, simile, and onomatopoeia, to deepen readers’ experience and understanding.
476 Chapter 26

Figure 26.2 Using Narratives

Objective of Genre
In a proposal, use a story to explain a problem in
rich detail, including its causes and effects.
In a commentary, tell a story that demonstrates
your expertise.
In a review, summarize a movie’s plot for
readers.
In a literary analysis, use a historical narrative to
offer background information on the text.
In a report, make an abstract concept easier to
understand by narrating a series of events.
Use of Narrative
In a proposal about safety, a writer motivates the reader
to care about the issue by telling the story of a girl who
died from food poisoning.
In a commentary that evaluates the training of soldiers,
an army veteran uses a story from his deployment to
illustrate his combat know-how.
In a movie review of a new romantic comedy, the writer
gives an overview of the movie’s main events without
giving away how the conflict in the movie was resolved.
In a literary analysis, the writer tells an interesting story
about the poet whose poem is being analyzed. This
story offers insight into the meaning of the poem.
In explaining the concept of metamorphosis in a
research report, the writer describes the luna moth’s
life cycle as a fight for survival from egg to caterpillar to
chrysalis to adult moth.

Describing with the Senses

When you need to describe a person, place, or object, start out by considering your
subject from each of the five senses:
WHAT DOES IT LOOK LIKE? What are its colors, shapes, and sizes? What is your eye
drawn toward? What makes your subject visually distinctive?
WHAT SOUNDS DOES IT MAKE? Are the sounds pleasing, sharp, soothing, irritat-
ing, metallic, or erratic? What effect do these sounds have on you and others?
WHAT DOES IT FEEL LIKE? Is it rough or smooth, hot or cold, dull or sharp, slimy
or firm, wet or dry?
HOW DOES IT SMELL? Does your subject smell fragrant or pungent? Does it have a
particular aroma or stench? Does it smell fresh or stale? Does the smell elicit memories
from the past?
HOW DOES IT TASTE? Is your subject spicy, sweet, salty, or sour? Does it taste burnt
or spoiled? Which foods taste like the thing you are describing?

Describing with Similes, Metaphors, and Onomatopoeia

Some people, places, and objects cannot be fully described using the senses. Here is
where you can use tropes such as similes, metaphors, and onomatopoeia to deepen the
description. These stylistic devices are discussed in depth in Chapter 22, “Choosing a
Style,” so we will touch on them only briefly here.
SIMILE. A simile (“X is like Y”; “X is as Y”) helps you describe your subject by making
a simple comparison with something else:

Directing the flow of traffic, the police officer moved methodically like a robot on an
assembly line.
 Using Basic Rhetorical Patterns 477

Figure 26.3 Using Descriptions

Objective of Genre
In a memoir, describe characters and their setting.
In a review, describe the product being reviewed.
In a commentary, describe people or places of
interest.
In a proposal, describe a plan or a product.
In a report, describe the steps that the researchers
will follow in a research project or experiment.
Use of Description
In a memoir about a writer’s Brazilian hometown,
she uses sights, sounds, and textures to describe
how her neighbors enjoyed playing and watching
soccer in the streets.
In a review of a new snowboard, the writer describes
the visual features of the board, stressing what
makes it different from others.
A writer uses description to show the hard life of people
who are living without health care in southern Iowa.
A team of writers uses description to show how
a new playground would harmonize with a park’s
landscape.
The methodology section describes how a research
project or experiment was performed, allowing the
readers to verify and replicate it.

METAPHOR. A metaphor (“X is Y”) lets you describe your subject in more depth
than a simile by directly comparing it to something else.

A college campus is a small city with neighborhoods, stores, restaurants, entertainment,

and even its own transportation system.

ONOMATOPOEIA. Onomatopoeia uses words that sound like the thing being described.

The forest fire roared as it burned through the mountain pass.

The cyclist whooshed through campus.

Description is commonly used in all genres, as shown in Figure 26.3. Where pos-
sible, look for ways to use combinations of senses and tropes to add a visual element
to your texts.

Definition
26.3 Define a word or concept.
You can use a definition to state the exact meaning of a word or phrase. Definitions
explain how a particular term is being used and why it is being used that way.
Sentence definitions, like the ones in a dictionary, typically have three parts: the term
being defined, the category to which the term belongs, and the distinguishing character-
istics that set it apart from other things in its category.

Cholera is a potentially lethal illness that is caused by a bacterium, Vibrio cholerae, Term Category
with symptoms of vomiting and watery diarrhea. Distinguishing
characteristics

An extended definition is longer than a sentence definition. An extended definition

usually starts with a sentence definition and then continues to define the term further.
You can extend a definition with one or more of the following techniques.
478 Chapter 26

Figure 26.4 Using Definitions

Objective of Genre
In a literary analysis, explain a literary
concept.
In a rhetorical analysis, define a rhetorical
term that helps explain why something is
persuasive.
In a commentary, define an important but
unfamiliar term.
In a report, clarify an important technical term.
Use of Definition
The writer defines words like “irony” or an important concept
in the novel or poem.
A person critiquing an advertisement defines the word
“pathos” to help her explain how emotion is used to sway
an audience.
A commentator uses a specific term, like “cosplay,” that
calls for a definition to explain what it means.
In a research report about the great apes, a writer defines
what a bonobo is and how it is different from a chimpanzee.

WORD ORIGIN (ETYMOLOGY). Exploring the historical origin of a word can provide
some interesting insights into its meaning.
According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word escape comes from the Old
French word eschaper, which literally means “to get out of one’s cape, leave a pursuer
with just one’s cape.”

EXAMPLES. Giving examples can put a word’s meaning into context.

For example, when people say they “dropped the ball,” it means that they made an error
or missed an opportunity to do something.

NEGATION. When using negation, you explain something by telling what it is not.

St. John’s wort is not a stimulant, and it won’t cure all kinds of depression. Instead, it is a
mild sedative.

DIVISION. You can divide the subject into parts, which are then defined separately.

There are two kinds of fraternities. The first kind, a “social fraternity,” typically offers a
­dormitory-like place to live near campus as well as a social community. The second
kind, an “honorary fraternity,” allows members who share common backgrounds to build
­networks and support fellow members.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES. When using similarities and differences, you

can compare and contrast the item being defined to other similar items.
African wild dogs are from the same biological family, Canidae, as domestic dogs, and
they are about the same size as a Labrador. Their coats, however, tend to have random
patterns of yellow, black, and white. Their bodies look like those of domestic dogs, but
their heads look like those of hyenas.

ANALOGY. An analogy compares something unfamiliar to something that readers

would find familiar.
Your body’s circulatory system is similar to a modern city. Your arteries and veins are like
roads for blood cells to travel on. These roadways contain white blood cells, which act like
police officers patrolling for viruses and bacteria.

Figure 26.4 shows how definitions can be used in a variety of genres.

 Using Basic Rhetorical Patterns 479

Classification
26.4 Use classification to put things into categories.
Classification allows you to divide objects, concepts, or people into groups so they can
be discussed in greater depth. A classification can take up a single paragraph, or it might
be used to organize an entire section (Figure 26.5). Here are a few steps to help you use
classification to organize a paragraph or section.

Step One: List Everything That Fits into the Whole Class
List all the items that can be included in a specific class. Brainstorming is a good tool
for coming up with this kind of list.

Things that you can do to stop smoking:

eat healthy snacks, hypnosis, lozenges, distract yourself, inhalers, set up rewards, chew
gum, drink hot tea, breathe deeply, eat vegetables, nicotine gum, eat nuts that need to
be shelled, keep busy, break routines, nicotine patches, nicotine sprays, nicotine fading,
­acupuncture, antidepressants, support group, exercise daily

Step Two: Decide on a Principle of Classification

The key to classifying something is to come up with a principle of classification that helps
you do the sorting.
For example, let’s suppose you are classifying all the ways to stop smoking. You
would list all the methods you can find. Then you would try to sort them into categories:
Lifestyle changes—exercise daily, eat healthy snacks, break routines, distract
­yourself, set up rewards, keep busy
Smoking-like activities—chew gum, drink hot tea, breathe deeply, eat vegetables,
eat nuts that need to be shelled
Nicotine replacement—nicotine patches, nicotine gum, nicotine sprays, inhalers,
lozenges, nicotine fading
Medical help—acupuncture, hypnosis, antidepressants, support group

Figure 26.5 Using Classifications

Objective of Genre
In a review, identify common subgenres.
In a profile, sort people into types.
In a commentary, explain a culture by describing its
demographic groups.
In a report, divide a number of species into smaller
subspecies.
Use of Classification
A reviewer uses classification to identify where a new
vampire movie fits in the horror movie genre.
A writer explains her best friend by categorizing
­college students into common groups.
A commentator tries to explain why different Islamic
sects in the Middle East are sometimes mistrustful
of each other.
A researcher uses classification to describe a family
of insects.
480 Chapter 26

Step Three: Sort into Major and Minor Groups

You should be able to sort all the items from your brainstorming list cleanly into the
major and minor categories you came up with. In other words, an item that appears in
one category should not appear in another. Also, no items on your list should be left over.
This classification describes a plan to stop smoking and is structured around four
major categories:

I really want to quit smoking because it wastes my money and I’m tired of feeling like a
social outcast. Plus, someday, smoking is going to kill me if I don’t stop. I have tried to go
The opening cold turkey, but that hasn’t worked. The new e-cigarettes are too expensive and just make
paragraph sets up
the author’s four
me want to start smoking again. So I began searching for other ways to stop. While doing
categories. my research, I found that there are four basic paths to stopping smoking.

The first and perhaps easiest path is to make some lifestyle changes. Break any routines that
involve smoking like smoking after meals or going outside for a smoke break. Start exercising
daily and set personal rewards for reaching milestones (e.g., dinner out, treat, movie). Mostly,
it’s important to keep yourself busy. And, if needed, keeping pictures of charcoal lungs
around is a good reminder of what happens to people who don’t give up smoking.

For many of us, the physical aspects of smoking are important, especially doing
Each category is
­something with the hands and mouth. Some people keep a bowl of peanuts around in the
then discussed shells, so they have something to do with their hands. Drinking hot tea or ­breathing deeply
separately.
can replicate the warmth and sensation of smoking on the throat and lungs. Healthy
snacks, like carrots, pretzels, or chewing gum, will keep the mouth busy.

Let’s be honest—people who smoke are doing it for the nicotine. A variety of products,
like nicotine gum, patches, sprays, and lozenges, can hold down those cravings. Also,
nicotine fading uses weaker and weaker cigarettes to step down the desire for nicotine.

Medical help is also available. Here on campus, the Student Health Center offers
­counseling and support groups to help people stop. Meanwhile, some people have had
success with hypnosis and acupuncture.

My hope is that a combination of these methods will help me quit this habit. This time I’m
going to succeed.

The author of this classification has found a good way to sort out all the possible
ways to stop smoking. By categorizing them, she can now decide which ones will work
best for her.

Cause and Effect

26.5 Explain what caused something and its effects.
You can use a causal analysis to explore why something happens. Then exploring the
effects is a good way to describe what happened afterward.
Some cause-and-effect explanations simply identify the causes and then describe
what happened afterward. Cause-and-effect explanations can also be used to make
 Using Basic Rhetorical Patterns 481

Figure 26.6 Three Kinds of Cause and Effect

Simple cause and effect— “When illegal immigrants are
One thing causes causes allowed free entry (cause), they
something else. take jobs away from American
workers (effect).”

Cause/effect chains— “A massive slippage along the

An effect becomes the
cause of another effect.
causes causes Earth’s crust (cause 1) created an
enormous undersea earthquake
(effect). This set in motion a tsunami
(cause 2), which engulfed thousands
of square miles in the area, tossed
trucks and huge ships around
like toys, and led to massive
destruction and the deaths of
200,000 people (effect).”

Multiple causes and “We propose to (1) transform the

effects—A set of causes existing food court into a more
leads to a set of effects. pleasant eating area, (2) create a
combine
café that offers a local, healthy,
to cause and affordable menu, and
(3) create a store offering similar
products (causes). This will lead to
increased business, customer
satisfaction, and sustainability
(effects).”

arguments, especially when people disagree about what caused the event or its effects
(Figure 26.6).
Even when describing a complex cause-and-effect scenario, you should try to
­present your analysis as clearly as possible. Often, the clearest analysis will resemble a
narrative pattern, as in this analysis of tornado formation:

Although scientists still do not completely understand the causes behind the f­ormation
of tornadoes, most agree that three main ingredients must be present: a large mass of
warm moist air, a large mass of cold dry air, and a violent collision between the two.
­During springtime in the central United States, enormous masses of warm moist air can
move rapidly northeastward from the Gulf of Mexico into what has become known as
“tornado alley.” When the warm air collides with the cold air, thunderstorms are almost
always ­produced. However, if the rapidly moving warm air slides under the cold air and
gets trapped beneath, that’s when a tornado can occur. Because warm air is lighter than
cold air, the warm-air mass will try to form something like an “upside-down drain” in the
­cold-air mass that would allow the warm air to shoot through. If this happens, a vortex of
air develops, sucking everything on the ground upward at enormous velocities, c
­ ausing
the strongest winds produced anywhere in nature, up to 300 miles per hour. These
­powerful winds sometimes accomplish the unbelievable, such as uprooting enormous
trees and driving pieces of straw through wooden planks.
482 Chapter 26

Figure 26.7 Using Cause and Effect

Objective of Genre Use of Cause/Effect
In a profile, explain how certain events influenced A writer explains how her grandmother’s life was
the subject. changed by World War II.
In an “argument” essay, argue that one event has A writer argues open immigration laws have made
led to a certain outcome. the nation more diverse and lowered labor costs,
which has resulted in making the nation more
­competitive worldwide.
In a proposal, explain how your plan will lead to A writer pitches a plan to increase bus ridership and
good results. shows it will save money by eliminating the need for
a new parking structure.
In a research paper, explain the cause of A student in a history class explains how a series
something. of misunderstandings led to the American
­Revolutionary War.

Figure 26.7 shows how different kinds of cause-and-effect analyses can be used in
a variety of genres.

Comparison and Contrast

26.6 Compare and contrast two or more things.
Comparison and contrast allow you to explore the similarities and differences between
two or more people, organizations, objects, places, or ideas. When comparing and con-
trasting, you should first list all the common characteristics that the two items share.
Afterward, list all the distinguishing characteristics that make them different.
You can then show how these two people or things are similar and how they are
different. Figure 26.8 shows three patterns that could be used to organize the informa-
tion in your list. The first two sentences of the following paragraph describe common
characteristics, followed by several sentences describing distinguishing characteristics:

Figure 26.8 Three Patterns for Comparison and Contrast

Comparing and contrasting can be done in several ways. Here are three of the more common patterns.

Opening Opening Opening

Similarities between Topic 1: Similarities and

Description of Item 1
Item 1 and Item 2 differences

Differences between Topic 2: Similarities and

Item 1 and Item 2 Description of Item 2, differences
comparing and
contrasting it with Item 1 •
•
•
 Using Basic Rhetorical Patterns 483

The differences between first-degree and second-degree murder can seem subtle.
Both are forms of homicide, which is “the act of taking someone’s life through m
­ urder”
(“­Homicide”). Also, in both types of murder, the perpetrators intentionally killed the
­victims. First-degree murder happens when the perpetrators plan in advance to kill their
victims. They wanted to murder them, made plans, and carried out the acts. U
­ sually,
they then tried to cover up the murders. Second-degree murder happens when the
alleged ­killers were in the act of committing other crimes, but they did not plan in advance
to murder the victims. For example, a burglar commits second-degree murder if he
­intentionally kills a security guard who discovers him committing the crime. In this case,
the burglar did not set out to kill the security guard but did it with intention once the crime
was discovered. Second-degree murder might also occur as a result of arson, rape,
­robbery, or kidnapping.

Comparison and contrast is a useful way to describe something by comparing it

to something else. It can also be used to show how two or more things measure up
against each other. Figure 26.9 describes how comparison and contrast can be used in
a variety of genres.

Figure 26.9 Using Comparison and Contrast

Objective of Genre
In a memoir, compare a new experience to
­something familiar.
In a profile, compare a new person to someone
readers know.
In a proposal, compare the plan to successful plans
used in the past.
In an argument, compare the plan offered by the
opposing position to the one being supported.
Use of Comparison and Contrast
A writer compares her first day of college to her first
day of high school to help new students understand
how challenging college is.
A writer compares his new boss to cartoon character
Homer J. Simpson.
While pitching a plan for a new dog park, a writer
shows that similar plans have worked in other cities.
An economist argues against more government
spending, comparing growth in the 1960s to the
1980s.

Combining Rhetorical Patterns

26.7 Combine rhetorical patterns to make sophisticated arguments.
Rhetorical patterns can be combined to meet a variety of purposes. For example, you
can use comparison and contrast to fill out a narrative. Or you can use classification
to strengthen a description. In other words, you shouldn’t get hung up on a particular
pattern as the way to make your point. You can mix and match these rhetorical pat-
terns to fit your needs. Almost all of the readings in Writing Today use combinations
of ­rhetorical patterns, so you can turn to them for good examples of how rhetorical
patterns can be used.
484 Chapter 26

Quick Start Guide

Here are some easy ways to start using and combining basic rhetorical patterns in your writing.

Narrate a story. Look for places in your writing where you can tell a story. Set the scene and then intro-
duce a complication that poses a challenging problem. Discuss how you or others evaluated and resolved
the complication. Then tell readers the main point of the story.

Describe people, places, or objects. Consider your subject from your five senses: sight, sound, touch,
smell, and taste. Pay attention to movement and features that make your subject unique or interesting.

Define your words or concepts. Look for important words or concepts that need to be defined.
A ­sentence definition should have three parts: the term, the category, and distinguishing characteristics. To
extend the definition, describe the word’s history, offer examples of its usage, use negation to show what it
isn’t, divide the subject into two or more parts, or discuss its similarities and differences with other things.

Classify items by dividing them into groups. If you are discussing something large or complex, list all
its parts. Then use a principle of classification to sort that list into two to five major groups. Each group can
be divided further into minor groups.

Use cause and effect to explain what causes what. Examine your subject in terms of causes and
effects. When analyzing a problem, explain what has changed to cause it. When pitching a solution,
describe how your plan will lead to good results.

Compare and contrast things. Find something that is similar to your subject. List all the similarities
between the two items. Then list all the differences. Describe the similarities and differences.

Mix it up! Rhetorical patterns are not recipes or formulas to be followed mechanically. Combine these
patterns in ways that enhance their strengths.

Activities for Using Basic

Rhetorical Patterns
Talk About This
1. Have each member of your group find two print or online examples of each of
the basic rhetorical patterns discussed in this chapter. Give a brief presentation in
which each person shows how the examples illustrate the patterns.
2. Make a list of ten slang words or phrases that have recently become popular.
With your group, come up with definitions for each of these words in which you
identify the term, the category, and the distinguishing characteristics.
3. Basic rhetorical patterns are sometimes used as structures for essays. For example,
you have probably heard of “cause-and-effect” essays or “comparison-and-­contrast”
essays. With your group, discuss and list how you could use these ­patterns within
larger genres, such as reports, reviews, or literary analyses.
 Using Basic Rhetorical Patterns 485

Try This Out

1. Pick a place where you can sit undisturbed for half an hour and invent your
ideas for writing a rich description of something. Write down everything you
hear, feel, smell, and taste, but do not write down what you see. Then write a
one-page description of the place using no visual elements, only observations
with your other senses.
2. Pick two things that are similar in most ways but different in some important
ways. Write three one-paragraph comparison and contrasts of these things using
each of the patterns shown in Figure 26.8. Which pattern worked best for your
comparison and contrast, and why?
3. With your group, create a concept map that classifies the students at your univer-
sity into two or more categories. When you are finished, reflect on this q
­ uestion:
Is it possible to appropriately sort people into groups without resorting to
stereotypes?
4. In a group or on your own, think of a major problem that your family, friends,
university, community, or nation faces. What are the two to five major causes
of this problem? What are the two to five major effects of this problem? Would
everyone agree completely with your cause-and-effect analysis? If not, how
would others analyze the issues?

Write This
1. Use the basic rhetorical patterns to explain someone or something to another
person. Think of someone or something you know well but others may be
­unfamiliar with. Use the six basic rhetorical patterns (narrative, description,
­definition, classification, cause and effect, comparison and contrast) to help
someone who knows little about your topic to understand it.
2. Find rhetorical patterns on the Internet. Write a two-page rhetorical analysis of
a website in which you identify these basic rhetorical patterns and discuss how
they are used on the site. Analyze how effectively the rhetorical choices achieve
the writer’s purpose, making sure to explain why they are or are not effective.
 Chapter 27
Using Argumentative
Strategies
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

27.1 determine the source and nature of an arguable claim.

27.2 use reasoning, authority, and emotion to support your argument.
27.3 identify and avoid logical fallacies.
27.4 rebut and refute the arguments of others.

The word argument sometimes brings up images of finger-pointing, hostility, or

­polarization. Actually, when people behave in these ways, they aren’t really a­ rguing.
They are quarreling. And when people quarrel, they are no longer listening to or
­considering each other’s ideas.
An argument is something quite different. Arguments involve making reasonable
claims and then backing up those claims with evidence and support. The goal of an
argument is not necessarily to “win” or prove that you are right (or others are wrong).
Instead, your primary goal is to show others that you are probably right or that your
beliefs are reasonable and worthy of their honest consideration. When arguing, both
sides attempt to convince others that their position is stronger or more beneficial. Their
goal is to reach an understanding and perhaps an agreement.
In college and the professional world, you will use argument to think through ideas
and debate uncertainties. You will use argument to get things done by gaining the
cooperation of others. In most situations, an argument is about ­agreeing more than dis-
agreeing, about cooperating with others more than competing with them. Your ability
to argue effectively will be an important part of your success in your college courses,
your social life, and your career.

486
 Using Argumentative Strategies 487

What Is Arguable?
27.1 Determine the source and nature of an arguable claim.
Let’s begin by first discussing what is “arguable.” Some people will say that they can
argue about anything. And in a sense, they are right. We can argue about anything, no
matter how trivial or pointless.

“I don’t like chocolate.” “Yes, you do.”

“The American Civil War began in 1861.” “No, it didn’t.”
“It disgusts me that our animal shelter kills “No, it doesn’t. You think it’s a good thing.”
unclaimed pets after just two weeks.”

These trivial kinds of arguments are rarely worth your time and effort. Of course,
we can argue that our friend is lying when she says she doesn’t like chocolate, and
we can challenge the historical fact that the Civil War really started in 1861. However,
debates about personal judgments, such as liking or not liking something, quickly devolve
into “Yes, I do.” “No, you don’t!” kinds of quarrels. Meanwhile, debates about proven
facts, like the year the American Civil War started, can be resolved by consulting a
trusted source. To be truly arguable, a claim should exist somewhere between personal
judgments and proven facts (Figure 27.1).

Arguable Claims
When laying the groundwork for an argument, you need to first define an arguable
claim that you want to persuade your readers to accept as probably true. For example,
here are arguable claims on two sides of the same topic:

Arguable claim—Marijuana should be legalized in our state because there is evidence that
marijuana is one of the most effective treatments for pain, nausea, and other symptoms
of widespread debilitating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, cancer, and some kinds of
epilepsy.

Arguable claim—Although marijuana can relieve symptoms associated with certain

diseases, it should not be legalized because that would send a message that recreational
drugs are safe and even beneficial to health.

Figure 27.1 The Region of Arguable Claims

People can argue about anything, of course. However, truly “arguable” claims exist somewhere
between personal judgments and proven facts.

Personal Arguable Claims

Judgments Proven Facts

I don’t like The American Civil War

chocolate. began in 1861.
488 Chapter 27

Both claims are “arguable” because neither side can prove that it is factually right or
that the other side is factually wrong. Meanwhile, neither side is based exclusively on
personal judgments. Instead, both sides want to persuade you, the reader, that they are
probably right.
When you invent and draft an argument, your goal is to support your position to
the best of your ability, but you should also imagine views and viewpoints that dis-
agree with yours. Keeping opposing views in mind will help you clarify your ideas,
anticipate counterarguments, and identify the weaknesses of your position. Then, when
you draft your argument, you will be able to show readers that you have considered
all sides fairly.
On the other hand, if an opposing position does not really exist or is very weak,
you may not have an arguable claim in the first place.

Four Sources of Arguable Claims

Once you have a rough idea of your arguable claim, you should refine and clarify
it. Arguable claims generally arise from four sources: issues of definition, causation,
­evaluation, and recommendation (Figure 27.2).
ISSUES OF DEFINITION. Some arguments hinge on how to define an object, event,
or person. For example, here are a few arguable claims that debate how to define
something:

When our campus newspaper published an interview with a Holocaust denier, it committed
an act of journalistic malpractice.

The recent incident on North Street wasn’t just a “prank that got out of hand.” At the very
least, it was an act of bullying. More accurately, it was assault and battery.

While some people say they’re a matter of “just having a little fun,” memes that make light
of the Holocaust are hate speech.

ISSUES OF CAUSATION. Humans tend to see events in terms of cause and effect.
Consequently, people often argue about whether one thing caused another.

Texting while driving actually causes many times more accidents than drunk driving.

Violent video games do not cause the people who play to become violent in their actual,
lived, real-world lives.

The climate crisis is causing the water in the Gulf of Mexico to warm, which causes
­hurricanes in the gulf to become much, much stronger, larger, and more destructive.

ISSUES OF EVALUATION. We also argue about whether something is good or bad,

right or wrong, or better or worse.

The movies inspired by Marvel Comics are funny and action-packed, but for great
­storytelling and drama, the movies inspired by DC Comics—such as Batman, Superman,
and Wonder Woman—are unmatched.
 Using Argumentative Strategies 489

Figure 27.2 Developing and Sharpening an Arguable Claim

First, figure out what you want to argue. Then sharpen your claim by figuring out which type of
­argument you are making. The result will be a much clearer arguable claim.

Sharpen the Claim

Issues of
Definition

Issues of
Causation
What do I My
want to arguable
argue? claim
Issues of
Evaluation

Issues of
Recommendation

Because the majority of taxes fall most heavily on people who go to work every day
instead of on the wealthy who tend to live off their investments the current U.S. taxation
system is unfair.

When buying a used car, a customer needs to keep a few important factors in mind:
­budget, reliability, insurance, and vehicle history.

ISSUES OF RECOMMENDATION. We also use arguments to make recommendations

about the best course of action to follow. These kinds of claims are signaled by words
like “should,” “must,” “ought to,” and so forth.

Tompson Industries should convert its Nebraska factory to renewable energy sources, like
wind, solar, and geothermal, using the standard electric grid only as a backup supply for
electricity.

People will keep texting while driving because the urge to stay in touch is so irresistible.
Therefore, we need to make the penalties for breaking this law much harsher.

At Southwestern State, we cannot solve the climate crisis ourselves, but ­converting
to a carbon-neutral campus would allow us to be a model for the region and other
­medium-sized public universities in the United States.

To refine and sharpen your arguable claim, figure out which type of claim you are
making, as shown in Figure 27.2. Then revise your claim to fit neatly into one of the
four categories.
490 Chapter 27

Using Reason, Authority, and Emotion

27.2 Use reasoning, authority, and emotion to support your argument.
Once you have developed an arguable claim, you can start figuring out how you are
going to support it. A solid argument will usually employ three types of “proofs”:
­reason, authority, and emotion (Figure 27.3).
Greek rhetoricians like Aristotle originally used the words logos (reason), ethos
(authority), and pathos (emotion) to discuss these three proofs.

Reason (Logos)
Reasoning involves appealing to your readers’ common sense or beliefs.
LOGICAL STATEMENTS. Logical statements allow you to use your readers’ existing
beliefs to prove they should agree with a further claim. Here are some common patterns
for logical statements:
If . . . then—“If you believe X, then you should also believe Y.”
Either . . . or—“Either you believe X or you believe Y.”
Cause and effect—“X causes Y” or “Y is caused by X.” (See Figure 27.4.)
Costs and benefits—“The benefits A, B, and C show that doing X is worth the costs.”
Better and worse—“X is better than Y” or “X is worse than Y.”
EXAMPLES. The second type of reasoning, examples, allows you to illustrate your
points or demonstrate that a pattern exists.
“For example”—“For example, in 2020. . . .” “For instance, last week. . . .” “To
illustrate, there was the interesting case of. . . .” “Specifically, I can name two
situations when. . . .”

Figure 27.3 Three Types of Proofs for Supporting an Argument

Three types of proofs can be used to support an argument: reason, authority, and emotion.

Your Argument

Reason (logos) Authority (ethos) Emotion ( pathos)

• Logical statements • Practicality • Promise of gain
• Examples • Ethical principles • Promise of enjoyment
• Goodwill • Fear of loss
• Fear of pain
• Expression of anger
 Using Argumentative Strategies 491

Personal experiences—“Last
­summer, I saw. . . .” “Where I
Figure 27.4 A Cause-and-Effect Proof
work, X ­happens regularly.” In its headline, this graphic explains that distraction is the cause of most
teen auto crashes. Then, in the colored semicircle, it explains further what
Facts and data—“According kinds of distractions are responsible.
to our survey results, . . . .”

6 OUT OF 10 teen crashes

“Recently ­published data
show that. . . .”
Patterns of experiences—“X hap-
pened in 2008, 2012, 2016, and involve driver distraction.
2020. ­Therefore, we expect it to
happen again in 2024.” “In the
past, each time X happened,
The most common forms of distraction
leading to a teen driver crash include: 15%
of people Interacting with
one or more passengers
Y has happened also.”
Quotes from experts—
“Dr. ­Jennifer Xu, a scientist
at Los Alamos National 12%
­Laboratory, recently stated. . . .” Using a
cellphone
“In his 2013 article, historian
George Brenden claimed. . . .”
6%
Reaching for 10%
an object Looking at something
in the vehicle

6% 9%
Authority (Ethos) Grooming
8% Looking at something
outside the vehicle
For teen driving tips, visit Singing/dancing
Authority involves using your own TeenDriving.AAA.com
to music

experience or the reputations of others

to support your arguments (­Figure 27.5).
Another way to strengthen your authority is to demonstrate your practicality, ethi-
cal principles, and goodwill. These three types of authority were first m ­ entioned by
­Aristotle as a way to show that a speaker or writer is being fair and therefore credible.
These strategies still work well today.
PRACTICALITY. Show your readers that you are primarily concerned about solving
problems and getting things done, not lecturing, theorizing, or simply winning.
Where appropriate, admit that the issue is complicated and cannot be fixed ­easily.
You can also point out that reasonable people can disagree about the issue. Being
“­practical” involves being realistic about what is possible, not idealistically pure about
what would happen in a perfect world.
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES. Demonstrate that you are arguing for an outcome that meets
a specific set of ethical principles. An ethical argument can be based on any of three
types of ethics:
• Rights—Using human rights or constitutional rights to back up your claims.
• Laws—Showing that your argument is in line with civic laws.
• Utilitarianism—Arguing that your position is more beneficial for the majority of
people.
492 Chapter 27
Figure 27.5 Building Ethos
Iconic figures and celebrities are often used to
­promote causes and products because they have
credibility with the public.
Source: Image courtesy of www.PETA.org. Courtesy of People for the
Ethical Treatment of Animals.
Figure 27.6 Using Emotions
in an Argument
This advertisement uses a “promise
of gain” emotional appeal to influence
readers.
Source: Courtesy of U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, www.epa.gov/soakuptherain.
In some situations, you can demonstrate that your posi-
tion is in line with your own and your readers’ religious
beliefs or other deeply held values.
GOODWILL. Demonstrate that you have your ­readers’
interests in mind, not just your own. Of course, you may
be arguing for something that affects you personally or
something you care about. So show your readers that you
care about their needs and interests, too. Let them know
that you understand their concerns and that your position
is fair or a “win-win” for both you and them.
Emotion (Pathos)
Using emotional appeals to persuade your readers is
appropriate if the feelings you draw on are suitable
for your topic and readers. As you develop your argu-
ment, think about how your emotions and those of
your readers might influence how their decisions will
be made.
Begin by listing the positive and negative emotions
that are associated with your topic or with your side of
the argument.
PROMISE OF GAIN. Demonstrate to your readers that agreeing with
your position will help them gain things they need or want, like trust,
time, money, love, loyalty, advancement, reputation, comfort, popular-
ity, health, beauty, or convenience (Figure 27.6).
PROMISE OF ENJOYMENT. Show that accepting your position will
lead to more satisfaction, including joy, anticipation, surprise, pleasure,
leisure, or freedom (Figure 27.7).
FEAR OF LOSS. Suggest that not agreeing with your opinion might
cause the loss of things readers value, like time, money, love, security,
freedom, reputation, popularity, health, or beauty.
FEAR OF PAIN. Imply that not agreeing with your position will cause
feelings of pain, sadness, frustration, humiliation, embarrassment,
loneliness, regret, shame, vulnerability, or worry.
EXPRESSIONS OF ANGER OR DISGUST. Show that you share feel-
ings of anger or disgust with your readers about a particular event or
situation.
Use positive emotions as much as you can because they will build
a sense of goodwill, loyalty, or happiness in your readers. Show readers
that your position will bring them respect, gain, enjoyment, or pleasure.
 Using Argumentative Strategies 493

Figure 27.7 Using Emotions in an Argument

This historic advertisement used freedom as an emotional appeal to influence the readers.

Everett Collection/Shutterstock

Negative emotions should be used sparingly. Negative emotions can energize your
readers or spur them to action. However, be careful not to threaten or frighten your
readers because people tend to reject bullying or scare tactics. These moves will under-
mine your attempts to build goodwill. Make sure that any feelings of anger or disgust
you express in your argument would be shared by your readers, or they will reject your
argument as unfair, harsh, or reactionary.

Avoiding Logical Fallacies

27.3 Identify and avoid logical fallacies.
A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning. You should avoid logical fallacies in your own
writing because they can undermine your argument. Plus, they can keep you from
gaining a full understanding of the issue because fallacies usually lead to inaccurate or
ambiguous conclusions.
Figure 27.8 defines and gives examples of common logical fallacies. Watch out for
them in your own arguments. When an opposing viewpoint depends on a logical fal-
lacy, you can point to it as a weakness.
494 Chapter 27

Figure 27.8 Common Logical Fallacies

Logical Fallacy Definition
Ad hominem Attacking the character of the arguer
rather than the argument.
Bandwagon (ad populum) Suggesting that a person should
agree to something because it is
popular.
Begging the question Using circular reasoning to prove a
conclusion.
Either/or Presenting someone with a limited
choice when other choices are
possible.
Straw person Arguing against a position that no
one is defending.
Weak analogy Making an improper comparison
between two things that share a
common feature.
Post hoc reasoning Arguing that one event caused
another when they are unrelated.
Hasty generalization Using a part to make an inaccurate
claim about a whole.
Slippery slope Suggesting that one event will
­automatically lead to a chain of
other events.
Red herring Saying something that distracts from
the issue being argued about.
False authority Defending a claim with a biased or
untrustworthy source.
Non sequitur Stating a conclusion that does not
follow from the premises.
Tu quoque Improperly turning an accusation
back on the accuser.
Example
“Mary has no credibility on the ­smoking
ban issue because she was once a
smoker herself.”
“Most Americans believe Jackson is the
best candidate, so you should, too.”
“This streaming service is the best one
you can subscribe to because their TV
shows and movies are better than any
other streaming service.”
“We either buy this car now, or we
spend the rest of the year walking to
school.”
“Letting children play soccer on a busy
highway is wrong, and I won’t stand
for it.”
“That social-media app charging a fee for
account security is like a landlord charging
you a fee for locks on your doors.”
“Each time my roommate goes out of
town, it causes my car to break down
and I can’t get to work.”
“The snowboarder who cut me off
proved that all snowboarders are rude.”
“If we allow them to ban assault
­weapons, soon handguns, rifles, and
all other guns will be banned, too.”
“Of course, people who live in the
­suburbs don’t believe racism and
­sexism exist.”
“My mother read my paper, and she
thinks it deserves an A.”
“Maria likes to eat steak, and Brad
is a vegetarian. Maria obviously
despises Brad.”
“If you cared about global warming, as
you claim, you wouldn’t have driven a
car to this meeting.”

Fallacies tend to occur for three primary reasons:

FALSE OR WEAK PREMISES. In these situations, the author is overreaching to make
a point. The argument uses false or weak premises (bandwagon, post hoc reasoning,
slippery slope, or hasty generalization), or it relies on comparisons or authorities that
are inappropriate (weak analogy, false authority).
IRRELEVANCE. The author is trying to distract readers by using name-calling (ad
hominem) or bringing up issues that are beside the point (red herring, tu quoque, non
sequitur).
 Using Argumentative Strategies 495

AMBIGUITY. The author is clouding the issue by using circular reasoning (begging
the question), arguing against a position that no one is defending (straw man), or pre-
senting the reader with an unreasonable choice of options (either/or).
Logical fallacies do not prove that someone is wrong about a topic. They simply
mean that the person may be using weak or improper reasoning to reach his or her
conclusions. In some cases, logical fallacies are used deliberately. For instance, some
advertisers want to slip a sales pitch past the audience. Savvy arguers can also use logi-
cal fallacies to trip up their opponents. When you learn to recognize these fallacies, you
can counter them as necessary.

