Radiation Safety Refresher Course (RSRC) – Online


Philippine Nuclear Research Institute

Quantities and Units

in Radiation Protection

Nuclear Training Center

Technology Diffusion Division
Philippine Nuclear Research Institute
 2

Introduction
What is Radiation?
(Physics) Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of
waves or particles through space or through a material
 3

Introduction
What is Radiation?
(Physics) Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of
waves or particles through space or through a material

Classification of Radiation
• Non-ionizing Radiation – does not carry sufficient energy to ionize
atoms

• Ionizing Radiation – have enough energy to knock electrons out of

their orbits or cause ionization
 4

Classification of Ionizing Radiation

Directly ionizing Particulate radiation
consisting of atomic or
subatomic particles (electrons,
protons, etc.) which carry
energy in the form of kinetic
Indirectly ionizing energy of mass in motion

Electromagnetic radiation
in which energy is carried by
oscillating electrical and
magnetic fields traveling
through space at speed of light
 5

Ionization
e-
❑ A process which results in
the removal of an electron,
negative (-) charge from an
electrically neutral atom or
molecule

❑ Whenever this happens it

creates an ion pair made up
of the e- and the positive
atom or molecule
+ atom
 6


Ionization in Matter
https://www.slideserve.com/lydie/training-course-on-radiation-dosimetry

Low LET High LET

 7

Objectives
1. To understand radiation quantities used in
radiation protection and their measurement units
and the relations between them;
2. To determine when to use these quantities and
convert units from one to another; and
3. To perform related calculations.

Radiation Quantities and Units

 8

Introduction

What is Radiation Protection?

 (IAEA) The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to
ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this.

 Prevent the occurrence of harmful deterministic effects and to reduce

the probability of occurrence of stochastic effects (e.g. cancer and
hereditary effects).

 Radiation protection can be achieved by reduction of radiation dose by

use of radiation shielding, minimization of time of exposure and
distance from the source – TDS Principle.
 9

Introduction

Quantity Unit A selected reference

Used for the
sample of a quantity
quantitative
with which other
description of physical
quantities of the
phenomena or
same kind are
objects
compared

Numerical
Quantities can be multiplied or divided by
Quantity Unit
Value one another resulting in other quantities.
Thus, all quantities can be derived from a
set of base quantities. The resulting
quantities are called derived quantities.

The PNRI adopts the International Commission on

Radiation Units and Measurements recommendation on
the use of the International System of Units (SI).
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Radiation Quantities
RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES
Quantities used to describe a radiation field (in terms of particles
or rays)
 Particle Fluence, Energy

DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES
Quantities used to describe the interaction of ionizing radiation
with matter
 KERMA, Absorbed Dose, Equivalent Dose, Effective Dose

OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES
Quantities intended to give reasonable approximations to
equivalent and effective doses
 Ambient dose equivalent {H*(d)}, Personal dose equivalent
{Hp(d)}
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Worksheet

See Units and Quantities in Ionizing Radiation Worksheet

 12

Worksheet
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
Radiometric Quantities
 14

Radiation Field

Radiation field is used to characterize in a quantitative way the

radiation in space consisting of particles.

There are two very general quantities associated with a

radiation field:
 the number, N, of particles
 the energy, R, transported by the particles (which is also denoted
as the radiant energy)
 15

Radiometric Quantities
How can the number of particles be determined at a
certain point in space?

 Consider a point P in space within a

field of radiation.

 Then use the following simple method:

 In case of a parallel radiation beam,
construct a small area dA around the point
P in such a way, that its plane is
perpendicular to the direction of the beam.
 Determine the number of particles that
intercept this area dA.
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Radiometric Quantities
ሶ is defined as the increment of the particle number in a radiation
Flux (𝑵)
beam in the time interval, dt.
𝒅𝑵
ሶ
𝑵= Unit: particles per second (s-1)
𝒅𝒕

Fluence (𝜱) is defined as the number of particles or photons passing

through a unit area, A.
𝒅𝑵
𝜱= Unit: particles per square meter (m-2)
𝒅𝑨

Fluence Rate (𝚽)ሶ is the number of particles or photons passing through a

unit area per unit time.
𝒅𝜱
𝜱ሶ = Unit: m−2 s−1
𝒅𝒕
 18

Energy deposition
Energy conversion

Low LET High LET

RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES

DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES
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
Dosimetric Quantities
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Introduction to Dosimetric Quantities

 The effects of radiation on matter depend on the radiation field

and on the interactions between radiation and matter.

