COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART, AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
CIV 4102: CIVIL ENGINEERING INFRASTRUCTURE MAINTENANCE
LECTURE: ENG DAVID KADDU
GROUP 6
ASSIGNMENT ONE.

NAME REGISTRATION NUMBER SIGNATURE

ACEN DIANA 20/U/19686/PSA
ARYATUHA VICTOR 20/U/0101
DDUMBA DERRICK 20/U/19687/PSA
DUSABE AMANDA VENUS 20/U/6732/PSA
GIMEI JUDE 20/U/6727/PS
JUNIOR HASSAN 20/U/0126
NIWAMANYA PETER 20/U/6721/PS
SANYA EMMANUEL 20/U/0120
TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUESTION ONE............................................................................................................................1
QUESTION TWO...........................................................................................................................5
QUESTION THREE.....................................................................................................................18
QUESTION FOUR........................................................................................................................22
QUESTION FIVE.........................................................................................................................29
References......................................................................................................................................33

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Description of IRI Categories and their Applications.......................................................3

Table 2: summary of impacts and mitigation measures................................................................32

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1:Schematic of FWD machine...........................................................................................19

Figure 2:FWD machine.................................................................................................................19
Figure 3:How GPR machine is operated.......................................................................................20
Figure 4:Figure 4 GPR machine....................................................................................................20
Figure 5:The Benkelman Beam.....................................................................................................22
Figure 6:Benkelman Beam in use..................................................................................................22

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QUESTION ONE
Explain the different data collection methods for pavement condition surveys and
evaluation: management and treatment of results: how the results are treated: advantages
and disadvantages of each.

Pavement condition surveys and evaluation

Pavement condition surveys, also known as distress surveys, are carried out as part of the
Pavement Management system (PMS) to assess existing pavement conditions, as well as the
requirement for maintenance and rehabilitation treatments (Fwa, 2005). Pavement Management
is an efficient technique to investigate and address the pavement condition of the road network.
This is a valued gadget, that cautions the road manager regarding the acute stage in the life cycle
of the highway. The significant feature of a PMS is the capacity to conclude the pavement
network's present condition as well as to predict its future state (Zafar et al., 2019).

Pavement condition evaluation

The different methods of pavement condition evaluation are as described below:

1. Pavement Condition Index (PCI)

The pavement condition index enables the evaluation of the pavement condition based on the
impairments on the surface of the pavement. It has been standardized by the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) to initially evaluate the condition of the airport pavements.
PCI provides a subjective methodology to assess the maintenance process of a given pavement
and to prioritize the maintenance tasks. This index measures indirectly the pavement structural
integrity but it does not provide a direct estimate of the pavement’s smoothness or skid. PCI
takes into account 16 types of impairments for flexible pavements with values ranging from 0
(worst possible condition) to 100 (best possible condition). The calculation of the PCI index is
accomplished with the use of a mathematical algorithm that incorporates the weighted extent,
type, and severity of each impairment.

2. Present Serviceability Index

The present serviceability index combines the operational condition of the pavement

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with the driving quality. The index gathers the experience that was obtained from a driving
experiment that was executed by AASHO. It evaluates the objective measurement of various
physical parameters of the pavement, e.g., the variation of the lateral slope, the cracks
(proportion of the cracked area), the depth of the grooves, and the proportion of the pavement
surface with patches and repairs. The index takes values from 0 (unacceptable quality) to 5
(excellent quality) with value 2 representing the minimum acceptable level of quality. It should
also be noted that the index value reduces with time. The calculation of the PSI index can be
represented by the following formula (Lemonakis et al., 2023):

For flexible pavements

PSI =5.03−1.91 log ( 1+ SV )−0.01 √ (C ¿ ¿ 1+ Pa ¿ )−1.38 Rd2 ¿ ¿

For rigid pavements:

PSI =5.41−1.8 log ( 1+ SV )−0.09 √ (C ¿ ¿ 1+ Pa ¿ )¿ ¿

where:

SV = slope variance

C1 = crack length in inch

Pa = patching area in ft2

Rd = Rut depth in inches

3. International Roughness Index (IRI)

The purpose of the international roughness index is to describe the roughness level of a road
pavement in quantitative terms. IRI is calculated by measuring the longitudinal road profile with
the use of an instrumented test vehicle and implementing the quarter car vehicle model. It is the
most widespread method for evaluating the road surface although it has few drawbacks, e.g.,
different results for different speed of the test vehicle, different readings for the right and the left
wheel. The measurement unit of IRI is meters per kilometer or inches per mile depending on the
system of units that is used.

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IRI is defined as the average longitudinal road profile that represents the vertical reaction of an
80 km/h quarter-car to the measured longitudinal road profile. IRI values can be classified into
three groups based on their quality and use, as shown in Table 1 (Fwa, 2005).

Table 1: Description of IRI Categories and their Applications

IRI class Description

Class 1 Index obtained from highest quality measurements such as Rod and Level
Measurements where measurement interval is less than 250 mm. This class of
IRI is suitable for all applications. However, Class 1 category IRI is desirable
when incremental deterioration of special test sections is to be tracked
Class 2 This group of indices is obtained with less accurate instruments such as lower
precision measurements or longer sampling intervals.
Class 3 Response-type Road meters provide Class 3 type IRI which is satisfactory for
network-level study

4. Riding Comfort Index (RCI)

The riding comfort index, formerly known as Present Performance Rating (PPR), evaluates the
vibration that is received by a driver in a road section. RCI emerged from the average rating of
the driving quality as recorded by a group of pavement experts. It was developed in the late
1950s and the early 1960s in Canada aiming to describe the overall condition of the pavement.
However, nowadays RCI is an index that characterizes the smoothness of the pavement.

