Question 2

With reference pavement distresses, explain the causes, effects, the procedure for the
measurement and quantification and correction mechanisms of the defects
i. Potholes
ii. Cracking
iii. Bleeding
iv. Shoving
v. Corrugations
vi. Rutting
vii. Stripping

i. POTHOLES.

a) Description
Potholes are bowl-shaped holes caused by the localized disintegration of the pavement surface.
Potholes typically result from the continued deterioration of another type of distress.
Segregation, cracks or failed patches may serve as the start of a pothole. Poor mixtures and weak
spots in the base or subgrade accelerate pothole failures.
Potholes begin to form when fragments of asphalt concrete are displaced by traffic wheels, e.g.,
in alligator-cracked areas. Potholes grow in size and depth as water accumulates in the hole and
penetrates into the base and subgrade, weakening support in the vicinity of the pothole
Potholes are formed when the pavement disintegrates under traffic loading, due to inadequate
strength in one or more layers of the pavement, usually accompanied by the presence of water.
Most potholes would not occur if the root cause was repaired before development of the pothole
(Adlinge & Gupta, n.d.).

The “gestation period” for a pothole includes:

1. Snow-melt or rain seeps through cracks in the pavement and into the sub-base; if the moisture
cannot adequately drain away from the sub-base and soil underneath, it becomes saturated and
soft.
2. Trapped moisture is subjected to repeated freeze/thaw cycles–and with each occurrence the
expanding ice lifts and cracks the pavement more. The passing traffic weakens the pavement,
cracking it further.
3. As temperatures rise and the ice melts, a void is left under the pavement. This void collects more
water, and during the next freeze, the void will enlarge.
4. Vehicles driving over the weakened pavement pound it until the surface breaks and collapses into
the void below, thus creating a pothole.

b) How to Measure
 Record the number of potholes and square meters of affected area at each severity level. Pothole
depth is the maximum depth below pavement surface. If a pothole occurs within an area of
fatigue cracking, the area of fatigue cracking is reduced by the area of the pothole. The minimum
area for a pothole is about 0.02 m². The actual plan dimensions and the actual area of the pothole
shall be recorded on the distress map sheets. Potholes not meeting minimum plan dimension are
to be drawn on the distress map sheets and commented on but not included in the measurement
summaries
(DISTRESS IDENTIFICATION MANUAL for the Long-Term Pavement Performance Program, 2014)

c) Correction mechanism.
Pothole patching is performed either as an emergency repair during harsh conditions, or as
routine maintenance scheduled for warmer and drier periods. Typically, emergency repairs are
done only when a pothole presents a substantial safety or traffic operational problem and must be
urgently corrected.
Emergency repairs usually are done in heavy traffic and can be a safety risk to maintenance
workers. Repairs that are more permanent can be scheduled for times when weather and traffic
are more conducive to safe operations.
(Pavement Condition Time in Years What Affects Pavement Life, n.d.)
The following are the standard pothole repair methods used for any asphalt paved street or road:

 Cold-Patch (Throw-and-roll): Patching material is shoveled into the pothole—which

may or may not be filled with water and debris—and compacted if possible, and crew
moves on to next pothole. (This is considered superior to the more commonly used
method of “throw and-go”, which does not compact the materials before leaving the site.)
Cold patch repairs are quick, but temporary; they are an expedient fix performed when
traffic, weather and general pavement conditions preclude a more permanent repair.

 Hot-Patch Semi-Permanent: Water and debris are removed from the pothole; the sides
of the patch area are “squared-up” until vertical sides exist in reasonably sound
pavement. Tack oil is applied and then a heated asphalt mix is placed and compacted with
a small, vibratory device. A slight crown for water dispersal is desirable. Although it
raises the cost of the operation, this is considered one of the best methods for repairing
potholes, because it improves patch performance. Because this method is more labor and
equipment intensive, it is usually done when traffic and weather conditions are more
favorable.

