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COMMUNICATIONS
Block Diagram of a Communications System

Refers to the Information Recipient or

Source Noise Destination
sending, reception
and processing of
information by
electrical means Transmitter Channel Receiver

1 2

Information Source Transmitter

selects symbols (letters, numbers,
words, sounds, etc) from an alphabet
(or ensemble) of possible symbols
Types of Information
radio, telephony, telegraph,
broadcasting, radar, radio, telemetry,
and radio aids for navigation
a collection of electronic components
and circuits designed to convert the
information into a signal suitable for
transmission over a given
Processes Involved
modulation, multiplexing, encoding,
encryption, and pre-emphasis (FM)

3 4

Channel Processes Involved

the medium by which the electronic demodulation, demultiplexing,

signal is sent from one place to decoding, decryption, and
another de-emphasis (FM)

Receiver
another collection of electronic
components and circuits that accept
the transmitted message from the
channel and convert it back into a
form understandable by humans
Noise
any unwanted form of electrical
energy, random and aperiodic in
character which tends to mutilate the
desired signal

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Basic Requirements Transmission Paths

1. Accurate Communication 1. Line Communication

2. Fast Communication guided media which include
coaxial cable, twisted pair,
optical fibers and waveguides
Types of Signal
2. Radio Communications
1. ANALOG unguided media
telephone, radio broadcast or
TV signals
2. DIGITAL
comprises of pulses at discrete
intervals of time

7 8

Nomenclature of Frequency Bands

NAME FREQUENCIES METRIC SUBDIVISION APPLICATIONS

Basic Concepts
Extremely Low 30 – 300 Hz - Power line transmission
Frequencies (ELF)
Voice Frequencies (VF) 300 Hz – 3 kHz - Audio

Very Low Frequencies 3 – 30 kHz Myriametric waves Government and military comms.,
Frequency Wavelength
(VLF) submarine comms.

▪ number of times a ▪ distance between two points of

Low Frequencies (LF) 30 – 300 kHz Kilometric waves
(long waves)
Aeronautical and marine
navigation
particular similar cycles of a periodic wave Medium Frequencies 300 kHz – 3 MHz Hectometric waves AM radio broadcast
phenomenon (MF) (medium waves)
High Frequencies (HF) 3 – 30 MHz Decametric waves Shortwave radio broadcast,
occurs at a given (short waves) amateur radio and CB comms.
time Bandwidth Very High Frequencies 30 – 300 MHz Metric waves FM broadcast
▪ expressed in hertz ▪ portion of the electromagnetic (VHF)

(1/1 sec) Hz spectrum occupied by a signal Ultra High Frequencies

(UHF)
300 MHz – 3 GHz Decimetric waves UHF TV, land mobile services and
cellular telephones, microwave
comms.
Super High 3 GHz – 30 GHz Centimetric waves Satellite comms., personal
Frequencies (SHF) communication systems
Extremely High 30 – 300 GHz Millimetric waves Radar
Frequencies (EHF)
*microwave frequency band: 1 GHz to 300 GHz
**frequencies beyond EHF are optical frequencies

9 10

Significant Historical Events in Electronic DATES EVENTS

Communications 1875 Thomas Alba Edison invented Quadruplex telegraph, doubling
existing line qualities.
DATES EVENTS J. M. Emile Baudot invented the first practical Multiplex Telegraph
and another type of telegraphy codes which consisted of pre – arranged
1830 American scientist and professor Joseph Henry transmitted the first 5 - unit dot pulse.
practical electrical signal . A. C. Cowper introduced the first Facsimile Machine or writing
telegraph using a stylus.
1837 Samuel Finley Breeze Morse invented the Telegraph and patented it
in 1844. 1876 Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson invented the
Telephone capable of transmitting voice signals (March 10).
1843 Alexander Bain invented the facsimile.
1877 Thomas Edison invented the Phonograph.
1847 James Clerk Maxwell postulated the Electromagnetic Radiation
Theory. 1878 Francis Blake invented the Microphone Transmitter using platinum
point bearing against a hard carbon surface.
1860 Johann Philipp Reis, a German who produces a device called
Telephone that could transmit a musical tone over a wire to a distant 1882 Nikola Tesla outlined the basic principles of radio transmission and
point but incapable of reproducing it. reception.