5. Evaluation of structural adequacy

Pavement age, traffic load, and drainage are the three variables that directly affect the structural
adequacy of the pavement layers. The evaluation of pavement structural adequacy involves
assessing the ability of the pavement system to withstand the stresses created by repetitive traffic
loads and to determine its capacity and performance. Several methods and tests are used to
evaluate pavement structural adequacy, including deflection tesing (Al-Mansour & Al-Swailem,
1999).

Deflection testing: This is a non-destructive method of evaluating a pavement's flexibility and

the resilience of its structural layers. It measures the total deflection from a load applied on the
surface of the pavement. Deflection testing provides essential data on pavement materials, layer

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thicknesses, moisture contents, and the effects of traffic, temperature, and moisture. This data is
crucial for assessing the structural capacity and performance of the pavement system.

6. Evaluation of Skid Resistance Value (SRV).

The pavement surface's principal duty is to offer appropriate friction and steering capabilities for
passing cars. Skid resistance measurements of highways, roads, and streets, are generally for
safety analysis and on locations where accidents are suspected of being caused by deficiencies in
surface skid resistance. The coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of tractive force to
dynamic vertical load on the test wheel. The friction coefficient is affected by a number of
factors, including tire pressure, tire wear, vehicle speed, weather conditions, and roadway surface
materials (Al-Mansour & Al-Swailem, 1999).

The measurement of pavement’s skid resistance can be taken with a variety of friction devices.
Therefore, the direct comparison of the results is rendered impossible. In order to overcome this
shortcoming, the skid resistance index was introduced which indicates on a uniform scale the
pavement skid resistance regardless of the device measurement. The determination of the SRI
requires the measurement of the profile depth and particularly its texture depth. The analytical
calculation of the SRI is given by the following formula (Lemonakis et al., 2023):

S−30
S0
SRI=B × F ×e

Where S0=a·MPDb ; a, b, B=parameters of the device measurement; F=coefficient friction for

constant wheel skid; S=speed measurement (km/h); MPD=mean profile depth as derived from
texture depth measurements.

7. Pavement Functional Condition Index (PFCI)

The pavement functional condition index that is introduced in the present paper, incorporates
uniformly the essential requirements of the pavement. Particularly, it triggers the evaluation of
the functional condition of the pavement according to the measurements of the surface features.
The extent to which the measurements affect the value of the index is determined by a group of
experts in the field of pavement management. The index ranges between 0 and 100 and its key
asset is that it does not evaluate the pavement’s features individually but in an overall context.
Moreover, it correlates quantitative and qualitative measurements of the pavement’s condition as
they derived from surveys on the road section under evaluation.

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QUESTION TWO
With reference pavement distresses, explain the causes, effects, the procedure for the
measurement and quantification and correction mechanisms of the defects

i. Potholes
ii. Cracking
iii. Bleeding
iv. Shoving
v. Corrugations
vi. Rutting
vii. Stripping

POTHOLES.

Description

Potholes are bowl-shaped holes caused by the localized disintegration of the pavement surface.
Potholes typically result from the continued deterioration of another type of distress.
Segregation, cracks or failed patches may serve as the start of a pothole. Poor mixtures and weak
spots in the base or subgrade accelerate pothole failures.
Potholes begin to form when fragments of asphalt concrete are displaced by traffic wheels, e.g.,
in alligator-cracked areas. Potholes grow in size and depth as water accumulates in the hole and
penetrates into the base and subgrade, weakening support in the vicinity of the pothole
Potholes are formed when the pavement disintegrates under traffic loading, due to inadequate
strength in one or more layers of the pavement, usually accompanied by the presence of water.
Most potholes would not occur if the root cause was repaired before development of the pothole
(Adlinge & Gupta, n.d.).

The “gestation period” for a pothole includes:

 Snow-melt or rain seeps through cracks in the pavement and into the sub-base; if the
moisture cannot adequately drain away from the sub-base and soil underneath, it becomes
saturated and soft.

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  Trapped moisture is subjected to repeated freeze/thaw cycles–and with each occurrence
the expanding ice lifts and cracks the pavement more. The passing traffic weakens the
pavement, cracking it further.
 As temperatures rise and the ice melts, a void is left under the pavement. This void
collects more water, and during the next freeze, the void will enlarge.
 Vehicles driving over the weakened pavement pound it until the surface breaks and
collapses into the void below, thus creating a pothole.

How to Measure

Record the number of potholes and square meters of affected area at each severity level. Pothole
depth is the maximum depth below pavement surface. If a pothole occurs within an area of
fatigue cracking, the area of fatigue cracking is reduced by the area of the pothole. The minimum
area for a pothole is about 0.02 m². The actual plan dimensions and the actual area of the pothole
shall be recorded on the distress map sheets. Potholes not meeting minimum plan dimension are
to be drawn on the distress map sheets and commented on but not included in the measurement
summaries
(DISTRESS IDENTIFICATION MANUAL for the Long-Term Pavement Performance Program, 201

Correction mechanism.

Pothole patching is performed either as an emergency repair during harsh conditions, or as

routine maintenance scheduled for warmer and drier periods. Typically, emergency repairs are
done only when a pothole presents a substantial safety or traffic operational problem and must be
urgently corrected.
Emergency repairs usually are done in heavy traffic and can be a safety risk to maintenance
workers. Repairs that are more permanent can be scheduled for times when weather and traffic
are more conducive to safe operations.
(Pavement Condition Time in Years What Affects Pavement Life, n.d.)

