Operational amplifier

An operational amplifier is a multistage amplifier and consists of a differential

amplifier stage, a high-gain CE amplifier stage and class B push-pull emitter
follower.

An operational amplifier (OP-Amp) is an *integrated circuit and is widely used in

computers, as video and audio amplifiers in communication electronics.

An operational amplifier (OP-Amp) is a circuit that can perform such mathematical

operations as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation.

Fig.1 shows the block diagram of an operational amplifier.

Note that OP-Amp is a multistage amplifier. The three stages are : differential
amplifier input stage followed by a high-gain CE amplifier and finally the output
stage.

The key electronic circuit in an OP-Amp is the differential amplifier. A differential

amplifier (DA) can accept two input signals and amplifies the difference between
these two input signals.

The following points may be noted about operational amplifiers (OP-Amps)

 The input stage of an OP-Amp is a differential amplifier (DA) and the output
stage is typically a class B push-pull emitter follower.
 The internal stages of an OP-Amp are direct-coupled. The direct coupling
allows the OP-Amp to amplify d.c. as well as a.c. signals.
 An OP-Amp has very high input impedance (ideally infinite) and very low
output
impedance (ideally zero). The effect of high input impedance is that the
amplifier will draw a very small current (ideally zero) from the signal source.
The effect of very low output impedance is that the amplifier will provide a
constant output voltage independent of current drawn from the source.
 An OP-Amp has very high *open-loop voltage gain (ideally infinite); typically
more than 200,000.
 The OP-Amps are almost always operated with negative feedback. It is because
the open-loop voltage gain of these amplifiers is very high and we can sacrifice
the gain to achieve the advantages of negative feedback including large
bandwidth (BW) and gain stability.
Overview of Differential Amplifier:
A differential amplifier is a circuit that can accept two input signals and amplify
the difference between these two input signals.

Fig. 2(a) shows the block diagram of an ordinary amplifier. The input voltage v is
amplified to Av where A is the voltage gain of the amplifier. Therefore, the ouput
voltage is v0 = Av

Fig. 2(b) shows the block diagram of a differential amplifier. There are two input
voltages v1 and v2. This amplifier amplifies the difference between the two input
voltages. Therefore, the output voltage is v0 = A(v1 – v2) where A is the voltage gain
of the amplifier.

Fig.2(a) Fig.2(b)

Fig. 3 (i) shows the basic circuit of a differential amplifier. It consists of two
transistors Q1 and Q2 that have identical characteristics.

They share a common positive supply VCC, common emitter resistor RE and
common negative supply VEE. Fig. 3(ii) shows the symbol of differential amplifier.
The following points may be noted about the differential amplifier :

 The differential amplifier (DA) is a two-input terminal device using atleast two
transistors. There are two output terminals marked 1 (vout 1) and 2(vout 2).
 The DA transistors Q1 and Q2 are matched so that their characteristics are the
same. The collector resistors (RC1 and RC2) are also equal. The equality of the
matched circuit components makes the DA circuit arrangement completely
symmetrical.
 We can apply signal to a differential amplifier (DA) in the following two ways :
(a) The signal is applied to one input of DA and the other input is grounded. In
that case, it is called single-ended input arrangement.
(b) The signals are applied to both inputs of DA. In that case, it is called dual-
ended or double-ended input arrangement.
 We can take output from DA in the following two ways :
(a) The output can be taken from one of the output terminals and the ground. In
that case, it is called single-ended output arrangement.
 (b) The output can be taken between the two output terminals (i.e., between the
collectors of Q1 and Q2). In that case, it is called double-ended output
arrangement or differential output.
 Generally, the differential amplifier (DA) is operated for single-ended output.
In other words, we take the output either from output terminal 1 and ground or
from output terminal 2 and ground.
Fig.4 shows double-ended input and single-ended output differential amplifier
(DA). There are two input signals and one output signal. A DA is normally
operated in this fashion.

When input signal v1 (input 1) is applied, the output signal is in phase with the
input signal i.e., there is no phase shift in the output signal. For this reason, input
signal v1 is called noninverting input.

When input signal v2 (input 2) is applied, the output signal is 180° out of phase
with the input signal. For this reason, input signal v2 is called inverting input.