1864 James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist established the Theory of 1887 Heinrich Hertz detected electromagnetic waves with an oscillating
Radio or Electromagnetism which held the rapidly oscillating circuit and establishes the existence of radio waves.
electromagnetic waves exist and travel at through space with the speed
of light.

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DATES EVENTS DATES EVENTS

1889 Hertz discovered the progressive propagation of electromagnetic
action through space using a spark – gap wave generator, to measure
the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves and their direct
relation to light and heat as their vibration, reflection, refraction and
polarization.
1906 Reginald Fessenden invented Amplitude Modulation (AM).
Lee De Forest added a grid to the diode and produced triode.
Ernst F. W. Alexanderson invented the Tuned Radio Frequency
Receiver (TRF) an HF Alternator to producing AC contributing to
better voice broadcasting.

18790 Almon Strowger introduced the dial – switching system transmitting
the desired telephone number electrically without the assistance of a
human telephone operator.
1895 Marchese Guglielmo Marconi discovered ground – wave radio
signals.
1898 Guglielmo Marconi established the first radio link between England
and France.
1901 Reginald A. Fessenden transmits the world’s first radio broadcast
using continuous waves. Marconi transmits telegraphic radio messages
from Cornwall, England to Newfoundland, first successful
transatlantic transmission of radio signals.
1904 John Ambrose Fleming invented the Vacuum Tube Diode.
1907 Reginald Fessenden developed the Heterodyne Receiver.
1918 Edwin H. Armstrong invented the Superheterodyne Receiver.
1923 J. L. Baird and C. F. Jenkins demonstrated the transmission of Black
and White Silhouettes in motion. Vladymir Zworykin and Philo
Farnsworth developed television cameras, the Iconoscope and the
Image Detector. The first practical television was invented in 1928.
1931 Edwin Armstrong invented the Frequency Modulation, greatly
improving the quality of the signals.
1937 Alec Reeves invented the Pulse Code Modulation for digital encoding
of PCM signals.
1945 Arthur C. Clarke proposed the use of satellites for long distance radio
transmissions.

13 14

DATES EVENTS DATES EVENTS

1946 AT&T introduced the first mobile telephone system for the public
called the MTS (Mobile Telephone System).
1947 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley introduced the
bipolar junction transistors which started a new trend in radio
receiver design; December 4.
1951 First transcontinental microwave system began operation.
1962 AT&T launched Telstar I, the first satellite to received and transmit
simultaneously. A year later, Telstar II was launched and used for
telephone, TV fax and data transmission .
1965 COMSAT and INTELSAT launched the first communications satellite
code name Early Bird at approximately 34000 km above sea level.

1954 J. R. Pierce showed how satellites could orbit around the earth and
effect transmission with earth stations. 1967 K. C. Kao and G. A. Bockam of Standard Telecommunications
1957 Troposcatter Radio Link was established between Florida and Cuba by Laboratories in England proposed the use of cladded fiber cables as new
using antennas and high powered transmitters to force microwaves transmission medium.
beyond LOS obstructed by earth’s curvature bulge.
Russia launched Sputnik I, the first active earth satellite, capable of 1977 First commercial use of optical fiber cables
receiving, amplifying and retransmitting information to earth stations.

1983 Cellular telephone networks introduced.

1958 Jack Kilby developed the first Monolithic Integrated Circuit
Semiconductor chip with active and passive elements.
1991 Tim Berners – Lee developed World Wide Web (WWW).
1959 Robert Noyce invented the Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit
(VLSIC).

15 16

Self Test Self Test

Principles of Communications Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
1. He is recognized as the Father of Electromagnetism 3. He discovered Photoelectricity through a photosensitive element,
a. Joseph Henry Selenium that could carry current in direct proportion to the amount
b. Andre Marie Ampere of light that struck it.
c. Hans Christian Oersted a. Jonas Jacob Berzelius
d. Michael Faraday b. Charles Babbage
c. James Maxwell
2. An American scientist who discovered electromagnetic self – induction. d. Michael Faraday
He was a pioneer of modern forecasting techniques.
a. Joseph Henry 4. The Father of Electrodynamics who exposed the phenomenon of
b. Andre Marie Ampere electromagnetism following the discovery of magnet needle by
c. Hans Christian Oersted Oersted.
d. Michael Faraday a. Joseph Henry
b. Andre Marie Ampere
c. James Maxwell
d. Michael Faraday