Rebuttals and Refutations

27.4 Rebut and refute the arguments of others.
Because you will argue with others, trying to gain their understanding and coopera-
tion, you need to understand opposing viewpoints fully. At the same time, you also
need to anticipate how readers will respond to your claims and your proofs. After all,
something that sounds like a good reason to you may not seem as convincing to readers
who do not already share your views.

Summarize Your Opponents’ Position Objectively

If you’re discussing something “arguable,” then there must be at least one other side
to the issue. Show your readers that you understand those other sides before you offer
a rebuttal or counter it. If you ignore the opposing viewpoints, your readers will think
either that you are unfairly overlooking potential objections or that you just don’t
understand the other side of the argument.
You can show readers that you understand other viewpoints by summarizing them
fairly and objectively. Early in your argument, try to frame their position in a way that
makes your opponents say, “Yes, that’s a fair and complete description of my position.”
Summarizing opposing viewpoints strengthens your argument in three ways.
First, it lays out the specific points that you can refute or concede when you explain
your own position. Second, it takes away some of your opponents’ momentum
because your readers will slow down and consider both sides of the issue carefully.
Third, it will demonstrate your goodwill and make you look more reasonable and
well informed.

Recognize When the Opposing Position May Be Valid

The opposing viewpoint probably isn’t completely wrong. In some situations, other
views may be partially valid. For example, let’s say you are arguing that the U.S. automo-
bile industry needs to convert completely to manufacturing electric cars within 10 years.
Your opponents might argue that this kind of dramatic conversion is not t­ echnically or
economically feasible.
496 Chapter 27

To show that you are well informed and reasonable, you could name a situation in
which they are correct.
Converting fully to electric vehicles within 10 years may not be possible in some
­circumstances. For example, it is unlikely that large trucks, like semitrailers, will be able to run
on electricity a decade from now because batteries will not be strong enough to provide the
amount of energy required to move their weight for long distances. ­Furthermore, even if we
stopped manufacturing gasoline-powered vehicles immediately, they would still be on the road
for decades, and they would require gas stations and spare parts. We cannot, after all, ask all
drivers to immediately switch over to electric vehicles, especially if they cannot afford them.

By identifying situations in which the opposing position may be valid, you give
some ground to the opposing side while limiting the effectiveness of their major points.

Concede Some of the Opposing Points

When you concede a point, you are acknowledging that some aspects of the opposing
viewpoints or objections are valid. While this may expose some of the weaknesses of your
own position, it strengthens your argument by strengthening your credibility (ethos).
For instance, if you were arguing that the federal government should use taxpayer
money to help the auto industry develop electric cars, you could anticipate two objec-
tions to your argument:
As X points out, the production of electric cars cannot be ramped up quickly because
­appropriate batteries are not being manufactured in sufficient numbers.

It is of course true that the United States’ electric grid is not currently capable of handling
­millions of new electric cars being charged every day.

These objections are important, but they do not undermine your argument entirely.
Simply concede that they are problems but demonstrate that they can be fixed or do
not matter in the long run.
It is true that the availability of car batteries and the inadequacy of the United States’
electricity grid are concerns. As Stephen Becker, a well-respected consultant to the auto
industry, points out, “car manufacturers are already experiencing a shortage of batteries,”
and there are no plans to build more battery factories in the future (109). Meanwhile, as
Lauren King argues, the United States’ electric grid “is already fragile, as the blackouts
a few years ago showed. And there has been very little done to upgrade our electric-­
delivery infrastructure.” King states that the extra power “required to charge 20 million
cars would bring the grid to a grinding halt” (213).
However, there are good reasons to believe that these problems can be dealt with if the
right measures are put in place. First, if investors had more confidence that there would be a
steady demand for electric cars, and if the government guaranteed loans for new factories,
the growing demand for batteries would encourage manufacturers to bring them to market
(Vantz, 12). Second, experts have been arguing for years that the United States needs to
invest in a nationalized electricity grid that will meet our increasing needs for electricity. King’s
argument that the grid is “too fragile” misses the point. We already need to build a better grid
 Using Argumentative Strategies 497

because the current grid is too fragile, even for today’s needs. Moreover, it will take years to
build a fleet of 20 million cars. During those years, the electric grid can be rebuilt.

By conceding some points, you demonstrate your knowledge and fairness. By

anticipating your readers’ doubts or others’ arguments, you can minimize the chal-
lenge to your own argument.

Refute or Absorb Your Opponents’ Major Points

In some situations, your opponents will have one or two major points that cannot be con-
ceded without completely undermining your argument. In these situations, you should
study each major point to understand why it challenges your own argument. Is there a
chance your opponents are right? Could your argument be flawed in some fundamental
way? Do you need to rethink or modify your claims or even change your position?
If you still believe your side of the argument is stronger, you have a few choices.
First, you can refute your opponents’ major points by challenging their factual
­correctness. It helps to look for a “smoking gun” moment in which the opposing side
makes a mistake or overstates a claim.

Critics of electric cars argue that the free market should determine whether electric cars
and the infrastructure to support them should be built. They argue that the government
should not determine which automotive technologies survive and thrive. However, this
kind of argument goes against the historical record. The U.S. government has always
been involved in building roads, railways, and airports. For decades, it has given tax
breaks to support the manufacturing of gasoline vehicles. We are simply asking for these
supports to be shifted in ways that will meet future needs, not the needs of the past.

In other situations, you can absorb your opponents’ arguments by suggesting that
your position is necessary or is better for the majority.

The skeptics are correct that the conversion from gasoline cars to electric cars will not be
easy and may even be economically painful. At this point, though, we have little choice.
Our dependence on foreign oil, which is something we all agree is a problem, is a threat
to our economic and political freedom. Moreover, our planet is already experiencing the
negative effects of global climate change, which could severely damage the fragile eco-
systems on which we depend for food, air, and water. We aren’t talking about lifestyle
choices at this point. We are talking about survival.

When absorbing opposing points, you should show that you are aware that they
are correct but that the benefits of your position make it the better choice.

Qualify Your Claims

You might be tempted to state your claims in the strongest language possible, perhaps
even overstating them. In these cases, offer instead a qualified statement.

Overstatement—The government must use its full power to force the auto industry
to develop and build affordable electric cars for the American consumer. The payoff in
­monetary and environmental benefits will more than cover the investment.
498 Chapter 27

Qualified statement—Although many significant challenges must be dealt with, the

­government should begin taking steps to encourage the auto industry to develop and
build affordable electric cars for the American consumer. The payoff in monetary and
environmental impacts could very well cover the effort and might even pay dividends.

When qualifying your claims and other points, you are softening your position
a little. This softening gives readers the sense that they are being asked to make up
their own minds. Few people want to be told that they “must” do something or
“cannot” do something else. If possible, you want to avoid pushing your readers
into making an either/or, yes/no kind of decision because they may reject your
position altogether.
Instead, remember that all arguments have gray areas. No one side is absolutely
right or wrong. Qualifying your claims allows you to show your readers that your
position has some flexibility. You can use the following words and phrases to qualify
your claims:
almost certainly if possible often
although in all probability perhaps
aside from in most circumstances plausibly
conceivably in some cases possibly
could may probably
even though maybe reasonably
except might should
frequently most likely unless
if not including would usually

You can also soften your claims by acknowledging that you are aware of the diffi-
culties and limitations of your position. Your goal is to argue reasonably while strongly
advocating for your side of the argument.

Quick Start Guide

Here are some strategies for becoming more effective at argument.

Develop an “arguable claim.” An arguable claim is a statement that exists between personal judgments
and proven facts. It should also be a claim that some people would reasonably be willing to dispute.

Identify the source of your arguable claim. Arguable claims tend to emerge from four types of issues:
issues of definition, causation, evaluation, and recommendation. You can sharpen your claim by figuring
out what kind of issue you are arguing about.

Find reason-based proof to back up your claims. Reasoning (logos) consists of using logical
­statements and examples to support your arguments.

Locate authoritative support to back up your claims. You can use your own experience if you are an
expert, or you can draw quotes from other experts who agree with you. You can also build up your authority
(ethos) by demonstrating your practicality, ethical principles, and goodwill toward readers.
 Using Argumentative Strategies 499

Use emotional proofs to back up your claims. Identify any emotions (pathos) that shape how your
readers will be influenced by your argument. You can use promise of gain, promise of enjoyment, fear of
loss, fear of pain, and expressions of anger and disgust to influence them.

Avoid logical fallacies. Look for logical fallacies in your argument and locate them in the opposing
­position’s arguments. A logical fallacy is a weak spot that should be addressed in your own work and can
be exploited as you counter the opposing sides’ arguments.

Counter the claims of the opposing view. There are a variety of ways to counter or weaken the
­opposing argument through rebuttal and refutation including (a) summarizing the position objectively,
(b) identifying limited situations in which the opposing position may be valid, (c) conceding your opponents’
minor points, (d) refuting or absorbing your opponents’ major points, and (e) qualifying your claims.

Activities for Using Argumentative

Strategies
Talk About This
1. With a group of people from your class, talk about how you usually argue with
your friends and family. When are arguments productive? At what point do they
become merely quarrels?
2. Discuss whether each of the following claims is “arguable.” Explain why each
is or is not arguable. For the claims that are not arguable, alter them enough to
make them arguable.
a. I much prefer reading on a tablet or computer to reading from a book.
b. Childhood obesity is one of the most important issues facing the United States.
c. The increase in school violence and bullying is due to the popularity of violent
video games.
3. Arguments usually appeal mainly to one of the primary proofs (logos, ethos,
pathos), but they usually use others as well. Examine the argument images in
this chapter (Figures 27.4–27.7) and identify what other kinds of proofs are being
used in addition to those identified in the captions.

Try This Out

1. On the Internet, find a fairly short opinion article about an issue that interests
you. Identify its main claim and determine which kind of proof (logos, ethos, or
pathos) is most dominant.
2. Find three different websites that attempt to persuade people to stop doing
unhealthful activities, such as smoking, drinking, abusing opioids, or having
unsafe sex. Compare and contrast their argument strategies. In a presentation,
show why you think some of these websites are more persuasive than others.
500 Chapter 27

3. If your instructor allows you to use artificial intelligence (AI), debate with
AI to better understand an argumentative position that you strongly oppose.
First, instruct the AI application to generate a compelling argument against your
­position. You might instruct it to generate more than one argument, for instance,
one focused on logos and another on pathos. Now respond to the AI argument
with your own counterargument. Finally, write a reflection that describes what
you learned about the opposing position, how you might strengthen your own
­argument, and other takeaways from the experience.

Write This
1. Generate four claims and four counterclaims. Choose an issue that you care
about and develop an “arguable claim” from each of the sources of ­arguable
claims discussed in this chapter (i.e., definition, causation, e­ valuation,
­recommendation). Then, for each of these arguable claims, develop a
­counterclaim that an opposing arguer might use against your positions.
2. Find the fallacies in an advertisement. Find an advertisement on television or
on YouTube that uses one or more logical fallacies to support its points. In a two-
page ad critique, draw attention to the logical fallacies and use them as weak
spots to undermine the advertisement.
Chapter 28
Collaborating and
Peer Response
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

28.1 work successfully with peers and workplace colleagues in groups.

28.2 work successfully in teams by planning well and managing conflict.
28.3 use peer response to offer and receive helpful feedback.

Throughout college and your career, your ability to work in teams will be an important
asset. In fact, in a recent survey, “executives and hiring managers from companies and
organizations who employ college graduates” reported that the single most important
skill for college graduates is the “ability to work effectively in teams.”1
With a team, you can combine your ideas and personal strengths with the ideas and
strengths of others. You can see new perspectives and take on larger and more complex
projects. Plus, working in a team can be satisfying and fun.
Collaborating with others is useful at every stage of the writing process. Early
in the writing process, you and your team can brainstorm ideas, work on outlines,
and research topics together. Later, your team can collaborate to improve a proj-
ect’s o­ rganization, style, and design. And during any stage of the writing process,
you can use peer response to evaluate ideas or exchange suggestions for organizing
and editing.
With the COVID-19 pandemic, the ability to collaborate online has become even
more important. Today, most people have experience using Zoom or other videocon-
ferencing platforms that allow some or all team members to participate virtually. By
combining videoconferencing with real-time co-authoring tools, you can collaborate
with team members almost anywhere.
As artificial intelligence (AI) continues to change how we communicate and work,
being able to collaborate with others will become even more important. AI is being
used to maximize team members’ strengths and help people collaborate more smoothly.

1
Ashley Finley, How College Contributes to Workforce Success: Employer Views on What Matters Most ­(Association
of American Colleges and Universities, 2021).

501
502 Chapter 28

Figure 28.1 Working Collaboratively in College and in Your Career

The ability to work with others is essential, whether you’re collaborating face-to-face or with
­Internet-based co-authoring tools.

Shutterstock

Your professors and workplace supervisors will ask you to work collaboratively in
three ways:
• Group work—In college classes, you will be asked to discuss readings in groups,
work on in-class group activities, and give feedback for revising each other’s
­current ­projects. In the workplace, groups often meet to share information, brain-
storm, and develop new products and services (Figure 28.1).
• Team work—In college and the workplace, you will work with teams on larger
projects, submitting one document or project for the whole team.
• Peer response and document cycling—In small groups, you will need to revise,
edit, and proofread the writing of others, offering advice and suggestions for
improvement. In the workplace, peer response is called “document cycling”
because important texts are routed through multiple people at the organization
for revision, editing, and proofreading.
During your academic life so far, turning in assignments you completed by yourself
probably feels normal. However, in your career, you will need to compose and revise
collaboratively in teams. College is a good time to develop these collaboration skills.

Working Successfully in Groups

28.1 Work successfully with peers and workplace colleagues in groups.
In college, you will be working in small groups regularly. Your professors will ask you
and a group of other students to:
• Discuss readings
• Generate new ideas for projects
 Collaborating and Peer Response 503

• Offer feedback on the ideas and work of others

• Work together on in-class tasks and assignments
Group meetings are also important in the workplace. Weekly and sometimes daily,
work groups will meet in person or virtually to brainstorm new concepts, discuss cur-
rent progress, share concerns, and solve everyday problems.
In the workplace your role will usually be defined by your position at the com-
pany, but in college classes your role may not be clear. So choosing roles up front helps
members sort out who is responsible for what. When working in groups, each member
should adopt one or two of these common roles:

FACILITATORS. Facilitators keep their groups moving forward and on task. They also
make sure that no single person dominates and everyone has a chance to contribute.
When their group wanders off task, they should remind the group members what they
are trying to achieve. Facilitators are also responsible for encouraging everyone to speak
up and contribute, even those members who have been quiet.

SCRIBES. Scribes take notes that team members can review periodically. This helps
everyone remember what has been discussed and decided. They may also help the
group move forward by reviewing their notes to ensure that they accurately reflect
what has been decided.

SPOKESPERSONS. Spokespersons are responsible for reporting on their groups’

progress to the class or professor. While their groups are discussing, they should take
notes and think about what they are going to say to the class.

INNOVATORS. Innovators should feel free to shake things up by asking group mem-
bers to consider other perspectives. They can encourage creativity by offering new ideas
or asking challenging questions, even if these contributions might be resisted or rejected.

DESIGNATED SKEPTICS. Designated skeptics help their groups resist groupthink

and push beyond simplistic responses to the issues under discussion. They should
voice the concerns that a critic might use to raise doubts about what the group members
have decided.
These roles can be combined. For instance, one person might serve as both facili-
tator and spokesperson or scribe and designated skeptic. These roles should also be
rotated throughout the semester so that everyone has a chance to be a facilitator, scribe,
spokesperson, innovator, and skeptic.

Working Successfully in Teams

28.2 Work successfully in teams by planning well and managing conflict.
As a team, the members can collectively take on larger, more complex projects. But
let’s face the fact that working in teams can be challenging. Slackers sometimes don’t
get their work done or even show up. Team members might waste time chatting about
something unrelated to the project. Some members keep checking their phones. Some-
times, you might end up doing more than your share of the work, and that can be
frustrating.
504 Chapter 28

Figure 28.2 Tuckman’s Four Stages of Teaming

Successful teams usually go through four stages of teaming. Each stage brings its own challenges and
adjustments.

Forming Performing

Storming Norming

There are slackers out there, even in the workplace, but most people want to do
their best and want to do their share of the work. Teams can break down when people
don’t know what they are supposed to do. That’s why successful teams need to spend
some time up front planning out the project and defining each person’s role. When all
the members know what their responsibilities are, everyone is less likely to slack off
and more likely to participate meaningfully.

Planning the Project

During the planning phase, you and your team members should set goals, figure out
milestones and deadlines, and divide up the work. While planning, you should also
talk about how you are going to resolve any disagreements that will arise during
the project.
One helpful way to plan a team project is to use the “Four Stages of Teaming”
developed by management guru Bruce Tuckman (Figure 28.2). Tuckman noticed that
teams tend to go through four stages when working on a project:
Forming—Getting to know each other, defining goals and outcomes, setting
­deadlines, and dividing up the work.
Storming—Experiencing disagreements, sensing tension and anxiety, doubting
the leadership, facing conflict, and feeling uncertain and frustrated.
Norming—Developing consensus, revising the project’s goals, refining
­expectations of outcomes, and solidifying team roles.
Performing—Sharing a common vision, delegating tasks, feeling empowered,
and resolving conflicts and differences in constructive ways.
The secret to working in teams is recognizing that these stages are foreseeable and
almost predictable—including the inevitable frustrations during the storming stage.
Good planning helps teams work through these stages effectively.
 Collaborating and Peer Response 505

Forming: Setting Goals, Getting Organized

When a new team is formed, the members should first get to know each other and
discuss the expectations of the project.
HOLD A PLANNING MEETING. At a planning meeting, do some or all of the
following:
• Ask all members to introduce themselves.
• Define the purpose of the project and its goals.
• Describe the expected outcomes of the project.
• Identify the strengths and interests of each team member.
• Divide up the work.
• Create a project calendar and set deadlines.
• Agree on how conflicts will be solved when they arise (because they will).

CHOOSE TEAM RESPONSIBILITIES. Each member of the team should take on a

clearly defined role. When working on a project, your team might consider assigning
these four roles:
Coordinator—This person is responsible for maintaining the project schedule
and running the meetings. The coordinator is not the “boss.” Instead, the
­coordinator is responsible for keeping people in touch and maintaining the
project schedule.
Researchers—One or two team members should be assigned to collect
­information. They are responsible for digging up material at the library,
­running searches on the Internet, and coordinating any empirical research.
Editor—The editor is responsible for the organization and style of the document.
This team member identifies missing content and places where the document
needs to be reorganized. The editor is also responsible for ensuring that the
document uses a consistent voice or style.
Designer—The designer sketches out how the document will look, gathers
images from the Internet, creates graphs and charts, and takes photographs.
Notice that there is no “writer” in this list. Everyone on your team should be­
responsible for writing a section or two of the document. Everyone should also
be responsible for reading and responding to the sections written by others.

Storming: Managing Conflict

Conflicts will happen. They are a normal part of any team project. By dividing a class
into teams, your professor is helping you learn how to manage the conflicts you’ll
face in college classes and in the workplace. Here are some strategies and tips for
managing conflict:

RUN EFFICIENT MEETINGS. Before each meeting, the coordinator should list what
will happen, what will be achieved, and when the meeting will end. In the workplace,
506 Chapter 28

this list of meeting topics is called an “agenda.” At the end of a meeting, all team
­members should state what they will do on the project before the next meeting. Write
those commitments down and hold people to them.

ENCOURAGE PARTICIPATION FROM EVERYONE. During the meeting, each team

member should have an opportunity to contribute ideas and opinions. No one should
be allowed to dominate the meeting or to sit back and leave the decisions to others.
If any members are not participating, the coordinator should stop and ask any non-
participators to offer their opinions.

ALLOW DISSENT (EVEN ENCOURAGE IT). Everyone should feel welcome to dis-
agree or offer alternative ideas for consideration. Dissent should even be encouraged
because it often leads to new and better ways of completing the project. If team mem-
bers are agreeing on everything too easily, you might ask, “What would a critic or skep-
tic say about our project?” “Is there another approach we might take for this project?”

MEDIATE CONFLICTS. People will sometimes become irritated and even angry
with each other. When conflicts surface, give each side time to think through and
state their position. Then identify the two to five issues that the sides disagree about.
Rank these issues from most important to least. Address each of these issues separately
and try to negotiate a solution.
MOTIVATE THE SLACKERS. People who are slacking can kill the momentum of a
team and undermine its ability to finish the project. If someone is slacking, first try to
figure out why that person is slacking. If that person is confused about their responsi-
bilities, your team should clarify the expectations and responsibilities for each member.
It may help to propose a straightforward list of tasks to complete, along with clear dead-
lines. If someone still refuses to participate, you might ask the professor to intervene or
even remove that person from the team.
Always remember that conflict is normal and inevitable in teams. When you see
conflicts developing within your team, remind yourself that the team is just going
through the storming stage of the teaming process (that’s a good thing). While in col-
lege, you should practice managing these kinds of uncomfortable situations so you can
better handle them in your career.

Norming: Getting Down to Work

Soon after the storming stage, your team will enter the norming stage. Norming gives
your team an opportunity to refine the goals of the project and complete most of
the work.
REVISE PROJECT GOALS AND EXPECTED OUTCOMES. At an in-person or virtual
conference, your team should look back at the original goals and outcomes you listed
during the planning stage. This should help sharpen your goals and clarify what your
team and each of its members will have accomplished by the end of the project.
ADJUST TEAM RESPONSIBILITIES. When needed, your team should redistribute
the work so the burden is shared fairly among team members. Doing so will raise the
morale of the team and allow the work to finish by the deadline. Also, if everyone feels
 Collaborating and Peer Response 507

the workload is divided fairly, your team will usually avoid slipping back into the
storming stage.
REVISE THE PROJECT CALENDAR. Unexpected challenges and setbacks have prob-
ably already put your team a little behind schedule, so spend some time working out
some new deadlines. These dates will need to be firmer than the ones you set in the
forming stage because you are getting closer to the final deadline.
USE ONLINE COLLABORATIVE TOOLS. You can’t always meet face-to-face, so you
should agree to work together online. Online collaborative sites such as Google Docs and
OneDrive allow team members to simultaneously view and edit documents, spread-
sheets, and presentations together. You can also view the editing histories and revert
to previous versions. When working together, a videoconference or voice connection
is helpful.
KEEP IN TOUCH WITH EACH OTHER. Depending on the project deadline, your
team should be in touch with each other daily. Texting, e-mailing, and social network-
ing work well for staying connected. If you aren’t hearing regularly from someone,
call, text, or e-mail that person. Regular contact will help keep the project moving
forward.

Performing: Working as a Team

The performing stage usually occurs when teams have been together for a while, so it’s
rare that a team in a one-semester class will reach this level. During this stage, each team
member recognizes the others’ talents, abilities, and weaknesses. While ­performing,
your team is doing more than just trying to finish the project. At this point, everyone
on the team is looking for ways to improve how the work is getting done, leading to
higher-quality results (and more satisfaction among team members).
This is as much as we are going to say about performing. Teams usually need to be
together for several months or even years before they reach this stage. If your team in
a college class reaches the performing stage, that’s fantastic. If not, that’s fine, too. The
performing stage is a goal you should work toward in your advanced classes and in
your career, but it’s not typical in a college writing course.

Using Peer Response to Improve

Your Writing
28.3 Use peer response to offer and receive helpful feedback.
Peer response is one of the most common ways to collaborate in college. By sharing
drafts of your work with others, you can receive useful feedback while also helping
yourself and others succeed on the assignment. Because peer review involves prob-
ing and commenting on the writing choices that others have made in their drafts, it is
­similar to the reflecting you do in your own writing. In this way, critiquing others’ drafts
helps you improve your writing skills and your reflecting skills.
508 Chapter 28

Types of Peer Response and Document Cycling

Peer response can be used at any stage during the writing process, but it usually
­happens after a good draft has been completed. The most common peer response strate-
gies include:
Rubric-centered editing—The professor provides the rubric that will be used
to evaluate the paper. In groups of three to five members, responders use the
rubric to highlight places where their peers’ drafts can be improved. In some
cases, your professor might ask you to score each other’s papers according to
the rubric.
Analysis with a worksheet—The professor provides a worksheet that uses
targeted questions to draw the responders’ attention to key features of the
paper (Figure 28.3). The worksheet will often ask responders to highlight
and critique specific parts of the paper, such as the thesis sentence and topic
­sentences in paragraphs.
Read-aloud—In a group of three to four people, the draft’s author stays silent
as another person reads the draft out loud. The others in the group listen
and take notes about what they hear. Then the members of the group discuss
the draft’s strengths—while the author stays silent—and make suggestions
for improvement. Afterward, the author can respond to the group’s comments
and ask follow-up questions.
Round robin—Each person’s draft is left on a desk or on a computer screen in
class. Then readers rotate every 15 to 20 minutes to a new desk or workstation,
offering written suggestions for improving each paper. At the end of the class,
each paper will have received comments from three or more different r­ eaders.
Hint: Each reader can use the “Review” or “Suggesting” functions to add their
own comments, questions, and suggestions.
Document cycling—Each paper is shared through a common storage site like
Google Drive, Dropbox, or OneDrive. Alternatively, it can be sent to two or three
other people via e-mail. Each person is then responsible for offering critiques
of two or three papers from other members of the group.
Keep in mind that peer response isn’t just about helping others improve their papers.
By paying attention to what works and doesn’t work in the writing of others, you will
improve your own skills.

Using Digital Tools for Peer Review

Exchanging printouts of drafts is a messy and confusing process that requires multiple
face-to-face meetings among peers. The process has become far more efficient with a
variety of digital tools that make collaboration easier, such as file-sharing services such
as Dropbox, Google Drive, Box, and OneDrive.
Alternatively, digital tools allow multiple users to access, edit, and save files in
the cloud. Some of these services (Google Docs, Sheets, Slides, and OneDrive/SharePoint)
 Collaborating and Peer Response 509

Figure 28.3 Sample Peer Response Worksheet

Your professor may guide your responses with a worksheet like this one, which asks you to focus on specific issues. In this
worksheet, there is a place for the author to request specific kinds of feedback.

Peer Response Worksheet for _______________________________

Writer’s Name __________________________ Reader’s Name _______________________
Each paper will be read and reviewed by two readers. Reader A will focus on three issues/concerns that the author wants
him/her to focus on. Reader B will respond to the questions under “Response from Reader B.”

From the Author to Reader A: Please read my draft and look for—
1. ______________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________

From Reader A to the Author: Here’s what I noticed—

1. ______________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________

Response from Reader B

1. Read the introduction and conclusion together. Underline the thesis statements in both. Then, read the whole
paper one time through without marking anything. How well are the thesis statements articulating the paper’s
main argument?
Here’s what you did well:
Here’s how I would improve your thesis sentences:
2. Read through the draft and underline the topic sentence of each paragraph. Write a comment about the topic
sentences and the supporting evidence used in each paragraph. In general, how well are the topic sentences
working in this argument?
Here’s what you did well:
Here’s how I would improve your topic sentences:
3. Read through the draft paying special attention to style. Mark the places where the author’s voice seems
especially effective and clear. Also, mark the places where the author’s voice changes or seems less effective or
unclear. In general, describe the strengths of the author’s voice and the places that need improvement.
Here’s what you did well:
Here’s how I would improve your style:
4. Look at the paper’s use of images, graphs, charts, and visual design. In what ways has the author used visual
elements effectively to make the text more engaging and meaningful? What visuals or design features could be
added or changed?
Here’s what you did well:
Here’s how I would improve your document’s visual features:
510 Chapter 28

are also real-time co-authoring tools, which allow you and others to work on the same
document at the same time, whether you’re sitting next to each other or are in different
countries. These tools are very common in today’s workplace, so now is a good time
to start using them.
Some of these Internet-based tools are available and free for anyone to use. Others,
like those in some course-management systems, are specifically designed to make the
peer-review process easier and more efficient.

Responding Helpfully During Peer Response

While offering a peer response, you are engaging with both the paper and the author.
Here are five guidelines to follow when responding to someone else’s draft:
GUIDELINE ONE: READ THE ENTIRE PAPER BEFORE RESPONDING. First, you
should gain a sense of the whole paper before offering comments to the author. That
way, you can respond to the most important issues rather than reacting sentence by
sentence. With a full read, you gain a sense of the author’s purpose, readers, and angle.
This big-picture understanding of the context will allow you to offer meaningful com-
ments about the author’s writing choices.
GUIDELINE TWO: READ LIKE A READER. Read the paper again. This time, you
should “read like a reader,” not like someone who is merely searching for errors.
Readers tend to evaluate the strength of ideas, not hunt for spelling errors and gram-
mar problems. When the writer has intentionally written for a specific group of readers,
try to assume the role of such readers and respond as you think they would respond.
GUIDELINE THREE: IDENTIFY STRENGTHS AS WELL AS WEAKNESSES. Always
try to balance criticism with praise and advice. Of course, it’s your job to help other
writers identify what is not working in their papers and what is unclear. Keep in
mind, though, that it’s just as important to offer encouragement by highlighting what
works well.
GUIDELINE FOUR: EXPLAIN THE REASONS BEHIND YOUR RESPONSES. Always
explain why you are praising or blaming. If you are suggesting an improvement, start
by explaining why the author should revise to better fit the paper’s intended purpose,
readers, and context. Offer strategies for making specific improvements. For instance,
you might make suggestions like this: “Because your readers are going to be reading
this on their computers or mobile phone screens, you should consider breaking up long
­paragraphs like this one into smaller chunks.”
GUIDELINE FIVE: USE GENRE- AND WRITING-SPECIFIC TERMINOLOGY. In this
class and this book, you are learning a set of terms about genres and writing that you
and your classmates share. Use these terms to frame your responses. That way, you and
the others will use a common vocabulary to offer ideas for improving drafts.
Students and even workplace colleagues often hesitate to offer honest critiques
of others’ writing. They are concerned about hurting that person’s feelings or giv-
ing bad advice. If you give your peers or colleagues an honest critique with specific
 Collaborating and Peer Response 511

feedback—balancing suggestions for improvement and encouragement—they will

welcome your feedback and use it to improve their writing skills and succeed with
a project.
If you are uncomfortable or unsure about giving advice, try this trick: Say, “This is
good, and here’s how I would make it better.” In other words, start out by reassuring
the author that the paper is interesting and valued. Then offer some suggestions for
improving it. Framing your comments in terms of “support” and “improvement” will
give you and the author both more confidence.

Quick Start Guide

Here are some useful strategies and tips that will help you succeed on collaborative activities like group
work, teaming, and peer response.

Understand the value of collaboration. At all stages in the writing process, from invention to proofread-
ing, collaborating with peers allows you to see your ideas through the eyes of others, combine your skills,
and handle larger and more complex projects.

Understand the importance of collaboration. By developing your collaboration skills, you will become a
valuable peer in your college classes, and you will prepare yourself for the collaboration you will need to do
throughout your career.

Choose group member roles. A group works best when each person plays a specific role. Some
­common roles include facilitator, scribe, spokesperson, innovator, and designated skeptic.

Plan the team project. While forming, hold a planning meeting and ask each team member to choose
their responsibilities on the project.

Work through any conflicts. When the team reaches the storming phase, work on running good
­meetings, encouraging participation from everyone, allowing dissent, mediating conflict, and motivating
any slackers.

Use online tools for virtual collaboration and peer review. For small-group work, peer response, and
team writing, many free and easy-to-use tools are available, such as Google Docs, Dropbox, and OneDrive.
Using these tools effectively has become an essential skill in college and the workplace.

Use peer response to improve your writing and reflecting skills. By sharing and reviewing drafts,
you and your peers can help each other improve the papers you are working on. By learning to respond
­meaningfully to others’ writing, you will develop your ability to identify and describe the choices that writers
need to make, which will improve your own writing and reflecting skills.

Respond to peers’ writing in helpful ways. Writers will gain the greatest benefit from your responses
when you offer respectful and specific criticism that highlights strengths and offers s­ uggestions for
improvement.
512 Chapter 28

Activities for Collaborating

and Peer Response
Talk About This
1. With a group in class, discuss the positive and negative experiences you have
had while working in groups or teams. Consider experiences in school and other
settings, such as jobs, sports, clubs, and other situations. Identify two or three
specific problems that can make a collaborative project go badly. Then identify
two or three ways members can get a project back on track.
2. In your group, each person should discuss an instance when someone tried to
offer him or her advice that ended up being unhelpful or even making things
worse. As a group, identify three kinds of advice that are unhelpful or harmful.
Then describe three or four ways that advice givers and advice receivers can
more effectively provide and accept advice.
3. With your group, discuss some of the qualities of a successful competitive team.
How do the leaders of the team behave? How do the others on the team contrib-
ute? Why do conflicts and disagreements arise, and what can team members do
to resolve them?

Try This Out

1. Use the Internet to research the career field you want to enter. Then list five ways
you will need to use collaborative skills to be successful in your chosen career
path. Write a brief report in which you discuss the kinds of collaborative projects
that happen in your field.
2. With a team of people in your class, pick a topic that you are all interested in.
Then, in less than an hour, put together a visual report on that topic. As your
team is working, pay attention to how each person contributes to the project.
Before your next class, each person in the group should write a two- to three-
paragraph reflection that narrates the team-building and writing process. How
did you and the team make decisions, and why did you make the decisions
you made? Should the team have considered other strategies? Did you and the
team consider the decisions deliberately, or did they just happen? Compare
­experiences with your team members.
3. Research the ways that the workplace is using virtual offices, telecommuting,
and teleworking. In a brief report, explain how new media and technology have
changed and will continue to change workplace communication and collabora-
tion. Describe how people in your career path will work collaboratively in the
future with the technologies that are on the horizon.
 Collaborating and Peer Response 513

Write This
1. Suggest strategies for improving virtual collaboration in your classroom.
Whether your class meets in a traditional face-to-face or in an entirely virtual
space, work with your group to come up with ways you could make collabora-
tion better. Then write a brief proposal for restructuring the classroom. How
should lectures be given? How could group discussions become more interest-
ing and helpful? How should projects be submitted, graded, and returned? In
your report, explain both the positive and negative aspects that would result
from these suggested changes and why these changes would lead to overall
improvement.
2. If your instructor approves, use an AI application to help with peer response.
For the project you are working on right now, use a file-sharing site like Google
Drive, OneDrive, or Dropbox to share documents online with at least two other
people in your class. Read their work and respond to them online. Then, use an
AI application to revise further. Write an e-mail to your instructor in which you
describe how the peer response session went and some of the ways a combina-
tion of file-sharing sites and AI applications can make collaborating with others
easier (or perhaps harder).
 Chapter 29
Presenting Your Work
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

29.1 get started on developing your presentation.

29.2 organize your presentation with a good introduction, body, and
conclusion.
29.3 design your visual aids.
29.4 deliver your presentation with confidence and style.
29.5 practice and rehearse your presentation.

You have probably heard that people fear public speaking more than anything else—
including death. As comedian Jerry Seinfeld once quipped, “Does that seem right? That
means if you’re going to a funeral, you’re better off in the casket than doing the eulogy!”
With new technologies, public speaking is even more important than ever as video
streaming, videoconferencing, and webinars have become common in college and in
the technical workplace. As more people are working remotely or in hybrid offices,
many presentations are happening through Zoom, MS Teams, and Slack. These video
technologies make it possible to present your ideas around the world in real time and
answer your audience’s questions.
Similarly, putting your materials on video-sharing websites, like YouTube, Loom,
or Vimeo, is becoming a regular part of college classes, workplace-related training and
marketing, and everyday life.
Your professors will ask you to present your class projects to an audience, usually
other students. They may also ask you to speak to outside groups and nonprofit organi-
zations as part of service-learning projects. Meanwhile, almost any professional career
will require you to pitch your ideas, offer briefings, do poster presentations, and give
seminars. Your ability to speak effectively in front of an audience will be an important
foundation of your success.
Of course, public speaking is still scary, even if we need to do more of it. Everyone
gets nervous about speaking in front of others. In this chapter, you will learn some
easy strategies for turning your documents into in-person and video presentations. As
you learn and practice these simple techniques, your presentations will become more
polished and persuasive.

514
 Presenting Your Work 515

Step One: Plan Your Presentation

29.1 Get started on developing your presentation.
Because this book is about writing, not public speaking, we are going to assume that
you have already written a document that you need to turn into a presentation. In other
words, you are re-purposing what you’ve written into a presentation for an audience.