The following are the standard pothole repair methods used for any asphalt paved street or road:

 Cold-Patch (Throw-and-roll): Patching material is shovelled into the pothole—which

may or may not be filled with water and debris—and compacted if possible, and crew

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 moves on to next pothole. (This is considered superior to the more commonly used
method of “throw and-go”, which does not compact the materials before leaving the site.)
Cold patch repairs are quick, but temporary; they are an expedient fix performed when
traffic, weather and general pavement conditions preclude a more permanent repair.

 Hot-Patch Semi-Permanent: Water and debris are removed from the pothole; the sides
of the patch area are “squared-up” until vertical sides exist in reasonably sound
pavement. Tack oil is applied and then a heated asphalt mix is placed and compacted with
a small, vibratory device. A slight crown for water dispersal is desirable. Although it
raises the cost of the operation, this is considered one of the best methods for repairing
potholes, because it improves patch performance. Because this method is more labour
and equipment intensive, it is usually done when traffic and weather conditions are more
favourable.

 Spray-Injection Devices: Water and debris are blown from the pothole; a tack coat of
binder is sprayed on the sides and bottom of the pothole; asphalt and aggregate are blown
into the pothole; the patch is covered with a layer of aggregate. This technique has higher
equipment costs, but has a higher rate of productivity and lower material costs. Spray
injection is faster than hot patch repairs and more permanent than cold patch; however, it
is not as durable as or useful as hot patch for deeper potholes. The material is not
compacted nor is the underlying base material corrected before filling.
 Edge Seal as follow-up: Uses same method as throw-and-roll, but once repair section
has dried, a second pass is made to place a ribbon of asphaltic tack material on top of the
patch edge and pavement surfaces. A layer of sand is placed on the tack material to
prevent tracking by tires, and the section is open to traffic as soon as workers and
equipment are cleared from the area. (Although this requires a second pass, it can
improve patch performance in older pavements with many cracks.)

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CRACKING

This can be more grouped into many forms as described below;

1) Fatigue cracking
Description

Fatigue cracking is sometimes called alligator cracking due to the interconnected cracks which
resemble an alligator skin. Fatigue cracking is caused by load-related deterioration resulting from
a weakened base course or subgrade, too little pavement thickness, overloading, or a
combination of these factors.

Occurs in areas subjected to repeated traffic loadings (wheel paths). Can be a series of
interconnected cracks in early stages of development. Develops into many-sided, sharp angled
pieces, usually less than 0.3 m on the longest side, characteristically with a chicken wire/alligator
pattern in later stages.

How to Measure

Record affected area at each severity level in square meters. If different severity levels existing
within an area cannot be distinguished, rate the entire area at the highest severity present. Where
fatigue and edge cracking exist and overlap in the same area, both should be rated as follows:

 Low - An area of cracks with no or only a few connecting cracks; cracks are not spalled
or sealed; and pumping is not evident.
 Moderate - An area of interconnected cracks forming a complete pattern; cracks may be
slightly spalled; cracks may be sealed; and pumping is not evident.
 High - An area of moderately or severely spalled interconnected cracks forming a
complete pattern; pieces may move when subjected to traffic; cracks may be sealed; and
pumping may be evident.
Corrective maintenance

fatigue cracked pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure. Any
investigation should involve digging a pit or coring the pavement to determine the pavement’s
structural makeup as well as determining whether or not subsurface moisture is a contributing
factor. Once the characteristic alligator pattern is apparent, repair by crack sealing is generally
ineffective. Fatigue crack repair generally falls into one of two categories:

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  Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of subgrade support. Remove the
cracked pavement area then dig out and replace the area of poor subgrade and improve
the drainage of that area if necessary. Patch over the repaired subgrade.

 Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general structural failure. Place an HMA
overlay over the entire pavement surface. This overlay must be strong enough structurally
to carry the anticipated loading because the underlying fatigue cracked pavement most
likely contributes little or no strength (Roberts et. al., 1996).

2) Block cracking
Description

A pattern of cracks that divides the pavement into approximately rectangular pieces. Rectangular
blocks range in size from approximately 0.1 to 10 m 2. Block cracking is the combination of
longitudinal and transverse cracking. As the cracks worsen with time as a result of weathering,
they join each other and form block cracking.

How to measure.

Severity Levels

Low - Cracks with a mean width ≤ 6 mm or sealed cracks with sealant material in good
condition and with a width that cannot be determined.

Moderate - Cracks with a mean width > 6 mm and ≤ 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤
19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

High - Cracks with a mean width > 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤ 19 mm and
adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

Record the affected area at each severity level in square meters. If fatigue cracking exists within
the block cracking area, the area of block cracking is reduced by the area of fatigue cracking.
Longitudinal boundary cracks in a block cracking area are not rated separately. An occurrence
should be at least 15 m long before rating as block cracking. Where block and edge cracking
exist and overlap, both should be rated.

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Repair

 Low severity cracks (< 6 mm wide). Crack seal to prevent entry of moisture into the
subgrade through the cracks and further raveling of the crack edges. If cracking is
extensive, a slurry seal can be placed over the sealed cracks.

 High severity cracks (> 19 mm wide and cracks with raveled edges). Remove and replace
the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

3) Edge cracking
Description

Applies only to pavements with unpaved shoulders. Crescent-shaped cracks or fairly continuous
cracks which intersect the pavement edge and are located within 0.6 m of the pavement edge
adjacent to the shoulder. Includes longitudinal cracks outside of the wheel path and within 0.6 m
of the pavement edge.

How to measure

Severity Levels

Low - Cracks with no breakup or loss of material.

Moderate - Cracks with some breakup and loss of material for up to 10 percent of the length of
the affected portion of the pavement.

High - Cracks with considerable breakup and loss of material for more than 10 percent of the
length of the affected portion of the pavement.

Record length in meters of pavement edge affected at each severity level. The combined quantity
of edge cracking cannot exceed the length of the section. Where edge cracking and fatigue or
block cracking exist and overlap in the same area, both should be rated.