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Self Test Self Test

Principles of Communications Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
5. The range of frequencies represented in a signal. 7. The big breakthrough in electronics communications came with the
a. Beam width invention of the ____________ in 1844.
b. Crisp a. Transistor
c. Guard band b. Phonograph
d. Bandwidth c. Telegraph
d. Telephone
6. It refers to the sending, receiving and processing of information by
electronic means 8. Term for transmission of printed picture by radio (ECE Board April
a. Communications 1998).
b. Telemetry a. Facsimile
c. Telephony b. ACSSB
d. Broadcasting c. Xerography
d. Television

19 20

Self Test Self Test

Principles of Communications Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
9. A Scottish physicist who established the Theory of Radio or 11. Most of the communications receiver is in form of ____________ type.
Electromagnetism which held that rapidly oscillating electromagnetic a. Superheterodyne
waves exist and travel at through space with the speed of light. b. TRF
a. James Maxwell c. Single – ended
b. Andre Marie Ampere d. High level
c. Hans Christian Oersted
d. Michael Faraday 12. He was the one who developed the wireless telegraph.
a. Edison
10. The first words transmitted over the telephone b. Armstrong
a. Mr. Watson, come here, I want you c. Marconi
b. What God has wrought d. Bell
c. This is the day
d. None of these

21 22

Self Test Self Test

Principles of Communications Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
13. He invented the first practical Multiplex Telegraph and another type of
15. Invented the Microphone transmitter using platinum point bearing
telegraphy codes which consisted of pre – arranged 5 – unit dot pulse
against a hard carbon surface
patterns. This multiplexer allowed signals of up to 6 different
a. Francis Blake
telegraph machines to be transmitted over a single wire pair.
b. Thomas Watson
a. JM Emile Baudot
c. Thomas Doolittle
b. AC Cowper
d. Henry Hunnings
c. Thomas Edison
16. What type of field does Faraday shield stop?
d. Thomas Doolittle
a. Common
b. Array
14. Introduced the first Facsimile Machine or writing telegraph using
c. Electrostatic
stylus.
d. Magnetostatic
a. JM Emile Baudot
b. AC Cowper
c. Thomas Edison
d. Alexander Graham Bell

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Self Test Self Test

Principles of Communications Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
17. Which of the following is not normally tested in a transmitter? 19. Term in Communication that is referred “to send in all directions”.
a. Power a. Announce
b. Modulation b. Broadcast
c. Frequency c. Transmit
d. Amplitude d. Media

18. What other term is essentially synonymous with beating? 20. Invented the telephone transmitter using granular carbon and thin
a. Heterodyning platinum diaphragm and a gold – plated electrode
b. Scrambling a. Nikola Tesla
c. Filtering b. Henry Hunnings
d. Suppressing c. Thomas Watson
d. AC Cowper

25 26

Self Test Self Test

Principles of Communications Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
21. He introduced the Dial Switching System, transmitting the desired
23. The Father of Quantum Theory. He introduced the revolutionary idea
telephone number electrically without the assistance of a human
that the energy emitted by an oscillator could take only on discrete
telephone operator
values or quanta
a. Thomas Edison
a. Guglielmo Marconi
b. Almon Strowger
b. John Fleming
c. JJ Thomson
c. Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
d. Lee De Forest
d. Christian Hulsmeyer
22. An Italian physicist who invented the first wireless telegraph, initially
24. Who developed the CRT capable of tracing curves on phosphor screen?
transmitting messages over a distance of 1 mile but later improved it
a. John Fleming
to 8000 miles in 1902. He also made the first successful transatlantic
b. Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
radio transmission.
c. KF Braun
a. Francis Blake
d. Christian Hulsmeyer
b. Ernst Alexanderson
c. KF Braun
d. Guglielmo Marconi