 Dosimetric quantities, which are selected to provide a physical

measure to correlate with actual or potential effects, are products
of radiometric quantities and interaction coefficients.

 Radiation interacts with matter in a series of processes in which

particle energy is converted and finally deposited in matter.

 The term conversion of energy refers to the transfer of energy from

ionizing particles to secondary ionizing particles.

 Energy Conversion: KERMA and Exposure; Energy Deposition:

Absorbed Dose
 21

KERMA, K
The quantity kerma pertains to the kinetic energy, dE, of the charged
particles liberated by uncharged particles (photons, neutrons) in a
mass, dm, of a material.
Kinetic Energy Released per MAss.

𝒅𝑬𝒕𝒓 Unit: J kg-1

𝑲=
𝒅𝒎

The special name for the unit of kerma is Gray (Gy).

Although kerma is a quantity that concerns the initial transfer of

energy to matter, it is sometimes used as an approximation to
absorbed dose.
 23

Exposure, X
A quantity used to indicate the amount of ionization in
air produced by x- or gamma-ray radiation.

𝒅𝑸
𝑿=
𝒅𝒎
The SI unit of exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (C/kg).

The former special unit of exposure was Roentgen (R).

1 R = 2.58 x 10-4 C/kg

Radiation Quantities and Units

 24

Exposure Rate, 𝑿ሶ
Exposure Rate is the exposure produced per unit of
time.
𝐝𝐗
ሶ𝐗 =
𝐝𝐭

The SI unit of exposure rate is the

C/kg per second or R/s.

In radiation protection it is common to indicate these

rate values “per hour” (e.g. R/h)

Radiation Quantities and Units

 25

Absorbed Dose, D
The absorbed dose D, is a measure of the amount of energy
from an ionizing radiation deposited in a mass of some
material.
𝒅𝑬
𝑫=
𝒅𝒎

This quantity is defined for all ionizing radiation (not only

for electromagnetic radiation, as in the case of the
“exposure”), and for any material.
The biological and depends
effect is on the nature
related to the of the
dose radiation.
 26

Absorbed Dose, D

Units
RAD (Radiation Absorbed Dose)
• Old, but still commonly used.
• 1 rad = 100 ergs/g
Gray (Gy)
• The SI unit is J kg-1 and the special name is gray (Gy)
• It is defined as the absorption of one joule of radiation energy per
kilogram of matter
• 1 Gy = 1 Joule per kilogram (J/kg)
• 1 Gy = 100 rad
• Gy can be used for any type of radiation.
• Gy does not describe the biological effects of the different radiations.
Let’s do some mental
Exercise!

2
7
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Exercise 1
Convert the following absorbed dose and dose rate:

1. 0.5 mrad to mGy

2. 3.5 µGyh-1 to radh-1

1 Gy = 100 rad
 29

Typical Multiples and Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Factor

nano n x 10-9
micro μ x 10-6
milli m x 10-3
kilo k x 103
mega M x 106
giga G x 109
tera T x 1012
peta P x 1015
 30

Exercise 1
Convert the absorbed dose:
1.) 0.5 mrad to mGy NOTE: 1 Gy = 100 rad

Step 1: Convert the 'Gy’ to 'mGy’ and ‘rad’ to ‘mrad'

1 𝐺𝑦 1 𝑚𝐺𝑦 1 × 10−3 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 𝑚𝐺𝑦

× × =
100 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 × 10−3 𝐺𝑦 1 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑 100 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑

Step 2: Using the conversion derived in Step 1, convert 0.5 mrad to mGy

1 𝑚𝐺𝑦
0.5 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑 × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝑮𝒚 or 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝑮𝒚
100 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑
 31

Exercise 1
Convert the dose rate:
2.) 3.5 µGyh-1 to radh-1 NOTE: 1 Gy = 100 rad

Step 1: Convert the ‘Gy’ to ‘µGy’

1 𝐺𝑦 1 µ𝐺𝑦 1 µ𝐺𝑦
× =
100 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 × 10−6 𝐺𝑦 1 × 10−4 𝑟𝑎𝑑

Step 2: Using the conversion derived in Step 1, convert 3.5 µGyh-1 to radh-1

1 × 10−4 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ℎ
3.5 µ𝐺𝑦/ℎ × = 𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒉 or 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒉
1 µ𝐺𝑦/ℎ
 32

Absorbed dose vs Exposure

Relation between absorbed dose and exposure

1 roentgen = 0.869 rad in air

1 roentgen = 0.96 rad in tissue

Note:
In many cases, exposure in R and absorbed dose in rad have almost
the same value (medium is always specified)

Radiation Quantities and Units


Absorbed dose vs KERMA
𝒅𝑬
Absorbed Dose, 𝑫 =
𝒅𝒎
• measures the
energy deposited, E in a unit
mass at a certain position.
• describes the energy
imparted to matter by all
kinds of ionizing radiation,
but delivered by the charged
particles
33
𝒅𝑬𝒕𝒓
KERMA, 𝑲 =
𝒅𝒎
• measures the amount of energy
that is transferred, Etr, from
photons to electrons per unit
mass at a certain position
• describes the first step in
energy dissipation by indirectly
ionizing radiation; energy
transfer to charged particle
 34


Derived Dosimetric Quantities
 35

Equivalent Dose, H

 The equivalent dose H is the absorbed dose multiplied by a

dimensionless radiation weighting factor, WR.

𝑯 = 𝑫 × 𝑾𝑹
 Compares the biological effects for different types of
radiation – gamma, alpha, neutrons

 Sievert (Sv) is the S. I. unit.

 Old unit is the “rem”

1 Sv = 1 Joule per kilogram (J/kg)
1 Sv = 100 rem
 36

Radiation Weighting Factor, WR

Radiation weighting factor is a dimensionless variable multiplied to the
absorbed dose (D) to provide an estimate of relative human hazard of low-level
exposure from different types and energies of radiation

Type and Energy Range Radiation Weighting Factor (WR)

α particles, all energies 20
β particles, all energies 1
γ & x-rays, all energies 1
Neutrons: < 10 keV 5
10 keV– 100 keV 10
> 100 keV – 2 MeV 20
> 2 MeV – 20 MeV 10
> 20 MeV 5

Radiation Quantities and Units

Let’s do some mental
Exercise!

3
7
 38

Exercise 2

Which of these would be the most damaging to organs or

tissues?

5 mGy from α – particle

5 mGy from β – particle
5 mGy from γ – rays

Convert the absorbed doses (D) in a particular organ or tissue to

equivalent doses (H).

Radiation Quantities and Units

 39

Exercise 2
Convert the following absorbed doses (D) in a particular organ
or tissue to equivalent doses (H):

5 mGy from α – particle 100 mSv

5 mGy from β – particle 5 mSv
5 mGy from γ – rays 5 mSv

Which of these would be the most damaging to organs or

tissues? Low LET High LET

Radiation Quantities and Units

 40

Effective Dose, E

 A measure of the effect of a particular type of radiation on

organs or tissues.

𝑬 = 𝑯 × 𝑾𝑻
 Takes into account the radiosensitivities of different
tissues or organs.

 Sievert (Sv) is the S. I. unit.

 Old unit is the “rem”.