4) Longitudinal cracking
Description

Cracks predominantly parallel to pavement centerline. Location within the lane (wheel path
versus non-wheel path) is significant. This may reflect up from the edges of an underlying old
pavement or from edges and cracks in a stabilized base, or may be due to poor compaction at the
edges of longitudinal paving lanes.

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Longitudinal cracking may also be produced in the wheel paths by the application of heavy loads
or high tire pressures.

Severity levels

Low - A crack with a mean width ≤ 6 mm or a sealed crack with sealant material in good
condition and with a width that cannot be determined.

Moderate - Any crack with a mean width > 6 mm and ≤ 19 mm or any crack with a mean width
≤ 19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

High - Any crack with a mean width > 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤ 19 mm and
adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

How to Measure

These should be recorded separately as follows:

 Wheel path longitudinal cracking

Record the length in meters of longitudinal cracking within the defined wheel paths at each
severity level. Record the length in meters of longitudinal cracking with sealant in good
condition at each severity level. Sealant is not considered to be in good condition unless at least 1
m of continuous sealant in good condition is present. In cases where a crack is less than 1 m in
length, the sealant must be present and in good condition over the entire length of the crack. Any
wheel path longitudinal crack that has associated random cracking or meanders and has a
quantifiable area is rated as fatigue cracking.

 Non-wheel path longitudinal cracking

Record the length in meters of longitudinal cracking not located in the defined wheel paths at
each severity level. Record the length in meters of longitudinal cracking with sealant in good
condition at each severity level. Sealant is not considered to be in good condition unless at least 1
m of continuous sealant in good condition is present.

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 5) Transverse cracking
Description

Cracks that are predominantly perpendicular to pavement centerline. Transverse cracking is

caused by thermal shrinkage from seasonal temperature changes and age hardening of the binder.

How to measure.

Severity Levels

Low - An unsealed crack with a mean width ≤ 6 mm or a sealed crack with sealant material in
good condition and with a width that cannot be determined.

Moderate - Any crack with a mean width > 6 mm and ≤ 19 mm or any crack with a mean width
≤ 19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

High - Any crack with a mean width > 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤ 19 mm and
adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

Record the number and length (in meters) of transverse cracks at each severity level. Rate the
entire transverse crack at the highest severity level present for at least 10 percent of the total
length of the crack.

Also record length (in meters) of transverse cracks with sealant in good condition at each
severity level. Note: The length recorded is the total length of the well-sealed crack and is
assigned to the severity level of the crack. Record only when the sealant is in good condition for
at least 90 percent of the length of the crack.

If the transverse crack extends through an area of fatigue cracking, the length of the crack within
the fatigue area is not counted. The crack is treated as a single transverse crack but at a reduced
length. Transverse saw cuts on a “saw and seal” treated AC test section are rated as transverse
cracks. Cracks less than 0.3 m in length are not recorded.

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 6) Reflection cracking at joints
Description

Cracks in AC overlay surfaces that occur over joints in concrete pavements. Note: The slab
dimensions beneath the AC surface must be known to identify reflection cracks at joints.

How to measure.

Severity Levels

Low - An unsealed crack with a mean width ≤ 6 mm or a sealed crack with sealant material in
good condition and with a width that cannot be determined.

Moderate - Any crack with a mean width > 6 mm and ≤ 19 mm or any crack with a mean width
≤19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking.

High - Any crack with a mean width > 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤ 19 mm and
adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking.

Recorded as longitudinal cracking (ACP 4) or transverse cracking (ACP 6) on LTPP surveys.

Correction mechanism

Different methods can be used depending on the type and severity of cracks. For smaller cracks,
crack sealing is often used. This involves filling the cracks with a specialized sealant to prevent
moisture penetration and further damage. For larger cracks, techniques such as routing and
sealing or crack stitching may be required to fill them.

BLEEDING

Description

A pavement surface can become flushed with asphalt and lose its skid resistance. Bleeding can
be caused by too much asphalt in the mix, excess tack or bond coat, or by poor construction of a
sealcoat. Traffic can also over-compact an unstable mix and force asphalt to the surface.

Excess bituminous binder occurring on the pavement surface, usually found in the wheel paths.
May range from a surface discolored relative to the remainder of the pavement, to a surface that
is losing surface texture because of excess asphalt, to a condition where the aggregate may be

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obscured by excess asphalt possibly with a shiny, glass-like, reflective surface that may be tacky
to the touch

Bleeding can cause a slippery surface, reduced skid resistance, and a loss of texture depth.

How to measure

Record square meters of surface area that are affected.

Note: Preventative maintenance treatments (i.e., slurry seals, chip seals, fog seals, etc.) exhibit
bleeding characteristics at times. These occurrences should be noted but not rated as bleeding.

Bleeding can also be measured and quantified by visual inspection.

Correction mechanisms

Bleeding is usually treated by spreading hot sand or grit (heated to at least 140°C) over the
affected area. Sometimes, the affected area may also be heated by hot air or infrared heaters
before the application of the sand or grit. The rate of spread typically ranges from 5 to 7 kg/m2.
Immediately after spreading the sand, the surface is rolled with a pneumatic roller. After the
surface cools down, the excess amount of aggregate is removed by a broom or a suction
sweeping machine. In severe and extensive bleeding, the only effective treatment is through the
removal and replacement of surfacing.

SHOVING

Description

Shoving is a longitudinal displacement of a localized area of the pavement surface. It is generally

caused by braking or accelerating vehicles and is usually located on hills or curves or at
intersections. It may have associated vertical displacement.
(Common Distresses on Flexible Pavements From

Shoving occurs when the pavement surface layer moves horizontally due to traffic loading, high
temperatures, or a weak pavement structure
Shoving can cause a rough surface, reduced skid resistance, and a loss of texture depth.,

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How to Measure

Record the number of occurrences and square meters of affected surface area.