27 28

Self Test Self Test

Principles of Communications Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
25. He invented the superheterodyne receiver 27. Who invented the Pulse Code Modulator for digital encoding of PCM
a. Edwin Armstrong signals
b. Alec Reeves a. Alec Reeves
c. Veldemar Poulsen b. Edwin Armstrong
d. Boris Rosing c. Boris Rosing
d. Reginald Fessenden
26. He developed a simple radio echo device to prevent ship collisions. He
was considered as the forerunner of RADAR 28. He was the one who developed the mathematical solution to a
a. Veldemar Poulsen complex repetitive waveform
b. Christian Hulsmeyer a. Carson
c. Boris Rosing b. P. H. Smith
d. Reginald Fessenden c. J. Fourier
d. Y. Uda

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Self Test
Principles of Communications MODULATION
Choose the letter which answer each question. process by which some
mixing of low frequency characteristic of a high
29. The volume of transaction proceed in a specific unit of time
a. Response time signals modulating signal) frequency sine wave is
b. Throughout with high frequency varied in accordance with
c. Availability signals (carrier signal) the instantaneous value of
d. Reliability
the signal
30. ____________ is a device that measures the internal open circuit
voltage of an equivalent noise generator having an impedance of 600
ohms and delivering noise power to a 600 ohms load.
a. Phosphometer imposition of information modification of one signal
b. Barometer on a given signal by another signal
c. Reflectometer
d. Voltmeter

31 32

Types of Modulation Types of Modulation

a. According to carrier used a. According to the method used

1. Pulse
1. Continuous Wave
carrier is a train of
carrier is a sinusoid
pulses (discrete)
1. Analog
2. Digital
modulated parameter
change the form of a
is made proportional to
the modulating signal given signal

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Reasons for Modulation Analog Modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation
1. To reduce the antenna lengths

2. To reduce noise / interference

3. For frequency assignments

4. For multiplexing

5. To overcome equipment limitations

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2. Angle Modulation Digital Modulation

a. Frequency Modulation b. Phase Modulation 1. Pulse Code Modulation

2. Delta Modulation

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Basic Emission Classification

Consider any sinusoid First Symbol – Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
Emission of unmodulated carrier N
ѵ(t)= V sin (ωt + ѳ)
Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude

-> Double – sideband A

ѵ = instantaneous amplitude
V = peak amplitude -> Single – sideband, full carrier H
ω = 2Πf; angular frequency
t = instantaneous time -> Single –sideband, reduced or variable level carrier R
ѳ = phase angle in radians
-> Single – sideband, suppressed carrier J
amplitude
-> Independent sideband B
phase
t = 1/f
-> Vestigial sideband C
NOTE Emission in which the main carrier is angled modulated
Any type of modulation should be reversible
(get back to the original signal) by process of -> Frequency Modulation F
demodulation.
-> Phase Modulation G

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First Symbol – Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier Second Symbol – Nature of the Signals Modulating the
Emission in which the main carrier is angled and amplitude D Main Carrier
modulated simultaneously No modulating signal 0
Emission of pulses
-> Sequence of unmodulated pulses P Digitally keyed carrier 1

-> Sequence of pulses

Digitally keyed tone 2
->> Modulated in amplitude K
->> Modulated in width/duration L Analog 3
->> Modulated in position/phase M
->> The carrier is angle – modulated during the Q Multichannel digital 7
period of the pulse
->> Combination of the foregoing or is produced V Multichannel analog 8
by other means
Cases not covered above or combination of two or more of the W Combination 9
following modes: amplitude, angle, angle and phase
Cases otherwise not covered X Cases not otherwise covered X

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Third Symbol – Type of Information to be Transmitted Fourth Symbol – Details of Signals

No information transmitted N Two – condition code with elements of differing numbers A
and/or durations
Telegraphy – for aural reception A
Two – condition code with elements of the same number and B
Telegraphy – for automatic reception B duration without error correction

Facsimile C Two – condition code with elements of the same number and C
duration with error correction
Data transmission, telemetry, telecommand D
Four – condition code in which each condition represents a D
Telephony (including sound broadcasting) E signal element

Television (video ) F Multicondition code in which each condition represents a E

signal element
Combination of the above W
Multicondition code in which each condition or combination F
Cases otherwise not covered X of conditions represents a character

43 44

Fourth Symbol – Details of Signals Fifth Symbol – Nature of Multiplexing

Sound of broadcasting quality (monophonic) G None N
Sound of broadcasting quality (stereophonic or quadraphonic) H
Code – division multiplex C
Sound of commercial quality J