Ask a Few Key Questions to Get Started

Solid preparation is the key to successful public speaking. You can start by asking the
Five-W and How questions:
• Who will be in my audience, and what do they need?
• What do I want to accomplish with my presentation?
• When will I be asked to speak?
• Where will I be giving my presentation?
• Why am I presenting this information to this audience?
• How should I give the presentation?
Answer each of these questions separately. Your answers will help you figure out what
you need to do to prepare for your presentation.
Keep in mind that your audience wants you to perform the material, not just hear
you read your document. After all, if they wanted to, they could just read the document
themselves. A presentation gives the audience a chance to interact with you and ask
questions. Your audience wants to see you in action, performing your material.

Choose the Appropriate Presentation Technology

Think about what technology will be available and which type would fit your presen-
tation. The technology you choose depends on the audience’s expectations and the
place where you will be giving your talk. Each kind of presentation technology offers
advantages and has disadvantages. Figure 29.1 describes some of the advantages and
­disadvantages of each.
In some cases, videoconferencing software like Zoom, MS Teams, or Slack may be
your best option for presenting to people who cannot be in one place. V
­ ideoconferencing
allows you to share your slides on the screen and even do whiteboard activities with the
audience. Today, in many situations, in-person presentations are also live-streamed with
videoconferencing software for people who are joining the meeting from other places.

Allot Your Time

If you are new to public speaking, a five- to ten-minute presentation might sound like a
lifetime. The time, though, will go fast. A ten-minute presentation, for example, is only
the equivalent of a three-page single-spaced paper. So you will need to budget your
time carefully to avoid going over the time allowed.
516 Chapter 29

Figure 29.1 Pros and Cons of Presentation Technologies

Advantages Disadvantages Genres

• Can be dynamic • Requires a darkened Memoirs,

7th Son Studio/Shutter and colorful room, which might Profiles,
• Allows for inconvenience your Reviews,
animation and audience Evaluations,
sound • Diverts attention Literary Analyses,
• Creates a more from the speaker to Rhetorical Analyses,
stock

formal atmosphere the screen Arguments,

• Computers are not Proposals, and
Digital Projector
completely reliable Reports
Michael Doolittle / Alamy Stock Photo

• Projectors are • Your hands, pen, or Photo Essays,

available in most pointer may shake Research Papers,
meeting rooms and on the screen if you Literary Analyses,
classrooms are nervous Rhetorical Analyses,
• Able to show print • Doesn’t allow you to Arguments,
pages, photos, and move around as Proposals, and
objects much while you’re Reports
talking
Overhead Projector

• Allows speaker to • Cannot be used with Evaluations,

create visuals on a large audience Commentaries,
Aispix/Shutterstock

the spot • Writing on board Arguments,

• Audience pays requires extra time Proposals, and
more attention • Ideas need to be Reports
because speaker is transferred clearly to
moving the board
Whiteboard, Chalkboard,
Notepad

• Allows audience to • Cannot be Memoirs,

RP Library / Alamy Stock Photo

see the whole presented to more Profiles,

presentation than a few people Reviews,
• Presents highly • Can be hard to Evaluations,
technical transport Literary Analyses,
information clearly Rhetorical Analyses,
• Allows audience to Arguments,
ask specific Proposals, and
Poster Presentation questions Reports

• Helps reinforce • Handing them out Profiles,

NB/FEMA / Alamy Stock

major points can be distracting in Reviews,

• Can offer more large presentations Literary Analyses,
detail, data, and • Audience members Rhetorical Analyses,
statistics may read the Arguments,
• Audience has handouts instead of Proposals, Research
Photo

something to take listening to the talk Papers, and Reports

home
Handouts
 Presenting Your Work 517

Figure 29.2 Allotting Your Presentation Time

When planning your presentation, budget your time carefully to scale your talk to the time allowed.

5-Minute 10-Minute 20-Minute

Presentation Presentation Presentation
Introduction Half a minute 1 minute 1–2 minutes
Topic 1 1 minute 2 minutes 5 minutes
Topic 2 1 minute 2 minutes 5 minutes
Topic 3 1 minute 2 minutes 5 minutes
Conclusion Half a minute 1 minute 1 minute
Questions and Answers 1 minute 2 minutes 3 minutes

Figure 29.2 shows how to budget the time for a presentation with three major
topics. Of course, if your presentation’s body has fewer or more than three topics, you
will need to make adjustments in the times allowed for each one. These time limits are
flexible guidelines, not rigid rules.

Step Two: Organize Your Ideas

29.2 Organize your presentation with a good introduction, body, and conclusion.
The organization of your presentation will typically follow the genre you are using to
organize your document. Your talk should have a distinct beginning, middle, and end.
This beginning/middle/end advice might seem obvious, but public speakers often
forget to properly introduce their talk to the audience, or they sometimes abruptly end
without summing up their main points.
Keep in mind the old saying about speechmaking: Tell them what you’re going to tell
them. Tell them. Tell them what you told them.

Introduction: Tell Them What You’re Going

to Tell Them
The introduction of your talk is almost always the most critical part of your presenta-
tion. At the beginning of your speech, you have a small window—perhaps a minute or
two—to capture the audience’s attention while stating your topic, purpose, and main
point. The following moves, except the grabber, can be made in any order.
Speakers should make some or all of the following moves in their presentation’s
introduction:
Use a grabber to get the audience’s attention—A grabber captures the
­audience’s attention by asking a question or stating something interesting
or challenging.
Identify your topic—Tell your audience what your presentation is about.
State the purpose of your presentation—Explain the objective of your talk.
State your main point—Tell them what you want to prove or support.
518 Chapter 29

Stress the importance of your topic to the audience—Explain why this issue is
important to them and why they should pay attention.
Offer background information on the subject—Provide enough information to
familiarize the audience with your topic.
Forecast the structure of your talk—Tell them how your talk will be organized.
A variety of grabbers are available, but some grabbers are better than others. A good
grabber identifies your topic while giving your audience something to think about.
Here are a few types you might try out.
A rhetorical question—“Do you ever wonder why child actors tend to have
­personal problems when they become adults?”
A startling statistic—“A recent study by Plastic Oceans International has
found that 10 million tons of plastic are dumped into the oceans every year.
­Meanwhile, a human will consume 40 pounds of this plastic in their lifetime.”
A compelling statement—“If nothing is done about the global climate crisis
polar bears will become extinct in the wild during our lifetime.”
An anecdote—“Last year, I finally climbed my first mountain over 14,000 feet. In
many ways, climbing that mountain affirmed to me that I had triumphed over
the injuries I sustained in Afghanistan two years before.”
An interesting observation—“Have you ever noticed that the word ogre appears
in the middle of the word progress? I keep that ogre in mind whenever I’m
­trying to do something new because I know something or someone is going
to try to hold me back.”
A show of hands—“Let’s see a show of hands. How many of you think the pizza
here in town leaves something to be desired?”
Generally, speakers are warned against trying to tell a joke to start a speech. That’s good
advice, especially if you are learning to speak in public. A joke might be offensive to
some audience members, and many jokes just aren’t funny when they are told before
an audience. If you tell an offensive or unfunny joke, the audience will probably not
appreciate the remainder of your presentation.

The Body of Your Talk: Tell Them

In the body, state your major points and support them with facts, reasoning, examples,
data, quotations, and other forms of proof you can offer.
In most situations, the body of your presentation should follow the same pattern
as the body of the document you are presenting. Divide your text into two to five major
topics that you want to discuss with the audience. If you try to cover more than five
topics, you risk overwhelming the audience with more new information than they can
handle. Also, organize the body of your talk to discuss the most important topics early.
Less important topics can be discussed later in the body.
Here’s a good strategy that might help you strip your talk down to something you
can handle in a limited amount of time. Look through your document and ask yourself,
“What does my audience need to know about this topic to make a decision?” Then cross
out any material that goes beyond need-to-know information.
 Presenting Your Work 519

Conclusion: Tell Them What You Told Them

Once you signal that you are about to conclude, you will have the audience’s height-
ened attention for the next two minutes. Take advantage of their attention by repeating
your main point in a clear and memorable way. A typical conclusion will include some
or all of the following moves:
Signal clearly that you are concluding—Make an obvious transition that signals
the end of your talk, such as “Let me wrap up now” or “Finally.”
Restate your main point—Tell your audience exactly what you have been trying
to explain or prove in your talk.
Reemphasize the importance of your topic to the audience—Be clear about why
the audience should care about your topic. Answer their “Why should I care?”
questions.
Call the audience to action—If you want the people in your audience to do
something, tell them what you think they should do. Be specific about the
actions you want them to take.
Thank the audience—When you are finished, don’t forget to say, “Thank you.”
This phrase signals to the audience that your presentation is done, and it
­usually prompts them to applaud.
Remember to keep your conclusion brief. Once you say something like “In conclusion,”
you will only have one or two minutes to finish up. If you ramble beyond a couple of
minutes, your audience will become restless and annoyed.

Question and Answer

At the end of your talk, you should be prepared to answer a few questions from the
audience. The question-and-answer (Q&A) period offers you a good opportunity to
interact with the audience and clarify your ideas. You should be ready to answer three
types of questions:
A REQUEST FOR CLARIFICATION OR ELABORATION. Questions that ask you to
clarify or elaborate are opportunities to reinforce some of your key points. When you
receive this kind of question, start out by rephrasing the question for the audience.
Rephrasing will allow you to put the issue in your own words and state it loudly
enough for the audience to hear. Then answer the question, expanding on the informa-
tion in your talk. Try to use each question to restate one of your major points.
A HOSTILE QUESTION. Occasionally, an audience member will ask a question that
challenges your opinion, facts, findings, or recommendations. Here is a good three-step
strategy for answering these kinds of “hostile” questions:
1. Rephrase the question—State the question in terms that will allow you to answer
it in ways that reflect your own understanding or beliefs.
2. Validate the question—Tell the audience that you understand the questioner’s
concerns and even share them.
3. Elaborate and move forward—Explain that your facts or findings are valid or that
the course of action you are recommending seems more reasonable or has the best
chance of solving the problem.
520 Chapter 29

THE HECKLING QUESTION. In rare cases, an audience member will want to heckle
you with a question. In this situation, you need to recognize that the questioner is ­trying
to sabotage your presentation. The question-asker wants you to become flustered. Don’t
let the heckler do that to you. After trying your best to answer a question and follow-up
question from a heckler, simply say, “I’m sorry you feel that way. We have other people
with questions. Perhaps we can meet after my talk to discuss your concerns.” Then look
away from that person. Usually, someone else in the audience will ask a question and
you can move on.

When the Q&A period is over, you might briefly state your presentation’s main point
again. Then thank the audience. This will usually prompt another round of applause.

Step Three: Design Your Visual Aids

29.3 Design your visual aids.
Visual aids will help you clarify your ideas and illustrate your main points for the audi-
ence. Perhaps the best way to create visual aids is to make slides with the presentation
software (PowerPoint, Keynote, or Slides) that was included with your word-processing
software.
Some presentation software comes with a “designer” feature that can help you
enhance the look of your slides. Think of the software’s proposed “makeovers” as if
they were suggestions from a classmate or friend. You should carefully consider their
suggestions, but you shouldn’t automatically accept them. You also want to make sure
the suggested changes do more than add a little eye candy. You should make sure the
changes are in harmony with the overall feel you wanted to convey. You can use some
of the s­ uggestions but do some tweaking, making sure that any design changes helped
you get your points across powerfully and appropriately.

Format Your Slides

Whether you are presenting in a large lecture hall with a projector or to a few people
with a poster presentation, slides are some of the best visual aids available (Figure 29.3).
Here are some strategies for formatting your slides:
• Title each slide with an action-oriented heading.
• Put five or fewer major points on each slide. If you have more than five major
points, divide that topic into two slides.
• Use left-justified text for most items on your slides. Centered text should only be
used for slide titles.
• Use dark text on a white or light background whenever possible. Light text on a
dark background can be difficult to read.
• Use bulleted lists of phrases instead of paragraphs or sentences.
• Use photos, icons, and graphics to keep your slides fresh and active for the a­ udience.
Make sure your graphics look good on the screen. Increasing the size of a web-
based graphic, for example, can make the image look blurry or grainy.
 Presenting Your Work 521

Figure 29.3 Creating Slides

Shown here are a title slide and a body slide from a profile paper repurposed as a presentation.
The photographs add a strong visual identity to the slides.

Picture adds energy

and human touch.

Everett Collection/Shutterstock
Descriptive title and
subtitle.

Name of presenter.

Major topic.

Glasshouse Images/Alamy Stock Photo

Picture keeps the

audience’s attention.

You will be tempted to pack too much material onto each slide. Don’t do that.
­ ffective slides, like the ones shown in Figure 29.3, need to be simple and easy to
E
­interpret, almost at a glance. The audience is there to listen to you talk, not to read or
try to puzzle out the meaning of your complicated slides.

Step Four: Prepare Your Delivery

29.4 Deliver your presentation with confidence and style.
The usual advice is to “be yourself” when you are speaking in public. Of course, that’s
good advice for people who are comfortable speaking in front of an audience, but many
of us aren’t. Instead, think of yourself as an actor who is playing the role that best fits
your topic and your audience.

Body Language
Ideally, the movements of your body should help you reinforce your message and
maintain the audience’s attention.
522 Chapter 29

DRESS APPROPRIATELY. Choose clothing that reflects your audience’s expectations

and the topic of your talk. Even when you are presenting to your classmates, you should
view it as an opportunity to practice your professional persona. Dress as though you
are presenting in a professional workplace.

STAND UP STRAIGHT. When speakers are nervous, they tend to slouch, lean, or
rock back and forth. These movements look unprofessional and make it difficult for
you to breathe regularly. Instead, keep your feet squarely under your shoulders with
your knees slightly bent.

THINK “HEAVY ELBOWS” AS YOU ARE SPEAKING. When people are nervous, they
tend to let their shoulders rise and move forward, which restricts their ability to breathe.
Instead, think “heavy elbows” to keep your shoulders back and down. That will keep
your head up to help you get a good flow of air to your lungs. Keeping your shoulders
down and back will also help you avoid speaking in a higher-pitched voice than you
usually use.

USE OPEN HAND AND ARM GESTURES. For most audiences, open hand and arm
gestures will convey trust and confidence. Avoid folding your arms, keeping your arms
rigidly at your sides, or putting both hands in your pockets, as these poses will convey
a defensive posture that audiences do not trust.

MAKE EYE CONTACT. Each person in the audience should believe you made eye
contact with them at least once during your presentation. If you are nervous about
making eye contact, look at the audience members’ foreheads instead. They will believe
you are looking them directly in the eye, even if you are avoiding making direct eye
contact with them.

MOVE TO REINFORCE MAJOR POINTS OR TRANSITIONS. If possible, when you

make important points, step forward toward the audience. When you make transitions
in your presentation from one topic to the next, move to the left or right. Your move-
ment across the floor will highlight these transitions in your speech.

Voice and Tone

As you improve your presentation skills, you should work toward strengthening your
voice and tone.

SPEAK LOWER AND SLOWER. When speaking to an audience, you will need to
speak louder than you normally would. As your volume goes up, so will the pitch of
your voice, making it sound unnaturally high to the audience. By consciously lowering
the pitch of your voice, you should sound just about right. Also, nerves may cause you
to speak too quickly. Silently remind yourself to speak “lower and slower.”

USE PAUSES TO REINFORCE YOUR MAJOR POINTS. Each time you make a major
point, pause for a moment to let the audience commit it to memory.

USE PAUSES TO ELIMINATE VERBAL TICS. Verbal tics like “um,” “ah,” “like,”
“you know,” “OK?” and “See what I mean?” are nervous words and phrases that fill
gaps between thoughts. If you have one or more of these verbal tics, train yourself
 Presenting Your Work 523

to pause when you feel like using one of these sounds or phrases. Not only will
you eliminate an annoying verbal tic, but your speaking will sound more distin-
guished and measured. You can practice this pausing technique in your ­everyday
conversations.
MINIMIZE HOW OFTEN YOU LOOK DOWN AT YOUR NOTES. Look at your
notes as little as possible. Looking down at your notes causes your neck to bend,
which restricts your airflow and makes your voice harder to hear. Plus, notes can
become a distracting safe place that keeps you from engaging visually with your
audience.

Step Five: Practice and Rehearse

29.5 Practice and rehearse your presentation.
Speech experts often advise people to leave plenty of time to practice their presenta-
tions out loud. Even better advice, though, is to “rehearse” what you are going to say
and how you are going to say it. Rehearsal allows you to practice your presentation in
a more realistic setting.

Practice, Practice, Practice

Practice involves speaking your presentation out loud to yourself. As you are working
through your presentation verbally, memorize its major points and gain a sense of its
organization and flow. While practicing, you should:
• Listen for any problems with content, organization, and style.
• Edit and proofread your visuals and handouts.
• Decide how you are going to move around as you deliver the speech.
• Pay attention to your body language and voice.
If you notice any problems as you are practicing your presentation, you can stop
and fix them right away.

Rehearse, Rehearse, Rehearse

The secret to polishing your presentation is to rehearse it several times. Unlike practice,
rehearsal means speaking from beginning to end without stopping.
As much as possible while rehearsing, you want to replicate the experience of giv-
ing your real talk. Don’t stop to correct anything. Then, after each rehearsal ­session,
you should make any necessary revisions or corrections. Even better, recruit your
friends to listen as you rehearse your presentation. They will provide you with a
live a­ udience so you can gauge their reactions to your ideas. Another possibility is
­recording your presentation with your phone or with the recording features of video-
conferencing software.
Practicing will help you find any major problems with your talk, but rehearsal will
help you turn the whole package into an effective presentation.
524 Chapter 29

Quick Start Guide

Here are some helpful guidelines for developing and giving presentations.

Answer the Five-W and How questions about your presentation. Think about the who, what, where,
when, why, and how issues that will shape the content, organization, style, and design of your presentation.

Choose the appropriate presentation technology. Depending on the size of your audience and the
room in which you will be speaking, consider what kind of presentation technology would best allow you
to present your ideas.

Organize your ideas. More than likely, the genre of your document offers a good organization for your
talk. Remember to “Tell them what you’re going to tell them. Tell them. Tell them what you told them.”

Design your visual aids. Slides work well for most presentations. Use presentation software, such as
PowerPoint, Keynote, Slides, or Canva. to convert your paper into a colorful and interesting set of slides.
If slides aren’t appropriate, you should look into the possibility of using a whiteboard or handouts.

Think about your body language. Consider issues like how you will dress and how you will stand and
move when you are presenting. Practice making eye contact with people.

Improve your voice and tone. Work on speaking lower and slower while using pauses to reinforce your
major points. Also, use pauses to eliminate any verbal tics, such as “um,” “ah,” “like,” and “you know.”

Practice and rehearse. Ultimately, practice and rehearsal are the best ways to improve and polish your
presentation. Use practice to help you revise your talk and correct errors. Use rehearsal to polish your
­presentation and make it as persuasive as possible.

Activities for Presenting Your Work

Talk About This
1. In a small group, share your opinions about what works well in a presentation.
Discuss effective and ineffective presenters (coaches, teachers, public speakers)
who you have heard from in the past. What traits made these people effective or
ineffective as public speakers?
2. Find a video online of a speech that fails because of poor organization, design,
or delivery. Imagine that you and your group are this person’s speaking coaches.
Being as helpful as possible, what advice would you give this person to improve
his or her future presentations?
3. With your group, choose three ideas from this chapter that you would like to use
to improve your presentation skills. Then take turns making a presentation of
these three things to your group as your audience.
 Presenting Your Work 525

Try This Out

1. Find a speech on YouTube or another video website. In a brief rhetorical analysis,
discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the presentation. Specifically, pay atten-
tion to the content, organization, style, and use of visuals in the presentation.
2. Outline a two-minute speech on a subject that you know well. Then, without
much further thought, give a presentation to a small group of people from your
class. Practice making the six introductory moves mentioned in this chapter and
the five concluding moves.
3. Using presentation software, turn one of the papers you wrote for this class into
slides. Break your paper down into major and minor points and add pictures
and illustrations that will help your audience visualize your ideas. Print out your
slides and look for any inconsistencies in wording or places where you could
reorganize.

Write This
1. Evaluate a public presentation. Attend an in-person or video public presenta-
tion on your campus. Instead of listening to the content of the presentation, pay
attention to how the speaker organized and presented the material. Then write
a review, a rave, or a slam of the presentation. Use the presentation strategies
described in this ­chapter to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the presenta-
tion and the speaker’s public presentation skills.
2. Repurpose a written text into a presentation. Choose a major project for this
course or another course and turn it into a presentation. Choose the appropriate
presentation technology for the topic and a likely venue. Make sure you develop
an introduction that grabs your audience’s attention. Divide the body of your
paper into two to five major topics for your presentation. Then develop a con-
clusion that stresses your main points and looks to the future. When you have
finished creating your talk, spend some time practicing and rehearsing it. Your
professor may ask you to present your talk in class.
 Chapter 30
Starting Your
Research
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

30.1 develop your own reliable research process that will help you inquire
into topics that interest you.
30.2 assess whether sources are reliable and trustworthy.
30.3 devise a research plan for your project that allows you to stay on
­schedule and keep track of sources and evidence.

Research allows you to systematically explore topics by collecting factual evidence,

consulting secondary sources, and using your hands-on experiences. Research allows
you to do three important things:
• Inquire—You can gather evidence to investigate an issue and explain it to other
people.
• Acquire knowledge—You can collect and analyze facts to increase or strengthen
your knowledge about a subject. In some cases, research can allow you to add
knowledge to what is already known.
• Support an argument—You can use research to persuade others and support a par-
ticular side of an argument while gaining a full understanding of the opposing view.
Doing research requires more than simply finding books or articles that agree with
your opinion or the understanding you already have. You also need to look beyond
the first page of hits from an Internet search engine like Google, Bing, Yahoo!, or Baidu.
Instead, research is about pursuing the truth and developing knowledge, whether the
facts agree with your opinion or not.
In this chapter, you will learn how to develop your own research process. A research
process allows you to write and speak with authority because you will be more con-
fident about the evidence you collect and the reliability of the sources you choose to
use. Following a consistent research process will save you time while helping you find
useful and trustworthy sources of evidence.

526
 Starting Your Research 527

Starting Your Research Process

30.1 Develop your own reliable research process that will help you inquire into
topics that interest you.
A reliable research process, as shown in Figure 30.1, is “recursive,” which means the
researcher collects evidence and then repeatedly tests it against a working thesis. This
recursive process ends when the working thesis fits the evidence the researcher collected.

Step One: Define Your Research Question

Your research question identifies specifically what you want to discover about your
topic. Name your topic and then write down a question your research will try to answer:

Topic—The anti-vaccine movement in the United States

Research question—Why are some people, including celebrities, choosing not to vaccinate
their kids against common illnesses like coronavirus, measles, mumps, and whooping cough?

Figure 30.1 Following a Research Process

A reliable research process will save you time and energy. Each source you collect will lead you to other sources. Keep looping
until you collect the evidence you need to draft your paper.

Define Your Research Develop a Working Devise a Research

Question Thesis (Hypothesis) Plan

Electronic and Print

Online Sources Sources

Modify Working Collect

Thesis Sources

No

Determine Whether Empirical

Yes Accept Working
Facts Verify Working Sources
Thesis
Thesis

Triangulate Facts Assess the Reliability

Among the Sources of Each Source
528 Chapter 30

Topic—The oddity of wearing shorts and flip-flops in wintertime

Research Question—Why do some college students wear shorts and flip-flops in the
middle of the winter?

Once you have drafted your research question, spend some time narrowing it down
to a topic that you can answer in a college-length paper. The research questions men-
tioned above, for example, are too broad for a typical college paper. Here are more
focused versions of those questions:

Is the anti-vaccine movement a real national threat, or is it primarily a problem for people
who live in places with dense populations and many unvaccinated people?

Why do some students at Falls County Community College wear shorts and flip-flops to
class in all types of weather, even in the middle of the winter?

Step Two: Develop a Working Thesis

After defining your research question, you should then develop a working thesis, which
is called a “hypothesis” in some fields. Your working thesis is your best guess at this
moment about the answer to your research question.
Try to boil your thesis statement down to one sentence. For example, here are some
working thesis statements based on the preceding research questions:

Here in northern Michigan, vaccinations are critical for all people for two reasons: a)
­illnesses spread quickly during the winter and b) we spend much of our time indoors in
confined spaces in the winter.

Most Falls County Community College students who wear shorts and flip-flops in all
types of weather probably just prefer light, comfortable clothing, and they can keep warm
by staying inside and walking from building to building across campus, but others wear
­flip-flops and shorts in the winter because they think it’s fashionable and cool.

Even if your thesis statement feels a bit long or clunky, do your best to state it in
one sentence. Your topic may be too complex or too broad if your working thesis needs
to be two or three sentences. Also, as you do your research, your working thesis will
usually need to change and evolve as you discover new facts and ideas. Eventually, the
final version of your working thesis will become the main claim for your paper.

Step Three: Devise a Research Plan

Before you begin collecting evidence to test your working thesis, take some time to
sketch out your research plan. Your plan should describe the kinds of evidence, including
evidence from outside sources, you will need to answer your research question. Your
plan should also describe how you are going to collect this evidence, along with your
deadlines for finding sources. A typical research plan has these elements:
• Research question
• Working thesis
 Starting Your Research 529

• Description of available sources about the topic, including print and electronic
sources
• Schedule for conducting and completing the research
• Bibliography of sources you have found
Creating a research plan will save you time by helping you identify the evidence
you need and streamline your research.

Doing Start-Up Research

Now that you have figured out your research question, working thesis, and research
plan, you’re ready to start tracking down evidence and collecting sources. Some
researchers find it helpful to begin by doing an hour of “start-up” research. This kind
of research will help you gain an overall view of the topic, figure out its various sides,
and identify the kinds of sources available.
In Chapter 31, “Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence,” we will talk about doing
formal research, which is much more targeted and structured than start-up research.
For now, though, let’s look at some good ways to do start-up research:

SEARCH THE INTERNET. Put your research question or its keywords into Google,
Yahoo!, Bing, or Baidu. See what pops up. Jot down notes about the kinds of evidence
you find. Identify some of the major issues and people involved with your topic and
take note of any promising sources of evidence that you might want to look up later.
­Bookmark any websites that seem especially useful. Also, keep in mind that some
sources are more authoritative than others. Websites like eHow, Snopes, Reddit, and
Quora can be helpful for doing start-up research, but the information is not always reli-
able because the content is generated by users and freelance writers who may or may
not be experts. The information you find on these kinds of websites must be confirmed
with more authoritative sources.
Artificial intelligence (AI) applications, which are embedded in Internet search
engines, can also assist you with doing start-up research by collecting, summarizing,
and synthesizing a variety of sources. However, they can also open your work to charges
of plagiarism and copyright violations, because they often don’t identify their sources.
So, check with your professor about whether AI applications are permitted before
you use them. Also, you should always thoroughly back-check and skeptically include
any text generated by an AI application. They are designed to find patterns, not
­necessarily the truth, so they regularly turn up information that is wrong, outdated, and
deceptive. In some cases, the sources they draw from can be racist, sexist, homophobic,
and exhibit other forms of intolerant beliefs.

LOOK THROUGH ONLINE ENCYCLOPEDIAS. Major online encyclopedias include

Wikipedia, Infoplease, Encyclopedia.com, and Britannica. Again, note the major issues
and people involved with your topic. Identify key terms and any controversies about
your topic.
Note: Professors probably won’t let you cite online encyclopedias like ­Wikipedia
or Britannica as authoritative sources because the entries are often written without
530 Chapter 30

attribution or by nonexperts. Nevertheless, online encyclopedias are useful for gaining

an overview of your topic and finding sources that are authoritative.
SEARCH YOUR LIBRARY’S CATALOG. Use your campus library’s online catalog to
search for print and video sources. Write down the names of any authors and titles that
look like they might be helpful. In some cases, your library’s catalog can e-mail your
selections to you as attachments or links.
Start-up research should take you an hour or less. Your goal is to gain an overall
sense of your topic, not form your final conclusions or opinions. Keep your options
open and don’t become too preoccupied by one source or perspective.

Assessing a Source’s Reliability

30.2 Assess whether sources are reliable and trustworthy.
All information is not created equal. Some people or websites that claim to be “authori-
ties” can be misleading, unreliable, or even dishonest. In some situations, people who
have agendas or biases stretch the truth or selectively use facts to support their posi-
tions. To assess the reliability of your sources, consider these questions.

Is the Source Credible?

To determine whether a source’s author and publisher are trustworthy, you should
use an Internet search engine to check out their backgrounds and expertise. If you
cannot find further information about the author or publisher—or if you find ques-
tionable credentials or reputations—you should look for other sources that are more
credible.

Is the Source Up-to-Date?

Depending on your topic, sources can quickly become obsolete. In some fields, like can-
cer research, a source that is only a few years old might already be out of date. In other
fields, like geology or history, facts or data that are decades old might still be relevant
today. So pay attention to how rapidly the field is changing. If you can’t determine if a
source should be considered up-to-date, you can consult your professor or a research
librarian to see whether it would be considered current.

How Biased Are the Author and the Publisher?

All sources have some bias because any author or publisher will have their own ideas
and opinions. When you are assessing the bias of a source, consider how much the
author or publisher wants the evidence to be true. If it seems like the author or publisher
would only accept one kind of answer from the outset (e.g., “Vaccinations cause people
to become magnetic.”), the evidence should be considered too biased and probably not
reliable. On the other hand, if the author and publisher seem open to a range of possible
conclusions, you can feel more confident about using the source.
 Starting Your Research 531

Can You Verify the Evidence in the Source?

You should be able to confirm your source’s evidence by consulting other indepen-
dent sources. If just one source states a fact or offers a kind of evidence, you should
treat it as unverified and use it cautiously, if at all. If multiple sources offer the same
facts or similar kinds of evidence, then you can rely on those sources with more
confidence.

How Biased Are You?

As a researcher, you also need to keep your own biases in mind as you evaluate your
sources. Try evaluating your sources from alternative perspectives, even perspectives
you disagree with. Knowing your own biases and evaluating the issue from other per-
spectives will help you gain a richer understanding of your topic.
Evaluating Your Sources: A Checklist
❒ Is the source reliable and credible?
❒ Is the source up-to-date?
❒ How biased are the author and the publisher?
❒ Can you independently verify the evidence in the source?
❒ How biased are you?

Managing Your Research Process

30.3 Devise a research plan for your project that allows you to stay on schedule
and keep track of sources and evidence.
When you finish your start-up research, you should have enough information to finalize
a schedule for completing your research. At this point, you should also start a biblio-
graphic file to help keep track of your sources.

Finalizing a Research Schedule

You might find backward planning helpful when finalizing your research schedule.
­Backward planning means working backward from the deadline to today, filling in all
the tasks that need to be accomplished. Here’s how to do it:
1. On your screen or a piece of paper, list all the tasks you need to complete.
2. On your calendar, mark a final deadline for finishing your research. Then fill in
your deadlines for drafting, designing, and revising your project.
3. Work backward from your research deadline, filling in the tasks you need to accom-
plish and identifying the days on which each task needs to be completed.
Online calendars like those from Google, MS Outlook, Mozilla, or Yahoo! are great
tools for creating research schedules. A low-tech paper calendar still works well, too.
532 Chapter 30

Starting Your Bibliography File

One of the first tasks on your research schedule should be to set up a file on your com-
puter that holds a working bibliography of the sources you find. Each time you find
a useful source, add it to your bibliography file. As you collect each source, record all
the information for a full bibliographic citation. (You will learn how to cite sources in
Chapter 33, “Using MLA Style,” and Chapter 34, “Using APA Style.”)

Following and Modifying

Your Research Plan
You should expect to modify your research plan as you move forward with the project.
In some cases, you will find yourself diverted from your research plan by interesting
facts, ideas, and events that you didn’t know about when you started. That’s fine. Let
the facts guide your research, even if they take you in unexpected directions.
Also, check in regularly with your research question and working thesis to make
sure you are not drifting too far away from your original idea for the project. In some
cases, you may need to adjust your research question and working thesis to fit some of
the sources or new issues you have discovered.

When Things Don’t Go as Expected

Research is an open-ended process of inquiry of exploring, testing, and discovering.
You are going to encounter ideas and issues that will require you to modify your
research methods, research question, or working thesis. Expect the unexpected, make
any necessary changes, and then move forward.
ROADBLOCKS TO RESEARCH. You may not be able to get access to all the sources
you had planned on using. For example, you might find that the expert you wanted to
interview on campus is unavailable or that an important book you needed is checked
out or missing from the library. Maybe you simply cannot find the evidence or data
you expected. Don’t give up. Instead, modify your approach and move around the
roadblock.
EVIDENCE AND IDEAS THAT CHANGE YOUR WORKING THESIS. You might find
something unexpected that alters or completely changes how you view your topic.
For instance, you may discover that the evidence you collected doesn’t support your
working thesis after all. Or you might find that a more focused working thesis is more
interesting to you or more relevant to your readers. Rather than getting distracted or
disappointed, consider this an opportunity to discover something new. Modify your
research question or working thesis and move forward.
These temporary roadblocks and changes to your working thesis can be frustrating,
but following unexpected paths can also make research fun. They can lead you to new
breakthroughs and exciting innovations.
 Starting Your Research 533

Quick Start Guide

Let’s get started. Use these guidelines to begin your research process.

Understand why writers do research. Keep in mind that the purpose of research is to inform and
­support your ideas. Research is not just a regurgitation of others’ ideas.

Define your research question. Name your topic and state your research question as specifically
as possible. Improve the efficiency of your research by sharpening that research question as much as
possible.

Develop a working thesis. In a single sentence, write down your working thesis. This is your best guess,
or “hypothesis,” for what you think will be your main claim.

Do some “start-up” research. Take half an hour to an hour to scan the kinds of sources available and
get an overall sense of the various views on your research question.

Assess the reliability of your sources. Determine whether the sources you have collected are credible,
up-to-date, and reasonably unbiased. When choosing whether to include evidence, verify the credibility of
the source.

Devise your research plan. Avoid the temptation to just dive in. Take a little time to make a written plan
that describes your research question, working thesis, start-up research results, schedule, and an early
bibliography.

Create a schedule. Use “backward planning” to break your research into manageable chunks. After
­listing the tasks you will need to complete, work backward from your deadline, filling in the tasks and the
days they need to be completed.

Keep a bibliography file. Keep a computer file of your working bibliography and maintain it. Your readers
will need this bibliographic information to see where your sources can be found.

Expect the unexpected. As you find new evidence, you will want to modify your research approach,
research question, and working thesis. This is all part of the research process.

Activities for Starting Your

Research
Talk About This
1. List five possible research questions about a topic that you find personally
­interesting. Then turn each of your research questions into a working thesis.
With a small group, talk about these research questions and your working
thesis statements. Ask your group members to help you sharpen one of your
­working thesis statements into something you can successfully pursue.
534 Chapter 30

2. With a small group, develop a research question on a topic that is interesting to

all of you. With your group, go online and use a variety of keywords to explore
that topic. What are some possible answers to the research question?
3. In class, discuss the kinds of sources you think are most reliable. Do you believe
online sources can be as reliable as print sources? When are hands-on empirical
sources, like interviews or surveys, better than online and print sources?

Try This Out

1. Do about 30 minutes of start-up research on a topic that interests you. In an
e-mail, describe to your professor what kinds of issues you would face if you
decided to do more research on this topic.
2. In a brief e-mail to your professor, describe your research plan for your next
­project. Explain why you think specific types of sources will be most helpful
and why other kinds of sources probably will not be helpful.
3. On the Internet, find three sources of evidence that you would consider heavily
biased. Write an evaluation of these sources, explaining why you consider them
biased and perhaps unreliable as sources.
4. Ask an AI application to identify the major three to five issues that are related to
your research topic. Then, do background research on each of those major issues
without an AI application by collecting authoritative electronic and print sources.
In an e-mail to your professor, discuss whether you believe the AI application
was accurate about your topic. Highlight any places where the AI application
stated ideas or opinions as truths, perhaps in questionable ways.

Write This
1. Create a research plan. Write a full research plan. Identify your research question
and your working thesis. Then identify the kinds of evidence you expect to find
and the kinds of sources you plan to target.
2. Start a research journal. Keep a journal while you do research for your next
paper. Keep track of the kinds of research you did and the amount of time you
devoted to finding electronic, print, and empirical sources. Determine what kinds
of sources yielded the most useful evidence and what kinds of research cost you
too much time.
Chapter 31
Finding Sources and
Collecting Evidence
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

31.1 recognize the differences between primary and secondary sources.

31.2 triangulate your research by collecting evidence from electronic, print,
and empirical resources.
31.3 use reliable strategies to find and evaluate electronic sources.
31.4 collect evidence from a variety of print sources.
31.5 do your own empirical research with interviews, surveys, and field
observations.

Now that you have figured out your working thesis and research plan, you are ready
to start collecting sources. In this chapter, you will learn how to find a variety of
­primary and secondary sources that will help you research your topic and uncover ­useful
evidence.