 Spray-Injection Devices: Water and debris are blown from the pothole; a tack coat of
binder is sprayed on the sides and bottom of the pothole; asphalt and aggregate are blown
into the pothole; the patch is covered with a layer of aggregate. This technique has higher
equipment costs, but has a higher rate of productivity and lower material costs. Spray
injection is faster than hot patch repairs and more permanent than cold patch; however, it
is not as durable as or useful as hot patch for deeper potholes. The material is not
compacted nor is the underlying base material corrected before filling.
  Edge Seal as follow-up: Uses same method as throw-and-roll, but once repair section
has dried, a second pass is made to place a ribbon of asphaltic tack material on top of the
patch edge and pavement surfaces. A layer of sand is placed on the tack material to
prevent tracking by tires, and the section is open to traffic as soon as workers and
equipment are cleared from the area. (Although this requires a second pass, it can
improve patch performance in older pavements with many cracks.)

ii. CRACKING
This can be more grouped into many kinds;

FATIGUE CRACKING
a) Description
Fatigue cracking is sometimes called alligator cracking due to the interconnected cracks which
resemble an alligator skin. Fatigue cracking is caused by load-related deterioration resulting from
a weakened base course or subgrade, too little pavement thickness, overloading, or a
combination of these factors.
Occurs in areas subjected to repeated traffic loadings (wheel paths). Can be a series of
interconnected cracks in early stages of development. Develops into many-sided, sharp angled
pieces, usually less than 0.3 m on the longest side, characteristically with a chicken wire/alligator
pattern in later stages.
b) How to Measure
Record affected area at each severity level in square meters. If different severity levels existing
within an area cannot be distinguished, rate the entire area at the highest severity present. Where
fatigue and edge cracking exist and overlap in the same area, both should be rated.
LOW - An area of cracks with no or only a few connecting cracks; cracks are not spalled or
sealed; and pumping is not evident.
MODERATE - An area of interconnected cracks forming a complete pattern; cracks may be
slightly spalled; cracks may be sealed; and pumping is not evident.
HIGH - An area of moderately or severely spalled interconnected cracks forming a complete
pattern; pieces may move when subjected to traffic; cracks may be sealed; and pumping may be
evident.
Corrective maintenance
fatigue cracked pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure. Any
investigation should involve digging a pit or coring the pavement to determine the pavement’s
structural makeup as well as determining whether or not subsurface moisture is a contributing
factor. Once the characteristic alligator pattern is apparent, repair by crack sealing is generally
ineffective. Fatigue crack repair generally falls into one of two categories:
 Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of subgrade support. Remove the
cracked pavement area then dig out and replace the area of poor subgrade and improve
the drainage of that area if necessary. Patch over the repaired subgrade.
 Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general structural failure. Place an HMA overlay
over the entire pavement surface. This overlay must be strong enough structurally to
carry the anticipated loading because the underlying fatigue cracked pavement most
likely contributes little or no strength (Roberts et. al., 1996[1]).

BLOCK CRACKING
a) Description
A pattern of cracks that divides the pavement into approximately rectangular pieces. Rectangular
blocks range in size from approximately 0.1 to 10 m2. Block cracking is the combination of
longitudinal and transverse cracking. As the cracks worsen with time as a result of weathering,
they join each other and form block cracking.

b) How to measure.

Severity Levels

LOW - Cracks with a mean width ≤ 6 mm or sealed cracks with sealant material in good
condition and with a width that cannot be determined.

MODERATE - Cracks with a mean width > 6 mm and ≤ 19 mm or any crack with a mean width
≤ 19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

HIGH - Cracks with a mean width > 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤ 19 mm and
adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.
Record the affected area at each severity level in square meters. If fatigue cracking exists within
the block cracking area, the area of block cracking is reduced by the area of fatigue cracking.
Longitudinal boundary cracks in a block cracking area are not rated separately. An occurrence
should be at least 15 m long before rating as block cracking. Where block and edge cracking
exist and overlap, both should be rated.