Sound of commercial quality with the use of frequency K Frequency – division multiplex F
inversion or band splitting

Sound of commercial quality with separate frequency – L Time – division multiplex T

modulated signals to control the levels of
demodulated signal
Combination of frequency – division multiplex and W
Monochrome M time – division multiplex
Color N

Combination of the above W

Other types of multiplexing X
Cases not otherwise covered X

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General Equation of the AM wave

AMPLITUDE MODULATION
let the carrier voltage be given by

A system of
νc(t) = Vc sin ωc t
modulation in which and the modulating voltage be given by
the amplitude of the
νm(t) = Vm sin ωm t
carrier is made
proportional to the Information then the amplitude resulting from modulation is
instantaneous or
AM A = Vc + νm (t) = Vc + Vm sin ωm t
amplitude of the modulating modulator Output
modulating voltage. signal (νm) (νAM)
Since and Vm = Vc ma, then
Carrier
(νc ) Therefore A = Vc + Vc ma sin ωm t
Carrier voltage is A = Vc (1 + ma sin ωm t )
made proportional
to the instantaneous The voltage of the resulting AM wave envelope at any instant is
modulating signal
νAM(t) = A sin ωc t

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Frequency Domain of Standard AM

General Form
graph of relative amplitude
νAM(t) = Vc (1 + ma sin ωm t) sin ωc t of signal against frequency Time Domain of Standard AM
Standard Form

νAM(t) = Vc sin ωc t + cos (ωc - ωm) t + cos (ωc + ωm) t νAM(t) carrier

LSB USB
carrier lower sideband upper sideband
LSB USB
where fc - fm fc fc + f m
Vc = carrier signal peak voltage
ωc = 2Π fc = carrier signal angular frequency
ωm = 2Π fm = modulating signal angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
ma = modulation index

49 50

Envelope AM Modulation Index (ma)

the curve produced by joining the tips of the

individual RF cycles of the AM waveform Modulation index (modulation factor,
modulation coefficient, degree of modulation,
depth of modulation)

envelope

where

; 0 < ma < 1

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Degrees of Modulation

Percent Modulation (Ma)

1. Ma < 100%
modulation index expressed undermodulation
as a percentage

Ma = ma x 100%
2. Ma = 100%
modulation

3. Ma > 100%
overmodulation

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Power Content of an AM Signal

Example
A modulated wave has a peak value of 2 volts. The carrier wave PT = PC + PUSB + PLSB
equation for the voltage is 1.2 sin(20t + 15). Determine
whether the signal is overmodulated or not.
PT = PC

Given
Vm = 2 V NOTE
PUSB = PLSB
Vc = 1.2 V where PUSB = PLSB =

Solution PSBT =

ma = 1.67 (overmodulated) NOTE

PC is constant value before and after modulation. PT is
the total power after modulation and is dependent on
the modulation index. The higher the modulation
index, the higher the output power.

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Current and Voltage Relationships

Example
A transmitter supplies 8 kW to the antenna when
unmodulated. Determine the total power radiated when
modulated to 30%.

Given
Pc = 8 kW
ma = 0.3
where
Solution IC = unmodulated carrier
IT = total or modulated current
VC = unmodulated carrier voltage
V T = total or modulated voltage
ma = modulation index

PT = 8.36 kW

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Simultaneous Modulation
Example
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only modulation by several carrier
the carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier
is sinusoidally modulated. Find the percentage
modulation.

Given
IC = 8 A
IT = 8.93 A

Solution

where
ma = 0.701 V T = total modulated voltage
IT = total modulated current
Ma = 70.1% maT = effective total modulation index

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Bandwidth Formula for AM

Example
A 360 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by 2 audio BW = 2 x fm (single carrier modulation)
waves with modulation percentage of 55 and 65,
respectively. What is the total sideband power radiated? BW = 2 x fmhighest (simultaneous modulation)

Effiency
Given
PC = 360 W
Ma1 = 55%
Ma2 = 65%
Percentage Power Saving
Solution

NOTE
Efficiency and power saving depends on the type of
PSBT = 130.5 W transmission but the total transmitted power is
computed on the basis of double sideband full carrier.