Using Primary and Secondary Sources

31.1 Recognize the differences between primary and secondary sources.
Professional researchers tend to distinguish between two types of sources: primary
sources and secondary sources. Both kinds are important for doing reliable research.
PRIMARY SOURCES. Primary sources are the actual records or artifacts, such as let-
ters, photographs, videos, memoirs, books, or personal papers, that were created by
the people involved in the issues and events you are researching (Figure 31.1). These
sources can also include data, observations, or interview answers that you or others
collected from empirical methods.

535
536 Chapter 31

Figure 31.1 Primary Sources of Evidence

Primary sources have been created by the people involved in the events you are studying or through empirical research.

This image is Giséle, by Elizabeth Shippen Green, painted

in 1908

Stocktrek Images, Inc./Alamy Stock Photo

SECONDARY SOURCES. Secondary sources are the writings of scholars, experts, and
other knowledgeable people who have studied your topic. Scholarly books and articles
by historians are secondary sources because their authors analyze and reflect critically
on past events. Secondary sources also include books, academic journals, magazines,
newspapers, and blogs.
For most college papers, you will usually rely on secondary sources. However, you
should always look for opportunities to collect evidence from primary sources, such as
archives, interviews, surveys, and observations. Collecting your own evidence allows
you to confirm or challenge the information you find in secondary sources.
 Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence 537

Evaluating Sources with Triangulation

31.2 Triangulate your research by collecting evidence from electronic, print, and
empirical resources.
When doing any kind of research, try to collect evidence from a variety of sources and
perspectives. If you rely on just one type of source, especially the Internet, you risk
developing a limited or inaccurate understanding of your topic. To avoid this problem,
you should triangulate your research by looking for evidence from three different types
of sources:
Electronic and online sources—websites, podcasts, videos, documentaries,
­listservs, television, radio, and blogs
Print sources—books, journals, magazines, newspapers, government
­publications, reference materials, and microfilm/microfiche
Empirical sources—personal experiences, archives, field observations,
­interviews, surveys, case studies, and experiments
Together, these three types of sources are called the research triangle (Figure 31.2). Here’s
how the research triangle works.
• Probably reliable—If you collect similar
evidence from all three kinds of sources, Figure 31.2 The Research Triangle
the evidence you found is probably reliable. Triangulating your sources is a good way to ensure that you are
drawing evidence from a variety of places. If you find similar
• Somewhat reliable—If you gather compa-
­evidence from all three corners of the triangle, it is probably reliable.
rable evidence from only two points of the
triangle, your findings are probably still Electronic and Print
reliable but are open to some doubt. Online Sources Sources
• Unreliable—If you can only find compara-
ble evidence from one point on the triangle,
then you should be skeptical. You probably
need to do more research to back up your
findings with other kinds of primary and
secondary sources.
Of course, finding similar evidence in all
three types of sources doesn’t make something
true. It just means the evidence is probably reli-
able. Triangulation is a good way to evaluate Empirical
your sources and corroborate the facts you Sources
uncover about your topic, but it won’t guaran-
tee the truth of what you find.
Also, remember that any issue always has at least two sides. So don’t just look for
sources that support your working thesis. Even if you completely disagree with one of
your sources, its argument and evidence might give you a stronger understanding of
your own position. By including and engaging with sources you disagree with, you can
strengthen and deepen your argument.
538 Chapter 31

Finding Electronic and Online Sources

31.3 Use reliable strategies to find and evaluate electronic sources.
The Internet is a good place to start researching your topic. Keep in mind, though, that
the Internet is not the only place to do research. You should use print and empirical
sources to triangulate the evidence you find on the Internet.

Using Internet Search Engines

Search engines let you use keywords to locate information about your topic. If you
type your topic into Google, Bing, Yahoo, or Baidu, the search engine will return many
thousands of results.
With a few easy tricks, though, you can target your search with some common
symbols and strategies. For example, let’s say you are researching how sleep depriva-
tion affects college students. You might start by entering the phrase:

sleep and college students

With this generic subject, a search engine will pull up millions of webpages that might
refer to this topic. Of course, there is no way you are going to have time to look through
all those sites to find useful evidence, even if the search engine ranks them for you.
So you need to target your search to pull up only the kinds of materials you want.
Here are some tips for getting better results:
Use exact words—Choose keywords that exactly target your topic, and use as
many keywords as you need to sharpen your results. For example,
sleep deprivation effects on students taking tests

Use quotation (“ ”) marks—If you want to find a specific phrase, use quotation
marks to target those phrases.
“sleep deprivation” effects on students and “taking tests”

Use the plus (+) sign—If you put a plus (+) sign in front of a word, the search
engine will only find pages that have that exact word in them.
sleep +deprivation effects on +students +test +taking

Use the minus (−) sign—If you want to eliminate any pages that refer to words
or phrases you don’t want to see, you can use the minus sign to eliminate
pages that refer to them.
sleep deprivation +effects on students +test +taking -insomnia -apnea

Use wildcard symbols—Most search engines have symbols for “wildcards,”

such as ?, *, or %. These symbols are helpful when you know most of a phrase,
but not all of it.
“sleep deprivation” +effects on students and “taking tests” neural* behavioral*
-­insomnia -apnea
 Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence 539

These search engine tips will help you

pull up the pages you need. Figure 31.3
shows the results of a Bing search using the
phrase:
Figure 31.3 Targeting Your Search
In this search, the use of symbols has helped narrow the search to
useful pages.

“sleep deprivation” effects on students

“taking tests” -insomnia -apnea

Note that the first items pulled up by

some search engines may be sponsored links.
In other words, these companies paid to have
their links show up at the top of your list.
Most search engines highlight these links in
a special way. You might find these links use-
ful, but keep in mind that the sponsors are
biased because they probably want to sell
you something.

Using the Internet

Cautiously
Many of the so-called “facts” on the Internet
are really just opinions and hearsay. Some
news stories are actually “fake news,” cre-
ated to mislead people about important
issues and current events. Also, many quotes
that appear on the Internet have been taken
out of context or corrupted in some way. So
use information from the Internet critically
and even skeptically. Don’t get fooled by a professional-looking website because a good
web designer can make just about anything look professional.
In Chapter 30, “Starting Your Research,” you learned some questions for checking
the reliability of any source. Here are some additional questions you should use to
assess whether an Internet source is reliable:
• Can you identify and verify the author(s) of the source?
• What organization is this author and source associated with and why is it publish-
ing this information?
• What does the author or organization behind the source have to gain from publish-
ing this information?
• Does the source clearly distinguish between opinions and independent facts?
• Does the source fairly discuss two or more sides of the issue?
• Does the source use other independent sources to back up claims, and can you
access those sources?
• Does the information seem farfetched, too terrible, or too good to be true?
• Has the website been updated recently?
540 Chapter 31

The Internet will help you find plenty of useful, reliable evidence, but there is also a
great amount of junk. It’s your responsibility as a researcher to critically evaluate what
is reliable and what isn’t.

Using Documentaries and Television/Radio Broadcasts

Multimedia resources such as television and radio broadcasts are available online
through network websites as well as sites like YouTube and Hulu. Depending on who
made them, documentaries and broadcasts can be reliable sources. If the material is
from a trustworthy source, you can take quotes and cite these kinds of electronic sources
in your own work.

DOCUMENTARIES. A documentary is a nonfiction movie or program that relies on

interviews and factual evidence about an event or issue. A documentary can be biased,
though, so check into the background of the person or organization that made it.

TELEVISION BROADCASTS. Cable channels and news networks like CNN, HBO,
BBC, PBS, the History Channel, the National Geographic Channel, and the Biography
Channel are producing excellent broadcasts that are reliable and can be cited as support
for your argument. However, programs on news channels that feature just one or two
highly opinionated commentators are less reliable because they tend to be sensation-
alistic and biased.

RADIO BROADCASTS. Radio broadcasts, too, can be informative and ­authoritative.

Public radio broadcasts, such as those from National Public Radio and American
­RadioWorks, offer well-researched stories on the air and at their websites. On the other
hand, political broadcasts like The Sean Hannity Show, The Mark Levin Show, The Rachel
Maddow Show, and The Thom Hartmann Program are often criticized for slanting the news
and playing loose with the facts. You probably cannot rely on these broadcasts as factual
sources in your argument.

Using Wikis, Blogs, and Podcasts

In the past, wikis, blogs, or podcasts were often considered too opinionated or subjec-
tive to be usable as sources for academic work. However, they are becoming increas-
ingly reliable because reputable scholars and organizations are beginning to use these
kinds of new media to publish research-based information. These electronic sources are
especially helpful for defining issues and helping you locate other sources.

WIKIS. You already know about Wikipedia, the most popular wiki, but a variety of
other wikis are available, like wikiHow, Wikibooks, and Wikitravel. Wikis allow their users
to add and revise content, and they rely on other users to back-check facts. On some
topics, such as popular culture (e.g., television programs, music, celebrities), a wiki
might even be the best or only source of up-to-date information. On more established
topics, however, you should always be skeptical about the reliability of the information
because these sites are often written anonymously and can be changed frequently. Your
best approach is to use these sites primarily for start-up research on your topic and to
find leads that will help you locate other, more reliable sources.
 Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence 541

BLOGS. Blogs can be helpful for exploring a range of opinions on a particular topic.
However, even some of the most established and respected blogs like Daily Kos, Power
Line, and Wonkette are little more than opinionated commentaries on the day’s events.
Blogs can help you identify the topic’s issues and locate more reliable sources; however,
most blogs cannot be considered reliable sources themselves. If you want to use a blog
as a source, you should explain in your paper why the author of the blog is a trusted
source who is supporting the argument with reliable evidence.
PODCASTS. Most news websites offer podcasts and vidcasts, but the ­reliability of the
information from these sources depends on who made the audio or video file. Today,
anyone with a mobile phone, digital recorder, or video camera can make a podcast,
even a ­professional-sounding podcast, so you need to carefully assess the credibility
and experience of the person who made it.
On just about every topic, you will find plenty of people on the Internet who have
opinions. The problem with online sources is that just about anyone can create or edit
them. That’s why the Internet is a good place to start collecting evidence, but you need to
also collect evidence from print and empirical sources to triangulate what you find online.

Using Artificial Intelligence to Assist Research

Many Internet search engines will also let you use artificial intelligence (AI) to enhance
your searches. Before using these applications, though, ask your professor whether AI
applications are allowed when doing research. Since AI applications are still relatively
new, some professors may not consider them an acceptable method for doing research.
If your professor allows AI applications for research, we recommend you use them
selectively and with skepticism. Some research-related activities for which you might
use AI applications are the following:
• Locating and organizing articles on a specific topic
• Producing summaries or abstracts of articles, books, and other secondary sources
• Brainstorming and doing start-up background research on topics
• Creating lists of potential secondary sources about topics
• Assisting with developing questions for surveys or questionnaires
• Identifying the causes and effects of a problem and ranking their importance
• Producing annotated bibliographies that use citation styles like MLA or APA
• Highlighting the similarities, differences, and patterns in data sets and findings
There are also downsides to using AI for research. For one thing, the research done
by AI is only as good as the sources it draws from. An AI application might draw from
sources that are wrong, outdated, or even intentionally deceptive. Also, some AI appli-
cations don’t identify their sources, which means the information AI gathers may be
from copyrighted sources that should be cited.
Meanwhile, AI detectors are able to identify AI-generated text the majority of the
time. As a result, researchers risk being accused of plagiarism or a lack of academic
integrity, especially if they make uncited claims based on information gathered by an
AI application.
542 Chapter 31

Two other critical issues with AI are impacting research. First, research is a creative
act because researchers explore the unknown. AI applications may be good at collect-
ing and synthesizing information that already exists, but they lack the creativity of the
human mind to come up with new ideas. Second, AI has been known to draw on racist,
sexist, homophobic, and other intolerant beliefs that are unfortunately all too common
on the Internet (Quach, 2022). As a result, AI algorithms can generate biased conclusions
based on these prejudiced sources.
AI will likely be more helpful to researchers than harmful, but you, as a researcher,
will need to back-check and even challenge any information and conclusions developed
by these powerful tools.

Finding Print Sources

31.4 Collect evidence from a variety of print sources.
With such easy access to electronic and online sources, people sometimes forget to look
for print sources on their topic. That’s a big mistake. Print sources are typically the most
reliable forms of evidence on just about any subject.

Locating Books at Your Library

You can easily find useful books at your campus or local public library. More than likely,
your university’s library website has an online search engine that you can access from
any networked computer (Figure 31.4). This search engine will allow you to locate books
in the library’s catalog. Also, your campus library will likely have research librarians
who can help you find useful print sources.
Ask for a research librarian at the library’s
Figure 31.4 Searching Your Library’s Catalog information desk.
Your library’s catalog is easy to search online. Here is Michigan State’s
library’s webpage for searching its catalog. Finding books is almost as BOOKS. The most reliable information
easy as using a search engine to find evidence on the Internet. on your topic can often be found in books.
Authors and editors of books work closely
together to check their facts and gather the
best evidence available. So books are usu-
ally more reliable than websites. The down-
side of books is that they tend to become
outdated in fast-changing fields.
GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS. The
U.S. government produces an amazing
amount of printed material on almost any
topic you could imagine. Government web-
sites, like The Catalog of U.S. Government
Publications, are good places to find these
sources. Your library probably collects
many of these materials because they are
usually free or inexpensive.
 Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence 543

REFERENCE MATERIALS. The reference section of your library collects helpful

r­ eference tools, such as almanacs, directories, encyclopedias, handbooks, and guides.
These reference materials can help you find facts, data, and evidence about people,
places, and events.
Right now, entire libraries of books are being scanned and posted online. Out-of-
copyright books are appearing in full-text versions as they become available. Online
versions of copyrighted books are searchable, allowing you to see excerpts and identify
pages on which you can locate the specific evidence you need.

Finding Articles at Your Library

At your library, you can find articles in academic journals, magazines, and n
­ ewspapers.
These articles can be located using online databases or periodical indexes available
through your library’s website. If your library does not have these databases available
online, you can find print versions of them in your library’s “Reference” or “Periodi-
cals” areas.
ACADEMIC JOURNALS. Articles in journals are usually written by scientists,
­ rofessors, consultants, and subject matter experts (SMEs). These journals will offer
p
some of the most exact information available on your topic. To find journal articles,
start by searching in a periodical index related to your topic. Some of the more popular
periodical indexes include:

ArticleFirst—Business, humanities, medicine, popular culture, science, and

technology
EBSCOhost—Academic, business, science, psychology, education, and liberal arts
ERIC—Education research and practice
Humanities Index—Literature, history, philosophy, languages, and
communication
LexisNexis—News, business, medical, and legal issues
OmniFile—Education, science, humanities, social science, art, biology, and
agriculture
PsycINFO—Psychology and related fields
Web of Science—Physics, chemistry, biology, and life sciences
IEEE Xplore—Engineering and science

MAGAZINES. You can find magazine articles about your topic in the Readers’ Guide
to Periodical Literature (also called the Readers’ Guide), which is likely available through
your campus library’s website. Print versions of the Readers’ Guide might be available in
your library’s periodical or reference rooms. Other useful online databases for finding
magazine articles include Find Articles, MagPortal, and Proquest Central.
NEWSPAPERS. For research on current issues or local topics, newspapers often pro-
vide the most recent printed information. At your library or through its website, you can
use newspaper indexes to search for articles. Past editions of newspapers may be stored
on microfilm or microfiche, which can be read on projectors at your campus library.
544 Chapter 31

Some of the more popular newspaper indexes include ProQuest Newspapers, Chronicling
America, LexisNexis, New York Times Index, and EBSCOhost.
Doing research at your campus or local public library is almost as easy as doing
research with Internet search engines. You will find that the librarians who work there
can help you locate the materials you need. While at the library, you will likely find
other useful materials you didn’t expect, and the librarians might be able to help you
find additional materials you would have never found on your own.

Using Empirical Sources

31.5 Do your own empirical research with interviews, surveys, and field
observations.
Empirical sources include observations, experiments, surveys, and interviews. They
are especially helpful for confirming or challenging the claims made in your electronic,
online, and print sources. For example, if one of your electronic or online sources claims
that “each day, college students watch an average of five hours of television but spend
less than one hour on their homework,” you could use observations, interviews, or
surveys to confirm or debunk that statement.

Interviewing People
Interviews are a great way to go behind the facts to explore the experiences of experts
and regular people. Plus, interviewing others is a good way to collect quotes that you
can add to your text.
You can interview people in person, but now most interviews are being c­ onducted
over videoconferencing programs like Zoom, Google Meet, Webex, MS Teams, and
­FaceTime. You can reach out to an expert through e-mail to ask for a video interview.
Not all experts will say yes to an interview—they are usually busy people—but a few
will probably agree to answer questions for a half hour. Explain that you are a college
student doing research in their area. Ask if you can set up an appointment to meet
with them online for an interview.
Here are some strategies for interviewing people:
PREPARE FOR THE INTERVIEW

1. Do your research—You need to know as much as possible about your topic before
you interview someone about it. If you do not understand the topic before going
into the interview, you will waste your own and your interviewee’s time by asking
simplistic or flawed questions.
2. Create a list of three to five factual questions—Your research will likely turn up
some facts that you want your interviewee to confirm or challenge.
3. Create a list of five to ten open-ended questions—Write down five to ten ques-
tions that cannot be answered with a simple “yes” or “no.” Your questions should
urge the interviewee to offer a detailed explanation or opinion.
 Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence 545

4. Decide how you will record the interview—Do you want to record the interview
as a video or make an audio recording? Or do you want to take written notes?
Each of these methods has its pros and cons. For example, an audio recording cap-
tures the whole conversation, but interviewees are often more guarded about their
answers when they are being recorded.
5. Set up the interview—The best way to do an interview is online through video-
conferencing software. If the interviewee wants to meet in person, choose a neutral
site, like a classroom, a room in the library, or perhaps a café. Professors may want
to be interviewed in their office during office hours.

CONDUCT THE INTERVIEW

1. Explain the purpose of your project—Start out by describing your project to the
interviewee and how the information from the interview will be used. Also, tell the
interviewee how long you expect the interview will take.
2. Ask permission to record—If you are recording the interview in any way, ask
permission to make the recording. First, ask if recording is all right before you turn
on the recording device. Then, once you start recording, ask again so you record
the interviewee’s permission.
3. Ask your factual questions first—Warm up interviewees by asking questions that
allow them to confirm or deny the facts you have already collected.
4. Ask your open-ended questions next—Ask interviewees about their opinions,
feelings, experiences, and views about the topic.
5. Ask if your interviewee would like to provide any other information—Often
people want to tell you things you did not ask about, anticipate, or know about.
You can wrap up the interview by asking, “Is there anything else you would like
to add about this topic?”
6. Thank the interviewee—Don’t forget to thank interviewees for their time and
information.

INTERVIEW FOLLOW-UP

1. Write down everything you remember—As soon as possible after the interview,
describe the interviewee in your notes and fill out any details you couldn’t write
down during the interview. Do this even if you recorded the interview.
2. Get your quotes right—Clarify any direct quotations you collected from your inter-
viewee. If you aren’t sure whether you got something right, you might e-mail your
quotes to the interviewee for confirmation.
3. Back-check the facts—If the interviewee said something new to you or that con-
flicted with your prior research, use electronic, online, or print sources to back-
check the facts. If a conflict seems to exist about the facts, you can send an e-mail
to the interviewee asking for clarification.
4. Send a thank-you note—Usually, an e-mail that thanks your interviewee is suf-
ficient, but you might also send a card or brief letter of thanks.
546 Chapter 31

Using an Informal Survey

Informal surveys are especially useful for generating data and gathering the views
of many different people on the same questions. Many free online services such as
­SurveyMonkey, Qualtrics, and Google Forms allow you to create and distribute your own
surveys. These survey applications will also collect and tabulate the results for you.
Here is how to create a useful, though not a scientific, survey:
1. Identify the population you want to survey—Some surveys target specific kinds of
people (e.g., college students, women from ages 18 to 22, medical doctors). Others
are designed to be filled out by anyone.
2. Develop your questions—Create a list of five to ten questions that can be answered
quickly. Surveys typically use four basic types of questions: rating scales, multiple
choice, numeric open-ended, and text open-ended. Figure 31.5 shows examples of
all four types.
3. Check your questions for neutrality—Make sure your questions are as neutral as
possible. Don’t lead on the people you are surveying with biased or slanted ques-
tions that fit your own beliefs.
4. Pilot-test your questions for clarity—Make sure your questions won’t confuse
your survey takers. Before distributing your survey, ask a few classmates or friends
to take it and watch as they answer the questions. If your test subjects struggle to
answer any questions, you probably need to clarify them.
5. Distribute the survey—Ask several people to complete your survey, and note the
kinds of people who agree to do it. Not everyone will be interested in completing
your survey, so remember that your results might reflect the views of specific kinds
of people who decided to say yes.
6. Tabulate your results—When your surveys are returned, convert any quantitative
responses into data. With any written answers, pull out phrases and quotes that
seem to reflect how the people you surveyed felt about your topic.
Professional researchers would point out that your informal survey is not “scientific”
and that your results are not statistically valid. That’s fine, as long as you are not using your
survey to make important decisions or support claims about how people really feel. Your
informal survey will still give you some helpful information about the opinions of others.

Doing Field Observations

Conducting a field observation can help you generate ideas and confirm facts. Field
observations involve watching something closely and taking detailed notes.
1. Choose an appropriate location (field site)—Choose a field site that allows you
to see as much as possible while not making it obvious that you are watching and
taking notes. People will typically change their behavior if they think someone is
watching them.
2. Take notes in a two-column format—Use two columns to record what you see. In
the left column list the people, things, and events you observed. In the right column
write down how you interpret what you observed.
 Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence 547

Figure 31.5 Types of Survey Questions

Make sure your questions are easy to understand to help your survey takers provide answers quickly
and accurately.

Rating Scales
Going skiing is a good Spring Break activity.

Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly No

Agree Disagree Opinion

Multiple Choice
In what region did you spend most of your childhood?

Northeast States Mountain Western States

Northwest States West Coast States

Southern States Other

Numeric Open-Ended

How many times have you gone downhill skiing in your life? ___________________________

Text Open-Ended
What might persuade you to try skiing in Minnesota?

3. Use the Five-W and How questions—Keep notes about the who, what, where, when,
why, and how elements that you observe. Try to include as much detail as possible.
4. Use your senses—Take notes about the things you see, hear, smell, touch, and taste
while you are observing.
5. Pay attention to things that are moving or changing—Take special note of the
things that moved or changed while you were observing and what caused them
to do so.
When you are finished with your field observations, spend some time interpreting
what you observed. Look for patterns in your observations that help you make sense
of your field site.
548 Chapter 31

Quick Start Guide

Reliable research involves collecting sources from a variety of electronic, online, print, and empirical
sources.

Know the difference between primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are the artifacts that
were used or created by the people you are researching. Secondary sources are the writings of experts on
your topic.

Triangulate your sources. Make sure your research plan will allow you to triangulate your sources.
­Collect electronic, print, and empirical sources that will allow you to confirm or challenge any facts or
­evidence you find.

Search online sources. Use Internet search engines, listservs, podcasts, and other online sources to
­collect evidence on your subject. As you are searching, consider the reliability of each source. A website
may look professional, but this does not mean the source is reliable.

Find documentaries or broadcasts about your topic. You can download documentaries and
­broadcasts online. Your library might have documentaries you can borrow as well.

Read books on your topic. You can access many books through your library’s online catalog. Books are
often the most reliable sources of information.

Use indexes and databases to find articles. Access indexes and databases through your library’s
­website to find articles in academic journals, magazines, and newspapers.

Try empirical methods to gather evidence. You can interview experts, conduct surveys, or do field
observations to confirm or challenge the online and print sources you have gathered about your topic.

Look for gaps in your evidence. Each source you find will raise more questions. When you notice gaps,
do some more research to fill them.

Activities for Finding Sources and

Collecting Evidence
Talk About This
1. With your group, discuss how you plan to do research for your next writing
­project. Talk about the kinds of evidence you plan to find. Then talk about some
of the choices you could make to triangulate and determine the reliability of
these sources of evidence.
2. In a small group, discuss which kinds of electronic and print sources you believe
will be most helpful for your current research project. Explain why you believe some
sources will be more valuable and useful than others. Then talk about how you can
use empirical methods to confirm or challenge these online and print sources.
 Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence 549

3. The Internet will likely be an important part of your research project. With a
group in your class, come up with a list of five ways you could back-check an
Internet source on your topic. Then choose one source and use your five ways to
do the back-checking. Discuss what you found with your group.

Try This Out

1. Using your library’s website, locate at least five books and five articles for your
next assignment. Create an annotated bibliography using either MLA or APA
citation style. You can learn about how to create an annotated bibliography in
Chapter 13, “Research Papers.”
2. Using an Internet search engine, locate ten sources of information on your topic.
Try using symbols in the search engine (+, ?, “ ”, *) to target your searches and
find the most useful evidence available. Now try the same search with at least
one other search engine and compare the results. Write a brief report to your
professor in which you discuss the five most useful sources you found with each
search engine and how the search engines differed.
3. Choose one of the empirical tools discussed in this chapter (i.e., interview, survey,
or field observation). Create the materials you would need to use this tool for
your own research project. Write a brief memo explaining this empirical tool to
your professor and discuss the kinds of results you hope it will yield.

Write This
1. Learn how professionals do research. Using the Internet, research how people
in your field of study do research for their jobs. In a brief report to your professor
and your class, explain what you learned about your field’s research practices.
2. Find some suspicious sources. Locate three to five online sources that you
consider suspicious or misleading. Write a brief report that explains why you
consider these electronic sources to be suspicious and how people can determine
whether a source on this topic is reliable.
 Chapter 32
Citing, Quoting,
Paraphrasing, and
Summarizing Sources
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

32.1 cite sources to give credit to other authors and researchers.

32.2 quote other authors and speakers.
32.3 use paraphrase and summary to explain the ideas of others.
32.4 frame quotes, paraphrases, and summaries in your texts.
32.5 avoid plagiarizing the words and ideas of others.

When researching a subject in college or in the workplace, you need to do more than
collect sources. You also need to take the next step and engage with your sources, using
them to develop your ideas and support your claims. Research allows you to extend
the work of others and to advance your ideas clearly, persuasively, and with authority.
Your writing will have more authority when you use sources to inform and support
your ideas. Also, by engaging with the ideas of others, you enter a larger conversation
about how ideas are used within a particular discipline or profession. In this chapter,
you will learn four methods for incorporating sources into your writing:
• Citing sources gives credit to other authors and researchers while demonstrating
that you have done your research properly. Citations also allow your readers to
locate the sources you used in your paper.
• Quoting sources allows you to use keywords, phrases, or passages taken directly
from the works of others. A direct quote conveys the original text’s immediacy and
authority while capturing its tone and style.
• Paraphrasing sources helps you explain a source’s specific ideas or describe its
major points using your own words and sentence structures. Typically, a para-
phrase will be about the same length as the material in the source.

550
 Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Sources 551

• Summarizing sources allows you to condense a source down to just its major
ideas and points. Summaries often describe what authors say and also how they
say it. They can also describe an author’s underlying values, reasoning processes,
or evidence.
This chapter will show you how to incorporate the ideas and words of others into
your work while giving appropriate credit. Chapters 33 and 34 will show you how to
cite your sources properly using MLA and APA documentation styles.

Citing
32.1 Cite sources to give credit to other authors and researchers.
Whenever you integrate the ideas, findings, or arguments of others into your own
writing, you need to give them credit by citing them with a parenthetical citation.
A ­parenthetical citation should correspond to a full citation in your paper’s Works Cited
or References list. In most situations, a parenthetical citation will include an author’s
name and the number of the page on which the information appears. In some situations,
the year of the source is also included.
Here are a few examples of parenthetical citations that follow MLA and APA
styles. More examples and guidelines appear in Chapter 33, “Using MLA Style,” and
­Chapter 34, “Using APA Style.”

MLA Style APA Style

Single Author (Mitchell 93) (Mitchell, 2020, p. 93)
Two Authors (Lopez and Green 72–76) (Lopez & Green, 2014, pp. 72–76)
Three or More Authors (Johnson et al. 23) (Johnson et al., 2021, p. 23)
Corporate Author (NRA 23) (National Rifle Association [NRA], 1998, p. 23)
Unknown Author (“Frightening” 23) (“Frightening,” 2019, p. 23)
Note: Page numbers are not always required in a parenthetical citation. In general, when you are directly
quoting a source, page numbers are required. When you are paraphrasing or summarizing, they are usually
not required. Check with your professors about whether they want you to include the page numbers in every
parenthetical citation.

Typically, a parenthetical citation will appear at the end of the sentence. The citation
should appear in the middle of a sentence if the ideas in the remainder of the sentence
are not attributable to the source:
MLA Style
Economists have long questioned whether tax cuts, especially tax cuts for the wealthy,
“truly stimulate real growth” (Mitchell 93).

Economists have long questioned whether tax cuts, especially tax cuts for the wealthy,
“truly stimulate real growth (Mitchell 93), but many politicians argue that “trickle down”
effects are difficult to measure.

APA Style
Economists have long questioned whether tax cuts, especially tax cuts for the wealthy,
“truly stimulate growth” (Mitchell, 2020, p. 93).
552 Chapter 32

Economists have long questioned whether tax cuts, especially tax cuts for the wealthy,
“truly stimulate growth” (Mitchell, 2020, p. 93), but politicians are still making that old
“trickle down” argument today.

If you use the author’s name within the sentence, the parenthetical citation at the end
of the sentence should include only the page number. For APA style, the source’s year
of publication should appear in parentheses after the author’s name.
MLA Style
According to Durrani, it’s hard to find the right balance between appropriate taxation
that allows the government to function and excessive taxation that impedes economic
growth (89).

APA Style
According to Durrani (2014), it’s hard to find the right balance between a
­ ppropriate
­taxation that allows the government to function and excessive taxation that impedes
­economic growth (p. 89).

In MLA style, if you have listed more than one source by an author in the Works
Cited, indicate which source you are citing by including a shortened title before the
page number. In APA style, if you have listed more than one source from an author
with the same publication year, indicate which source you’re citing by adding a small
letter (a, b, c, etc.) after the date:
MLA Style
According to Durrani, it’s hard to find the right balance between appropriate taxation that
allows the government to function and excessive taxation that impedes economic growth
(“Expectations” 89).

APA Style
According to Durrani (2014a), it’s hard to find the right balance between a
­ ppropriate
­taxation that allows the government to function and excessive taxation that impedes
­economic growth (p. 89).

Again, you should turn to Chapter 33 (“Using MLA Style”) and Chapter 34 (“Using
APA Style”) to learn how to cite other kinds of works.

Quoting
32.2 Quote other authors and speakers.
When quoting an author or speaker, you are importing their exact words into your
document. To signal that these words are not yours, always place quotation marks
around them and include a parenthetical citation.
Quoting sounds easy, but you can confuse your readers or even get yourself in
trouble if you don’t properly copy and cite the works of others. You might even be
accused of plagiarism. (Note that the citations in the examples in this section are in
MLA format; APA citations would include a comma and “p.” before each page number.)
 Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Sources 553

Brief Quotations
A brief quotation takes a word, phrase, or sentence directly from an original source.
Always introduce and provide some background about the quotation: Do not expect a
quotation to make your point by itself.
WORDS. If an author uses a word in a unique way, you can put quotes around it in
your own text. After you tell your reader where the word comes from, you don’t need
to continue putting it inside quotation marks.
Acceptable quotation—Using Gladwell’s terms, some important differences exist
between “explicit” learning and “collateral” learning (36).
Unacceptable quotation—Using Gladwell’s terms, some important differences exist
between explicit learning and collateral learning (36).

PHRASES. If you want to use a whole phrase from a source, you need to put quota-
tion marks around it. Then weave the quote into a sentence, making sure it flows with
the rest of your writing.
Acceptable quotation—Tomorrow’s educators need to understand the distinction
between, as Gladwell puts it, “two very different kinds of learning” (36).
Unacceptable quotation—Tomorrow’s educators need to understand the distinction
between, as Gladwell puts it, two very different kinds of learning (36).

SENTENCES. You can also bring entire sentences from another source into your
­ ocument. Use a signal phrase (e.g., “As Gladwell argues,”) or a colon to indicate that
d
you are quoting a whole sentence.
Acceptable quotation—As Gladwell argues, “Meta-analysis of hundreds of studies done
on the effects of homework shows that the evidence supporting the practice is, at best,
modest” (36).
Unacceptable quotation—As Gladwell argues, meta-analysis of hundreds of studies
done on the effects of homework shows that the evidence supporting the practice is,
at best, modest.
Acceptable quotation using a colon—Gladwell summarizes the research this way:
“Meta-analysis of hundreds of studies done on the effects of homework shows that the
evidence supporting the practice is, at best, modest” (36).
Unacceptable quotation using a colon—Gladwell summarizes the research this way:
Meta-analysis of hundreds of studies done on the effects of homework shows that the
evidence supporting the practice is, at best, modest.

Long Quotations
When you need to quote a source at length, format the quotation as a block quote. For
MLA, use block formatting for quotations longer than four lines; for APA, 40 or more
words. A block quote indents the entire quotation to separate it from your normal text.
No quotation marks are used, and the citation appears at the end of the quote, outside
the final punctuation.
554 Chapter 32

A child is unlikely to acquire collateral learning through books or studying for the SAT
exams, Gladwell explains. They do acquire it through play:
Block quote. The point is that books and video games represent two very different kinds of
­learning. When you read a biology textbook, the content of what you read is what
matters. Reading is a form of explicit learning. When you play a video game, the
value is in how it makes you think. Video games are an example of collateral learning,
which is no less important. (2)
The author In asserting that collateral learning “is no less important” than explicit learning, Gladwell
explains what the
implies that American education may be producing students who are imbalanced—with
quote means in
their own words too much content knowledge and too little facility in dealing with unstructured situations,
and optionally the kinds of situations that people are likely to face every day of their working lives. (2)
may include some
quoted words. Use block quotes only when the original quotation cannot be paraphrased and
must be preserved in its full length. Don’t expect a long quotation to make your point
for you. Instead, use the quote to support the point you are making.

Paraphrasing and Summarizing

32.3 Use paraphrase and summary to explain the ideas of others.
When paraphrasing or summarizing, you are using your own words to restate someone
else’s ideas. In some situations, using a paraphrase or summary is preferable to using
a quote. Using too many quotations can make a text look choppy and might lead the
reader to think that you are just stitching together passages from other people’s works.
Paraphrasing allows you to maintain the tone and flow of your writing.
There are four main differences between a paraphrase and a summary:
• A paraphrase handles only a portion of the original text, while a summary often
covers its entire content.
• A paraphrase usually follows the organization of the original source, while a sum-
mary reorganizes the content to highlight the major points.
• A paraphrase is usually about the same length as or a little shorter than the original
text being paraphrased, while a summary is significantly shorter than the original text.
• A paraphrase looks through the text to convey what the author is saying, but sum-
maries can also look at the text to explore an author’s strategies, style, reasoning,
and other choices (see Chapter 4, “Reading Critically, Thinking Analytically”).
Figure 32.1 includes a source text that will be used to discuss paraphrasing and
summarizing in this part of the chapter.

Paraphrasing
The goal of paraphrasing is to explain and describe a portion of the source’s text in
your own words. A paraphrase is usually about the same length as the material being
paraphrased or a little shorter. For example, the following acceptable and unacceptable
paraphrases explain Gladwell’s distinction between “explicit” and “collateral” learning.
 Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Sources 555

Figure 32.1 Source Text

This excerpt from Malcolm Gladwell’s Outliers will be used in this chapter to demonstrate paraphrasing
and summarizing.

The point is that books and video games represent two very different kinds
of learning. When you read a biology textbook, the content of what you read is
what matters. Reading is a form of explicit learning. When you play a video
game, the value is in how it makes you think. Video games are an example of
collateral learning, which is no less important.
Being “smart” involves facility in both kinds of thinking—the kind of fluid
problem solving that matters in things like video games and I.Q. tests, but also
the kind of crystallized knowledge that comes from explicit learning. If
Johnson’s book has a flaw, it is that he sometimes speaks of our culture being
“smarter” when he’s really referring just to that fluid problem-solving facility.
When it comes to the other kind of intelligence, it is not clear at all what kind
of progress we are making, as anyone who has read, say, the Gettysburg
Address alongside any Presidential speech from the past twenty years can
attest. The real question is what the right balance of these two forms of
intelligence might look like. Everything Bad Is Good for You doesn’t answer that
question. But Johnson does something nearly as important, which is to remind
us that we shouldn’t fall into the trap of thinking that explicit learning is the
only kind of learning that matters.
One of the ongoing debates in the educational community, similarly, is over
the value of homework. Meta-analysis of hundreds of studies done on the
effects of homework shows that the evidence supporting the practice is, at best,
modest. Homework seems to be most useful in high school and for subjects
like math. At the elementary-school level, homework seems to be of marginal
or no academic value. Its effect on discipline and personal responsibility is
unproved. And the causal relation between high-school homework and
achievement is unclear: it hasn’t been firmly established whether spending
more time on homework in high school makes you a better student or whether
better students, finding homework more pleasurable, spend more time doing
it. So why, as a society, are we so enamored of homework? Perhaps because
we have so little faith in the value of the things that children would otherwise
be doing with their time. They could go out for a walk, and get some exercise;
they could spend time with their peers, and reap the rewards of friendship. Or,
Johnson suggests, they could be playing a video game, and giving their minds a
rigorous workout.