Correction mechanism

In order to rectify the issue at hand, it is customary to employ a correction method that entails
milling or grinding the affected area to eliminate any irregularities. Once this process is
complete, the surface is resurfaced using appropriate materials such as hot mix asphalt.

CORRUGATIONS

Description

Corrugation is referred to as wash boarding because the pavement surface has become distorted
like a washboard. The instability of the asphalt concrete surface course may be caused by too
much asphalt cement, too much fine aggregate, or rounded or smooth textured coarse aggregate.
Corrugations usually occur at places where vehicles accelerate or decelerate

How to measure

Record the number of occurrences and square meters of affected surface area. However, severity
levels can be defined by the relative effect of shoving on ride quality.

Correction mechanism.

The only effective treatment for corrugations is to remove the deficient asphalt from the whole
affected area and replace it with well-designed and properly produced asphalt, avoiding the use
of cut-back for tack coating.

In areas with very low traffic where the thickness of the asphalt layer may only be 50 mm,
corrugations may be repaired by breaking and scarifying the asphalt layer and part of the base,
adding a small amount of binder, mixing on site and, after compaction, applying a single surface
dressing.

RUTTING

Description

Rutting is the displacement of pavement material that creates channels in the wheel path. Very
severe rutting will actually hold water in the rut. Rutting is usually a failure in one or more layers

15
in the pavement. The width of the rut is a sign of which layer has failed. A very narrow rut is
usually a surface failure, while a wide one is indicative of a subgrade failure. Inadequate
compaction can lead to rutting
How to Measure

Specific Pavement Studies (SPS)-3 only. Record the maximum rut depth to the nearest
millimetre at 15.25-m intervals for each wheel path, as measured with a 1.2-m straight edge.
Correction mechanism

To restore the original profile of the road and improve its structural stability, it is recommended
to apply additional layers of asphalt to the affected area. This process involves overlaying the
damaged section with a new layer of asphalt, which not only restores the road's original profile
but also reinforces its structural integrity. By doing so, the road can be restored to its original
condition, minimizing the risk of further damage and ensuring the safety of motorists.

STRIPPING

Description

The loss of the adhesive bond between asphalt cement and aggregate, most often caused by the
presence of water in asphalt concrete, which may result in ravelling, loss of stability, and load
carrying capacity of the HMA pavement or treated base.
Stripping is a pavement defect that occurs when the bond between the asphalt binder and the
aggregate is lost due to moisture infiltration
Stripping is essentially reverse ravelling, where the lower layers of asphalt disintegrate and harm
the higher layers.
The bottom of the asphalt layer’s aggregate elements and asphalt binder begin to separate,
causing the asphalt to lose fundamental support and collapse upwards
This can pose major problems for the entire pavement layer by reflecting cracks to the surface or
causing large areas to break quickly.
Common signs of stripping include rubbing, pushing, ravelin, and substantial cracking.

How to measure

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Although stripping of asphalt concrete core may not be visible upon a visual inspection of its
exterior, it is possible that the coring drill could damage the circumference of the core. To
determine whether stripping has occurred, it may be necessary to split the core apart and inspect
its interior. If stripping has indeed taken place, aggregates that are either partially coated or
uncoated will be visible.
(Highway Engineering Pavements, Materials and Control of Quality, n.d.)

Correction mechanism.

To address the issue, damaged areas are removed, surfaces are cleaned, and new asphalt with
improved adhesion is applied.

Before the repair, the pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure,
which is usually moisture infiltration.

The pavement should be restored with modifications to eliminate the moisture penetration that
produced the stripping in the first place. Generally, the stripped pavement needs to be removed
and replaced after correction of any subsurface drainage issues.

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QUESTION THREE
Demonstrate the applicability and significance / importance of the following tools in
pavement maintenance and rehabilitation; provide practical examples for full marks;

a. Falling weight Deflectometer

b. Ground Penetrating Radar

c. Benkleman Beam

(a) Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

The Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) device used to
evaluate the structural condition of pavement. It measures the deflection of the pavement under a
simulated wheel load. The FWD consists of a weight, a loading mechanism, and a set of sensors.
The weight is dropped from a height onto a loading plate, which transfers the load to the
pavement. The sensors measure the deflection of the pavement at various points around the load
plate.

The information collected can be used to assess the pavement's remaining life and to identify
areas that may require rehabilitation.

Figure 1:Schematic of FWD machine Figure 2:FWD machine

Significance

 They can be used to identify areas of pavement that are structurally deficient and require
repair or rehabilitation.

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  FDW data can also be used to track the deterioration of pavement over time and to
develop pavement maintenance strategies.

Practical Examples

Identifying pavement areas that require repair or rehabilitation: An FWD test can be used to
identify areas of pavement that are experiencing excessive deflection. These areas may be due to
factors such as cracking, rutting, or potholes. Once identified, these areas can be repaired or
rehabilitated to prevent further damage to the pavement.

Tracking pavement deterioration over time: FWD tests can be conducted on a regular basis to
track the deterioration of pavement over time. This data can be used to identify trends in
pavement condition and to develop pavement maintenance strategies. For example, if FWD data
shows that the pavement is deteriorating at a rapid rate, it may be necessary to schedule
resurfacing or rehabilitation sooner than originally planned.

(b) Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) device that uses
electromagnetic waves to image the subsurface. It can be used to identify a wide variety of
subsurface features, including buried pipes, cables, and utilities.

Figure 3:How GPR machine is operated Figure 4:Figure 4 GPR machine

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Significance

GPR is used in various applications in pavement engineering including;

 Mapping the thickness of pavement layers on a road.