Fig.4
 Operational Amplifier (OP- Amp)

Fig. 5 shows the block diagram of an operational amplifier (OP-amp). The input
stage of an OP- amp is a differential stage followed by more stages of gain and a
class B push-pull emitter follower

The following are the important properties common to all operational amplifiers
(OP-amps):
(i) An operational amplifier is a multistage amplifier. The input stage of an OP-
amp is a differential amplifier stage.

(ii) An inverting input and a noninverting input.

(iii) A high input impedance (usually assumed infinite) at both inputs.

(iv) A low output impedance (< 200 Ω).

(v) A large open-loop voltage gain, typically 105.

(vi) The voltage gain remains constant over a wide frequency range.
Schematic Symbol of Operational Amplifier

Fig.6(i) shows the schematic symbol of an operational amplifier.

(i) The basic operational amplifier has five terminals: two terminals for supply
voltages +V and –V; two input terminals (inverting input and noninverting input)
and one output terminal.

(ii) Note that the input terminals are marked + and –. These are not polarity signs.
The – sign indicates the inverting input while the + sign indicates the noninverting
input. A signal applied to plus terminal will appear in the same phase at the output
as at the input. A signal applied to the minus terminal will be shifted in phase 180°
at the output.

(iii) The voltages v1, v2 and vout are node voltages. This means that they are always
measured w.r.t. ground. The differential input vin is the difference of two node
voltages v1 and v2. We normally do not show the ground in the symbol

Fig.6

(iv)For the sake of simplicity, + V and – V terminals are often omitted from the
symbol as shown in Fig. 25.39(ii). The two input leads are always shown on the
symbol regardless of whether they are both used.

(v) In most cases, if only one input is required for an OP-amp circuit, the input not
in use will be shown connected to ground. A single-input OP-amp is generally
classified as either inverting or non-inverting.
Output Voltage From OP-Amp

The output voltage from an OP-amp for a given pair of input voltages depends
mainly on the following factors:

1. The voltage gain of OP-amp.

2. The polarity relationship between v1 and v2.

3. The values of supply voltages, +V and –V.

1. Voltage gain of OP-amp.

The maximum possible voltage gain from a given OP-amp is called open-loop
voltage gain and is denoted by the symbol AOL.

The value of AOL for an OP-amp is generally greater than 10,000.

The term open-loop indicates a circuit condition where there is no feedback path
from the output to the input of OP-amp.

The OP-amps are almost always operated with negative feedback i.e., a part of the
output signal is fed back in phase opposition to the input. Such a condition is
illustrated in Fig.7.

Here Ri is the input resistance and Rf is the feedback resistor. Consequently, the
voltage gain of OP amplifier is reduced. When a feedback path is present
such as Rf connection in Fig.7, the resulting circuit gain is referred to as closed-
loop voltage gain (ACL).

The following points may be noted :

(i) The maximum voltage gain of given OP-amp is AOL. Its value is generally
greater than 10,000.

(ii) The actual gain (ACL) of an OP-amplifier is reduced when negative feedback
path exists between output and input.
 Fig.7

2. OP-Amp Input/Output Polarity Relationship.

The polarity relationship between v1 and v2 will determine whether the OP-amp
output voltage polarity is positive or negative.

There is an easy method for it. We know the differential input voltage vin is the
difference between the non-inverting input (v1) and inverting input (v2) i.e.,

When the result of this equation is positive, the OP-amp output voltage will be
positive. When the result of this equation is negative, the output voltage will be
negative.
In Fig. 8 (i), v1 = + 4V and v2 = + 2V so that vin = v1 – v2 = (+ 4V) – (+ 2V) = 2V.
Since vin is positive, the OP-amp output voltage will be positive

Fig.8
3. Supply Voltages.

The supply voltages for an OP-amp are normally equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign e.g., ± 15V, ± 12V, ± 18V.

These supply voltages determine the limits of output voltage of OP-amp. These limits, known as
saturation voltages, are generally given by;

Suppose an OP-amplifier has Vsupply = ± 15V and open-loop voltage gain AOL =
20,000. Let us find the differential voltage vin to avoid saturation.
If the differential input voltage Vin exceeds this value in an OP-amp, it will be
driven into saturation and the device will become non-linear.