Repair

 Low severity cracks (< 6 mm wide). Crack seal to prevent entry of moisture into the
subgrade through the cracks and further raveling of the crack edges. If cracking is
extensive, a slurry seal can be placed over the sealed cracks.

 High severity cracks (> 19 mm wide and cracks with raveled edges). Remove and replace
the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

EDGE CRACKING

a) Description

Applies only to pavements with unpaved shoulders. Crescent-shaped cracks or fairly continuous
cracks which intersect the pavement edge and are located within 0.6 m of the pavement edge
adjacent to the shoulder. Includes longitudinal cracks outside of the wheel path and within 0.6 m
of the pavement edge.

b) How to measure

Severity Levels

LOW - Cracks with no breakup or loss of material.

MODERATE - Cracks with some breakup and loss of material for up to 10 percent of the length
of the affected portion of the pavement.
HIGH - Cracks with considerable breakup and loss of material for more than 10 percent of the
length of the affected portion of the pavement.

Record length in meters of pavement edge affected at each severity level. The combined quantity
of edge cracking cannot exceed the length of the section. Where edge cracking and fatigue or
block cracking exist and overlap in the same area, both should be rated.

LONGITUDINAL CRACKING

a) Description

Cracks predominantly parallel to pavement centerline. Location within the lane (wheel path
versus non-wheel path) is significant. This may reflect up from the edges of an underlying old
pavement or from edges and cracks in a stabilized base, or may be due to poor compaction at the
edges of longitudinal paving lanes.

Longitudinal cracking may also be produced in the wheelpaths by the application of heavy loads
or high tire pressures.

Severity levels

LOW - A crack with a mean width ≤ 6 mm or a sealed crack with sealant material in good
condition and with a width that cannot be determined.

MODERATE - Any crack with a mean width > 6 mm and ≤ 19 mm or any crack with a mean
width ≤ 19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking. Random cracking should be
considered adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.
HIGH - Any crack with a mean width > 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤ 19 mm and
adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

b) How to Measure

Record separately;

1. Wheel path longitudinal cracking

Record the length in meters of longitudinal cracking within the defined wheel paths at each
severity level. Record the length in meters of longitudinal cracking with sealant in good
condition at each severity level. Sealant is not considered to be in good condition unless at least 1
m of continuous sealant in good condition is present. In cases where a crack is less than 1 m in
length, the sealant must be present and in good condition over the entire length of the crack. Any
wheel path longitudinal crack that has associated random cracking or meanders and has a
quantifiable area is rated as fatigue cracking.

2. Non-wheel path longitudinal cracking

Record the length in meters of longitudinal cracking not located in the defined wheel paths at
each severity level. Record the length in meters of longitudinal cracking with sealant in good
condition at each severity level. Sealant is not considered to be in good condition unless at least 1
m of continuous sealant in good condition is present.

TRANSVERSE CRACKING

a) Description

Cracks that are predominantly perpendicular to pavement centerline. Transverse cracking is

caused by thermal shrinkage from seasonal temperature changes and age hardening of the binder.
 b) How to measure.

Severity Levels

LOW - An unsealed crack with a mean width ≤ 6 mm or a sealed crack with sealant material in
good condition and with a width that cannot be determined.

MODERATE - Any crack with a mean width > 6 mm and ≤ 19 mm or any crack with a mean
width ≤ 19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking. Random cracking should be
considered adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

HIGH - Any crack with a mean width > 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤ 19 mm and
adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

Record the number and length (in meters) of transverse cracks at each severity level. Rate the
entire transverse crack at the highest severity level present for at least 10 percent of the total
length of the crack.

Also record length (in meters) of transverse cracks with sealant in good condition at each
severity level. Note: The length recorded is the total length of the well-sealed crack and is
assigned to the severity level of the crack. Record only when the sealant is in good condition for
at least 90 percent of the length of the crack.