 Identifying pavement distresses that below the surface that are not visible from above
 Locating buried utilities before excavating.

Practical Examples

Utility Mapping: GPR can be used to map the location of buried pipes, cables, and utilities. This
information is important for planning and executing pavement rehabilitation projects without
destroying/disrupting existing utility services.

Pavement Thickness Mapping: GPR is used to map the thickness of pavement layers.
Information obtained is used to assess the structural integrity of the pavement and to plan for
rehabilitation incase results indicate excessive deterioration.

Pavement Defect Detection: GPR is used to detect subsurface defects, such as delamination and
voids. Information about Presence of such defects is useful in prioritizing repairs and
rehabilitation of the pavement in question.

(c) Benkelman Beam (BB)

The Benkelman Beam (BB) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) device that is used to measure the
deflection of the pavement surface under a static load. It is a simpler and less expensive
alternative to the FWD, but it is not as accurate.

The BB consists of a beam, a load plate, and a dial indicator. The load plate is placed on the
pavement, and the beam is placed on top of the load plate. The dial indicator measures the
deflection of the beam as a load is applied to the load plate.

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 Figure 5:The Benkelman Beam Figure 6:Benkelman Beam in use

Significance

The BB is a useful tool for evaluating pavements that are carrying light traffic loads.

It is also a good tool for use in developing countries where more sophisticated NDT devices may
not be available.

Practical Examples

Measuring pavement deflection under load: The Benklman Beam is used to measure the
deflection of pavement under load. This information is used to assess the structural condition of
the pavement and to identify areas that may require repair or rehabilitation.

Comparing pavement deflection over time: The Benkleman Beam can be used to compare
pavement deflection over time. This can be used to track the deterioration of pavement and to
develop pavement maintenance strategies.

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QUESTION FOUR
Provide an inventory for the three methods applicable for the Design of overlays on both
flexible and rigid pavements.

An overlay is the application of an specifies amount of asphalt concrete to an existing pavement

layer of the road in order to extend or prolong the design life of the road.

With time, when there is accumulation of traffic loads on the pavement, it may suffer from
pavement deficiencies which include: excessive rutting, inadequate skid resistance of the surface
an excessive cracking.

Types of overlays on flexible pavements.

They include:

 Asphalt concrete overlays

 Conventional Portland cement concrete (unbonded over asphalt surface)
 Ultra-thin Portland cement overlay (bonded over the asphalt surface)

The design of overlays can be grouped into three main categories as follows:

1. Component analysis design

2. Deflection based design
3. Analytically based design
A component analysis overlay design procedure basically involves evaluating the condition of
the components (pavement layers) in the existing pavement to be overlaid, and comparing them
to equivalent thicknesses of new pavement materials to be placed. The required overlay thickness
is equal to the difference between the required total thickness and equivalent thickness of the
existing layer. The procedure usually requires making an engineering judgement based on visual
inspection and laboratory testing of the existing materials. Examples of component analysis
overlay design procedures include:

a) AASHTO, 1993 component analysis overlay design procedure (AASHTO, 1993)

b) Asphalt Institute effective thickness method (Asphalt Institute, 2000)
c) U.S. Corps of Engineers component analysis method (Corps of Engineers, 1958)

22
A deflection-based overlay design procedure basically uses the surface deflection caused by a
non-destructive test (NDT) to estimate the structural capacity of an existing pavement. The
required overlay thickness is the additional pavement thickness that will be required to bring the
NDT deflection to the desired level. This type of design procedure is usually based on the
empirical correlations between certain NDT deflections and field performances. Because of the
empirical nature of this procedure, the applicability of a particular procedure is usually limited to
regions of similar conditions (such as, climate, soil type and pavement materials used), and the
same NDT test procedure used. Examples of deflection-based overlay design procedures include:

a) Asphalt Institute deflection-based method (Asphalt Institute, 2000)

b) California Department of Transportation method (Caltrans, 1995)
c) AASHTO, 1993 deflection-based overlay design procedure (AASHTO, 1993)

An analytically based (or mechanistic) overlay design procedure is based on the analysis of
stresses and strains in a pavement due to the expected traffic loads, and the correlations of the
analytical stresses and strains to performance. The required overlay thickness is the additional
pavement thickness that will be required to bring the expected stresses and strains to the
acceptable levels to prevent failure. This procedure requires extensive evaluation of the in-situ
properties of all the materials to be used in the pavement structure, including their damage
characteristics (such as, creep and fatigue behavior.) This procedure also requires more extensive
analysis as compared with the other two methods. Examples of analytically based AC overlay
design procedures include:

a) Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) procedure developed by Austin Research

Engineers (ARE) (ARE, 1975)
b) FHWA procedure developed by Resource International Incorporated (RII) (Majidzadeh
and Ilves, 1980)
c) Shell Research Procedure (Claessen and Ditmarsch, 1977)

AC(Asphalt Concrete)Overlay on flexible pavement

a) AASHTO, 1993 Pavement Design Guide

The procedure for design of AC overlay on flexible pavement in the AASHTO, 1993 Pavement
Design Guide (AASHTO, 1993) consists of a component analysis method and a deflection-based
analysis method. It is based on the concept that the structural capacity of a flexible pavement can

23
be quantified by a SN. The required overlay thickness is the amount that will increase the
effective SN of the existing pavement (after the necessary milling and repair before the overlay)
to the required SN to meet the future traffic demand. The relationship between the required
overlay thickness and the other parameters can be expressed by the following equation:

SN ol =a ol D ol =SN f −SN eff

where:

SNol = required overlay structural number.

aol = structural coefficient for the AC overlay.

Dol = required overlay thickness in inches.