61 62

Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain

Example
How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a 1. A3E – Standard AM (DSBFC)
- Double Sideband Full Carrier
100 kHz bandwidth if the highest modulating frequency is
- used for broadcasting
5 kHz?

Given 2. A3J – DSBSC

BW = 100 kHz - Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier
fmhighest = 5 kHz

Solution
3. H3E – SSBFC
BW = 2 x fmhighest - Single Sideband Full Carrier
BW = 2 x 5 kHz - could be used as a compatible AM
BW = 10 kHz broadcasting system with A3E receivers

10 stations 4. J3E – SSBSC

- Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
- The carrier is suppressed by at least 45 dB
in the transmitter

63 64

Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain

5. R3E – SSBRC
- Single Sideband Reduced Carrier
- An attenuated carrier is reinserted into the
SSB signal to facilitate receiving tuning and
demodulation.
6. B8E – Independent Sideband Emission
- Two independent sidebands, with a carrier
that is most commonly attenuated or suppressed.
- Used for HF point – to – point radiotelephony
in which more than one channel is required.
7. C3F – Vestigial Sideband
- A system in which a vestige, i.e., a trace, of the
unwanted sideband is transmitted usually with
a full carrier.
- Used for video transmissions in all the world’s
various TV systems to conserve bandwidth.
8. Lincompex (for PCM)
- “Linked Compressor and Expander”
- Basically a system in which all audio
frequencies above 2.7 kHz are filtered out to
allow the presence of a control tone of 2.9 kHz
of 120 Hz.
NOTE
a) Information is present only in the sidebands.
b) During 100% modulation, 2/3 of the total power is
wasted in the carrier. The carrier power
percentage is 33.33% of the transmitted AM.
c) Information on the LSB is the same as the
information on the USB.
Single Sideband Modulation
▪ single sideband suppressed carrier (J3E)
▪ a form of amplitude modulation in which
the carrier has been cancelled out with the
balanced modulator and one of the
sidebands has been removed by using one
of the three different methods.

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1. Filter Method
Example ▪ the simplest system
An AM transmitter is rated 100 W at 100% modulation. How ▪ the unwanted sideband is removed, actually heavily
much is required for the carrier? What is the power required attenuated by a filter
for the audio signal? ▪ the filter maybe LC, crystal, ceramic or mechanical,
depending on the carrier frequency and other
Given requirements
PT = 100 W
Crystal
Ma = 100% oscillator

Solution SSB out to

PSBT = PT – PC linear
Sideband amplifier
Buffer Balanced Balanced
PSBT = 33.33 W suppression
modulator mixer
filter

Filter Crystal
PC = 66.67 W AF in
Audio
for other oscillator or
amplifier
sideband synthesizer

67 68

2. Phase – Shift Method 3. “Third” or Weaver Method

▪ avoids filters and some of their inherent disadvantages ▪ developed by Weaver
▪ makes use of two balanced modulators and two – phase ▪ has the advantages of the phase- shift method, such as its
shifting networks ability to generate SSB at any frequency and use low
audio frequencies, without the associated
disadvantage of an AF phase shift network required
Balanced to operate over a large range of audio frequencies.
modulator
M1
Balanced B Low – pass C Balanced
AF in modulator M1 filter modulator M2
Audio SSB out
amplifier to linear 2cos ωc t 2cos ωc t
amplifier
Carrier 90° phase 90° phase
shifter shifter
90° phase Adder
shifter sin ωc t 2sin ωc t 2sin ωc t D
A AF carrier RF carrier Adder
Carrier AF in generator generator SSB
source out

AF Balanced
90° phase modulator Balanced E Low – pass F Balanced
shifter M2 modulator M3 filter modulator M4

69 70

Product Detector Independent Sideband (ISB) Systems

▪ a means of single sideband detection

▪ mixing of high frequency component and an ▪ multiplex techniques used for high – density
incoming modulated signal on a point – to – point communications
multiplier circuit followed by a low pass
filter ▪ simultaneously convey a totally different
transmission, to the extent that the upper
sideband could be used for telephony while the
Advantages of SSB lower sideband carries telegraphy. It consist of
two SSB channels added together to form two
1. power saving sidebands around reduced carrier.
2. less bandwidth
3. less noise
4. less fading