If the transverse crack extends through an area of fatigue cracking, the length of the crack within
the fatigue area is not counted. The crack is treated as a single transverse crack but at a reduced
length. Transverse saw cuts on a “saw and seal” treated AC test section are rated as transverse
cracks. Cracks less than 0.3 m in length are not recorded.

REFLECTION CRACKING AT JOINTS

a) Description

Cracks in AC overlay surfaces that occur over joints in concrete pavements. Note: The slab
dimensions beneath the AC surface must be known to identify reflection cracks at joints.
 b) How to measure.

Severity Levels

LOW - An unsealed crack with a mean width ≤ 6 mm or a sealed crack with sealant material in
good condition and with a width that cannot be determined.

MODERATE - Any crack with a mean width > 6 mm and ≤ 19 mm or any crack with a mean
width ≤19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking.

HIGH - Any crack with a mean width > 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤ 19 mm and
adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking.

Recorded as longitudinal cracking (ACP 4) or transverse cracking (ACP 6) on LTPP surveys.

Correction mechanism

Different methods can be used depending on the type and severity of cracks. For smaller cracks,
crack sealing is often used. This involves filling the cracks with a specialized sealant to prevent
moisture penetration and further damage. For larger cracks, techniques such as routing and
sealing or crack stitching may be required to fill them.

iii. BLEEDING
a) Description

A pavement surface can become flushed with asphalt and lose its skid resistance. Bleeding can
be caused by too much asphalt in the mix, excess tack or bond coat, or by poor construction of a
sealcoat. Traffic can also over-compact an unstable mix and force asphalt to the surface.

Excess bituminous binder occurring on the pavement surface, usually found in the wheel paths.
May range from a surface discolored relative to the remainder of the pavement, to a surface that
is losing surface texture because of excess asphalt, to a condition where the aggregate may be
obscured by excess asphalt possibly with a shiny, glass-like, reflective surface that may be tacky
to the touch
Bleeding can cause a slippery surface, reduced skid resistance, and a loss of texture depth.

b) How to measure

Record square meters of surface area that are affected.

Note: Preventative maintenance treatments (i.e., slurry seals, chip seals, fog seals, etc.) exhibit
bleeding characteristics at times. These occurrences should be noted but not rated as bleeding.

Bleeding can also be measured and quantified by visual inspection.

c) Correction mechanisms

Bleeding is usually treated by spreading hot sand or grit (heated to at least 140°C) over the
affected area. Sometimes, the affected area may also be heated by hot air or infrared heaters
before the application of the sand or grit. The rate of spread typically ranges from 5 to 7 kg/m2.
Immediately after spreading the sand, the surface is rolled with a pneumatic roller. After the
surface cools down, the excess amount of aggregate is removed by a broom or a suction
sweeping machine. In severe and extensive bleeding, the only effective treatment is through the
removal and replacement of surfacing.

iv. SHOVING

a) Description
Shoving is a longitudinal displacement of a localized area of the pavement surface. It is generally
caused by braking or accelerating vehicles and is usually located on hills or curves or at
intersections. It may have associated vertical displacement.
(Common Distresses on Flexible Pavements From… Main

Shoving occurs when the pavement surface layer moves horizontally due to traffic loading, high
temperatures, or a weak pavement structure
Shoving can cause a rough surface, reduced skid resistance, and a loss of texture depth.,

b) How to Measure

Record the number of occurrences and square meters of affected surface area.

c) Correction mechanism
In order to rectify the issue at hand, it is customary to employ a correction method that entails
milling or grinding the affected area to eliminate any irregularities. Once this process is
complete, the surface is resurfaced using appropriate materials such as hot mix asphalt.

v. CORRUGATIONS
a) Description

Corrugation is referred to as wash boarding because the pavement surface has become distorted
like a washboard. The instability of the asphalt concrete surface course may be caused by too
much asphalt cement, too much fine aggregate, or rounded or smooth textured coarse aggregate.
Corrugations usually occur at places where vehicles accelerate or decelerate

b) How to measure

Record the number of occurrences and square meters of affected surface area. However, severity
levels can be defined by the relative effect of shoving on ride quality.

c) Correction mechanism.