SNf = required structural number for future traffic demand.

SNeff = effective structural number of the existing pavement to be overlaid.

The procedures for determination of SN eff, SNf, aol and Dol are described in the handbook of
highway engineering (Fwa, 2006).

b) Asphalt Institute Deflection-Based Procedure

The Asphalt Institute’s Deflection-Based AC Overlay Design Procedure is based on the concept
that the structural capacity of a flexible pavement is related to the rebound deflections measured
by a Benkelman Beam, or the equivalent Benkelman Beam rebound deflections as correlated
from other NDT devices (Asphalt Institute, 2000). A pavement of higher structural capacity
would have smaller Benkelman Beam rebound deflections, while one with a lower capacity
would have higher Benkelman Beam rebound deflections. The required overlay thickness is the
amount of overlay that will reduce the rebound deflections to an acceptable level for the design
traffic.

The Benkelman Beam tests are performed on the pavement to be overlaid and the 97.5 percentile
rebound deflection (Representative Rebound Deflection, RRD) is determined. The design ESAL
that the pavement is expected to support in the future after overlay is determined. The overlay
thickness is then determined according to ESAL and RRD.

c) FHWA-ARE Procedure

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The FHWA procedure developed by Austin Research Engineers (ARE) (ARE, 1975) uses the
computer program ELSYM for analysis of pavement response. ELSYM models a flexible
pavement as a multi-layer elastic system. Laboratory tests are performed on representative
specimens taken from the pavement to determine the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of each
layer material, which are needed as inputs to the ELSYM program. Results of NDTs on the
pavement along with results of condition survey are to be used to establish analysis sections, as
each analysis section should have similar conditions including NDT deflections. Any NDT
equipment which can provide reliable deflection results can be used for this purpose.

()
5.16
−15 1
N=9.73 ×10
εt

where:

N = allowable number of 18-kip single-axle load repetitions.

ε t= maximum horizontal tensile strain on the bottom of the asphalt layer caused by an 18-kip (80
kn) single-axle load.

Concrete overlays on flexible pavement

When an existing asphalt pavement is overlaid with a conventional PCC overlay, the asphalt
pavement will essentially act as a stiff foundation for concrete overlay. Thus, the design of a
concrete overlay over an existing asphalt pavement is essentially the same as the design of a new
concrete pavement over a stiff foundation. The effective modulus of subgrade reaction (k) of the
stiff foundation as provided by the existing asphalt pavement needs to be properly determined

Concrete overlays of concrete pavement

a) U.S. Corps of Engineers’ Method

The Corps of Engineers (1958) provided overlay thickness equations to determine the effective
thickness of the overlay.

Where:

25
 DOL = overlay thickness.

DT = slab thickness required if a new pavement were to be constructed on the existing

subgrade.

Deff = effective thickness of the parent pavement.

C = condition factor of the parent pavement. C is equal to 1.0 for parent pavements in
good structural condition with little or no structural cracking; 0.75 for parent pavements
with little progressive distress such as spalling, multiple cracks, etc.; and 0.35 for parent
pavements which are badly cracked and may show multiple cracking, shattered slabs,
spalling and faulting.

b) AASHTO Design Procedure for Bonded Overlay and unbonded overlay

AASHTO provides two separate design procedures for determining the effective thickness for a
bonded concrete overlay and unbonded concrete overlay.

For bonded concrete overlay

DOL =DT −Deff

For unbonded concrete overlay

2 2 2
( DOL ) =( DT ) −( Deff )

The procedures for determining the different thicknesses for either bonded or unbonded overlay
can be found in the handbook of highway engineering (Fwa, 2006).

c) PCA design of unbonded overlay

The procedure determines the thickness of the overlay basing on the equal stress concept. It
selects an overlay thickness that would have an edge stress equal to or less than the
corresponding edge stress in an adequately designed new pavement under action of an 18-kip
single axle load.

Asphalt concrete overlays of concrete pavement

There are two methods by the Asphalt Institute on designing overlays for concrete pavements.
These are:

a) Effective thickness method

26
This method evaluates the effective thickness T eff of the existing rigid pavement interms of
thickness of asphalt concrete, determines the required overlay thickness TOL as

T OL=T −T eff

Where T is the required thickness of a new full-depth pavement if constructed on the existing
subgrade.

b) Deflection method
Deflections at pavement edges and sum of the total and differential deflections at joints are
determined. The required thickness of asphalt concrete overlay required is determined by the
amount of deflection reduction to be achieved. For a given slab length and mean annual
temperature differential, the required overlay thickness is selected from figure 12.8 (Fwa, 2006).

AASHTO Design Procedure

There are two different AASHTO procedures for flexible overlay design depending on whether
fracturing of the existing concrete slab is required

a) Asphalt Concrete Overlay of Fractured Concrete Pavement

This involves the use of structural numbers to determine the required thickness of the overlay
required.

SN OL=SN T −SN eff

where SNT is the structural number required if a new flexible pavement were to be constructed
on the subgrade, and SNeff is the effective structural number of the existing pavement after
fracturing. The thickness of overlay is given by SN OL divided by the layer coefficient of the
overlay material

b) Asphalt Concrete Overlay of Concrete Pavement

The required thickness of asphalt concrete overlay DOL to increase the structural capacity for a
specified design for future traffic is given by:

27
where DT and Deff are as defined in Equation 12.1 and the procedure for their determination is
the same as that described in Section 12.2.3 for concrete bonded overlay. The A factor is for
converting PCC thickness to asphalt concrete, and is computed by the following equation:

The thickness of asphalt concrete overlay of concrete pavement may vary from 2 to 10 in. (50 to
250 mm).