Acceptable Paraphrase
Gladwell explains that we can think of intelligence (or “smart,” as he calls it) as having
two related but distinct dimensions (36). On the one hand, there is the intelligence we
associate with storing, accessing, and reproducing information and with the ability to
solve certain kinds of problems. This is the kind of intelligence a person gets from reading
556 Chapter 32

books and, generally, from school—what Gladwell calls “explicit” learning. Then there’s
another kind of intelligence that we get through “collateral” learning. When people develop
this kind of intelligence, they have the practical know-how needed to enter a confusing,
complex, chaotic situation and quickly and perhaps intuitively develop a hierarchy of what
needs to be done, how it should be done, and when it should be done. Both kinds of
intelligence are important, Gladwell assures us, but we probably need to think long and
hard about the “right balance” between them.

In this acceptable paraphrase, the writer used primarily her own words. When she
used exact words from Gladwell’s article, she placed them inside quotation marks. Now
let’s look at a paraphrase that is too close to the original source:
Unacceptable Paraphrase
Gladwell explains that being smart requires two kinds of thinking. When a person reads
a textbook, he or she is engaging in explicit learning. Here the crystallized knowledge
that comes from the content of what you read is what matters. Playing video games is
an example of collateral learning. Here the value lies in how the game makes you think
and results in adaptable problem-solving skills. Although many people think that explicit
learning is the only kind that matters, both kinds are important. (36)

The black underlining in this unacceptable paraphrase indicates places where the writer
lifted words and phrases directly from Gladwell’s article. Even though the writer cites
the source, she should have placed these exact words and phrases inside quotation
marks.
When paraphrasing, make sure it’s your voice and not the source’s voice that comes
through. Notice how the voice in the unacceptable paraphrase sounds the same as the
voice of the original source. In contrast, in the acceptable paraphrase, the writer’s voice
comes through clearly.

Summarizing
When summarizing a source, you are capturing its principal idea or ideas in a con-
densed form. A summary can also describe the rhetorical strategies the author has
chosen, such the source’s organization; its tone, angle, or thesis; its style; its underlying
values; or its persuasive strategies. In the following summaries, the writers address the
main idea in Gladwell’s review: the right balance between “explicit” and “collateral”
learning.
Acceptable Paragraph-Length Summary
In the final portion of “Brain Candy,” Gladwell accepts Johnson’s argument that video
games can help develop valuable capacities and extends it further, suggesting that we
overvalue “explicit” learning and undervalue “collateral” learning. But Gladwell clearly and
emphatically explains that the real issue is not whether Americans are getting better at
collateral learning or whether collateral learning is important. “The real question,” asserts
Gladwell, “is what the right balance of these two forms of intelligence might look like”
(36). We need to discuss this question, Gladwell suggests, as a nation because many of
the decision makers in education seem to think that explicit learning is all that matters
 Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Sources 557

without a healthy debate. As his overall main point, Gladwell argues that we have failed to
acknowledge that play also results in an important kind of intelligence.

Notice how this summary focuses on Gladwell’s main point and makes it prominent.
This summary also points out Gladwell’s rhetorical strategies, with words such as
“clearly,” “emphatically,” “asserts,” and “argues.”
An unacceptable summary usually relies too much on the wording of the original
text, and it may not prioritize the most important points in the source text.

Unacceptable Paragraph-Length Summary

In the final portion of “Brain Candy,” Gladwell accepts Johnson’s argument that playing
video games is valuable because of how it makes you think and extends it further, asking
what the right balance between these two forms of intelligence would look like. Gladwell
explains that books and video games deliver two very different kinds of learning (36).
When you read, it’s the content that matters. Reading is a form of explicit learning. P
­ laying
a video game is valuable because of the way it makes you think. Collateral learning is no
less important than explicit learning. But the real question, Gladwell tells us, is figuring
out the right balance of these two forms of intelligence. We need to discuss this q
­ uestion,
Gladwell suggests, as a nation because many of the decision makers in education seem
to be proceeding as if explicit learning is all that matters without a healthy debate. For
example, a number of elementary schools have eliminated recess and replaced it with
math or English (36). They have also increased the amount of homework, even though
nobody knows whether spending more time on homework in high school makes you a
better student or whether better students spend more time on their homework. Gladwell
concludes that as a society, we are so enamored of homework because we do not
­understand the value of the things that children would otherwise be doing with their time.
This is the triumph of the explicit over the collateral.

The underlined phrases in this unacceptable summary show where the writer uses
almost the same wording or structure as the original text. This is called “patchwriting,”
which writing scholar Rebecca Moore Howard defines as “copying from a source text
and then deleting some words, altering grammatical structures, or plugging in one
synonym for another” (xvii). Patchwriting is a form of plagiarism and is discussed later
in this chapter.

Framing Quotes, Paraphrases,

and Summaries
32.4 Frame quotes, paraphrases, and summaries in your texts.
Your readers need to see the boundaries between your work and the material you are
taking from your sources. To help your readers identify these boundaries, you should
frame your quotations, paraphrases, and summaries by using signal phrases, by citing
sources, and by making connections to your own ideas (Figure 32.2).
558 Chapter 32

SIGNAL PHRASE. A signal phrase indicates where the source material comes from.
The words “as” and “in” are often at the heart of a signal phrase (e.g., “As Gladwell
argues,” “In his article ‘Brain Candy,’ Gladwell states”).
DIRECT QUOTATION. Material quoted directly from your source should be sepa-
rated from your own words with commas, quotation marks, and other punctuation to
indicate which words came directly from the source and which are your own.
CITATION. A citation directs readers to the original source’s location, identifying the
exact pages or website. In MLA or APA documentation style, an in-text citation is used
to cite the source. In other documentation styles, you might use a footnote or endnote.
CONNECTION. When you connect the source’s ideas to your ideas, you will make
clear how the source material fits in with your own statements and claims.
Figure 32.2 color-codes these features. The following examples use these colors to
highlight signal phrases, source material, citations, and connections.

As Malcolm Gladwell reminds us, many American schools have eliminated recess in favor
of more math and language studies, favoring “explicit” learning over “collateral” learning
(“Brain” 36). This approach is problematic because it takes away children’s opportunities
to interact socially and problem-solve, which are critical skills in today’s world.
Speculating about why we so firmly believe that homework is critical to academic
­success, Gladwell suggests, “Perhaps because we have so little faith in the value of

Figure 32.2 Framing Material from a Source

Material taken from a source should be clearly framed with a signal phrase, a citation, and a connection to your own
­statements and claims.

Signal phrase Quoted, Citation Connection of

paraphrased, or source’s ideas
summarized to your own
material statements and
claims

• Name the author(s) • Use quotation marks • Use an in-text • Call out a key point
of the source and, or block quotes to citation to signal that from the source to
in some cases, signal direct quotes your source material amplify or emphasize it.
describe the taken from the has ended and to • Comment on the
author’s credentials. source. show readers where source material or
• Use a verb that • Use commas to they can find the one of its major points.
describes what the signal where a original source • Connect the material
author is doing summary or material. to your claims and
(e.g., argues, paraphrase begins. overall purpose.
explains, states). • State the main point
of the quote, para-
phrase, or summary
in simpler terms.
 Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Sources 559

the things that children would otherwise be doing with their time” (36). In other words,
Gladwell is arguing that we are so fearful of letting children play that we fill up their time
with activities like homework that show little benefit.

Similarly, Pinker describes several studies that show that the careers of the future will rely
heavily on creativity and spatial recognition, which means people who can think with the
right side of their brain will have the advantage (65). If so, then we also need to change
our educational system so that we can strengthen our abilities to think with both sides of
the brain, not just the left side.

As shown in these examples, each frame begins with a signal phrase. Signal
phrases typically rely on an action verb that indicates what the author of the source
is trying to achieve in the material that is being quoted, paraphrased, or summarized.
­Figure 32.3 provides a helpful list of verbs you can use to signal quotes, paraphrases,
and summaries.
Your frames should usually end with a connection to your own ideas. In this way, you
are showing readers how the source material fits into your overall discussion or argu-
ment. Your connection should do one of the following things for your readers:
• Call out a key point from the source to amplify or emphasize it.
• Expand on the source material or one of its major points.

Figure 32.3 Verbs for Signal Phrases

Use verbs like these in your signal phrases to introduce quotations, paraphrases, and summaries.

accepts accuses acknowledges

adds admits advises
agrees alleges allows
analyzes announces answers
argues asks asserts
believes charges claims
comments compares complains
concedes concludes confirms
considers contends countercharges
criticizes declares demonstrates
denies describes disagrees
discusses disputes emphasizes
explains expresses finds
grants holds illustrates
implies insists interpret
maintains notes objects
observes offers points out
proclaims proposes provides
quarrels reacts reasons
refutes rejects remarks
replies reports responds
reveals shows states
suggests supports thinks
urges writes
560 Chapter 32

• Connect the source material to your claims and overall purpose.

• Rephrase the main point of the source material in simpler terms.
When handled properly, framing allows you to clearly signal the boundaries between
your source’s ideas and your ideas.

Avoiding Plagiarism
32.5 Avoid plagiarizing the words and ideas of others.
The Council of Writing Program Administrators (2019) defines plagiarism this way:

In an instructional setting, plagiarism occurs when a writer deliberately uses

­someone else’s language, ideas, or other original (not common-knowledge) material
without acknowledging its source.

In college, plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty, and it can lead to a failing

grade on an assignment or even for the class. In the workplace, plagiarism is a form of
copyright infringement in which one person illegally takes the ideas or words of some-
one else without that person’s permission. Copyright infringement can lead to costly
lawsuits and the firing of any employee who commits it.
Plagiarism is not always intentional. Sometimes writers forget to copy down their
sources in their notes. Nevertheless, even accidental plagiarism can result in serious
trouble with your professors, your university, or your employer, so it is crucial that you
understand the kinds of plagiarism and learn to avoid them.

Academic Dishonesty
The most obvious form of plagiarism occurs when someone hands in work that is not
their own. Everyone, including your professors, knows about “cheater websites” that
sell or give away college papers. Everyone also knows about “borrowing” someone
else’s paper. And everyone knows it’s easy to cut and paste a sample paper from the
Internet. (If you found it, chances are good your professor will find it, too.)
The use of artificial intelligence (AI) applications to write papers may also be
considered a form of academic dishonesty. AI applications tend to draw information
from documents on the Internet, synthesize that information, and paraphrase it—
often without citing sources. So, if you use an AI application to write your paper, you
may be accused of handing in “work that is not your own.” You could be accused of
plagiarism.
Listen, your professors aren’t naive. If you intentionally hand in a paper that
you didn’t write yourself, you’re being dishonest. When students get caught, they
often receive a failing grade for the class, which looks bad on their transcripts and
will be difficult to explain to future employers or graduate school admissions com-
mittees. They might even be expelled. Plagiarism that is intentional, such as copy-
ing, buying, or handing in an AI-generated paper, can be identified by plagiarism
checkers and other methods. Few people have sympathy for someone who has
obviously cheated.
 Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Sources 561

You are better off writing your own papers. If your professors allow you to use
AI applications to assist your writing, you can use them to help you brainstorm, find
sources, outline your paper, and edit and proofread your work. But you should do the
composing yourself. Writing your own papers will help you strengthen your analytical
thinking and communication skills.

Patchwriting
Patchwriting was mentioned earlier in this chapter. Usually, patchwriting happens
when writers cut and paste sentences or paragraphs from webpages or other sources,
altering words and sentences to make them look like their own.
When done intentionally, patchwriting is clearly a form of academic dishonesty
because people who do it are presenting someone else’s ideas as their own without
attribution. Some students have even tried to patchwrite an entire paper. They cut and
paste several paragraphs from one source or a variety of sources. Then they add some
transitions and a few of their own sentences while altering the words and sentences
from the original. As a result, little of the paper is based on their own ideas. This kind
of dishonesty usually leads to a failing grade for the assignment and for the class.
Patchwriting can happen unintentionally, especially when a writer cuts and pastes
sentences or paragraphs from a source and then forgets the material was taken from
somewhere else. The writer might even cite the source, not realizing that the text that
was included is too close to the original. Unfortunately, your professor cannot tell
whether you were intentionally being dishonest or just made an honest mistake.
To avoid patchwriting, carefully identify your sources in your notes. Clearly mark
any quotes taken from your sources with quotation marks, brackets, or some other kind
of distinguishing mark. Then, when you use these materials in your document, make
sure you quote, paraphrase, summarize, and cite them properly.

Ideas and Words Taken Without Attribution

In college and in the workplace, you will often need to use ideas, words, phrases, or
sentences from a source. When you do this, you must correctly quote and cite that source.
That is, you must place those words taken directly from sources inside quotation marks
(or block quote them) and provide citations that tell your reader precisely where you
got those words. If you use ideas, words, phrases, or sentences without attribution, you
could be accused of academic dishonesty or copyright infringement.
You do not need to cite a source when stating “common knowledge,” which is infor-
mation that is available from multiple sources and that your readers would consider
accurate and indisputable. However, sometimes it is difficult to determine whether
the information you are providing is common knowledge. If you aren’t sure, cite the
source. Citing a source will add support to your work, and it will help you avoid being
accused of plagiarism.

The Real Problem with Plagiarism

No doubt, plagiarism is easier than ever with the Internet. It’s also easier than ever to
catch someone who is plagiarizing. Your professors can use Google, and they have access
to plagiarism-checking websites. They often have access to collections of papers that
562 Chapter 32

were handed in before. Also, AI plagiarism checkers can also be used to determine if a
document was written by an AI application.
If you plagiarize, there is a good chance you will get caught. But the real problem
with plagiarism is that you are cheating yourself. You’re probably paying thousands of
dollars for your college education. Cheating robs you of the chance to strengthen your
communication skills and prepare for advanced courses and your career.
Of course, there is pressure to do well in your classes, and you don’t always have
enough time to do everything you want. In the end, though, doing your own work will
help you improve and strengthen your mind and abilities. Don’t miss that opportunity.

Quick Start Guide

Here are some helpful guidelines for citing, quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing sources and avoiding
plagiarism.

Decide what to cite, quote, paraphrase, or summarize. Ask yourself what kinds of materials should be
cited, quoted, summarized, or paraphrased in your document. To guide your decisions keep your readers’
needs and the genre in mind.

Cite ideas or information from sources. Any ideas or information that you take from another source
should be cited with a parenthetical citation.

Quote words, phrases, and sentences and cite them. Any words, phrases, or sentences from another
source should be placed in quotation marks and cited with MLA or APA documentation style.

Paraphrase important sources and cite them. When you paraphrase, you are using your own words
and sentence structures to explain an author’s or speaker’s ideas. Paraphrases are usually about the same
length as the original or a little shorter. When you use words from the original text, be sure to quote them.
Paraphrases need to be cited.

Summarize sources with important ideas and cite them. A summary captures the principal ideas of
a source by summarizing the entire work or a major portion of it. Summaries are shorter than the o­ riginal
source material and present the main ideas. They often also explain an author’s rhetorical strategies, such
as ­organization, genre, persuasive strategies, and style.

Use signal phrases to mark quotes, paraphrases, and summaries. A signal phrase uses words like
“as” or “in” to highlight for the readers where a source is being referenced. A variety of signal verbs can also
highlight the beginning of a quote, paraphrase, or summary.

Connect your source’s words and ideas to your own ideas. Explain how your source’s ideas and
words relate to your own ideas. You can’t simply leave it to your readers to figure that out. Instead, call out
key points, explain how the source’s ideas support or otherwise relate to your own, expand on them, or
explain them in simpler terms.

Don’t plagiarize intentionally or unintentionally. Plagiarism, whether intentional or unintentional,

is a form of academic dishonesty. It involves using someone else’s words or ideas without giving that
person proper credit. Intentional plagiarism usually leads to a failing grade for the paper and the course.
Don’t do it.
 Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Sources 563

Activities for Citing, Quoting,

Paraphrasing, and Summarizing
Sources
Talk About This
1. With your group, discuss the kinds of research you have done in the past and
how you have used ideas from sources to inform your own ideas. How do you
think research in college will be handled differently? What kinds of research are
typical in the kinds of careers you might pursue?
2. Look at the example of “patchwriting” at the end of the “Summarizing” section.
Discuss two or three strategies you might use to avoid patchwriting like this in
your own work.
3. With your group, discuss what causes students to plagiarize. Then come up with two
or three strategies professors could use to discourage and prevent p
­ lagiarism. Finally,
discuss what professors and colleges should do when s­ omeone does plagiarize.

Try This Out

1. Choose a television or online commercial and summarize it. Explain not only
what it says but also how it uses rhetorical strategies to inform or persuade.
What is the most challenging aspect of summarizing a commercial accurately?
2. Choose three quotations from a source and practice incorporating them into
something you are writing for this class or another class. Be sure to use a signal
phrase or signal verb.
3. Choose three paragraphs from a source and purposely create an inappropriate
“patchwritten” text. Then transform your patchwritten text into an appropriate
paraphrase. As you rewrite the text, pay attention to the kinds of alterations you
need to make.

Write This
1. Summarize a source. Choose a source text that covers information that you’re
familiar with, and then write down a single sentence that summarizes the
source’s main point in your own words. Now write a one-paragraph summary
of the source, highlighting its major ideas. Finally, turn your one-paragraph sum-
mary into a multiple-paragraph summary that includes quotes and citations.
2. Explain how to handle plagiarism. Write a brief argument paper in which you
discuss how your professors and university should handle plagiarism as AI
applications get better and more common. Offer some ideas about how profes-
sors might allow a limited use of AI applications while steering their students
away from the temptation to completely rely on AI to write their papers.
 Chapter 33
Using MLA Style
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

33.1 use MLA parenthetical citations.

33.2 create bibliographic entries for a works-cited list.
33.3 prepare a works-cited list in MLA style.

Modern Language Association (MLA) documentation style helps you keep track of
your sources while showing your readers where you found the supporting evidence
for your argument. MLA style is most commonly used in the humanities (e.g., ­English,
­history, philosophy, languages, cultural studies). This style is also used in other s­ cholarly
fields because of its flexibility and familiarity.
In this chapter, you will learn how to use MLA style to reference your sources
and create a list of “Works Cited” at the end of your document. The models of MLA
citations shown here are the ones most often used in college and in the workplace. If
you cannot find a model that fits the source you are trying to cite, you should turn to
the MLA Handbook, 9th ed. (2021). You can also look up examples on the Purdue OWL
website (owl.purdue.edu).
On the Internet, an increasing number of online citation generators are avail-
able such as EasyBib, Citation Machine, and BibMe. Your word-processing software
(e.g., MS Word, Google Docs) will often have a built-in citation generator, or you can
use reference manager software (EndNote, Zotero) to generate in-text citations and
your works-cited list. We recommend using these citation generators because they
can help you manage your sources and cite them accurately. However, you should
always make sure the generator is following the most up-to-date MLA documentation
style. Then double-check all citations to make sure they were created correctly. Always
remember that these citation generators are only as accurate as the information you
feed into them.

564
 Using MLA Style 565

Parenthetical Citations
33.1 Use MLA parenthetical citations.
When citing a source, you first need to include a parenthetical reference. A parenthetical
reference usually appears at the end of the sentence that includes information from
your source. For example:

The sonar calls of some bats are as loud as the roar of a jet engine (Yong 249).

For example, in The Robber Bride, Atwood depicts the response of second-wave
­feminism to postfeminism (Tolan 46) through the interactions of three friends with an
aggressive vampire who has returned from the dead.

As shown here, a parenthetical reference includes two important pieces of infor-

mation: the source’s name (usually an author’s name) followed by a single space with
no comma and the page number from the source where the information appeared. The
first of the preceding parenthetical references signals that the information was taken
from a work by someone named Yong on page 249. The second parenthetical reference
signals that its information can be found on page 46 in a source written by someone
named Tolan.
If readers want to see the full citation, they can then turn to the works-cited list at
the end of the document.

Yong, Ed. An Immense World: How Animal Senses Reveal the Hidden Realms Around Us.
Random House, 2022.

Tolan, Fiona. “Sucking the Blood Out of Second Wave Feminism: Postfeminist Vampirism in
Margaret Atwood’s The Robber Bride.” Gothic Studies, vol. 9, no. 2, 2007, pp. 45–57.

The parenthetical reference and the full citation work together. The reference
points to the works-cited list, which provides the information needed for locating
the source.

When the Author’s Name Appears in the Sentence

If you name the author in the sentence, then your parenthetical citation should include
only the page number but not the author’s name. For example:

According to Ed Yong, a Pulitzer Prize–winning science writer, the sonar calls of some
bats are as loud as the roar of a jet engine (249).

In her recent article, Tolan (46) argues that Atwood’s The Robber Bride is really an allegory
of postfeminism, in which three second-wave feminists are confronted with the anxieties
brought about by the postfeminist backlash.

Typically, a parenthetical reference appears at the end of the sentence, but as shown in
the preceding example, it can also appear immediately after the name of the source.
566 Chapter 33

If the first part of your sentence draws information from a source but the remainder
of the sentence represents your own thoughts, you should put the reference immedi-
ately after the source’s material is used. For example:

Glassner argues that naive Americans are victimized by a news media that is engaged in
“fear-mongering” and other scare tactics (205), but I believe the American people are able
to distinguish between real news and sensationalism.

Citing More Than One Source in the Same Sentence

If you want to cite multiple sources that are basically saying the same thing, you can
use one parenthetical reference, separating the sources with semicolons:

George Washington was the only logical choice for President of the United States
because he had the respect of the competing political factions that emerged after the
signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 (Ellis 375; Irving 649).

If you are citing more than one source in the same sentence but they are making
different points, you should put the parenthetical reference as close as possible to the
information taken from each source. For example:

Some historians view Cicero as a principled defender of the dying Roman Republic
(Grant 29), while others see him as an idealistic orator who stood helplessly aside as
the Republic crumbled (Everett 321).

Citing a Source Multiple Times

In some situations, you will need to cite a source multiple times. If your document
­continues to use a single source, you should include only the page number in subse-
quent references as long as no other source comes between them.

New owners often misread the natural signals from their puppies (Monks 139). One ­common
problem is submissive urination in which a puppy shows submission by ­peeing. An owner
will sometimes believe the puppy is acting defiantly, but it is really trying to s­ ignal submission.
So punishing the dog is exactly the wrong thing to do, because it only encourages the
puppy to be even more submissive, resulting in even more puddles on the floor (140).

In the preceding example, the full parenthetical reference is included early in the
paragraph. The second reference, which is only a page number, is clearly referring back
to the source in the first reference.
However, if another source is cited between two parenthetical references to the
same source, the author’s name from the prior source would need to be repeated in a
subsequent reference. For example:

New owners often misread the natural signals from their puppy (Monks 139). One
­common problem is submissive urination in which a puppy shows submission by
­peeing. Owners often believe the puppy is acting defiantly, but it is really trying to signal
 Using MLA Style 567

­submission (Kerns 12). So punishing the dog is exactly the wrong thing to do, because
it only encourages the puppy to be even more submissive, resulting in even more puddles
on the floor (Monks 140).

In the preceding example, the author includes Monks in the last sentence’s r­ eference
because the reference (Kerns 12) appears between the two references to the source
­written by Monks.

Citing a Source with No Page Numbers

If the source has no page numbers (or line numbers or paragraph numbers), you should
not put any number in the in-text citation. Just put the author’s last name in ­parentheses.
Unnumbered paragraphs, like those on a webpage, do not need to be counted for the
in-text citation.

Other Parenthetical References

A wide variety of parenthetical references are possible. Figure 33.1 shows models of
the most commonly used parenthetical references. Choose the model that best fits your
source. If none of these models fits the source you are trying to cite, you can combine

Figure 33.1 Types of MLA Parenthetical References

If you have a source that doesn’t fit the models shown here, you can usually figure out how to cite it by
combining these reference models. If you still cannot figure out how to cite your source, consult the
MLA Handbook or an online guide.

No author for journal article or newspaper article (“Genomics” 23)

No author for newspaper article
Quoted in another source
Webpage or other document with numbered
paragraphs and no pagination
Webpage or other document with numbered
paragraphs or other parts but no author and
no pagination
Use the first prominent word in the title and put it
in quotation marks.
(“Recession” A4)
The letter “A” is the section of the newspaper and
the number is the page.
(qtd. in Franks 94)
“qtd.” stands for “quoted.”
(Reynolds, par. 3)
If the source’s paragraphs are numbered, use “par.”
(for paragraph) with the paragraph number,
separated from the author’s name by a comma. If
the source has chapters or sections, use the labels
“ch.” or “sec.” When citing consecutive parts,
separate the numbers by a dash (e.g., chs. 2–4
means Chapters 2 through 4).
(“Friendly,” par. 7)
Put the first prominent word in the title in quotes,
with “par.” standing for the word “paragraph,”
separated from the author’s name by a comma. If
the source has chapters or sections, use the labels
“ch.” or “sec.” When citing consecutive parts,
separate the numbers by a dash (e.g., chs. 2–4
means Chapters 2 through 4).
568 Chapter 33

these models to come up with something that will work. If you still cannot figure it
out, consult the MLA Handbook or a reliable online resource, such as the Purdue OWL
website.

Preparing the List of Works Cited

33.2 Create bibliographic entries for a works-cited list.
Your list of the works cited appears at the end of your document. In this list, you should
include full citations for all the sources you cite. Your works-cited list should be in
alphabetical order by the authors’ last names and only include sources you cited in the
document. When the author’s name is not known, alphabetize the source by the first
prominent word in its title (ignore words like The, A, or An).
A typical works-cited entry will include specific information in the following order:

Name of Author(s). Title of Source. Title of Container, Other Contributors, Version, Number,
Publisher, Publication Date, Location, Container’s Online Address.

Some items, such as an article or a song, will be included in a larger source, which
MLA calls a “container.” For example, an article is typically contained in a magazine,
newspaper, or website. Similarly, a song might be contained in an album or appear on a
website like YouTube. Here are entries from three types of sources:

Chew, Robin. “Charles Darwin, Naturalist, 1809-1882.” Lucidcafe, 27 June 2012,

www.lucidcafe.com/library/96feb/darwin.html.

Poresky, Louise. “Cather and Woolf in Dialogue: The Professor’s House to the Light House.”
Papers on Language and Literature, vol. 44, no. 1, 2008, pp. 67-86.

Wolf, Maryanne. Reader, Come Home: The Reading Brain in a Digital World.
Harper, 2018.

Including More Than One Source from an Author

If your works-cited list includes two or more sources from the same author, only the first
entry should include the author’s name. Afterward, entries should use three hyphens
instead of the name. Multiple entries from one author should be alphabetized by the
first prominent words in the titles.

Woodruff, Paul. First Democracy: The Challenge of an Ancient Idea. Oxford, 2005.

---. Reverence: Renewing a Forgotten Virtue. Oxford, 2002.

Woodruff, Paul, et al. Living Toward Virtue: Practical Ethics in the Spirit of Socrates.
Oxford, 2022.

As shown, if a single author is also listed as a coauthor for another entry, you should
include the full name again without the three hyphens.
 Using MLA Style 569

Citing a Source That Appears in First and

Second Containers
Here’s where things become a little more complicated. Sometimes, a source will appear
in a first container that was accessed in a second container. For example, let’s say you
want to cite an essay that originally appeared in a book (first container) but that you
accessed from an online database (a second container). This source has two containers.
The information would be cited like this:

Author(s). Title of Source. Title of First Container, Other Contributors, Version, Number,
Publisher, Publication Date, Location. Title of Second Container, Location.

To help you see how this second container works, here is an example of the same essay
that was found in a print source and through an online source.

Ellison, Ralph. “The World and the Jug.” The Collected Essays of Ralph Ellison, edited by
John Callahan. Modern Library, 2003, pp. 155-88.

Ellison, Ralph. “The World and the Jug.” The Collected Essays of Ralph Ellison, edited by
John Callahan. Modern Library, 2003, pp. 155-88. Google Books, books.google.com/
books?id=GT3oSgZKvQoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=collected+essays&hl=en&sa=
X&ved=0ahUKEwiBmJjQz6LMAhWis4MKHcMzCNEQ6AEIMTAD#v=onepage&q=
collected%20essays&f=false.

Formatting a List of Works Cited

Start the works-cited list on a new page with the centered heading “Works Cited” at
the top (Figure 33.2). Entries are double-spaced in hanging-indent format, which
means the first line of each entry is not indented but the rest are indented a half inch.

Figure 33.2 Formatting a List of Works Cited

MLA style requires that the heading “Works Cited” be centered on the page. The margins should be
one inch on all sides. The entries should be double-spaced with hanging-indent format.

Torres 12

Works Cited

Barber, Paul. Vampires, Burial, and Death. New Haven: Yale UP, 1989.

Bluestein, Gene. Poplore: Folk and Pop in American Culture. Amherst: U of

Massachusetts P, 1994.

Keyworth, Donald. “Was the Vampire of the Eighteenth Century a Unique

Type of Undead Corpse?” Folklore, vol. 117, no. 3, 2000, pp. 1-16.

Todorova, Maria. Imagining the Balkans. Oxford UP, 1996.

570 Chapter 33

Citing Sources in the List of Works Cited

33.3 Prepare a works-cited list in MLA style.
The following examples of MLA citations are based on the guidelines in the MLA
­Handbook (9th ed., 2021). We have included models of the most common kinds of entries
in a works-cited list. If you do not find a model for a source, you should turn to the
MLA Handbook, its associated website (style.mla.org), or a more comprehensive online
source like the Purdue OWL website.

MLA List of Works Cited

Books and Other Nonperiodical
Publications
1. Book, One Author
2. Book, Two Authors
3. Book, Three or More Authors
4. Book, with Editor
5. Book, Corporation or Organization
as Author
6. Book, Edited Collection
7. Book, Translated
8. Book, Author Unknown
9. Book, Second Edition or Beyond
10. Book, in E-book Format
11. Document, Government Publication
12. Document, Pamphlet
13. Foreword, Introduction, Preface,
or Afterword
14. Sacred Text
15. Dissertation, Unpublished
Book Chapters and Entries in
Reference Works
16. Chapter or Article in an Edited
Collection
17. Dictionary or Encyclopedia Entry
18. Wikipedia Entry
Journals, Magazines, and
Other Periodicals
19. Article, Journal with Volume and
Issue Numbers
20. Article, Journal with Digital Object
Identifier (DOI)
21. Article, Magazine
22. Article, Newspaper
23. Article, Author Unknown
24. Editorial
25. Review
Web Publications
26. Corporate Author
27. Website, Author Known
28. Website, Author Unknown
29. Article from an Online
Periodical
30. Comment from a Website
31. Article from an Online Scholarly
Journal
32. Periodical Article Accessed Through
a Database (Web)
Other Kinds of Sources
33. Film or Video Recording
34. Television Series
35. Television Episode
36. Podcast Series
37. Podcast Episode
38. Song or Audio Recording
39. Online Video (e.g., YouTube)
40. Work of Art
41. Print Advertisement
42. Blog Post
 Using MLA Style 571

43. Microblog Post (X, Threads) 46. Personal Correspondence, E-Mail,

44. Social Media Post (Instagram, or Interview
­Facebook, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, etc.) 47. Artificial Intelligence Generated Text
45. Instagram Photo or Video

Citing Books and Other Nonperiodical Publications

Books and other nonperiodical publications are perhaps the easiest to list in the works-
cited list. A book citation will have some of the following features:

1 2 3 4 5
Author. Title. Other contributors. Publisher, year of publication.

The “other contributors” are people like editors, translators, illustrators, or producers
who need to be acknowledged in addition to the author. These names are preceded by a
phrase identifying their contribution: edited by, translated by, directed by, performance by,
and so on.

1. Book, One Author

Woodruff, Paul. Reverence: Renewing a Forgotten Virtue. 2nd ed. Oxford UP, 2014.

2. Book, Two Authors

Bawarshi, Anis S., and Mary Jo Reiff. Genre: An Introduction to History, Theory,
Research, and Pedagogy. Parlor, 2010.

3. Book, Three or More Authors

Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning.
Belknap, 2014.
Note: When a source has three or more authors, use the first author’s name
­followed by et al.

4. Book, with Editor

Albery, Ian, et al. Complete Psychology. 2nd ed. Edited by Graham Davey,
Routledge, 2014.

5. Book, Corporation or Organization as Author

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders. 5th ed., APA, 2013.

6. Book, Edited Collection

Stout, Glenn. The Year’s Best Sports Writing 2021. Triumph, 2021.

7. Book, Translated
Curie, Eve. Madame Curie: A Biography. Translated by Vincent Sheean, Doubleday,
Doran & Company, 1937.

8. Book, Author Unknown

Collins Beekeeper’s Bible. Harpercollins Reference, 2010.
572 Chapter 33

9. Book, Second Edition or Beyond

Kottak, Conrad. Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity. 12th ed.,
McGraw Hill, 2008.

10. Book, in E-book format

Carnes, Kelly. Next Generation Innovation: Supercharge Your Business through
Strategic Government Partnerships. E-book, Advantage Books, 2023.

11. Document, Government Publication

Arguin, Paul, et al., editors. Health Information for International Travel 2007-2008:
The Yellow Book. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2007.

12. Document, Pamphlet

Torture, American Style. Historians Against the War, 2006.

13. Foreword, Introduction, Preface, or Afterword

Parker, Hershel. Foreword. Moby-Dick, by Herman Melville, Northwestern UP, 2001,
pp. xiii-xvi.

14. Sacred Text

The Bible. The New Oxford Annotated Version, 3rd ed., Oxford UP, 2001.

15. Dissertation, Unpublished

Charlap, Marie-Helene. “Once with Women, Now with Women: A Qualitative Study of
Identity.” New York U, 2008. Dissertation.

Citing Book Chapters and Entries in Reference Works

16. Chapter or Article in an Edited Collection Text
Poblete, Juan. “Citizenship and Illegality in the Global California Gold Rush.” The Latino
Nineteenth Century, edited by Rodrigo Lazo and Jesse Aleman, NYU Press, 2016,
pp. 278–300.

17. Dictionary or Encyclopedia Entry

Knieper, Thomas. “Political Cartoon.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Feb. 2018,
www.britannica.com/topic/political-cartoon. Accessed 16 March 2023.

18. Wikipedia Entry

“Mycobacterium.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, 10 Mar 2023, Wikimedia
Foundation, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium.

Citing Journals, Magazines, and Other Periodicals

Citations for articles that appear in “containers,” such as journals, magazines, and other
regularly published periodicals, need to include additional information that identifies
where the article was published.
 Using MLA Style 573

A citation for an article contained in a journal, magazine, or other periodical

­publication includes the following features:

1 2 3 4 5
Author. “Article Title.” Journal Title, Other contributors, volume number, issue number,
6 7
date of publication, page numbers.

19. Article, Journal with Volume and Issue Numbers

Marinari, Maddalena. “1921 and 1924 Immigration Acts a Century Later: Roots
and Long Shadows.” Journal of American History, vol. 109, no. 2, 2022,
pp. 271-283.

20. Article, Journal with Digital Objective Identifier (DOI)

O’Hagan, Belinda, et al. “Identifying Components of Autism Friendly Health Care: An
Exploratory Study Using a Modified Delphi Method.” Journal of Developmental &
Behavioral Pediatrics, vol. 44, no. 1, Jan. 2023, pp. 12-18. https://doi: 10.1097/
DBP.0000000000001139.

21. Article, Magazine

Gritz, Jennie Rothenberg. “Knowing the Shore.” Smithsonian Magazine, Nov.-Dec.
2022, pp. 88-101.

22. Article, Newspaper

Uyttebrouck, Olivier. “AG: NM Manager Needed for Wildfire Claims.” The Albuquerque
Journal, 30 Dec. 2022, p. A3.

23. Article, Author Unknown

“The Big Chill Leaves Bruises.” The Albuquerque Tribune, 17 Jan. 2004, p. A4.

24. Editorial
Editorial Board. “D.C. Needs More Bike Lanes, and Fast.” The Washington Post,
30 Dec. 2022, www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2022/12/30/washington-dc-
bike-lanes-commute.

25. Review
Toibin, Colm. Review of The North Water by Ian McGuire. The New York Times Book
Review, 11 Apr. 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/04/17/books/review/the-north-
water-by-ian-mcguire.html?_r=0.

Citing Web Publications

When citing sources from the web, the largest challenge involves the dates of the
­material. If a web source does not have a stable URL or DOI and does not include a
date or if the date is not specific, include the word “Accessed” and the date on which
574 Chapter 33

you last accessed the source (Figure 33.3 and Figure 33.4). This access date should also
be added if the site can be altered or is frequently updated.