1 Sv = 1 Joule per kilogram (J/kg)
1 Sv = 100 rem
 41

Tissue Weighting Factor, WT

Tissue weighting factor is a dimensionless multiplier used for radiation
protection purposes to account for the different sensitivities of different organs
and tissues to the induction of stochastic effects of radiation.

Organ/Tissue WT Organ/Tissue WT
Bone marrow 0.12 Lung 0.12
Bladder 0.04 Liver 0.04
Bone surface 0.01 Oesophagus 0.04

Brain 0.01 Salivary Glands 0.01

Breast 0.12 Skin 0.01

Colon 0.12 Stomach 0.12
Gonads 0.08 Thyroid 0.04
Liver 0.05 Remainder 0.12
Tissue Weighting Factors (WT), ICRP Pub 103 (2007)
Let’s do some mental
Exercise!

42
 43

Exercise 3

Calculate the effective dose resulting from 5 mSv equivalent

dose to the ff organs/ tissues:

• to the skin
• to the thyroid
• to the lung
• to the gonads

Radiation Quantities and Units

 44

Exercise 3

Calculate the effective dose resulting from 5 mSv equivalent

dose to the ff organs/ tissues:

• to the skin 0.05 mSv

• to the thyroid 0.2 mSv
• to the lung 0.6 mSv
• to the gonads 0.4 mSv

Radiation Quantities and Units

 45

Calculated using Q(L)
and selected phantoms
Physical quantities
• Fluence, 
• Kerma, K Calculated using wR, wT,
• Absorbed dose, D and anthropomorphic
phantoms

Operational quantities
Adequate Protection quantities
• Ambient dose equivalent, H*(d)
Estimate • Organ absorbed dose, DT
• Directional dose equivalent, H’(d, )
• Organ equivalent dose, HT
• Personal dose equivalent, Hp(d)
• Effective dose, E
Related by calibration
and calculation
Conservative
approximation
Monitored quantities
Instrument responses
 46


Operational Quantities
 47

Operational Quantities

Area monitoring generally characterizes

radiation fields with respect to their
relevance for radiation protection measures
 Ambient dose equivalent, H*(d)
 Directional dose equivalent, H’(d)

Individual monitoring is used for determining the individual

exposure of persons, particularly occupationally exposed
Normally monitored by a wearing a personal dosimeter
 Personal dose equivalent, Hp(d)
 48

Operational quantities

 The body related protection quantities (equivalent dose

and effective dose) are not directly measurable and,
therefore, cannot be used directly in radiation protection
monitoring.

 Operational quantities are aimed at providing a

conservative estimate for the value of the protection
quantities related to an exposure, or potential exposure
of persons under most irradiation conditions.
 49

Operational Quantities

Exposure limits (ICRP 103) are given in terms of

 Effective dose, E
 Equivalent dose to the skin, Hskin
 Equivalent dose to the lens of the eye, Heye lens
 Equivalent dose to the hands and feet
 50

Operational Quantities
Area Individual
Task
Monitoring Monitoring
Monitoring of Effective Ambient Dose Personal Dose
Dose, E Equivalent, H*(10) Equivalent, Hp (10)

Monitoring of Equivalent Directional Dose Personal Dose

Dose to Local Skin, Hskin Equivalent, H´(0.07) Equivalent,
Hp(0.07)

Monitoring of Equivalent Directional Dose Personal Dose

Dose to The Lens Of The Equivalent, H´(3) Equivalent, Hp(3)
Eye, Hlens
 51

Ambient Dose Equivalent (H*(d))

 Mostly used to assess doses from

strongly penetrating radiation
where the recommended depth
is 10 mm
 Most radiation monitoring
instruments are calibrated in
terms of this quantity (as
recommended by the ICRP)
 Reading on these monitors then
gives a reasonable approximation
to the effective dose
 52

Directional Dose Equivalent (H’(d))

 Suitable for area monitoring of fields

containing weakly penetrating
radiation where the depth is taken as
0.07 mm (for skin) and 3 mm (for the
eye)

 A radiation monitoring instrument

calibrated for this quantity gives us an
indication of the equivalent dose in
superficial tissue
 53