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QUESTION FIVE
Illustrate the need and the procedure for carrying out an EIA for a typical road project to
undergo rehabilitation, periodic maintenance, routine maintenance or a reconstruction:
impacts and mitigation measures.

A reconstruction or upgrading project involves changing the road category e g., from seasonal
road to all-weather road, from secondary to primary, or from gravel to paved. Land acquisition is
needed in most cases. Most of the work is done on the existing platform or surfaces.
Maintenance work consists of routine or periodic works to maintain the road in good working
condition.

Environmental Impact assessment is the systematic examination conducted to determine whether

or not the project will have any adverse effects on the environment.

The main purpose of EIA in road development is to identify the positive and negative impacts of
a proposed road project on the natural and human environment and then to formulate appropriate
remedial/ mitigation measures to avoid/minimize adverse negative impacts and to enhance
beneficial impacts. The EIA process can help develop more environmentally friendly road
projects by reducing negative environmental impacts through alternative approaches, design
modifications, and remedial measures
(SECTOR GUIDELINES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSE

To be of most benefit it is essential that an environmental assessment is carried out to determine

significant impacts early in the project cycle so that recommendations can be built into the
design and cost-benefit analysis without causing major delays or increased design costs.

The steps involved in the EIA process include;

 Project brief preparation and submission. Provides information on the intended

project, and provides the basis the screening and on which the Authority designs or
approves the EIA Terms of Reference (ToRs). In preparing the project brief, it is
important to identify, analyse and include the structure and interests of the key actors in
roads development depending the scale i.e., the Ministry responsible for infrastructures
(roads); the Ministry responsible for finance, the ministry responsible for environment;

29
 the Authority (NEMA) and the concerned Local Governments (where road is to be
constructed or pass). Include the donors and development partners.
 Screening: often results in a categorization of the project and from this a decision is
made on whether or not a full EIA is to be carried out. Guidelines for whether or not an
EIA is required will be country specific depending on the laws or norms in operation.
Legislation often specifies the criteria for screening and full EIA. The output from the
screening process is often a document called an Initial Environmental Examination or
Evaluation (IEE). In conclusion, the project shall be classified according to its sensitivity
to the environment.
 Scoping: is the process of determining which are the most critical issues to study and will
involve community participation to some degree. It is at this early stage that EIA can
most strongly influence the outline proposal. Several groups, particularly decision
makers, the local population and the scientific community, have an interest in helping to
deliberate the issues which should be considered, and scoping is designed to canvass their
views. It may be the end of the EIA process should the impacts be found to be
insignificant. The main EIA techniques used in scoping are baseline studies, checklists,
matrices and network diagrams.
 Detailed prediction and mitigation studies follow scoping and are carried out in parallel
with feasibility studies. Here we assess the required level of accuracy of predictions,
quantify the impact of the suggested improvements by further prediction work.
Mathematical modelling is a valuable technique, but care must be taken to choose models
that suit the available data.
 The main output report is called an Environmental Impact Statement, and contains a
detailed plan for managing and monitoring environmental impacts both during and after
implementation. This section not only sets out the mitigation measures needed for
environmental management, both in the short and long term, but also the institutional
requirements for implementation.
 Finally, an audit of the EIA process is carried out some time after implementation. The
audit serves useful feedback and learning function and is carried out by a separate team
of specialists to that working on the EIA. The audit will determine whether
recommendations and requirements made by the earlier EIA steps were incorporated

30
 successfully into project implementation
(National Environment (Strategic Environmental Asse

Table 2: summary of impacts and mitigation measures

Impacts Mitigation measures

Increase in airborne dust during/after road Apply water on dusty road using a water
improvement project. bowser in such amounts that won’t be a
nuisance.
Increase in air pollution during and after road Use machinery in good mechanical condition.
improvement.
Increase in noise levels during construction.  Notify the person’s mostly likely to be
affected that work is about to start.

31
  Carry out noise making activities in
areas without settlements if possible.
 Use equipment that produce less or no
noise.
There is an increase in vibration levels during  Use high quality low vibration tools.
the construction.  Rest and rotate workers who are
involved in working with vibrational
instruments.
Contamination of surface water sources  Proper disposal of waste.
during implementation and after.  Cover up/repair all damaged conduits
on time
There is increase in flooding during the Provide alternative water drainage systems
construction due to cut conduits, change in when working on a road drainage system.
land use.

32
 References
Adlinge, S. S. A. K., & Gupta. (n.d.). Pavement Deterioration and its Causes. HYPERLINK
"http://www.iosrjournals.org"www.iosrjournals.org
Al-Mansour, A. I., & Al-Swailem, S. S. (1999). Pavement condition data collection and evaluation of
riyadh main street network. Journal of King Saud University-Engineering Sciences, 11(1), 1-17.

Common Distresses on Flexible Pavements From… Maintenance Technical Advisory Guide (MTAG).
(n.d.).
DISTRESS IDENTIFICATION MANUAL for the Long-Term Pavement Performance Program.
(2014).
Fwa, T. F. (2006). The handbook of highway engineering. Taylor & Francis.
Highway Engineering Pavements, Materials and Control of Quality. (n.d.).
Lemonakis, P., Kopelias, P., & Karlaftis, P. (2023). Introduction of a new index to assess pavement
functional condition. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-18.

National Environment (Strategic Environmental Assessment) Regulations S.I. No. 50 of 2020. (n.d.).
Pavement Condition Time in Years What affects pavement life? (n.d.).
SECTOR GUIDELINES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) FOR ROADS
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN RWANDA. (n.d.).

Zafar, M. S., Shah, S. R., Memon, M. J., Rind, T. A., & Soomro, M. A. (2019). Condition survey
for evaluation of pavement condition index of a highway. Civil Engineering Journal,
5(6), 1367-1383.

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