26. Website, Corporate Author

“What Is Usability?” The Usability of Knowledge. User Experience Professionals’
Association, 2010, www.usabilitybok.org/what-is-usability. Accessed
12 Mar. 2016.

27. Website, Author Known

Nervi, Mauro. “Kafka’s Life (1883-1924).” The Kafka Project, 1 Aug. 2011, www
.kafka.org/index.php?biography. Accessed 5 Dec. 2022.

28. Website, Author Unknown

“Acute Sinusitis.” Mayo Clinic, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/acute-
sinusitis/symptoms-causes/syc-203516711. Accessed 12 Jan. 2023.

29. Article from an Online Periodical

Belonio, Kristine. “Video Games Do Not Affect Kids’ Cognitive Abilities.” Medical Daily,
8 Feb. 2023, medicaldaily.com/video-games-negative-effects-cognitive-abilities-
children-468023. Accessed 10 Mar. 2023.

30. Comment from a Website

LogicandReason. Comment on “How Reading a Novel Can Improve the Brain.” ABC
News, 12 Jan. 2014, 9:45 p.m., abcnews.go.com/Technology/reading-improve-
brain/story?id=21501657. Accessed 18 Oct. 2018.

31. Article from an Online Scholarly Journal

Dougherty, Timothy R. “Knowing (Y)Our Story: Practicing Decolonial Rhetorical
History.” Enculturation, vol. 21, 20 Apr. 2016, enculturation.net/knowing-your-
story. Accessed 25 Jan. 2020.

32. Periodical Article Accessed Through a Database (Web)

Lu, Xiaofei, and Haiyang Ai. “Syntactic Complexity in College-Level English Writing:
Differences among Writers with Diverse L1 Backgrounds.” Journal of Second
Language Writing, vol. 29, Sept. 2015, pp. 16-27. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/j.
jslw.2015.06.003. Accessed 19 Apr. 2023.
 Using MLA Style 575

Figure 33.3 Citation Map: Citing a Scholarly Journal on the Web

A citation for an article from a scholarly journal on the web includes the following features:

Name of the author, last name first
Title of the work in quotation marks
Name of the journal in italics
Volume number and issue number
Date of publication (year for scholarly journal)
Range of page numbers for whole article
Location (URL or DOI)
8 Your date of access, if the site has
no date, or changes frequently

Author. “Article Title.” Journal Title, volume number, issue number, date, page numbers.

URL or DOI.

Marmolego, Gloria, et al. “False Memory in Bilinguals: Does Switching Languages Increase False

Memories?” American Journal of Psychology, vol. 122, no. 1, 2009, pp. 1-16. www.jstor.org/stable/

i27784368.

Volume, issue

Name of journal Date of publication

Title of work

Authors

Page numbers
available on PDF

Location (URL or DOI)

Date of access
576 Chapter 33

Figure 33.4 Citation Map: Citing an Article or Other Source from a Database or Other Electronic
Collection
If you need to cite a source that has two containers (e.g., an article in a journal in a database, a song in an album accessed
on YouTube, or a poem from a book included in Google Books), the citation will have the following features:

Name of the author, last name first
Title of the work in quotation marks
Name of the journal in italics
Volume number and issue number
Date of publication (year for scholarly journal)
Range of page numbers for whole article
Name of database
8 DOI or stable URL of article on database
9 Your date of access, if the site has no
date, or changes frequently

7
Author. “Article Title.” Journal Title, volume number, issue number, year, page range. Database,
8
DOI or stable URL.

McGee, Elizabeth, and Mark Shelvin. “Effect of Humor on Interpersonal Attraction and Mate Selection.”
5 6 7 8
Journal of Psychology, vol. 143, no. 1, 2009, pp. 67-77. Academic Search Premier, doi:10.3200/JRLP.

143.1.67-77.

Name of database

Title of work

Authors

Page numbers

Volume, issue

Date of publication

Name of journal

Location (URL or DOI)

Date of access
 Using MLA Style 577

Citing Other Kinds of Sources

There are many other kinds of sources. Especially for performances, you may choose to
begin a citation with an artist’s name, a director or producer’s name, or the title of the
work. Consult the MLA Handbook for specific examples.

Name of author, writer, or performer (last name, first name)

Title of the work (italics for complete work, quotation marks
for episode, song, or part of a whole)
Title of container, in italics, if applicable
Other contributors
Publisher or broadcaster
Publication or broadcast date
Location (a city with state or country)
8 Title of second container (if applicable), in italics
9 Online source for second container (usually
a Web address)

33. Film or Video Recording

Nope. Directed by Jordan Peele, performances by Daniel Kaluuya, Keke Palmer,
Steven Yeun, Michael Wincott, Brandon Perea and Keith David, Universal
Pictures, 2022.

34. Television Series

Roland, Graham, creator. Dark Winds. Rolling Cactus, Inc., and Eleventh Northwest,
2022.

35. Television Episode

“Shadow Acting.” Dark Winds, created by Roland Graham, performances by Zahn
McClarnon, Kiowa Gordon, and Jessica Matten. Season 1, episode 2, Rolling
Cactus, Inc., and Eleventh Northwest, 19 Jun. 2022.

36. Podcast Series

Koenig, Sarah, creator and host. Serial, season 1, from WBEZ, 2014, serialpodcast.org.

37. Podcast Episode

“Inconsistencies.” Serial from WBEZ, 10 Oct. 2014, hosted by Sarah Koenig, season 1,
episode 4, serialpodcast.org/season-one/4/inconsistencies.

38. Song or Audio Recording

Selena. “Rare.” Rare, Interscope Records. YouTube Music, music.youtube.com/
watch?v=lIKQNZLNBGw.
578 Chapter 33

39. Online Video (e.g., YouTube)

Vox. “It’s Not You. Bad Doors Are Everywhere.” YouTube, 26 Feb. 2016,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=yY96hTb8WgI. Accessed 1 Mar. 2016.

40. Work of Art

Degas, Edgar. The Star. 1879/81, The Art Institute of Chicago.

41. Print Advertisement

GEICO. “We Stand for Saving Money.” Newsweek, 26 Mar. 2012.

42. Blog Posting

Joe Monahan. “A salary for NM lawmakers? Not without some political risk.” New
Mexico Politics with Joe Monahan, 6 Mar. 2023, joemonahansnewmexico.blogspot
.com/2023_03_05_archive.html#873259295695690992#873259295695690992.
Accessed 10 Mar. 2023.

43. Microblog Post (X, Threads)

@karaswisher. “Yeah super diverse group of managers at SVB—I mean, all the white
dudes had different colored jackets.” Twitter, 14 Mar. 2023, 7:30 a.m., twitter.com/
karaswisher/status/1635694401216294945.

44. Social Media Post (Instagram, Facebook, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, etc.)

San Diego Zoo. Please join us in wishing Mary a very happy birthday. Facebook, 9 Jan.
2020. www.facebook.com/SanDiegoZoo/posts/10159164212122147. Accessed
20 Jan. 2020.

45. Instagram Photo or Video

Thegrantplant [@thegrantplant]. Photograph of flyer for 2023 Evaluation Lab
Summer Institute. Instagram, 5 Apr. 2023, 11:09 a.m., www.instagram.com/p/
CodgQ1hOKgn/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link.

46. Personal Correspondence, E-Mail, or Interview

Stradler, Josephine E. “Fwd: Business Proposal.” Received by Pete Tommel,
4 Sept. 2014.

47. Artificial Intelligence Generated Text

“Summarize the argument made by George Lakoff in Metaphors We Live By” prompt.
ChatGPT, Feb. 13 version, 12 Mar. 2023, OpenAI, https://chat.openai.com/chat.

A Student’s MLA-Style Research Paper

The following document uses MLA citation style. You can use this document to observe
how an author uses MLA citation style under real conditions, including parenthetical
references and a list of works cited.
 Using MLA Style 579

Naidus 1
Brian Naidus

PCD 3442

Dr. Will Crampton

12 May 2023

A Whole New World: A Background on the

Life of the Freshwater Shark

The shark has easily become one of the most popular and recognizable

marine species in our culture today. This animal is a cartilaginous fish of the

subclass Selachimorpha, which belongs to the more notorious class,

Chondrichthyes (Waggoner). This diverse group has a plethora of variation and

diversity; over 2,000 recorded fossilized species. The first sharks appeared

between 450 and 420 million years ago, with the earliest known fossil to be a Dates and figures
from credible
400 million year old shark known as Leonodus (Martin, “Origin”). Although the sources strengthen
the report.
shark had evolved to inhabit almost strictly marine environments, this species

had specialized teeth, indicating that it may have lived in freshwater habitats.

This ancient species belonged to a family known as xenacanths, a group of

early freshwater sharks that existed at this time.

Currently, there are a few freshwater species of shark, which remain mostly

under the radar, due to their more popular oceanic family members This citation
includes a page
(Compagno et al. 54). The bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas, is a species that is not number because
it is from a
only common in warm, coastal waters, but is also able to tolerate freshwater print source.

(Curtis). It is often showcased for its extremely aggressive behavior, and is

This citation does
undoubtedly the most recognized of the 43 members of the Selachimorpha
not include a page
number because it
that are said to have been reported in freshwater habitats. Among these are
is from a webpage.
the six members of the “River Sharks,” which reside in the East-Indian and

West-Central Pacific Oceans. Very little is known about these rare and possibly

endangered species, although they resemble, cohabit with, and are sometimes
580 Chapter 33

Naidus 2

mistaken for bull sharks themselves. Some sharks may tolerate brackish

water; however, some have seemed to prefer water with low or no salinity. All

these species share an interesting evolutionary past and their behavior and

biology continues to mystify those who study them.

The history of sharks is far-branching and can lead to heavy debate. Some

species may grow and shed tens of thousands of teeth within a matter of

years. For this reason, their species remains a personal favorite with

paleontologists and has been extensively identified. The first fossilized sharks

were recognized by their double-cusped teeth, which heavily favors the

possibility that these animals were a freshwater species (Martin, “Origin”). The
A couple sources
from this author teeth of these ancient fish were different than those of modern sharks (see Fig.
(Martin) are cited, so
the first prominent 1). Multi-cusped teeth primarily allow the shark to grasp its prey and swallow
word is added to the
in-text citation. it whole, while modern teeth have evolved as serrated, single-cusped teeth,

Imagebroker / Alamy Stock Photo

Visuals should be
placed where they Fig. 1. Shark Teeth. Ancient multi-cusped teeth for grasping
can support specific
points. and swallowing prey whole.
 Using MLA Style 581

Naidus 3

which allow the shark to tear and gouge its prey and to refrain from

swallowing its food whole (“Shark Evolution”). This source has no

named author, so
Freshwater sharks can be found in two separate habitats. First, they will the first prominent
words in the title are
arrive in coastal rivers via the sea. Second, sharks can be found in lakes, which used.

have little or no direct contact with the sea (Budker 137). In the first scenario,

freshwater sharks can choose which habitat to live in; temporal or seasonal

factors allow the shark to either remain in the freshwater or return to brackish

or marine coastal waters. However, if rivers dry up or change course, sharks

may be quarantined in lakes, where they are subject to allopatric speciation. If

they happen to survive, they will eventually give rise to the formation of new

specialized species.

One of these sharks is the bull shark, or Carcharhinus leucas, the most

infamous of all sharks to have freshwater ties. It could be the fish’s broad

habitat or resounding aggressiveness that has labeled it the world’s most

dangerous shark. Not only can attacks occur in warm coastal waters, but bull

shark incidents have been reported hundreds of miles up inland river systems!

This species, which can grow up to 500 pounds and 11 feet in length, are

known by other names such as the Zambezi Shark in Africa, or the Lake

Nicaragua shark in Central America (Curtis). Their habitat stretches across the

globe; however, these sharks prefer to stay in warm, shallow, murky waters

either on the coast or in inland brackish or freshwaters.

Bull sharks presently have a vast habitat in the lakes of Central America.

Sharks and sawfish can be seen in Lake Izabel, the largest lake in Guatemala;

however, they are most known to reside in the waters of Lake Nicaragua. These

sharks were first believed to be Brown Sharks, and it wasn’t until the 1960s

that scientists determined that the sharks in Lake Nicaragua were in fact
582 Chapter 33

Naidus 4

species of Carcharhinus leucas. Much of what we know about these animals can

be attributed to the research put together by “The Status of the Freshwater

Shark of Lake Nicaragua,” assembled by Thomas Thorson, Donald Watson, and

Michael Cowan in 1966.

Lake Nicaragua is connected to the sea by the San Juan River, which

distributes sharks from lake to sea. These 1966 studies reported that sharks

use this path, and during times when the river level was low, they discovered

that the sharks actually navigate upriver through rapids from the Caribbean,

much as spawning salmon do (McCollam).

The Bull Shark can be found in the Mississippi River in the United States and

has been recorded in the Amazon River as far as 4,000 km from the sea! Leucas is

also extremely prevalent in the Ganges River in India. These sharks have an

indiscriminate palate; they will eat almost everything. In the Ganges, they often

feed on deceased bodies fed to the river during funerals, a tradition practiced by

many locals. Many shark attacks will appear in this area and this species is

often confused with the Ganges Shark, Glyphis gangeticus (Curtis).

Sharks, which are primarily marine organisms, are only able to withstand

and tolerate fresh water, depending on the animal’s capability to change. History

shows that the first recorded shark was thought to be a freshwater species.

Many marine biologists and psychologists believe that all of the earliest marine

specimens actually inhabited freshwater or slightly brackish water.

Elasmobranches were thought to transition from freshwater into the sea in the

mid-Devonian Period, and ultimately, be able to transfer back and forth between

habitats (Gilbert et al. 265).

This point of view would be a definite milestone; if sharks evolved from their

freshwater ancestors, then the ability of Elasmobranches to survive in saltwater

 Using MLA Style 583

Naidus 5

would likely be viewed as an impressive applied adaptation. The argument that

freshwater species preceded saltwater species is based on the fact that an

organism’s kidneys are more developed in freshwater fish species. This subject

is extremely controversial, yet there is not enough evidence to deduce where the

first sharks lived.

Most organisms would more than likely have trouble adjusting their eyesight

from the different densities of water salinity. However, sharks as a whole rarely

rely on their eyes; their other senses are much more important to them. River

sharks inhabit murky waters with little or no visibility so it can be suggested

that their small beady eyes are not much of a factor in deciding whether or not

to venture into new salinities.

On the other hand, osmoregulation in sharks seems to ask the main

question: how can a shark’s circulatory and urinary systems deal with the

change in the salinities? As we know, teleost fishes constantly drink sea water

to keep a higher concentration of salt in their bodies. Unlike these fish, a shark’s

salt concentrations are hypertonic to the surrounding water, meaning they must

keep a constant supply of water running through their gills. A few experiments

have been done comparing the freshwater Bull Shark to its marine counterpart.

Looking at the Lake Nicaragua species, Thorson, Watson, and Cowan When describing the
findings of an entire
concluded that when juxtaposed with its marine equivalent, the freshwater work and when the
reference is included
species showcased a loss of osmotic pressure; it measured about two-thirds in the sentence, no
parenthetical
of that of the marine species. They concluded that the loss of pressure was citation is needed.

due to a 20 percent reduction in bodily sodium and chloride (excreted by the

rectal gland) and a reduction of half of the animal’s urea production. These

freshwater animals adapt by critically diluting their urine and increasing their

urine rate to around 20 times that of sharks residing in the ocean. In sum, the
584 Chapter 33

Naidus 6

internal salt concentration of freshwater Elasmobranches is lower than that

of their marine counterparts, but it is still much higher than the internal

concentrations of saltwater game fishes (Martin, “Freshwater”).

Freshwater sharks have lived a life in the shadows, while the abundant

groups of marine sharks have shone in the spotlight. Nonetheless, many

species do spend plenty of time in waters with lower salinities, and history

reveals that the first sharks may have been freshwater-dwelling. Bull Sharks

continue to have the most freshwater influence, and their broad habitat

sometimes allows people to mistake them for other species, such as the river

sharks of the Ganges River. These sharks have adapted to new waters mostly

through techniques of osmoregulation and reduced osmotic pressure.

Freshwater sharks can tell us a lot about the past, present, and future of any

shark species, and they truly evoke a feeling of appreciation for one of the

oldest and most magnificent animals on the planet.

 Using MLA Style 585

Naidus 7

Works Cited

Budker, Paul. The Life of Sharks. Columbia UP, 1971.

Compagno, Leonard, et al. Sharks of the World. Princeton UP, 2005.

Curtis, Tobey. “Bull Shark.” Ichthyology. Florida Museum of Natural History,

www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/discover/species-profiles/carcharhinus-leucas.

Accessed 18 Mar. 2011.

Gilbert, Perry, et al. Sharks, Skates, and Rays. Johns Hopkins UP, 1967.

Martin, R. Aidan. “Freshwater Sharks and Rays.” Physiology. ReefQuest Centre

for Shark Research, www.elasmo-research.org/education/

topics/p_fw_rays.htm. Accessed 20 Mar. 2011.

---. “Origin of Modern Sharks.” Shark Evolution. ReefQuest Centre for Shark

Research, www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/

origin_modern.htm. Accessed 20 Mar. 2011.

McCollam, Douglass. “The Bull Shark.” Slate, 18 July 2001,

www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/the_gist/2001/07/the_

bull_shark.html.

“Shark Evolution.” Shark Evolution. BioExpedition Publishing,

www.sharks-world.com/shark_evolution/. Accessed 27 Mar. 2011.

Thorson, Thomas, et al. “The Status of the Freshwater Shark of Lake

Nicaragua.” American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, vol. 1966, no.

3, 7 Sept. 1966, pp. 385-402. JSTOR, doi:10.2307/1441058.

Waggoner, Ben. “Introduction to the Chondrichthyes.” UCMP, www.

ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/basalfish/chondrintro.html. Accessed 30

Mar. 2011.
 Chapter 34
Using APA Style
In this chapter, you will learn how to—

34.1 use APA parenthetical citations.

34.2 create bibliographic entries for a references list.
34.3 prepare a references list in APA style.

American Psychological Association (APA) documentation style, like MLA style

(­Chapter 33), is a method for keeping track of the sources you are using to support
your claims while letting readers know where you found your facts, quotes, and other
evidence. APA style is commonly used in the social sciences, physical sciences, and
technical fields.
In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style to reference your sources and
create a list of “References” at the end of your document. The models of APA citations
shown here are the ones most commonly used in college and in the workplace. For more
information on APA style, consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association, 7th edition (2020).

Parenthetical Citations
34.1 Use APA parenthetical citations.
When citing a source with APA style, you first need to include a parenthetical ­citation.
This appears in the text of your document, usually at the end of the sentence that
includes the information from your source. For example:

The sonar calls of some bats are as loud as the roar of a jet engine (Yong, 2022, p. 249).

Among Africa’s other problems, the one that is most significant may be its lack of reliable
electrical energy (Friedman, 2008, p. 155).

As shown in the preceding examples, a full parenthetical citation includes three

important pieces of information: the source’s name (usually an author’s name), the year
the source was published, and the exact location of information in the source (usually
a page number).

586
 Using APA Style 587

If readers want to, they can then turn to the list of “References” at the end of the
document to see the full citation, which will look like this:

Yong, E. (2022). An immense world: How animal senses reveal the hidden realms around us.
Random House.

In other words, the parenthetical citation and the full reference work together. The
parenthetical citation points readers to the references list, which includes all the infor-
mation needed to locate the source.
APA style also allows you to refer to a whole work by simply listing the author’s
name and the year of the source. For example:

Genetics are a new frontier for understanding schizophrenia (Swaminatha, 2008).

Autism and psychosis have been shown to be diametrical disorders of the brain (Crespi &
Badcock, 2008).

In situations where you are specifically highlighting a study or author, you should
move the full parenthetical reference up in the sentence:

According to one study (Adreason & Pierson, 2008), the cerebellum plays a key role in the
onset of schizophrenia.

Three books (Abraham & Llewellyn-Jones, 1992; Boskind-White & White, 2000; Burby,
1998) have tried to explain bulimia to nonscientists.

When the Author’s Name Appears in the Sentence

If you include the author’s name in the sentence, your parenthetical citation should include
only the year of the source and the page number. The year should follow the name of the
source, and the page number is usually placed at the end of the sentence. For example:

According to Ed Yong (2022), a Pulitzer Prize–winning science writer, the sonar calls of
some bats are as loud as the roar of a jet engine (p. 249).

Friedman (2008) argues that Africa’s most significant problem may be its lack of electrical
energy (p. 155).

If one part of your sentence draws information from a source but the remainder of
the sentence states your own thoughts, you should put the reference immediately after
you describe the information from the source. For example:

As Dennet (1995) points out, scientists are uncomfortable with the idea that nature uses a
form of reason (p. 213), but I think we must see nature as a life form that is looking out for
its best interests.

Citing More Than One Source in the Same Sentence

In APA style, it is common to cite multiple sources that provide the same or similar
information, separated with semicolons:

Several researchers (Crespi & Badcock, 2008; Shaner et al., 2004, p. 102; Swaminatha,
2008) have shown the toll that schizophrenia takes on a family.
588 Chapter 34

In the preceding sentence, the writer is referring to entire works by Crespi and
Badcock and by Swaminatha, but she is referring only to page 102 in the article by
Shaner, Miller, and Mintz.
If you are citing more than one source in the same sentence but they are making
different points, you should put the parenthetical reference as close as possible to the
information taken from each source. For example:

Depression is perhaps one of the most common effects of bulimia (McCabe et al.,
2004, p. 19), and this depression “almost always impairs concentration” (Sherman &
Thompson, 1996, p. 57).

Citing a Source Multiple Times

In some situations, you will need to cite a source multiple times. If your document
continues to use a single source, then subsequent citations should include only the page
number unless another source comes between them. For example:

The side effects of brain tumor treatment can include fatigue, brain swelling, hair loss, and
depression (Black, 2006, p. 170). Hair loss and other outward signs of treatment can be
the most disturbing. Depression, however, perhaps needs more attention because it often
requires patients to take antidepressants and stimulants (p. 249).

In the preceding example, the full parenthetical citation is included early in the ­paragraph.
The second reference, which includes only a page number, is clearly referring back to the
source in the first reference.
However, if another source is cited between two parenthetical citations to the
same source, the author’s name from the first source would need to be repeated in a
­subsequent reference. For example:

The side effects of brain tumor treatment can include fatigue, brain swelling, hair loss,
and depression (Black, 2006, p. 170). Hair loss and other outward signs of treatment can
be the most disturbing. For instance, Becker (2003) discusses her obsession with hiding
the incision where the tumor was removed (p. 231). Depression, however, perhaps needs
more attention because it often requires patients to take antidepressants and stimulants
(Black, 2006, p. 249).

In the preceding example, the author includes a full parenthetical reference to Black
in the final sentence of the paragraph because the reference to Becker (2003) appears
between the first and second references to Black.

Other Parenthetical Citations

Figure 34.1 shows models of some common parenthetical citations. Choose the one
that best fits your source. If none of these models fits the source you are ­t rying
to cite, you can use combinations of these models. If you still cannot figure it
out, turn to the APA Publication Manual (2020) or the Purdue Online Writing Lab
(owl.purdue.edu).

Figure 34.1 Types of APA Parenthetical Citations
Not all possible parenthetical citations are shown here. If you have a unique source that doesn’t fit
these examples, you can usually figure out how to cite it by combining these reference models.
Type of Source
Single author
Single author, multiple pages
Two authors
Three or more authors
Multiple sources in same parenthetical citation
Two or more works by the same author
Two or more works by the same author in the
same year
Different authors with the same last name
Corporate author
No author for book
No author for journal article or newspaper article
No author for newspaper article
Content cited in another source
Personal communication
Using APA Style 589
Example Parenthetical Reference
(Gerns, 2009, p. 12)
(Barnes, 2007, pp. 5–9) or (Barnes, 2007, pp. 34, 121)
The dash signals a range of pages. The comma
suggests that similar information can be found on
two nonconsecutive pages. The “pp.” signals
multiple pages.
(Hammonds & Gupta, 2004, p. 203)
The ampersand (&) is used instead of “and.”
(Gym et al., 2005, p. 845)
(Thames & Cain, 2008; Young, Morales, & Cato,
2009; Yu, 2004)
The semicolon separates the sources.
(Tufte, 2001, p. 23) and (Tufte, 2003)
The author’s name is used with the date.
(Tufte, 2001a, p. 23) and (Tufte, 2001b, p. 11)
The “a” and “b” signal two different works and will
appear in the list of references as well.
(M. Smith, 2005, p. 54) and (A. Smith, 2007, p. 34)
The first letters abbreviate each author’s first name.
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration
[NASA], 2009, p. 12) or (American Beef
Association, 2006, p. 232)
Well-known acronyms, such as NASA, can be put in
brackets the first time and then used in any following
parenthetical references. (NASA, 2009, p. 14)
(Handling Bulimia, 2004, p. 45)
Use the full title of the source in italics.
(“Genomics as the New Frontier,” 2008, p. 23)
Put the full title in quotation marks.
(“Recession,” 2009, p. A4)
The letter “A” is the section of the newspaper and
the number 4 is the page.
(Kline, 1982, as cited in Franks, 2007)
Include the date of the cited source if you know it.
Do not include the cited source in your reference list
(here you would include Franks but not Kline).
(Kirsten McCalister, personal communication,
August 10, 2020)
Include the person’s full name, the words “personal
communication,” and the exact date of communica-
tion. Do not include them in the references list. A
personal communication is information that readers
would not be able to retrieve, such as e-mails,
interviews, or conversions.
590 Chapter 34

Figure 34.1 continued

Type of Source Example Parenthetical Reference
Personal communication with an (Maxine Fortner, Laguna Pueblo, lives in Washington
Indigenous person D.C., personal communication, July 10, 2020)
Include the person’s full name, the nation or
Indigenous group to which they belong, their
location, the words “personal communication,” and
the exact date of the communication.
Material without page numbers (Feiler, 2020, How Disruptors Become Lifequakes
(e.g., e-books) section, para. 4)
Provide information about where the cited content
can be found, with the paragraph count from the
beginning of a section or chapter.

Webpage or other document with no pagination (Reynolds, 2006, para. 3)

Webpage or other document with no author and
no pagination
“para.” stands for “paragraph,” as counted down
from the top of the page.
(“Friendly,” 2008, para. 7)
Put the first prominent word of the title in quotes,
with “para.” standing for “paragraph,” as counted
down from the top of the page.

Text generated by artificial intelligence (AI) (Paraphrase from Google Bard AI application,
application personal communication, September 15, 2023)
Include the name of the AI application and the exact
date that the prompt was entered.

Preparing the List of References

34.2 Create bibliographic entries for a references list.
Your list of references appears at the end of your document on a new page. In this list,
you should include full citations for every source you cite. A typical entry includes
features like the name of the author, the date of publication, the title of the text, and the
place of publication. Here are entries from three types of sources.

Chew, R. (2008, February 1). Charles Darwin, naturalist, 1809–1882. Lucidcafe. http://
www.lucidcafe.com/library/96feb/darwin.html

Crespi, B., & Badcock, C. (2008). Psychosis and autism as diametrical disorders in the
social brain. Behavior Brain Science, 31(3), 241–261.

Servan-Schreiber, D. (2008). Anti-cancer: A new way of life. Viking.

The references list should include only those sources you cite in your document. Do
not include sources you consulted but did not cite in your paper. Also, do not include
personal communications, even though you may have cited them in the text of your
document.
Your references should list all the sources you cite in alphabetical order by the
authors’ last names. When an author’s name is not known, the work is alphabetized
by the first prominent word in its title. When alphabetizing, ignore words like The, A,
or An if they are the first word in the title.
 Using APA Style 591

Figure 34.2 Formatting a List of References

The “References” heading should be centered and in boldface. Entries should be double-spaced with
hanging indentation (each line after the first is indented a half inch).

VAMPIRES IN HOLLYWOOD 12
References
Arthen, I. (2005, December 9). Real vampires. FireHeart, 2.
http://www.earthspirit.com/fireheart/fhvampire.html
Barber, P. (1989). Vampires, burial, and death. Yale
University Press.
Bluestein, G. (1994). Poplore: Folk and pop in American culture.
University of Massachusetts Press.
Keyworth, D. (2006). Was the vampire of the eighteenth century a
unique type of undead corpse? Folklore, 117(3), 1–16.

If you are listing two works by the same author in the same year, they should be
alphabetized by the first prominent words in their titles and then distinguished by
“a,” “b,” “c,” and so on (e.g., “2007a,” “2007b,” “2007c”).

Formatting a List of References in APA Style

Start the reference list on a new page with the centered heading “References” at the
top and in boldface (Figure 34.2). Entries are then listed double-spaced. Be sure to use
hanging-indent format, which means the first line of each entry is not indented but the
rest are indented a half inch.
In professional texts, however, your reference list should match the design of your
document. The “References” heading should be consistent with other headings. If you
are single-spacing the rest of your document, the reference list should be single-spaced,
too, with spaces between entries.

Creating the List of References

34.3 Prepare a references list in APA style.
The following list is not comprehensive. However, we have included models of the most
common kinds of entries in a reference list. You can use these examples as models for
your own entries. If you do not find a model for a source, you should turn to the APA’s
Publication Manual, 7th edition (2020).
592 Chapter 34

APA List of References

Books and Other Nonperiodical 20. Article, Author Unknown
Publications 21. Review
1. Book, One Author
Web Publications
2. Book, Two Authors
22. Website, Corporate Author
3. Book, Three or More Authors
23. Webpage, Author Unknown
4. Book, Corporation or Organization
24. Article from an Online Periodical
as Author
25. Scholarly Journal Article with a
5. Book, Edited Collection
­Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
6. Book, Translated
26. Scholarly Journal Article
7. Book, Author Unknown
8. Book, Second Edition or Beyond Other Kinds of Sources
9. Book, Dissertation or Thesis 27. Film or Video Recording

10. E-book (e.g., Kindle) or Audiobook 28. Television Series

11. Document, Government Publication 29. Television Episode

12. Document, Pamphlet 30. TED Talk

31. YouTube Video (or Other
Book Chapters and Entries Streaming Video)
in Reference Works 32. Podcast
13. Chapter in an Edited 33. Podcast Episode
Collection
34. Music Album
14. Dictionary or Encyclopedia Entry
35. Single Song
15. Wikipedia Entry
36. Microblog Post, (X, Tweet, Threads)
Journals, Magazines, and 37. Social Media Post (Instagram,
Other Periodicals ­Facebook, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, etc.)
16. Article, Journal with Continuous 38. Social Media Page (Instagram,
Pagination ­Facebook, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, etc. )
17. Article, Journal Without Continuous 39. Instagram Photo or Video
Pagination 40. Personal Communication (E-mail,
18. Article, Magazine Interview, Unrecorded Webinars)
19. Article, Newspaper 41. Artificial Intelligence Content

References for Books and Other Nonperiodical

Publications
A book citation will have some of the features listed here. If available, provide either
the URL or digital object identifier (DOI).
1. Name of the author, corporation, or editor with last name first (include “(Ed.)” or
“(Eds.)” if the work is listed by editor or editors)
2. Year the work was published, in parentheses (if unknown, use “n.d.” for “no date”)
 Using APA Style 593

3. Title of the work, in italics (capitalize only first word, proper nouns, and any word
that follows a colon)
4. Publisher
5. DOI or URL (if available)

Author. (Year of publication). Title of work. Publisher.

5
DOI or URL

1. Book, One Author

Woodruff, P. (2014). Reverence: Renewing a forgotten virtue (2nd ed.). Oxford
University Press.
Jones, S. (2001). Darwin’s ghost: The origin of species updated. Ballantine Books.

2. Book, Two Authors

Bawarshi, A. S., & Reiff, M. J. (2010). Genre: An introduction to history, theory,
research, and pedagogy. Parlor Press.

3. Book, Three or More Authors

Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of
successful learning. Belknap.

4. Book, Corporation or Organization as Author

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

5. Book, Edited Collection

Mueller-Vollmer, K. (Ed.). (1990). The hermeneutics reader. Continuum.

6. Book, Translated
Curie, E. (2013). Madame Curie: A biography (V. Sheehan, Trans.). Doubleday.

7. Book, Author Unknown

Forensic chemistry handbook. (2011). Wiley.

8. Book, Second Edition or Beyond

Williams, R. (2015). The non-designer’s design book (4th ed.). Peachpit.

9. Book, Dissertation or Thesis

Simms, L. (2002). The Hampton effect in fringe desert environments: An ecosystem
under stress [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of New Mexico.

10. E-book (e.g., Kindle) or Audiobook

Feiler, B. (2020). Life is in the transitions: Mastering change at any age. [Audiobook].
Penguin Audio.
594 Chapter 34

11. Document, Government Publication

Greene, L. W. (1985). Exile in paradise: The isolation of Hawaii’s leprosy victims and
development of Kalaupapa settlement, 1865 to present. U.S. Department of the
Interior, National Park Service.

12. Document, Pamphlet

The Colorado Health Network. (2002). Exploring high altitude areas. Author.

References for Journals, Magazines, and

Other Periodicals
A reference entry for an article from a journal, magazine, or other periodical publication
includes the features listed here. If available, provide either the URL or digital object
identifier (DOI).
1. Name of the author, corporation, or editor; last name first, followed by initial of
first name and any middle initials
2. Date of publication (year for scholarly journal; year, month, day for other periodicals)
3. Title of the work, not enclosed in quotation marks (capitalize only first word,
proper nouns, and any word that follows a colon)
4. Title of the periodical in italics (capitalize all significant words)
5. Volume number (italicized) and issue number (not italicized, but enclosed in
­parentheses). If each issue begins with page 1, include the issue number.
6. Range of page numbers for whole article
7. DOI or URL (if available)

5
Author. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number
6 7 8
(issue number, page numbers). DOI or URL

13. Chapter in an Edited Collection

Harris, G. E., & Gonzales, G. M. (2022). The psychology of iguanas. In G. R. Wilkins &
F. D. Rose (Eds.), Psychology in unexpected places (pp. 34–42). Brainworks.

14. Dictionary or Encyclopedia Entry

Xi, Q. (2023). Tiny house movement. In V. A. Philips (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Architecture
(Vol. 1, pp. 214–215). Hansen Reference.

15. Wikipedia Entry

“Artificial intelligence.” (2024, January 16). In Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Artificial_intelligence

16. Article, Journal with Continuous Pagination

Beckmann, P. E., & Musicus, B. R. (1991). Fault-tolerant round-robin A/D converter
system. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, 38(12), 1420–1429.
https://doi.org/10.1109/31.108496
 Using APA Style 595

17. Article, Journal Without Continuous Pagination

Kadlecek, M. (1991). Global climate change could threaten U.S. wildlife.
Conservationist, 46(1), 54–55.

18. Article, Magazine

Appenzeller, T. (2008, February). The case of the missing carbon. National Geographic, 88–118.

19. Article, Newspaper

Hall, C. (2002, November 18). Shortage of human capital envisioned, Monster’s Taylor
sees worker need. Chicago Tribune, p. E7.

20. Article, Author Unknown

The big chill leaves bruises. (2004, January 17). Albuquerque Tribune, p. A4.

21. Review
Leonhardt, D. (2008, November 30). Chance and circumstance. [Review of the book
Outliers by M. Gladwell]. New York Times Book Review, p. 9.

References for Web Publications

Reference entries for web documents do not need to include your date of access if you
can provide a publication date, as indicated in Figure 34.3. However, you do need to
provide either the URL from which a source was retrieved or a digital object identifier
(DOI), as indicated in Figure 34.4.

22. Website, Corporate Author

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Prevent seasonal flu. https://
www.cdc.gov/flu/prevent/index.html

23. Webpage, Author Unknown

Clara Barton: Founder of the American Red Cross. (n.d.). American Red Cross
Museum. http://www.redcross.org/museum/history/claraBarton.asp

24. Article from an Online Periodical

Vaitheeswaran, V. (2009, April 16). Medicine goes digital. The Economist. http://
www.economist.com/specialreports

25. Scholarly Journal Article with a Digital Object Identifier (DOI)

O’Hagan, B., Krauss, S. B., Friedman, A. J., Bartolotti, L., Abubakare, O.,
Broder-Fingert, S., & Augustyn, M. (2022). Identifying components of autism-
friendly health care: An exploratory study using a modified Delphi method.
Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 44(1), 12–18. https://
doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000001139

26. Scholarly Journal Article without a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) from the Internet
The APA no longer requires you to include the name of a database from which you
retrieved a journal article. If you used an online database to access an article that
does not include a DOI, you can cite it the same as the print version of the article.
Jensen, M. J., & Chen L. S. (1968). Recent advancements in psychoanalysis for
adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Psychoanalysis, 12(2), 133–140.
596 Chapter 34

Figure 34.3 Citation Map: Citing Part or All of a Website

A citation for a web publication will have some or all of the following features:

Name of the author, corporation, organization, editor, or webmaster. For authors and
editors, last name first followed by initials.
Date of publication, in parentheses (year, month, day). If no date is given, write (n.d.) to
indicate “no date.”
Title of the individual page, document, or article.
Title of the website, in italics.
Retrieval information: the site’s URL; do not add a period at the end of the URL.