Personal Dose Equivalent (Hp(d))

Dose equivalent in soft tissue below
a specified point on the body at a
depth, d in mm
Depth, d can be taken as:
 0.07 mm for skin
 3 mm for the eye for weakly
penetrating radiation
 10 mm for the whole body
exposed to strongly
penetrating radiation
 54

Summary

DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES

Quantity Symbol Unit Quantity Symbol Unit

Ambient dose
KERMA K Gray (Gy) H*(d) Sv
equivalent
Directional dose
Exposure X Roentgen (R) H’(d) Sv
equivalent
Gray (Gy) Personal dose
Absorbed Dose D Hp(d) Sv
equivalent

Equivalent Dose H Sievert (Sv)

Effective Dose E Sievert (Sv)

Let’s do some mental
Exercise!

5
5
5
6
 57

Fluence - particles Equivalent

per unit area dose (Sv)
considers
radiation
type
Effective
dose (Sv)
considers
tissue type
Source
(Activity: Bq)
Absorbed dose
(Gy) to any
medium
 58

References

International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements

Report 85, Fundamental Quantities And Units For Ionizing
Radiation (Revised), October 2011, Published by Oxford University
Press

Powerpoint presentations:
Radiation Dosimetry by Kristine Marie Romallosa
Revisions to ICRU Operational Quantities by Hertel, et. al.
February 2016
Let’s do some mental
Answers to Exercise

5
9
6
0
 61

Typical Multiples and Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Factor

nano n x 10-9
micro μ x 10-6
milli m x 10-3
kilo k x 103
mega M x 106
giga G x 109
tera T x 1012
peta P x 1015
 62

1. 3.5 μGy to mrad

2. 5.0 mrad/h to mGy/h
3. 45.0 mrem to μSv
 63

Exercise 1
Convert the dose:
1.) 3.5 µGy to mrad NOTE: 1 Gy = 100 rad

Step 1: Convert the ‘Gy’ to ‘µGy’ and ‘rad’ to ‘mrad’

1 𝐺𝑦 1 µ𝐺𝑦 1 × 10−3 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1 µ𝐺𝑦 10 µ𝐺𝑦

× × or
100 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 × 10−6 𝐺𝑦 1 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 × 10−1 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑

Step 2: Using the conversion derived in Step 1, convert 3.5 µGy to mrad

1 × 10−1 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ℎ
3.5 µ𝐺𝑦/ℎ × = 𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝒎𝒓𝒂𝒅 or 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒓𝒂𝒅
1 µ𝐺𝑦/ℎ
 64

Exercise 1
Convert the dose rate:
2.) 5.0 mrad/h to mGy/h NOTE: 1 Gy = 100 rad

Step 1: Convert the ‘Gy’ to ‘mGy’ and ‘rad’ to ‘mrad’

1 𝐺𝑦 1 𝑚𝐺𝑦 1 × 10−3 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 𝑚𝐺𝑦 1 𝑚𝐺𝑦

× × = =
−3
100 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 × 10 𝐺𝑦 1 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 × 10 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑 100 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑
2

Step 2: Using the conversion derived in Step 1, convert 5.0 mradh-1 to mGyh-1

1 𝑚𝐺𝑦/ℎ
5.0 µ𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑/ℎ × = 𝟓. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎𝑮𝒚/𝒉 or 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝑮𝒚/𝒉
100 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑/ℎ
 65

Exercise 1
Convert the absorbed dose:
1.) 45 mrem to µSv NOTE: 1 Sv = 100 rem

Step 1: Convert the ‘rem’ to ‘mrem’ and ‘Sv’ to ‘µSv'

1 𝑆𝑣 1 𝑟𝑒𝑚 1 × 10−6 µSv 1 µSv

× × =
100 𝑟𝑒𝑚 1 × 10−3 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑚 1 𝑆𝑣 10 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑚

Step 2: Using the conversion derived in Step 1, convert 45 mrem to µSv