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CE257 Data Communication and Networking
Week 2 – Session 2
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STUDENTS WILL LEARN
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DATA AND SIGNALS
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SWITCHING LIGHT
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MEASURING VOLTAGE AT 200 MTR DISTANCE
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VOLTAGE ACROSS WIRES AT 200 METER DISTANCE
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Q.
There is a delay before the voltage rises at the
voltmeter when it is 200 m along the wire. How
much of a delay?
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ANSWER
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Q.
How fast is the pulse travelling? (Measure in
meters per second)
Ans
The pulse travels 200 meters in 1 microsecond.
1 microsecond is one-millionth of a second
= 1 million
So in 1 second it would travel 200×1 million
meters=200 million meters or 2×108 meters.
The speed is therefore 2×108 m/s.
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Q.
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ACTUAL RECEIVED SIGNAL
Attenuation and Noise
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ATTENUATION
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NOISE
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FOR LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION
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FOR LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION
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EQUATION
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Q
For a communications satellite to be in a geostationary orbit it has to
be about 36,000 km above the Earth. How much delay will be
introduced to a radio signal by having to go up to and back down from
the satellite? Radio signals travel at the speed of light (3×108 m/s),
and you should assume that the signals go straight up and straight
down. Note that this assumption – straight up and straight down –
simplifies the calculation, and means that you get a value that would
be an underestimate to the delay, for all cases except where the
communication really is straight up and down
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ANSWER
We first write the distance and speed in consistent
units.
The speed is in units of meters per second
(3×108 m/s) but the distance is in kilometers
(36,000 km).
The multiplier 'kilo' is ×1000, so in meters the
distance is 36,000×1000 m=36,000,000
m=3.6×107 m.
This is the distance to or from the satellite. One
'hop' – up and down – is twice this distance,
7.2×107m.
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Q. 1
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We need location of google server
Find out IP address of google server
Find out location of IP address
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Q. 2
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IMPORTANCE OF FREQUENCY IN COMMUNICATION
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PERIODIC SIGNALS
time
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SINE WAVES
Simplest form of periodic signal
signal strength
period
T = 1/f
peak
amplitude
time
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CONCLUSION
Low frequency(LF) is longer than High
Frequency (HF) signals, hence it has less
penetration power. So, when it comes to
sending information signals to larger distance,
LF fails. (Which means LF can carry less
information).
While HF has high penetration power, thus it
can easily send information to large distance.
(Which means HF carries more information).
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VARYING SINE WAVES
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 A = 1, f = 1, = 0 -3 A = 2, f = 1, = 0
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 A = 1, f = 2, = 0 -3 A = 1, f = 1, = /4
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TIME VS. FREQUENCY DOMAINS
1 1 1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
+ 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
= 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1 -1 -1
Demo: sine.py 36
LINE CODING
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Figure A sine wave
Figure Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes
Note
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).
FREQUENCY
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is
Figure Wavelength and period
Figure The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
Note
1 1
0 0
2 4 time 2 4 frequency
-1 -1
Demo: Equalizer 60
3.61
Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains
Example
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A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle
frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies
have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the signal.
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Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the signal propagated by an
FM radio station.
In the United States, each FM radio station is assigned a 200-kHz bandwidth. The
total bandwidth dedicated to FM radio ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.
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Example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the signal received by an old-
fashioned analog black-and-white TV. A TV screen is made up of pixels
(picture elements) with each pixel being either white or black. The screen is
scanned 30 times per second. (Scanning is actually 60 times per second, but
odd lines are scanned in one round and even lines in the next and then
interleaved.) If we assume a resolution of 525 x 700 (525 vertical lines and
700 horizontal lines), which is a ratio of 3: 4, we have 367,500 pixels per
screen. If we scan the screen 30 times per second, this is 367,500 x 30 =
11,025,000 pixels per second.
The worst-case scenario is alternating black and white pixels. In this case,
we need to represent one color by the minimum amplitude and the other
color by the maximum amplitude. We can send 2 pixels per cycle.
Therefore, we need 11,025,000/2 =5,512,500 cycles per second, or Hz. The
bandwidth needed is 5.5124 MHz. This worst-case scenario has such a low
probability of occurrence that the assumption is that we need only 70
percent of this bandwidth, which is 3.85 MHz. Since audio and
synchronization signals are also needed, a 4-MHz bandwidth has been set
aside for each black and white TV channel. An analog color TV channel has
a 6-MHz bandwidth.
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FOURIER ANALYSIS
+ + + +…
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FOURIER ANALYSIS
DC component
AC components
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BANDWIDTH OF A MEDIUM
gain (low-pass channel)
1
freq
...
Transmission medium
0 f0 3f0 5f0 7f0 9f0 f 0 f0 3f0 5f0 f
t t
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DIGITAL SIGNALS
Properties:
Bit rate – number of bits per second
Bit interval – duration of 1 bit
amplitude
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
...
time
bit interval
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Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels
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The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic
digital signals
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Baseband transmission
Baseband transmission
→ Sending a digital signal over a channel without
changing it to an analog signal
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Note
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Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium
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DIGITAL VS. ANALOG
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 sec
Digital Analog
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
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DIGITAL VS. ANALOG BANDWIDTH
Digital bandwidth
Expressed in bits per second (bps)
Analog bandwidth
Expressed in Hertz (Hz)
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LOW-PASS AND BAND-PASS CHANNELS
Low-pass
gain
channel
f1 frequency
Band-pass
gain
channel
f1 f2 frequency
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Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass channel
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TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Attenuation
Distortion
Noise
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SIGNAL ATTENUATION
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Example
Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as
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Example
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SIGNAL DISTORTION
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NOISE
Noise Undesirable signals added between
the transmitter and the receiver
Types of noise
Thermal
Due to random motion of electrons in a wire
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NOISE
Types of noise (cont’d)
Crosstalk
Signal from one line picked up by another
Wire 1
Wire 2
Impulse
Irregular pulses or spikes
E.g., lightning
Short duration
High amplitude
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SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
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Example
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:
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DATA RATE: NOISELESS CHANNELS
Nyquist Theorem
Bit Rate = 2 × Bandwidth × log2L
Harry Nyquist
(1889-1976)
Bitrate in bps
Bandwidth in Hz
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Example
Shannon Capacity
Capacity = Bandwidth × log2(1+SNR)
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Example
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
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Example
Solution
First, use the Shannon capacity
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Note
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NETWORK PERFORMANCE
Bandwidth
Hertz
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LATENCY
Composed of
Propagation time
Transmission time
Queuing time
Processing
Entire time
message
propagation
time
transmission
time
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LATENCY
Sender Receiver
Propagation time
First bit arrives
Data bits
Last bit leaves Transmission time
Time Time
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BANDWIDTH-DELAY PRODUCT
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Figure Filling the link with bits for case 1
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SUMMARY
Data need to take form of signal to be
transmitted
Frequency domain representation of signal
allows easier analysis
Fourier analysis
Medium's bandwidth limits certain frequencies
to pass
Bit rate is proportional to bandwidth
Signals get impaired by attenuation, distortion,
and noise
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Thank you
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