Author of Website. (Date published). Title of document or Title of page. Title of Overall Website.

Website URL
4
Arches National Park (n.d.). Nature & science. National Park Service.

http://www.nps.gov/arch/naturescience/index.htm

URL
Title of website

Title of page

Source: U.S. National Park Service.

 Using APA Style 597

Figure 34.4 Citation Map: Citing a Journal Article with a DOI

Name of the author (last name, initials) Page numbers
Publication date Digital object identifier. (It is easiest to cut and
Title of article paste the DOI directly from the original
document into your text.)
Title of the journal in italics
Volume number in italics, and issue number
(in parentheses, not italicized)

Author of article. (Publication date). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number),

page numbers. DOI

Pyles, L., & Cross, T. (2008). Community revitalization in post-Katrina New Orleans: A critical analysis of

social capital in an African American neighborhood. Journal of Community Practice, 16(4),

383–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705420802475050

Journal title

Article title
Authors Publication date

Volume and issue Page numbers

numbers

DOI

Source: © EBSCO Information Services, YEAR. All rights reserved.

598 Chapter 34

References for Other Kinds of Sources

A variety of other sources are available, each with its own citation style. The citations
for these sources tend to include most of the following types of information:
1. Name of the producers, writers, or directors with their roles identified in paren­
theses (“Producer,” “Writer,” “Director,” “Host”)
2. Year of release or broadcast, in parentheses
3. Title of the work (italics for a complete work; no italics for a work that is a segment,
episode, or part of a whole)
4. Name of episode (first letter of first word capitalized)
5. Title of the program (italicized)
6. Type of program (in brackets) (e.g., “[Film]”, “[Television series]”, “[Song]”)
7. City and state or country where work was produced
8. Distributor of the work (e.g., “HBO,” “Miramax,” “New Line”)
9. Retrieval information, for works accessed online

27. Film or Video Recording

Jackson, P. (Director), Osborne, B., Walsh, F., & Sanders, T. (Producers). (2002).
The lord of the rings: The fellowship of the ring [Motion picture]. New Line.

28. Television Series

Benioff, D., & Weiss, D. B. (Executive Producers). (2011–2019). Game of thrones
[TV series]. HBO Productions; HBO.

29. Television Episode

Benioff, D., & Weiss, D. B. (Writers), Slovis, M. (Director). (2015). The wars to
come (Season 5, Episode 1) [TV series episode]. Game of thrones. HBO
Productions; HBO.

30. TED Talk

Eber, K. (2020, February). How your brain responds to stories—and why they’re crucial
for leaders. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/karen_eber_how_your_
brain_responds_to_stories_and_why_they_re_crucial_for_leaders

31. YouTube Video (or Other Streaming Video)

Pflugfelder, E. (2020, March 10). What is a genre? [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=Go0Mto2fOXY

32. Podcast
Gladwell, M. (Host). (2016–present). Revisionist history [Audio podcast]. Panoply Media.
http://revisionisthistory.com

33. Podcast Episode

Gladwell, M. (Host). (2020, June 18). Dragon psychology 101 [Audio podcast episode].
Panoply Media. http://revisionisthistory.com/episodes/42-dragon-psychology-101
 Using APA Style 599

34. Music Album

Hussie, N. (2018). Victory lap [Album]. Interscope Studios.

35. Single Song

Hussie, N. (2018). Blue laces 2 [Song]. Victory lap. Interscope Studios.

36. Microblog Post, (X, Tweet, Threads)

Alcindor, Y. [@Yamiche]. (2020, January 14). Rep. Cedric Richmond underscores
how raw the anger is in the House [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/Yamiche/
status/1349417438203564034

37. Social Media Post (Instagram, Facebook, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, etc.)

San Diego Zoo. (2020, January 9). Please join us in wishing Mary a very happy
birthday. This beautiful lady recently turned 57 [Video]. Facebook. https://
www.facebook.com/SanDiegoZoo/posts/10159164212122147

38. Social Media Page (Instagram, Facebook, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, etc.)

San Diego Zoo. (n.d.). Home [Facebook page]. Facebook. Retrieved June 20, 2019,
from https://www.facebook.com/SanDiegoZoo

39. Instagram Photo or Video

Stefan, C. [@claudisustefan]. Look at those ears [Photographs]. Instagram. https://
www.instagram.com/p/CG-Vypiji3i/

40. Personal Communication (E-mail, Interview, Unrecorded Webinars)

Personal communications are not listed in the references list. Instead, the information
from the communication should be given in the parenthetical citation.

41. Artificial Intelligence Content

Texts generated with artificial intelligence applications are considered nonrecoverable
sources, so they should not appear in the references list. Instead, the information
from the communication should be given in the parenthetical citation.

A Student’s APA-Style Research Paper

The following document uses APA style for parenthetical citations and the references
list. The student writer followed his professor’s requirements for formatting his paper;
formatting guidelines in the APA Publication Manual are intended for submissions to
professional journals.
600 Chapter 34

Assortative Mating and Income Inequality

Aistom Duus

University of New Mexico

Economics 445: Topics in Public Finance

Professor Kate Krause

October 5, 2016
 Using APA Style 601

Assortative Mating and Income Inequality

Paul Ryscavage begins Income Inequality in America (1999) with the premise

that the growth in income inequality in the United States in the last thirty

years is driven by changes in technology, globalization, and “family structure.”

The first two factors seem intuitive. Returns-to-education in an economy

where exchange is facilitated by personal computers and iPhones is both

well-documented (Daugherty, 2008; Lynn, 2002) and offers explanatory logic on Multiple sources
cited in the same
how an educated segment of the population’s income gains could outpace sentence are
separated by a
those of the less-educated. However, family structure, the final element in semicolon. Sources
should also be listed
Ryscavage’s inequality trifecta, seems suspiciously far removed from the in alphabetical
order.
typical industrial activities of the economy. At first, this demographic nuance

seems more polemical than empirical. The single-mom menace, the erosion of

“family values,” and the disappearance of the Ozzie-and-Harriet nuclear family

seem more like ideological talking points than matters of economic fact.

What is stunning, however, is how small changes in the aggregate

makeup of American households can drastically affect the distribution of

income in that population. The proportion of single, female-headed house-

holds has increased due to the “independence effect” on the dissolution or

preemption of marriages, among other things. Moreover, this type of house-

hold is the most likely to be poor (Cancian & Reed, 1999). Judith Treas (1987) When the author’s
name appears in
refers to these changes in the context of the “feminization of poverty” (p. 283). the sentence, only
the year is
This sociology catchphrase makes more sense when considered in the context parenthetically
cited, and the page
of trends in female labor force participation and the marriage market. number is cited at
the end of the
Even more elemental to the question of family structure and its effects on sentence.

income inequality are the underlying forces by which individuals choose to

partner, and partners choose to sort, in all segments of the population. Beyond
602 Chapter 34

income inequality (or equality as the case may be), marriage (or nonmarital

Three ellipsis points partnering) has “implications for . . . the number of births and population
( . . . ) indicate that
some words have growth, labor-force participation of women, inequality in income, ability, and
been omitted from
within a quoted other characteristics among families, genetical [sic] natural selection of
sentence.
different characteristics over time, and the allocation of leisure and other

household resources” (Becker, 1973, p. 814). In short, household formation is a

largely economic decision, which, like other such decisions, is a choice

determined by weighing the costs (including opportunity costs) against

expected utility.

Main headings are Theoretical Framework

centered and
boldfaced, using Individuals do not pair with other individuals to form households
both uppercase and
lowercase letters. randomly. Instead, one can observe traits by which individuals tend to sort

themselves and their mates. Garfinkel and McLanahan (2002) define this

process of assortative mating as “the tendency of people to choose partners of

similar age, race, educational attainment, and other social, psychological, and

biological characteristics” (p. 417). More specifically, they are referring to

positive assortative mating in which individuals choose similar partners. In the

literature, this is sometimes referred to as homogamy. Individuals, for various

reasons, sometimes find it advantageous to choose partners who are different

from them. This is negative assortative mating.

Secondary headings The Becker Theory

are flush left and
boldfaced, using Gary Becker (1973) was the first to outline a theory of a marriage market.
both uppercase and
lowercase letters. His claims were straightforward. Marriage, like all economic decisions, is an

optimized utility function. “Persons marrying . . . can be assumed to expect to

raise their utility level above what it would be were they to remain single.”

Moreover, like all utility functions, a marriage is optimized against a

 Using APA Style 603

constraint. Potential mates are limited; therefore, scarcity drives a market in

which “many men and women compete as they seek mates. . . . Each person Use four ellipsis
points to indicate
tries to find the best mate, subject to the restrictions imposed by market material omitted
between sentences
conditions” (p. 814). in a quote.

Becker (1973) found that people might choose to marry simply because it The findings of
credible sources
is easier to have “sexual gratification, cleaning, and feeding” (p. 818) in-house help the author
make his point with
than to purchase those services. Also, conveniently, “love” can “reduce the cost greater authority.

of frequent contact and of resource transfers” (p. 819). Observations about who

marries whom suggest individuals sort by “IQ, education, height, attractive-

ness, skin color, ethnic origin, and other characteristics” (p. 815). Sorting by

some heritable traits may be related to creating “desired” offspring. Additional-

ly, the choice to separate or divorce is determined by opportunity cost. If there

is more to lose, people will think twice about going to divorce court.

Negative Assortative Mating

Becker (1973) speculates there may be negative sorting in regard to

specific “psychological traits, such as a propensity to dominate, nurture, or be

hostile” (p. 824). However, central to Becker’s theory of the marriage market is

an assumption of negative sorting in regard to wages. Jepsen and Jepsen (2002)

explain:

Theories of the sexual division of labor predict that high-wage men For a quotation of
40 or more words,
will pair with low-wage women and that, once the couple forms a use a block quote
without quotation
household, men will specialize in market production while women marks.

will specialize in home production. (p. 442)

However, all empirical studies suggest the opposite is true. While correla-

tions between spousal wages tend to be very small, usually the smallest of

traits studied, they are positive. It is assumed, generally without warrant, that
604 Chapter 34

male wages and female household production are substitutes, and gains in

marriage result from this specialization. Becker (1991) finds the sexual division

of labor so compelling as to claim in regard to same-sex couples, “households

with only men or only women are less efficient because they are unable to

profit from the sexual difference in comparative advantage” (p. 38). Becker,

however, fails to specify how having a uterus gives one a “comparative

advantage” in dishwashing and food preparation or the relationship between a

Y chromosome and market work. It is also unclear why partners of the same

sex cannot specialize.

Regardless of the problems with assuming gender essentialism in theory,

empirically, Lam (1988) found even high-wage women exhibit a tendency to

specialize in household production as they prefer even higher wage men.

(Thus their opportunity cost to not participating in the labor market is lower in

comparison to their spouses.) This means women do not necessarily specialize

in household production because they are female. This finding is further

validated when female labor force participation data are disaggregated into

cohorts. Black women, for example, tend to participate in the labor force

regardless of the income of their spouses (Jepsen & Jepsen, 2002; Treas, 1987).

Evidence for Assortative Mating

Traits Studied

Use of multiple Age. While men seek younger women and women seek slightly older
heading levels
provides access men (Jepsen & Jepsen, 2002), on balance, people seek partners of an age similar
points and makes
the text easier to to their own (Jaffe & Chacon-Puignau, 1995). Age, in most studies, generally has
read.
the “strongest positive assortative mating” (Lam, 1988, p. 478).

IQ. Jepsen and Jepsen (2002) estimate the correlation as similar to the IQ

correlation between siblings.

 Using APA Style 605

Education. Lam (1988) calculates schooling being second only to age in

positive assortative mating. Strikingly, the particular trait has experienced the

largest boost in homogamy. Costa and Kahn (2000) note education as a

primary driving force in how couples sort and then where they live. In fact,

educational homogamy has increased while homogamy with respect to race,

ethnicity, and age has decreased. This could be explained by educational

sorting happening later. As individuals marry or partner later in life, they are

more likely to partner with someone less like them. While people may choose

to partner with someone of a different culture, age, or even weight, level of

education seems to be increasingly important as a positive sorting mecha-

nism—at least, among married couples.

Wage. Wage has the weakest correlation coefficient, ranging from .02 to

.24 (Jepsen & Jepsen, 2002; Treas, 1987).

Differences by Type of Couple

Married Couples. Married couples tend to be the most homogamous in all

factors but wage.

Cohabitating Couples. In general, market variables are more positive with

unmarried couples than married couples, but less positive with nonmarket

traits (Jepsen & Jepsen, 2002). With respect to race, age, and education,

unmarried couples tended to be less homogamous than married couples, but

more homogamous with earnings and hours worked. This is consistent with

the idea of marriage self-selection, whereby financial independence is a

disincentive to marry.

While median measures of unmarried couples in regard to age are

identical to married couples, there is a much wider distribution of age

differences. Unmarried parents tended to have a more substantial education

606 Chapter 34

gap than their married counterparts. However, this is primarily due to the

education gap of parents who have never lived together (Garfinkel &

McLanahan, 2002).

Taken as a whole, these results suggest that mothers and fathers who

do not marry each other may be less homogamous in terms of age

and education than parents who marry. . . . Nonetheless, it appears

that a high level of assortative mating still occurs. (p. 429)

Same-Sex Couples. Out of all the types of couples studied, female

same-sex couples had the strongest positive assortative mating by wage.

Unlike most studies, their wage correlation was statistically significant (Jepsen
When it would be & Jepsen, 2002). Both male and female same-sex couples had a larger wage
unclear what
source is cited, the correlation than both unmarried and married opposite-sex couples. In
authors’ names are
included in the contrast, the “estimated coefficient for race and age are noticeably larger for
parenthetical
citation. opposite-sex couples than for same-sex couples” (Jepsen & Jepsen, 2002, p. 444).

Black Couples. In many ways, African American family formation is a

useful natural experiment on the effects of increased female labor force

participation on income inequality. Unlike their White and Latino

counterparts, Black women are likely to work regardless of the income of their

spouses. Also, “relative to whites, African Americans report less willingness to

marry a person of a lower socioeconomic status, and they express less desire

to marry” (Jepsen & Jepsen, 2002, p. 437). So while two working spouses would

be an equalizing force if upper-income women did not work, this is not the

case with Black women.

While female labor force participation may increase inequality within the

African American community, it may actually narrow the race-income gap.

According to Danziger (1980), in “1974, nonwhite family income was 78 percent

 Using APA Style 607

of white’s; this ratio would have been only 71 percent if nonwhite wives had The source’s author
was named earlier
not worked more than did white wives” (p. 448). in the sentence, so
only a page number
Analysis is needed here.

Impact on Income Inequality

Historically we find that female labor force participation was an

equalizing force in the United States income distribution. Women’s wages

were compressed in the phenomenon of the occupational set of

nurse/teacher/secretary. However, since World War II (when women first

entered the workforce in large numbers), the diversity of market opportunities

available to women has substantially increased and as marriage and other

assortative mating is delayed well beyond high school, it is increasingly likely

pairs will sort by wage as well as by the usual homogamous characteristics.

Conclusion

Currently, empirical data suggest the effects of more high-wage women

entering the workforce are mixed (Danziger, 1980). Even for experiments in

which all women participated in the labor force, the wage correlation might

only increase to around .25 (Treas, 1987), which would have limited effects on

the aggregate household income distribution.

608 Chapter 34

References begin on References

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Becker, G. S. (1991). A treatise on the family. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

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Cancian, M., & Reed, D. (1999). The impact of wives’ earnings on income

inequality: Issues and estimates. Demography, 36, 173–184.

http://doi.org/10.2307/2648106

Costa, D. L., & Kahn, M. E. (2000). Power couples: Changes in the locational

choice of the college educated, 1940–1990. Quarterly Journal of Economics,

115, 1287–1315. http://doi.org/10.1162/003355300555079

Danziger, S. (1980). Do working wives increase family income inequality?

Journal of Human Resources, 15, 445–451. http://doi.org/10.2307/145294

Garfinkel, I., & McLanahan, S. S. (2002). Assortative mating among unmarried

parents: Implications for ability to pay child support. Journal of Population

Economics, 15, 417–432. http://doi.org/10.1007/s001480100100

Jepsen, L. K., & Jepsen, C. A. (2002). An empirical analysis of the matching

patterns of same-sex and opposite-sex couples. Demography, 39, 435–453.

http://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2002.0027

Lam, D. (1988). Marriage markets and assortative mating with household

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Ryscavage, P. (1999). Income inequality in America. Sharpe.

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Text Credits
Chapter 03: p. 24: Pearson Education, Inc.: Based
on Maslow, Abraham. (1943). “A Theory of Human
­Motivation.” In Psychological Review, 50(4), 430–437.
Chapter 04: p. 43: Alcohol Research D ­ ocumentation,
Inc.: William DeJong and Jason Blanchette, “Case
Closed: Research Evidence on the Positive Public
Health Impact of the Age 21 Minimum Legal Drinking
Age in the United States,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol
and Drugs 17 (2014): 113.
Chapter 05: p. 51: Johnson-Sheehan, Richard: This
three-strategy schema was adapted from a schema
devised by Kara Taczak and Liane Roberts (“­Reiterative
Reflection in the Twenty-First-Century Writing
­Classroom,” A Rhetoric of Reflection, ed. Kathleen Black
Yancey [Logan: Utah State University Press, 2016], 42–63).
Chapter 06: p. 79: American Anti-Slavery S ­ ociety:
Frederick Douglas, Narrative of the Life of ­Frederick
Douglass, an American Slave, 1845. American
­Anti-Slavery Society; pp. 067–068: Dana Muraida:
­Faking Reading: How My Kindergarten Experiences
with Literacy Shaped Who I Am By Dana Muraida;
pp. 075–077: Zack Henslee: Is Social Media Really the
Enemy of “Proper” Writing? By Zack Henslee; pp. 077–
078: Wang Ping: Book War by Wang Ping.
Chapter 07: pp. 100–103: The New York Times
­Company: From The New York Times, June 25 © 2015
The New York Times. All rights reserved. Used by per-
mission and protected by the Copyright Laws of the
United States. The printing, copying, redistribution, or
retransmission of this Content without express writ-
ten permission is prohibited; pp. 088–091: National
­Collegiate Honors ­Council.: UReCA: The NCHC J­ ournal
of U
­ ndergraduate Research and C ­ reative ­Activity is
the official undergraduate journal of the National
­Collegiate Honors Council. S ­ ubmissions are accepted
from students currently enrolled in an undergraduate
degree program. UReCA fosters the exchange of ideas
between undergraduate students, providing a platform
where students can engage with, and contribute to, the
advancement of their individual fields. UReCA has
published five editions to date and continues to work
toward the dissemination of meaningful undergradu-
ate work; pp. 099–100: Brevity: Sabbath by BRET LOTT,
May 14, 2021, Brevity; pp. 104–105: Joe Mackall: Joe
Mackall.
Chapter 08: pp. 111–112: The Brown Daily Herald,
Inc.: Rebecca Carcieri—Brown Daily Herald; p. 120:
Static Media: Pequod’s Pizza Marah Eakin, ­Tasting
Table; pp. 123–125: Dallas Observer News: Reinhart,
Brian. “Shake Shack Makes a Good Burger—and a
Good ­Metaphor for Dallas Dining.” Dallas Observer,
­October 10, 2016. Copyright © 2016 Dallas Observer,
LP. Used by permission.
Chapter 09: pp. 140–141: Gannett: Arming teachers
is not the answer to anything, Sally Butzin, Gannett;
pp. 142–144: Madison County Journal: A defense of
female sports by Lesley Andress Davis, © Madison
County Journal, February 26, 2021, Retrieved from
https://onlinemadison.com/stories/a-defense-of-
female-sports,32878; pp. 145–146: Elon University: To
Reduce Gun Violence, Focus on Function Instead of
Form By Mat Gendle, Elon University, March 30, 2022.
Chapter 10: p. 161: Dunbar, Paul Laurence: We
Wear the Mask, 1872–1906. Paul Laurence D ­ unbar;
pp. 163–165: Kate Chopin: Kate Chopin, “The Story of an
Hour”, 1894; pp. 161–162: Mateo ­Hernandez: Mateo
­Hernandez; pp. 152–154: Taylor & Francis Group
­Journals: C­ opyright 2013 From Speed That Kills: The
Role of ­Technology in Kate Chopin’s THE STORY OF
AN HOUR. The Explicator 71(2): 85–89. by Jeremy Foote.
Reproduced by permission of Taylor & F ­ rancis LLC
(http://www.tandfonline.com); pp. 163–165: T ­ aylor &
Francis Group Journals: Copyright 2009 From Emotions
in the Story of an Hour The Explicator 67(3): 215–220. by
S. Selina Jamil. Reproduced by permission of Taylor &
Francis LLC (http://www.tandfonline.com).
Chapter 11: pp. 175–177: Sara Kelley: The Rhetoric
of Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address” by Sara Kelley;
pp. 188–191: Keith Amaral: An Analysis of Jim
­Valvano’s ‘93 ESPY Awards Speech by Keith Amaral;
pp. 192–194: Bloomberg L.P.: America’s Long War on
Cancer: What Was it Good For? By Stephen Mihm.
Chapter 12: pp. 199–200: Shane Oreck: One Student’s
Work: Written Exams by Shane Oreck; pp. 206–207:
Uma Pandit: Have the Political Parties Really Switched
Places in the United States? By Uma Pandit.
609
610 Text Credits
Chapter 13: pp. 225–226: Sara Rodriguez: Allen,
Thomas. “One Revolution, Two Wars.” Military
­History, vol. 27, 2011, pp. 58–63; pp. 213–216: E
­ lsevier:
Sleepless in College Town: Causes and Effects of Poor
Sleep in ­College Students by Isabella E. Pandolfo;
pp. 227–229: CNBC LLC: Why Big Tech is ­Pouring
Money into Carbon Removal by Katie Brigham;
pp. 235–235: ­Mercatus Center at George Mason
­University: QAnon Is Overrated, and So are Most
­Conspiracy T ­ heories by Michael J. Ard.
Chapter 14: p. 242: Ebony James: Neil deGrasse
Tyson: Sexy Astrophysicist and Defender of Science by
Ebony James; p. 248: Hannah Giorgis: Beyoncé Brought
the Feminine Divine to the Grammys by H ­ annah
­Giorgis; pp. 249–255: Wrights Media: What You Don’t
Know about Kelsea Ballerini; pp. 255–259: Sharon
S. Smith: The Predator: When the Stalker Is a
­Psychopath by ­Sharon S. Smith, PhD, Mary Ellen
O’Toole, PhD, and Robert D. Hare, PhD.
Chapter 15: pp. 264–266: Elsevier: Sleepless in
­College Town: Causes and Effects of Poor Sleep in
College ­Students by Isabella E. Pandolfo; pp. 272–273:
Huang Xiu: How to Hang a Hammock on Campus
by Huang Xiu; pp. 277–278: Zack Wendt: How Do
­Hydroelectric Dams G ­ enerate Electricity by Zack
Wendt; p. 278: U.S. ­Department of the Interior: A tur-
bine ­connected to a generator produces power inside
a dam By Water S ­ cience School; pp. 275–276: Lucia
F. Jacobs: “We used peanuts and a climbing wall to
learn how squirrels judge their leaps so successfully –
and how their skills could inspire more nimble robots”,
by Lucia F. Jacobs, ­Nathaniel Hunt, Robert J. Full, The
­Conversation, August 05, 2021. Used with permission;
pp. 275–276: Nathaniel Hunt: “We used peanuts and a
climbing wall to learn how squirrels judge their leaps
so successfully – and how their skills could inspire
more nimble robots”, by Lucia F. Jacobs, ­Nathaniel
Hunt, Robert J. Full, The Conversation, August 05,
2021. Used with permission; pp. 275–276: Robert
J. Full: “We used peanuts and a climbing wall to learn
how squirrels judge their leaps so successfully – and
how their skills could inspire more nimble robots”,
by Lucia F. Jacobs, Nathaniel Hunt, Robert J. Full, The
Conversation, August 05, 2021. Used with permission.
Chapter 16: pp. 285–290: Ren George: Hidden in
Plain Site: Campus Architecture Around Us by Ren
George; pp. 304–307: Craig Blankenhorn: Bringing
Child ­Homelessness into Focus: A Photo Essay by
Craig Blankenhorn; pp. 301–303: U.S. Department of
the Interior: U.S. Department of the Interior.
Chapter 17: Mini Museum, LLC.: Fex, Hans. Mini
Museum, minimuseum.com; Gizmodo Media Group:
Walker, Alissa. “Ban Cars.” Gizmodo, ­December 10,
2015. Copyright © 2015 Gizmodo Media Group.
Used by permission. https://gizmodo.com/ban-
cars-1737654991
Chapter 18: pp. 344–350: Alex Johnson, Krista
­ lackmon, and Dee Hamilton: Look Out! The Problem
B
with Motorized Personal Vehicles on Campus by Alex
Johnson, Krista Blackmon, and Dee H ­ amilton ­English
141: Heartland State University; p. 359: National
­Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Survey
on Drug Use and Health, The NSDUH Report: Major
Depressive Episode Among Full-Time College Students
And Other Young Adults, Aged 18 To 22; pp. 360–361:
U.S. Department of Energy: Clark, C ­ aitlyn E., Barker,
Aaron, King, Jennifer, & Reilly, James. Wind and Solar
Hybrid Power Plants for Energy Resilience. https://
doi.org/10.2172/1842446; pp. 362–363: Columbia
­University: “How Many Zombies Do You Know?”
Using Indirect Survey Methods to Measure Alien
Attacks and Outbreaks of the Undead by Andrew
­Gelman and George A. Romero; p. 363: Johnson-­
Sheehan, Richard: Lakeland, D. (2010, March 1).
Improved zombie dynamics. [Models of Reality Web
log post]. http://models.street-artists.org/?p=554;
Messer, B. (2010, March 10). Agent-based computa-
tional model of humanity’s prospects for post zombie
outbreak survival. [The Tortise’s Lens Web log post].
http://thetortoiseslens.blogspot.com/2010/03/agent-
based-computational-model-of.html; pp. 365–367:
The City University of New York: Food Insecurity at
CUNY: Results from a Survey of CUNY Under-­graduate
­Students by Nicholas Freudenberg, Luis Manzo, Hollie
Jones, Amy Kwan, Emma Tsui, and Monica Gagnon;
p. 365: Chancellor Matthew Goldstein: Chancellor
Matthew Goldstein, CUNY Board of Trustees Meeting,
April 27, 2009.
Chapter 19: pp. 390–391: Jasmine Jackson: Why
I Want to Be a Dentist, Jasmine Jackson; pp. 392–394:
Indeed.com: Indeed.com Editorial Team; pp. 395: U.S.
National Security Administration: Ticket to Work,
U.S. National Security Administration.
Chapter 20: Microsoft Corporation: Microsoft Word,
Microsoft Corporation.

Chapter 21: p. 415: Microsoft Corporation: Microsoft
Word, Microsoft Corporation.
Chapter 22: p. 433: Dillard, Annie: Annie Dillard,
Seeing 693–705.
Chapter 23: p. 444: Microsoft Corporation: Microsoft
Excel, Microsoft Corporation; p. 446: United States
Environmental Protection Agency: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (2022). Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse
Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2020; p. 446: National
Park Service: Yellowstone Wolf Project Annual Report,
2020, Yellowstone Center for Resources; p. 445: Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for
Health Statistics. Multiple Cause of Death 1999–2020
on CDC WONDER Online Database, released 12/2021;
p. 443: National Science Foundation: National Science
Foundation, 13 Jan.2014, https://www.nsf.gov/news/
news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=106807; p. 447: National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration: National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s Traffic Safety
Facts Annual Report, 2022.
Chapter 26: p. 478: Online Etymology ­Dictionary:
Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline
.com/index.php?term=escape.
Text Credits 611
Chapter 27: p. 492: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency: Courtesy of U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, www.epa.gov/soakuptherain.
Chapter 28: p. 501: Association of American Colleges
and Universities: Ashley Finely, Finley, A. (2021). How
College Contributes to Workforce Success: Employer
Views on What Matters Most (Association of American
Colleges and Universities, 2021).
Chapter 29: p. 514: Jerry Seinfeld: Jerry Seinfeld.
Chapter 31: p. 536: Kenedy County Sheriff’s
­Department: Kenedy County Sheriff’s Department.
Chapter 33: Brian Naidus: Naidus, Brain. “A Whole
New World: A Background on the Life of the F
­ reshwater
Shark.” Used by permission.
Chapter 34: U.S National Park Service: U.S.
National Park Service; EBSCO Publishing: © EBSCO
Information Services, YEAR. All rights reserved;
­
­Austin Duss: Duss, Austin. “Assortive Mating and
Income Inequality.”
Index
Note: Figures are indicated by an
f following a page number.
A explainers, 266–267
Abstracts, 354, 355f, 360
Academic dishonesty, 560
Academic journals
MLA citation format for,
573–574, 575f
research using, 534
Achievement, critical reflection
on, 52
Action
in literacy narratives, 73
verb stating of, 427
Active voice
in application letter, 388
in research reports, 357
Activities, in résumés and
application letters, 385
Advertising
critiques of, 185–187, 186f
emotions and, 180
historical context in, 182–183
Alignment, design and, 438–439,
438f
Alliteration, 433–434
Amaral, Keith, 188–191
Ambiguity, in arguments, 494
American Psychological
Association (APA). See APA
style
“America’s Long War on
Cancer” (Mihm), 192–194
Analogies
definitions and, 478
in explainers, 271
writing style and, 431–432
“An Analysis of Jim Valvano’s
’93 ESPY Awards Speech”
(Amaral), 188–191
Anecdotes
in introductions, 418–419
in presentations, 518
in profiles, 245
612
Anger, in arguments, 492
Angle
elements of, 13–14
proposals, 318
research papers, 217–218
research reports, 350
revision of, 455
rhetorical situation, 29
Annotated bibliography, 225–226
Annotation, textual analysis, 38–39
Answers
editing for clarity and
correctness, 204
organization and drafting of,
written exams, 203–204
rehearsal and invention of,
for written exams, 201–203,
202f
APA style
books and nonperiodical
publications, 592–594
for explainers, 270
guidelines for using, 586–608
journals, magazines, and
other periodicals, 594–595
parenthetical citations,
586–590, 589–590f
quotations in, 552–554
research paper, 222–223
source citations, 551–552
student research paper
example, 599–608
works-cited lists in, 591–595
Appendices, in research
reports, 357
Application letter, 374–396
content of, 379–381
example of, 387
organization of, 385–387
patterns, 376f
quick start guide, 391
readings, 392–396
style and design of, 388
Apps, notetaking app, 38–39, 38f
Archive, collection of work in,
57–58
Ard, Michael J., 232–236
Argumentative research paper,
217–218, 222
Argumentative thesis, 17
Arguments, 129–146
arguable claims, 487–489, 487f,
489f
cause and effect in, 481–482
content, 133–136
organization and drafting of,
136–138
patterns for, 130f
purpose of, 1299
quick start guide, 141–142,
498–499
readings, 142–147
reason in, 490–491, 490f
rebuttals and refutations,
495–498
research in support of, 526
sample of, 131–133
strategies for, 486–499
style and design of, 138–139
Aristotle, 404
“Arming Teachers is Not the
Answer to Anything”
(Butzin), 140–141
Articles, MLA citation style for,
572–573
Artifacts, in writing portfolio, 59
Artificial intelligence (AI)
brainstorming and, 401–402
collaboration and, 501–502
heuristics and, 403–405
image generation, photo
essays, 293
memoir writing and, 95
for outlines, 414
plagiarism and, 560–562
research papers and, 218
research sources and,
541–542
research using, 354

review writing and, 113,
121–122
topic development, 12
writing assistance and, 1
Aspirational résumé, 375
Assessments, written exams and
assessments, 197–209
Assonance, 433–434
Assumptions, textual analysis
and, 40
Attitudes
in reader profile, 25
revision of, 455
Attribution of sources, 561
Audio-video segments, photo
essays, 292
Authoritative tone, 325
Authority
in arguments, 491–492, 492f
textual analysis, 39
Authorization, in responses, 43
Authors
APA style for citation of, 587
bias of, 530
MLA style for citation of,
568–569, 569f
multiple sources from, MLA
style for, 568
in parenthetical citations, APA
style, 587
in parenthetical citations,
MLA style, 565–566
quoting from, 552–554
research about, 156
Autobiography. See also memoir
Awards, in résumés and
application letters, 385
B Books
Background information
application letter, 386
in arguments, 136
explainers, 268
literary analyses, 157
multimedia materials, 293–294
photo essays, 295
in presentations, 518
proposals, 321
research papers, 220
research report, 355
reviews, 115
rhetorical analysis, 179–181
Balanced design, 437–438, 437f
Ballerini, Kelsea, 249–254
“Ban Cars” (Walker), 337–339
Bar charts, 445, 446f
Beliefs, textual analysis and, 40
Believing
reviews, 115
textual analysis, 37–38, 37f
Beyoncé (Knowles-Carter), 248
Bias
research process and, 531
in sources, 530
Bibliographies. See also citations
and citation systems
annotated bibliography,
225–226
MLA style for, 568–569, 569f
research process, 532
Blankenhorn, Craig, 304–308
Blogs and blogging
research using, 541
strategies for, 407–408, 408f
Body
of application letter, 386
in critical reflection, 54–56
drafting of, 420–421
exam answers, 203
of explainers, 269
of literary analyses, 157–158
photo essays, 295–296
of presentations, 518
profiles, 245
of proposal, 322–323
in research papers, 220–222,
220f, 221f
of section, 470
Body language, in presentations,
521–523
APA citation style for, 591–593
chapter citations, MLA style,
572
MLA citation style for,
571–572
as research source, 542
“Book War” (Wang Ping), 77–79
Borrowing, from authors, in
responses, 44
Brainstorming
for arguments, 135f
common expectations in
reviews, 113f
Index 613
guidelines for, 401–402
for literacy narrative, 70f
memoirs, 95–96, 96f
plan cost/benefit analysis,
320, 320f
research report, 351, 352f
for tone, 430, 430f
Breakouts, profiles, 246
Brigham, Katie, 227–231
“Bringing Child Homelessness
into Focus” (Blankenhorn),
304–308
Bucci, Steven, 329–336
Butzin, Sally, 140–141
Buzzfeed, 97
C
Call to action, conclusion, 423
Carafano, James, 329–336
Career
genre writing in, 7
research on availability of, 380
work experience related to,
384
Career testing, 381
Case histories, 419
Causation, arguable claims and,
488
Cause and effect
proofs and, 490–491, 490f, 491f
in research paper, 221
rhetorical patterns, 480–482,
481f, 482f
Cause of problem, proposals, 318
Characters
literary analysis of, 156
profiles, 245–246
style of writing and, 431
Charts
creation of, 443–444, 444f
photo essays, 292
in research reports, 359
Choices, critical reflection on, 52
Chopin, Kate, 163–166
Chronological description, in
reviews, 116
Citations and citation systems
APA style, 586–608
bibliographies, MLA style,
568–569, 569f
citation maps, APA style,
596f–597f
614 Index
Citations and citation systems
(continued)
citation maps, MLA style,
575f, 576f
of explainers, 270
framing of, 558–560, 558f
MLA style for, 564–585
multiple citations, same
source, 566–567
multiple sources, 566
parenthetical citations, APA
style, 586–590, 589–590f
parenthetical citations, MLA
style, 565–568, 567f
quick start guide for, 562
in research paper, 211, 221–222
in research reports, 357
for sources, 550
sources without page
numbers, 567
works-cited list, 568–569, 569f
Claims
arguable claims, 487–489, 487f,
489f
qualification in arguments of,
497–498
Classification
in research paper, 221
rhetorical patterns, 479–480,
479f
CLA+ test, 201
Clips (movie), in reviews, 118
Closing paragraph
proposals, 322–323
of section, 470
Collaboration
overview, 501–512, 502f
quick start guide, 511
College writing, genre writing
in, 3, 3f, 7
Collins, Ashley, 249–254
Colors, photo essays, 297, 297f
Common expectations, in
reviews, 109, 112–115, 113f
Communication, genre writing
and, 2–4
Comparison and contrast
in research paper, 221
rhetorical patterns, 482–483,
482f, 483, 483f
Compelling statement, in
presentations, 518
Complication
in literacy narratives, 73
literary analysis, 155
in memoirs, 94
Composition process, critical
reflection on, 52
Concept mapping
application letter, 388
memoirs, 92, 92f, 93f
plan development, 319, 319f
prewriting, 399–401, 400f
research report, 353f
of topic, 11–12, 12f
Concepts
rhetorical analysis, 181–182
in written exams, 201
Conclusion
of application letter, 386
in arguments, 138
in critical reflection, 56
drafting of, 422–423
exam answers, 204
of explainers, 270
in literacy narratives, 73
in literary analyses, 158
in memoirs, 94–95
photo essays, 295–296
in presentations, 519
in profiles, 245
in proposals, 324–325
research paper, 222
research report, 356, 356f
in reviews, 117–118
rhetorical analysis, 184
Conflict, literary analysis of, 155
Conflict management, group and
team projects, 505–506
Connections, in sources, framing
of, 558–560, 558f
Consistency
copyediting for, 460
design and, 440–441, 440f
Contact information, in proposal,
325
Containers, MLA citations as,
568–578
Content
application letter, 379–381
in arguments, 133–136
explainers, 266–268
in literacy narratives, 69–72,
70f, 71f
in literary analysis, 154–156
in memoirs, 91–93
photo essays, 290–294, 291f
profiles, 242–244
proposals, 317–320
research papers, 217–219
research reports, 350–354
of résumé, 379–381
in reviews, 112–115
rhetorical analysis, 177–180
Contention, points of, in
arguments, 134, 135f
Contextualization
analysis of, 26–29
importance of, 29f
revision and, 455–456
rhetorical analysis, 182–183
of text, 40
Contrast, in design, 441–442, 442f
Coordinator, for teamwork, 505
Copyediting, 450, 460–461
Cost-benefit analysis, proposal
plans, 320, 320f, 324
Course, portfolio for, 59–61
Covid-19 pandemic, hookup
culture and, 13
COVID-19 pandemic, online
collaboration and, 501–502
Credibility
rhetorical analysis, 178–179
of sources, 530
Critical reading
defined, 34–35
strategies, 35–41
textual analysis, 35
writing and role of, 35f, 41–43
Critical reflection
independence in writing and,
49–50
portfolio for, 57–61
strategies, 51–54
versatility improvement and,
48–49
writing about, 54–56
writing improvement with,
47–51, 50f
Cubing, 407
profiles, 243–244, 243f
Cultural metaphor, 433
Cultural values
in reader profile, 25
of text, 40