The only effective treatment for corrugations is to remove the deficient asphalt from the whole
affected area and replace it with well-designed and properly produced asphalt, avoiding the use
of cut-back for tack coating.

In areas with very low traffic where the thickness of the asphalt layer may only be 50 mm,
corrugations may be repaired by breaking and scarifying the asphalt layer and part of the base,
adding a small amount of binder, mixing on site and, after compaction, applying a single surface
dressing.

vi. RUTTING

a) Description
Rutting is the displacement of pavement material that creates channels in the wheel path. Very
severe rutting will actually hold water in the rut. Rutting is usually a failure in one or more layers
in the pavement. The width of the rut is a sign of which layer has failed. A very narrow rut is
usually a surface failure, while a wide one is indicative of a subgrade failure. Inadequate
compaction can lead to rutting
b) How to Measure
Specific Pavement Studies (SPS)-3 only. Record the maximum rut depth to the nearest
millimeter at 15.25-m intervals for each wheel path, as measured with a 1.2-m straight edge.

c) Correction mechanism
To restore the original profile of the road and improve its structural stability, it is recommended
to apply additional layers of asphalt to the affected area. This process involves overlaying the
damaged section with a new layer of asphalt, which not only restores the road's original profile
but also reinforces its structural integrity. By doing so, the road can be restored to its original
condition, minimizing the risk of further damage and ensuring the safety of motorists.
sss
vii. STRIPPING

a) Description
The loss of the adhesive bond between asphalt cement and aggregate, most often caused by the
presence of water in asphalt concrete, which may result in raveling, loss of stability, and load
carrying capacity of the HMA pavement or treated base.
Stripping is a pavement defect that occurs when the bond between the asphalt binder and the
aggregate is lost due to moisture infiltration
Stripping is essentially reverse raveling, where the lower layers of asphalt disintegrate and harm
the higher layers.
The bottom of the asphalt layer’s aggregate elements and asphalt binder begin to separate,
causing the asphalt to lose fundamental support and collapse upwards
This can pose major problems for the entire pavement layer by reflecting cracks to the surface or
causing large areas to break quickly.
Common signs of stripping include rubbing, pushing, raveling, and substantial cracking.

b) How to measure
Although stripping of asphalt concrete core may not be visible upon a visual inspection of its
exterior, it is possible that the coring drill could damage the circumference of the core. To
determine whether stripping has occurred, it may be necessary to split the core apart and inspect
its interior. If stripping has indeed taken place, aggregates that are either partially coated or
uncoated will be visible. (Highway Engineering Pavements, Materials and Control of Quality, n.d.)
c) Correction mechanism.
To address the issue, damaged areas are removed, surfaces are cleaned, and new asphalt with
improved adhesion is applied.
 Before the repair, the pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure,
which is usually moisture infiltration.
The pavement should be restored with modifications to eliminate the moisture penetration that
produced the stripping in the first place. Generally, the stripped pavement needs to be removed
and replaced after correction of any subsurface drainage issues.

References
Adlinge, S. S. A. K., & Gupta. (n.d.). Pavement Deterioration and its Causes. www.iosrjournals.org

Common Distresses on Flexible Pavements From… Maintenance Technical Advisory Guide (MTAG). (n.d.).

DISTRESS IDENTIFICATION MANUAL for the Long-Term Pavement Performance Program. (2014).

Highway Engineering Pavements, Materials and Control of Quality. (n.d.).

Pavement Condition Time in Years What affects pavement life? (n.d.).