D Diagrams, 448, 448f
Davis, Lesley Andress, 142–145
“A Defense of Female Sports”
(Davis), 142–145
Definitions
arguable claims and, 488
in research reports, 358
as rhetorical patterns,
477–478, 478f
Delivery, in presentations,
521–523
Description
figures and tropes in, 431–434
in research paper, 221
in reviews, 116
as rhetorical pattern, 475–477,
476f
Design
alignment, 438–439, 438f
of application letter, 388
of arguments, 138–139, 139f
balance in, 437–438, 437f
consistency, 440–441, 440f
contrast and, 441–442, 442f
explainers, 270–271
graphs and charts, 443–448,
444f–448f
grouping, 439–440, 439f
of literacy narratives, 74–77
literary analyses, 160
of memoirs, 97–100
overview, 436–448
photo essays, 296–297
photography and images,
442–443, 443f
of presentation visuals,
520–521
profiles, 245–246
of proposals, 325–326, 326f
quick start guide, 448
research papers, 223–224, 224f
of résumé, 388
of reviews, 118
revision and improvement of,
457
rhetorical analysis, 184–185,
185f
Designated skeptics, for group
work, 503
Designer, for teamwork, 505
Detail, in memoirs, 94
Dialogue
literacy narratives, 73
memoirs, 96–97
in profiles, 245
Diction, critical analysis of, 35
Differences, definitions and, 478
Digital images, photo essays, 292
Digital-literacy narrative, 74–75
Digital tools
peer review and, 508, 510
for presentations, 515, 516f
Discourse communities
formal and informal, 29–30,
29f
rhetorical situation, 29–30
Discussion session, research
report, 355, 356f
Disgust, in arguments, 492
Dissent, in group or team work,
506
Division, of subject, 478
Documentaries, research using,
540
Document cycling, 502, 508
Doubting
reviews, 115
textual analysis, 37–38, 37f
Douglass, Frederick, 65, 79–84
Drafting. See also revision; rough
draft
arguments, 136–138, 137f
backwards reading of draft,
461
of body, 420–421
conclusion, 422–423
exam answers, 203–204
exploratory draft, 408–409
of introduction, 416–419
literacy narratives, 72–73
literary analyses, 157–158
memoir(s), 94–95
overview, 413–423
photo essays, 294–296
profiles, 244–246
proposals, 321–325, 322f, 323f
quick start guide, 423
research papers, 219–223
research reports, 354–357
reviews, 110f, 115–118
rhetorical analysis, 180–184
Index 615
time management for, 420
Dress, for presentations, 522
“Drones in U.S. Airspace:
Principles for Governance”
(Rosenzweig, Stimson,
Bucci and Carafano),
329–336
E
Eakin, Marah, 120
Editing. See also copyediting
exam answers, 204
levels of, 451f
overview, 450–463
quick start guide, 464
rubric-centered, 508
substantive, 450, 456–459,
458–459f
Editors, for teamwork, 505
Educational background
in application letter, 386
in résumés, 384
Electronic documents, reading
of, 28
Electronic sources, photo essays,
239
Elevator Pitch: The Mini Museum,
327–329
Emotion
advertising and, 180
in arguments, 492–493, 492f,
493f
rhetorical analysis, 178–179
in scientific argument, 39f
textual analysis, 39
“Emotion in ‘The Story of an
Hour’” (Jamal), 166–170
Empirical sources
for arguments, 136
explainers, 268
guidelines for using, 544–547
literacy narrative, 72
memoirs, 93
photo essays, 239
profiles, 244
proposals, 319
research papers, 219
for résumés and application
letters, 380–381
triangulation evaluation of,
537
616 Index
Encyclopedias, online works,
529–530
Enjoyment, promise of, in
arguments, 492, 493f
E-portfolios, creation of, 61
Ethical principles
in arguments, 491–492
text and, 40
Ethos (authority), 39, 404–405, 406f
Ethos, in arguments, 491–492, 492f
ETS Proficiency Profile, 201
Etymology, 478
Evaluation
arguable claims and, 488
in literacy narratives, 73
in memoirs, 94
of sources, with triangulation,
537, 537f
Evidence, verification, in
research, 531
Examinations, written exams
and assessments, 197–209
Examples, definitions and, 478
Executive summary, 354, 355f
Experience
in arguments, 490–491, 490f
as research, 115
topic selection and, 13–14
Expertise, topic selection and,
13–14
Explainers
content, 266–268
defined, 262
example of, 264–266
organization of, 263f, 268–270
quick-start guide, 274
readings, 274–279
style and design, 270–271
Exploratory writing, 399,
407–409
Expository research paper,
217–218
Extended definition, 477
Extended reader profile, 24–26
Extending, from authors, in
responses, 44
Eye contact, for presentations, 522
F Gain, promise of, in arguments,
Facilitators, group work and, 503
False premises, 494
Feature-by-feature description,
in reviews, 116
Fex, Hans, 327–329
Field observations, as research
source, 546–547
“15 Facts About Our National
Mammal: The American
Bison” (photoessay),
300–303
Figures, writing style and,
431–434
“Find Help with Educational
Costs Using Benefits.
com” (Ticket to Work
(U.S. National Security
Administration), 395–396
Five-W and How questions
heuristics and, 403–404
literacy narrative, 69–71
photo essays, 296–297
presentations and, 515
profiles, 243
reader profile, 23–24, 23f
in résumés and application
letters, 379
reviews, 114
in surveys, 547
Follow-up with interviews, 545
“Food Insecurity at CUNY”
(Freudenberg, Manzo,
Jones, Kwan, Tsui &
Gagnon), 365–370
Four Cs of copyediting, 460
Freewriting
guidelines for, 401, 402f
purpose development, 14–15
in résumés and application
letters, 380, 381f
Freudenberg, Nicholas, 365–370
Full, Robert J., 275–276
Future
critical reflection on, 53–54
reference in proposal to, 325
reflection on past and, 49f
in research reports, 357
G Group work, 502–503
Gagnon, Monica, 365–370
492, 492f
Gelman, Andrew, 362–365
Gendle, Mat, 145–147
Genre-based writing approach, 2
Genre writing, 1–8. See also
microgenres
appropriate selection of, 18
characteristics of, 4
communication with, 2–4
critical analysis of, 35
defined, 2
as guiding concept, 7
literary analysis, 155
in movies, 3–4, 3f
outlines, 415
process of, 5–7, 5f
reorganization for using,
456–457
reviews, 114
textual analysis, 37
George, Ren, 285–290
Giorgis, Hannah, 248
Given-new chaining, in
paragraphs, 469
Global revision, 450–456, 451f,
452–453f, 454f
Goodwill, in arguments, 492
Government publications, as
research source, 542
Grabber
in argument introduction, 136
explainers, 268
for introductions, 417–418
in presentations, 517–518
Grammar, proofreading for, 462
Grammar checker, 462
Grandin, Temple, 65
Graphics
in proposals, 326
in research reports, 359
Graphs
creation of, 443–448, 444f,
445f
photo essays, 292
in research reports, 359
Grouping
classification with, 480
design and, 439–440, 439f
quick start guide, 511
successful interactions in,
502–503
Guiding concept, genre as, 7

H I
Hare, Robert D., 255–259
Harris, Joseph, 42–43
“Have the Political Parties Really
Switched Places in the
United States?” (Pandit),
206–207
Headers and footers, research
papers, 224
Headings
consistency of design
for, 441
copyediting of, 460
in explainers, 271
profiles, 246
in proposals, 326
research papers, 224
in research reports, 359
in sections, 470
Heckling question, in
presentations, 520
Henslee, Zack, 75–76
Heuristics, 399, 403–407
Highlighting, textual analysis,
38–39
Historical context
literary analysis, 69–72
rhetorical analysis,
182–183
Hookup culture, 13
Hostile questions, in
presentations, 519
Howard, Rebecca Moore, 557
“How Do Hydroelectric Dams
Generate Electricity?”
(Wendt), 277–278
“‘How Many Zombies Do You
Know?’” (Gelman &
Romero), 362–365
“How Mosquitoes Transmit
Malaria, and What Can Be
Done About It” (Jennings),
208–209
“How to Build a Résumé in
College” (Indeed.com
editorial team), 392–394
How-to video, 271–273
Hunt, Nathaniel, 275–276
Hypothesis
research report, 351
sources for, 354
Illustration
photo essays, 292
in responses, 42
Images, design and, 442–443, 443f
Imitation, of writing styles, 431
Implied thesis, 18
Indeed.com, 392–394
Independence, in writing, 49–50
Infographic, 298–299, 299f
Informal surveys, 546, 547f
Information
depth of, 456
in proposals, 318–319
as purpose, 15–16
Informational interviewing, 381
Informative thesis, 16–17
Innovators, for group work, 503
Inquiry
in application letter, 379–380
in arguments, 133–134
explainers, 266–267
literacy narrative, 69–72
literary analysis, 156–157
memoir, 91–93
profiles, 243–244
proposals, 317–318
research report, 351
résumé as, 379–380
in reviews, 112–113
Instagram, memoir publication
on, 97
Internet
citation generators, 564
guidelines for using, 539–540
plagiarism and, 561–562
research sources on, 218, 267,
529
search engines, 538–539, 539f
Internship, portfolio for, 59–61
Interpretive question, literary
analyses, 157
Interviews
guidelines for, 544–545
informational interviewing, 381
profiles, 244
for reviews, 114
In-text parenthetical citations,
research paper, 222
Introduction
in application letter, 36
Index 617
in arguments, 136–137
in critical reflection, 54
drafting of, 416–419
exam answers, 203
explainers, 268–269
literary analyses, 157
photo essays, 294–295, 294f
in presentations, 517–518
profiles, 245
proposals, 321
research papers, 219
research report, 355, 355f
reviews, 115–116
rhetorical analysis, 181–182
timing of writing, 419
Introductory moves, 416–417
Invention, prewriiting and, 409
Irrelevance, in arguments, 494
“Is Social Media Really the
Enemy of “Proper”
Writing” (Henslee), 75–76
Issues
in arguments, understanding
of, 138
in research papers, 220–222,
220f, 221f
J
Jackson, Theo, 186–187
Jacobs, Lucia F., 275–276
Jamal, S. Selina, 166–170
Jargon
definitions of, 358
minimization of, 325
Jennings, Race, 208–209
Job application, portfolio for,
59–61
Jones, Hollie, 365–370
Journaling, 407–408
Journalist’s questions. See
Five-W and How questions
Journals
APA citation style for, 594–595
MLA citation style for, 572–573
K
Kennedy, Eliza, 100–104
Knowledge
research and acquisition of, 526
topic selection and, 13–14
Kwan, Amy, 365–370
618 Index
L Literary present tense, 159
Language, literary analysis of,
156
Languages, in résumés and
application letters, 385
The Last of Us (television series),
121–123
Layout, “raidable” page layout,
358–359, 359f
Lead
in argument introduction, 136
in introductions, 418–419
Learning-focused reflections, 59
Learning process, 5f
Letters, application letter,
374–376
The Library of Congress Veterans
History Project, 72
Library research
guidelines for, 542–543, 542f
research papers, 218–219
start-up research, 530
Line graphs, creation of, 444–445,
445f
Lists
classification with, 479
in proposals, 326
works-cited lists, MLA format,
568–569, 569f
Literacy narratives
content, 69–72, 70f, 71f
defined, 65
digital-literacy narrative,
74–75
organization, 66f, 72–73
quick start guide, 76–77
readings, 77–84
sample of, 67–68f
style and design, 74–77
types of literacy, 73
Literary analyses, 150–170
content, 154–156
design, 160
example of, 152–154
organization and drafting,
157–158
overview, 151f
quick start guide, 160–163
reading response, 160–163
readings, 163–170
style, 158–160
Logical fallacies, avoidance in
arguments of, 493–495, 494f
Logos (reasoning), 39, 404–405
Logos, in arguments, 490–491,
490f
Look, creation in proposal of, 326
Loss, fear of, in argument, 492
Lott, Bret, 99
M abstracts, 360
Mackall, Joe, 104–106
Magazines
APA citation style for, 594–595
MLA citation style for,
572–573
as research source, 543–544
Main point
application letter, 386
of argument, 137
in conclusion, 423
explainers, 269
photo essays, 295–296
in presentations, 517–518
profiles, 245
proposals, 321, 324
research papers, 219
research report, 355–356
in reviews, 116
Manzo, Luis, 365–370
Maslow, Abraham, 24–26
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
24–26, 24f
Mastery-focused reflections, 59
Materials, presentation of, 59
Media resources, photo essays,
292–294
Medium
context of, 27–28
critical analysis of, 35
for memoirs, 97
for reviews, 118
revision of, 455
Meetings, management of,
505–506
Memoir(s), 87–106
content of, 91–93
design for, 97–100
organization and drafting of,
94–95
overview, 88f
quick start guide, 100
sample of, 88–91
Metaphors
description using, 476–477
in proposals, 325
writing style and, 432–433
Methods section, research report,
355, 355f
Micro blogging, 407–408
Microgenres
ad critique, 185–187, 186f
annotated bibliography,
225–226
digital-literacy narrative, 74–75
how-to video, 271–273
infographic, 298–299, 299f
personal statement, 389–391
pitches, 327
portrait, 247–248
rave/slam, 119
reading response, 160–163
rebuttal to argument, 140
short answers, written exams,
204–205
travel narrative, 97–98
Mihm, Stephen, 192–194
MLA style
book and nonperiodical
citations, 571–572
chapter and reference
materials citations, 572
for explainers, 270
guidelines for using, 564–585
journals, magazines and
periodical citations,
572–573
nonprint citation format,
577–578
parenthetical citations,
565–568, 567f
quotations in, 552–554
research paper, 222–223
source citations, 551–552,
570–578, 571f, 575f, 576f
student research paper
example, 578–585
works-cited list format,
568–569, 569f
Mobile phones, screen reading
on, 28

Movement, during presentations,
522
Movies, genre writing in, 3–4, 3f
Multimedia sources, research
using, 540
MLA citation style for,
577–578
N Opening, of section, 470
Narrative
in research paper, 221
as rhetorical pattern, 474, 474f,
475f
Narrative of the Life of Frederick
Douglass, an American Slave
(Douglass), 65, 79–84
Needs assessment
reader profile development,
24–26
revision of, 455
Negative emotions, in
arguments, 492–493
Nominalizations, avoidance of,
358, 427–428
Nonperiodical publications
APA citation style for, 591–593
MLA citation style for,
571–572
Nonprint materials
APA citation style for, 598–599
MLA citation style for,
577–578
Norming, in group or team
work, 506–507
Notetaking app, textual analysis,
38–39, 38f
O résumés, 382–385, 383f
Observations, in presentations,
518
Omitted information, critical
reflection on, 52
Online sources
for arguments, 135–136
for career availability, 380
citation generators, 564
explainers, 267
literacy narrative, 72
memoirs, 93
profiles, 244
proposals, 318
research papers, 218–219
rhetorical analysis, 180
start-up research and, 529
strategies for finding, 538–542,
539f
triangulation evaluation of, 537
Onomatopoeia, 433, 476–477
Open-ended thesis, 17–18
Opposing points
concession, in arguments,
496–497
refutation or absorption in
arguments, 497
Opposing positions
in arguments, 137–138
validity, in arguments, 495–496
Organization of writing
application letter, 385–387
arguments, 136–138
critical reflection on, 52
exam answers, 203–204
explainers, 263f, 268–270
literacy narratives, 72–73
literary analyses, 157–158
memoir(s), 94–95
outlining, 414–416, 414f, 415f
overview, 413–423
photo essays, 294–296
for presentations, 517–520
profiles, 241f, 244–246
proposals, 321–325, 322f, 323f
quick start guide, 423
research papers, 212f, 219–223,
220f, 221f
research reports, 354–357,
355f, 356f
reviews, 110f, 115–118
rhetorical analysis, 174f,
180–184
sections, 470–472, 471f
sketching out, 414–416
O’Toole, Mary Ellen, 255–259
Outlines
organization using, 414–416,
414f, 415f
research report, 353f
software for, 410f
starter outline, 415–416, 415f
Overstatement, in arguments, 497
Index 619
P
Pacing, profiles, 245
Page numbers, research papers,
224
Pages, balance on, 438
Pain, fear of, in argument, 492
Pandit, Uma, 206–207
Paper documents, reading and
analysis of, 27–28
Paragraphs
cohesion in, 468–469
copyediting of, 460
development of, 465–472
given-new chaining in, 469
length in research papers, 224
in proposals, 321–323, 322f
quick start guide, 472
in research reports, 357
sentences in, 466–468
shape of, 466, 466f
subject alignment in, 469
top-down, 357
Paraphrasing
framing of, 557–560, 558f, 559f
quick start guide for, 562
research paper, 222
of sources, 550, 554–556, 555f
Parenthetical citations
APA style, 586–590, 589–590f
MLA style for, 565–568, 567f
Parenthetical definition, 358
Participation, in group or team
work, 506
Patchwriting, 557, 561
Pathos (emotion), 39, 404–406, 406f
Peer review and response
document cycling, 508
editing and revision and, 463
group or team work, 502,
507–511
guidelines for, 510–511
quick start guide, 511
People, as source, interviewing
guidelines, 544–545
“Pequod’s Pizza” (Eakin), 120
Performance, in group or team
work, 507
Periodicals
APA citation style for, 594–595
MLA citation style for, 572–573
620 Index
Personal sketches, 419
Personal statement, 389–391
Personal values, in reader
profile, 25
Personification, 433
Persuasion
critical analysis of, 35
as purpose, 15–16
Photo essays, 282–308
components of, 283f
content, 290–294, 291f
example of, 285–290
organization and drafting,
294–296
patterns, 284f
quick start guide, 299–300
readings, 300–308
style and design, 296–297
Photographs
design and, 442–443, 443f
in memoirs, 97
photo essays, 292
profiles, 246
in research reports, 359
Phrases, in quotations, 553
Pie charts, 445, 446f
Ping, Wang, 77–79
Place
influence of, 27–28, 27f
revision of, 455
Plagiarism, avoidance of,
560–562
Plan, costs and benefits of, 320,
320f, 327
Planning
for presentations, 515–517
for research, 351–353, 352f,
353f, 528–529
teamwork projects, 504–505
Plot, literary analysis of, 156
Podcasts
context of, 28
literacy narrative as, 71, 74
memoirs as, 92
research using, 541
Point sentence, 466, 468
Political context
revision and, 456
of text, 40
Political trends, context of, 29
Portfolio
for critical reflection, 57–61
e-portfolios, 61
Portrait, 247–248
Position papers, arguments as, 129
Posture, for presentations, 522
Practicality, in arguments, 491
Practice, for presentations, 523
“The Predator: When the Stalker
Is a Psychopath” (Smith,
O’Toole, & Hare), 255–259
Premises, false or weak premises,
494
Prepositional phrases, 428
Presentations, 514–524
delivery preparation, 521–523
organization for, 517–520
planning, 515–517
practice and rehearsal for, 523
quick start guide, 524
software, exploratory writing,
409, 410f
visual aids in, 520–521
Present tense, literary analysis, 159
Preview, of text, 36–37, 36f
Prewriting, 399–407
defined, 399
invention in, 409, 410f
quick start guide, 410
Primary sources, 535, 536f
Printed copy, proofreading of, 462
Print sources
for arguments, 136
for career availability, 380
explainers, 267
guidelines for using, 542–544
literacy narrative, 72
memoirs, 72
photo essays, 239
profiles, 244
proposals, 318–319
rhetorical analysis, 180
triangulation evaluation of, 537
Prior experience, critical
reflection using, 51
Problem
analylsis in proposal, 318
description, causes and effects
of, 321
solution, in proposals,
319–320, 319f
Procrastination, 421
Professors, exam preparation
and conversation with,
200–203
Profiles, 240–259
content, 242–244
drafting of, 244–246
example of, 242
organization, 241f, 244–246
quick start guide, 249
readings, 249–259
style and design, 245–246
Project design, critical reflection
on, 53
Project planning, teamwork and,
504
Proofreading, 450, 461–462
Proofs
in arguments, 490–491, 490f
rhetorical analysis, 178–179
textual analysis of, 39
Proposals, 311–341
content, 317–320
design of, 325–326, 326f
example, 313–317
organization and drafting of,
321–325, 322f, 323f
pattern for, 312f
quick start guide, 329
readings, 329–339
style for, 325
Publication, of memoirs, 97
Public presentation, context of, 28
Publishers, bias of, 530
Pull quotes, profiles, 246
Purpose
application letter, 386
of argument, 137
articulation of, 14–16
explainers, 266–267, 269
genre selection for, 18
photo essays, 295
of presentation, 517–518
profiles, 245
proposals, 317–318, 321
research papers, 217–219, 218f
research report, 355
in reviews, 115
revision of, 455
rhetorical analysis, 181
of text, 37
Purpose statement, 14–15, 16f

Q literary analysis, 155
“QAnon Is Overrated, and So
Are Most Conspiracy
Theories” (Ard), 232–236
Qualified statement, in
arguments, 498
Question-and-answer (Q&A)
period, in presentations,
519–520
Questions. See also Five-W and
How questions
creation of, for written exams,
201–202
heckling question, in
presentations, 520
hostile questions, in
presentations, 519
interpretive question, literary
analyses, 157
journalist’s questions, 403–404
research questions, 527–528
research reports, 342–343
Question thesis, 17–18
Quotations
brief quotations, 553
direct quotations, 558, 558f
framing of, 557–560, 558f, 559f
in literary analysis, 159
long quotations, 553–554
in profiles, 245–246
quick start guide for, 562
research paper, 222
from sources, 550, 552–554
R 565–568, 567f
Radio broadcasts, research using,
540
“Raidable” page layout, 358–359,
359f
Rave review, 119
Reader analysis worksheet,
25–26, 26f
Reader profile
creation of, 23–26
elements of, 23–24, 23f
extended profile, 24–25
Reading aloud
editing and, 461
peer review and, 508
Reading and analysis
backwards reading of draft, 461
out loud reading, 461
Readings
arguments, 142–147
explainers, 274–279
literacy narratives, 77–84
literary analyses, 163–170
memoirs, 100–106
photo essays, 300–308
profiles, 249–259
proposals, 329–339
research papers, 227–236
research reports, 362–370
résumés and application
letters, 392–396
reviews, 121–125
rhetorical analysis, 188–195
written exams, 206–208
“The Real Cost Campaign,”
182–183, 182f
Reasoning
rhetorical analysis, 178–179
textual analysis, 39
Rebuttal, in arguments, 495–498
Recommendation, arguable
claims and, 489
Redundancies, elimination of,
428–429
Reference materials
APA citation style for,
590–591, 591f
guidelines for using, 534
MLA citation style for, 572
parenthetical references,
in research reports, 357
References, on résumés and
application letters, 385
Reflection, writing and, 50f
Refutation, in arguments,
495–498
Rehearsal, for presentations, 523
Reinhart, Brian, 123–125
Reports, research reports, 342–370
Research
arguments and, 134–136
on career availability, 380–381
cyclical nature of, 354f
development of, 526–533
explainers, 267–268
literacy narrative, 72
Index 621
literary analysis and, 156
management of process,
531–532
memoirs, 93
plan for, 528–529
plan modification, 532
process, 527–529, 527f
profiles, 244
proposals, 318–319
questions, 527–528
quick start guide, 533
for research papers, 218–219
for research report, 354, 354f
for résumés and application
letters, 380–381
reviews, 114–115
source reliability, 530–531
start-up research, 529–530
working thesis for, 528
Researchers, for teamwork, 505
Research papers, 211–236
content, 217–219
example of, 213–216
organization, 212f, 219–223,
220f, 221f
quick start guide, 226–227
readings, 227–236
style and design, 223–224
Research question, 350–351
Research reports, 342–370
content, 350–354
design, 358–359, 359f
example, 344–350
organization and drafting of,
354–357, 355f, 356f
planning for, 351–353
quick start guide, 361
readings, 362–370
structure, 343–344f
style, 357–358
Research triangle, 537, 537f
Resolution
in literacy narratives, 73
in memoirs, 94
Response
other authors and, 42–43
in presentations, 518
to text, 41–42
textual analysis and, 40–41
Results/findings section,
research report, 355, 356f
622 Index
Résumés, 374–396
aspirational, 375
content of, 379–381
defined, 374–375
example of, 377–378
organization of, 382–385, 383f
patterns, 376f
quick start guide, 391
readings, 392–396
starter résumé, 61, 375
style and design of, 388
Reviews, 109–125
content, 112–115
organization and drafting of,
110f, 115–118
quick start guide, 120–121
readings, 121–125
sample of, 111–112
style and design, 118
Revision. See also drafting
global, 450–456
levels of, 451f
overview, 450–463
review by others and, 457,
458–459f
topic, angle and purpose, 455
Rhetorical analysis, 173–194
content of, 177–180
design, 184–185
drafting of, 180–184
example of, 175–177
organization for, 174f, 180–184
quick start campaign, 187–188
readings, 188–195
style, 184–185
Rhetorical patterns, 474–484
cause and effect, 480–482,
481f, 482f
classification, 479–480, 479f
combined patterns, 483
comparison and contrast,
482–483, 482f, 483f
definitions, 477–478, 478f
description, 475–477, 476f
narrative, 474, 474f, 475f
quick start guide, 483
Rhetorical situation
discourse communities and,
29–30
elements of, 10–18, 11f
genre writing and, 6
Rodriguez, Sara, 225–226
Role-playing
memoir, 92
podcast or video, 71
Romero, George A., 362–365
Rosenzweig, Paul, 329–336
Rough draft, 452–453f, 454f
Round robin editing, 508
Rubric-centered editing, 508
Rubrics, written exams, 201
S Signal phrases, 558–559, 558f, 559f
“Sabbath” (Lott), 99
Scene setting
in introductions, 418
literacy narratives, 72
Scheduling, research process,
531–532
Science, research about, 156
Scientific argument, emotion in,
39f
Scoring guidelines, written
exams, 201
Scribes, for group work, 503
Search engines, 538–539, 539f
Secondary sources, 536
Sections
development of, 470–472
organization of, 470–472, 471f
quick start guide, 472
Senses, 505
description using, 475–476
as heuristic, 505
in reviews, 114–115
in surveys, 547
Sentence definitions, 477
Sentences
breathing length for, 429
clarification of, 426
copyediting and revision of,
461
definitions as, 358
in explainers, 271
in paragraphs, 466–472
photo essays, 296–297
in proposals, 325
in quotations, 553
in research reports, 357
short sentences, use of,
325, 388
subject of, 426–427
Setting
literary analysis of, 156
research about, 156
Shadowing, profiles, 244
“Shake Shack Makes a Good
Burger—and a Good
Metaphor for Dallas
Dining” (Reinhart),
123–125
Shortcomings, reviews and
discussion of, 116–117
Similarities, definitions and, 478
Similes
description using, 476–477
in explainers, 271
in proposals, 325
writing style and, 431–432
Simple metaphor, 432
Sizes, photo essays, 297, 297f
Skills and abilities
in application letter, 386
in résumés, 385
Slackers, in group or team work,
506
Slam review, 119
Slice, 97
Slide shows, 282
photo essays, 295
in presentations, 520–521,
521f
Smith, Sharon S., 255–259
Social customs, in reader profile,
25
Social influences, revision and, 456
Social media
memoir publication on, 97
writing and impact of, 75–76
Software
design tools, 436–437
document cycling, 508
graphs and charts, 443–444,
444f
for outlines, 414
for peer review, 508, 510
presentations, 409, 410f
for presentations, 515, 516f
presentation software, 409,
410f
spellchecker and grammar
checker, 462

Solutions, in proposals, 319–320
Sources
citation of, 550–552
evidence verification, 531
framing quotes, paraphrases,
and summaries, 557–560,
558f, 559f
multiple citations of, APA
style, 566
multiple citations of, MLA
style, 588–589
multiple sources, APA citation
style, 587–588
multiple sources, MLA
citation style for, 569
paraphrasing of, 550, 554–556,
555f
plagiarism, avoidance of,
560–562
primary sources, 535, 536f
in proposals, 318–319
quick start guide for, 548, 562
quoting from, 550, 552–554
reliability, 530–531
in research reports, 357
secondary sources, 536
summarization of, 551,
556–557
triangulation and evaluation
of, 537
in works-cited list, MLA style
for, 570–578, 571f, 575f, 576f
Speakers, quoting from, 552–554
Spellchecker, 462
Spokespersons, for group work,
503
Sponsored links, online sources
and, 529
“Squirrels, Parkour, and Nimble
Robots” (Jacobs, Hunt &
Full), 275–276
Start-up research, 529–530
Statistics, in presentations, 518
Stepp, Laura Sessions, 13
Still images, photo essays, 292
Stills (movie), in reviews, 118
Stimson, Charles, 329–336
Storyboarding
literacy narrative, 71, 71f
memoir, 92
photo essays, 290–291, 291f
prewriting and, 402, 403f
“The Story of an Hour”
(Chopin), 163–166
Strengths
identification of, 48
reviews and discussion of,
116–117
Study groups, exam preparation
and, 200
Style
of application letter, 388
of arguments, 138–139
critical analysis of, 35
critical reflection on selection
of, 53
explainers, 270–271
figures and tropes in, 431–434
guidelines for, 425–429
in literacy narratives, 74–77
literary analyses, 158–160
memoirs, 95–97
photo essays, 296–297
profiles, 245–246
for proposals, 325
quick start guide, 434
research papers, 223–224
in research reports, 357–358
of résumé, 388
in reviews, 118
rhetorical analysis, 184–185
selection of, 425–434
Subject
alignment in paragraph, 469
in explainers, 270
of profiles, 245
of sentence, 426–427
Substantive editing, 450,
456–459, 458–459f
Summaries
in arguments, 137–138, 495
executive summary, 354
framing of, 557–560,
558f, 559f
in literary analyses, 157–158
quick start guide for, 562
research paper, 222
in reviews, 116
of sources, 551, 556–557
Supporting information, in
literary analyses, 158
Support sentence, 466, 468
Index 623
Surveys
as research source, 546, 547f
for reviews, 114
Synthesis, in reviews, 115
T
Table of contents, in research
reports, 359
Tables, 445, 447f
in research reports, 359
Talking, drafting and, 421
Team work, 502–507
formation of team, 505
quick start guide, 511
Tuckman’s four stages of, 504f
Technical terms, definitions of, 358
Technology, for presentations,
515, 516f
Teen Ink, 97
Television broadcasts, research
using, 540
Textual analysis
annotation, 38–39
assumptions and beliefs, 40
believing and doubting game,
37–38
contextualization, 40
critical reading, 35
preview of, 36–37, 36f
proof analysis, 39
responses assessment, 40–41
rhetorical analysis and, 182
strategies for, 35–41
Themes, in written exams, 201
Theory of writing, development
of, 53–54
Thesis statement
of argument, 137
body and support for, 420–421
development of, 16–18, 17f
explainers, 269
literary analyses, 157–158
in memoirs, 94
photo essays, 295–296
profiles, 245
proposals, 321, 324
research papers, 219
research process, 528
in reviews, 116
revision of, 455
rhetorical analysis, 181
624 Index
Thinking in Pictures (Grandin), 65
Ticket to Work (U.S. National
Security Administration),
395–396
Time management
drafting, 420
for presentations, 515, 517, 517f
written exams, 202–203, 202f
Time periods, in research papers,
222
Titles
consistency of design for, 441
copyediting of, 460
photo essays, 294, 294f
Tone
of application letter, 388
establishment of, 429–430,
430f
literary analysis of, 156
of memoirs, 95–96, 96f
photo essays, 296–297
for presentations, 522
profiles, 245
proposals, 325–326
Topic(s)
angle on, 13–14
in application letter, 386
in arguments, 133–134, 136
books on, 13f
characteristics of, 11–12
concept map of, 11–12, 12f
explainers, 266–268
literary narrative, 69
memoirs, 91
photo essays, 295
in presentations, 517–518
profiles, 245
proposals, 317–318, 321, 324
research papers, 217–220
research reports, 350–352,
351f, 355–356
reviews, 115
revision of, 455
Topic sentence, 466–468
“To Reduce Gun Violence, Focus on
Function Instead of Form”
(Gendle), 145–147
Transitional words and phrases,
467
Transition sentence, 466–467
Travel narrative, 97–98
Triangulation, source evaluation,
537, 537f
Tropes
description using, 475–477
literary analysis of, 156
writing style and, 431–434
Tsui, Emma, 365–370
Tuckman’s four stages of
teaming, 504f
Typefaces, 440, 440f
U essays, 292
Understanding, in arguments,
138
Unhooked: How Young Women
Pursue Sex, Delay Love and
Lose at Both (Stepp), 13
V MLA citation style for, 572–573
Values
in reader profile, 25
revision of, 455
Verb-first phrases, résumés and
application letters, 384, 388
Verbs
action statement in, 427
in purpose statement, 16f, 218f
for signal phrases, 559f
Verb tenses, literary analysis, 159
Versatility, critical reflection for
improving, 48–49
Vertical alignment, 438–439,
438f
Vidcast (VIDeo+podCAST), 282
photo essays, 295
Videos
context of, 28
how-to video, 271–273
literacy narrative as, 71, 74
memoirs as, 92
photo essays, 292
presentations on, 514
Visual design, critical analysis
of, 35
Visual information
in explainers, 270–271
in literary narratives, 74
in memoirs, 97
photo essays, 292
in presentation, 520–521
research papers, 224
Visual narrative, 282
photo essays, 295
Voice
active voice, in research
reports, 357
establishment of, 429–430
in memoirs, 95–96, 96f
for presentations, 522
résumés and application
letters, 388
Voiceover commentary, photo
W
Walker, Alissa, 337–339
Weak premises, 494
Web publications
APA citation style for, 595–597
Websites, memoir publication
on, 97
Weight, in design, 437
Wendt, Zack, 277–278
“When an Open Relationship
Comes with a Price”
(Kennedy), 100–104
White space, in proposals, 326
“Why Big Tech Is Pouring Money
into Carbon Removal”
(Brigham), 227–231
Wikis, research using, 540
Word origin (etymology), 478
Words, in quotations, 553
“Words of My Youth?” (Mackall),
104–106
Work experience
in application letter, 386
in résumés, 384–385
Working hypothesis, research
reports, 342–343
Working thesis, 528
Workplace, group interactions in,
502–503
Works-cited lists
APA style for, 591–595
bibliographic entries, MLA
style for, 568–569, 569f
formatting, MLA style, 569f
source citations, MLA
guidelines, 570–578, 571f,
575f, 576f

Worksheets, peer review and,
508, 509f
Writer’s block, overcoming,
420
Writing process, 6f
critical reading role in, 35f,
41–43
critical reflection on, 53–54
Index 625
genre writing, 5–7, 5f readings, 206–208
Written exams sample of, 199
answer strategies for, 201–204, short answers for, 204–205
202f
patterns for, 198f Y
preparation for, 200–202 “You” style, in explainers,
process for, 197f 270–271
quick start guide, 205