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AM Transmitter Functional Block Diagram

Standard AM Transmitter Antenna

Transmitter Requirements High – level Low – level

Modulation modulation
Class B
1. frequency accuracy and stability RF Class A Class C Class C
RF linear
2. frequency agility crystal RF buffer RF power RF output
power
oscillator amplifier amplifier amplifier
3. special purity amplifier
(absence of spurious signals)
4. power output rating
5. efficiency
AF AF AF Modulator
6. modulation fidelity AF in processing Class B (AF Class
pre –
and amplifier power B output
filtering amplifier amplier)

73 74

Crystal Oscillator Class C RF Output Amplifier

It provides a stable carrier frequency Termed as the modulated amplifier or the RF
at low power. output amplifier. This is the output stage for
high level systems.

Buffer Amplifier
Linear Power Amplifier
A low gain, high input impedance
amplifier that isolates the crystal Amplifier which provides linear power
oscillator to improve its ability. amplification of the amplitude – modulated
output signal from the Class C modulated
power amplifier (used for low – level
Class C RF Power Amplifier (Driver) modulation ).
Provide enough gain to sufficiently
drive the modulated amplifier.

75 76

AF Processing and Filtering

Sample Board
AF is processed / filtered so as to occupy the Problems
correct bandwidth and compressed somewhat
to reduce the ratio of maximum to minimum
amplitude.
1. Modulation is used to
a. increase the carrier power
AF Preamplifier b. reduce the bandwidth used
c. allow the use of practical antennas
d. shorten the transmission channel
Boost the AF signal in order to provide enough
gain sufficiently to drive the modulator. 2. Modulation is done at
a. the transmitter
b. the receiver
Modulator c. the channel
d. the antenna
Output is mixed with the carrier to generate the
AM signal.

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Sample Board Sample Board

Problems Problems

3. In an AM wave, useful power is carried by 5. In amplitude modulation, the ____________ of the carrier is varied
a. the sidebands according to the strength of the signal.
b. the carrier a. amplitude
c. both b. phase
d. either c. frequency
d. period
4. Which of these could not be used to remove the unwanted sideband in
SSB? 6. The output of a balanced modulator is
a. Filter Method a. USB and LSB
b. Phase – Shift Method b. LSB
c. Third Method c. USB
d. Balanced Modulator d. carrier

79 80

Sample Board Sample Board

Problems Problems

7. A 900 kHz carrier is amplitude modulated with 4000 Hz audio tone. The 9. In amplitude modulation, if the peak signal is 0.5 volt and the carrier
lower and upper sideband frequencies are peak is 1 volt, the depth of modulation is
a. 450 and 1800 kHz a. 25%
b. 800 and 1000 kHz b. 50%
c.896 and 904 kHz c. 75%
d. 4000 and 8000 kHz d. 78.5%

8. The HF band covers the frequency range 10. In a communications system, noise is most likely to affect the signal at
a. 3 – 30 MHz the
b. 30 – 300 MHz a. transmitter
c. 30 – 300 kHz b. channel
d. 300 kHz – 3 MHz c. information source
d. destination

81 82

Sample Board Sample Board

Problems Problems

11. Another term for Amplitude Modulation 13. If the modulation index of an AM wave is increased from 0 to 1, the
a. DSBSC transmitter power will be
b. SSBSC a. unchanged
c. DSBFC b. increased by 50%
d. SSBFC c. increased by 100%
d. decreased by 50%
12. The bandwidth of an AM transmitter if the carrier frequency is
1000 kHz and the modulation frequency varies from 1 kHz to 10 kHz is 14. When the modulation index of an AM amplifier is 1, the amplitude of
a. 2000 kHz the carrier is ____________ the amplitude of the modulating signal.
b. 2 kHz a. greater than
c. 20 kHz b. equal to
d. 20.1 kHz c. less than
d. double

83 84

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Sample Board Sample Board

Problems Problems

15. Overmodulation results in ____________. 17. Both frequency and phase modulation utilize ____________
a. weakening of the signal modulation.
b. excessive carrier power a. phase
c. distortion b. amplitude
d. either a or b c. digital
d. angle
16. If the modulation index of an AM amplifier is 0.80, the % modulation
is equal to 18. The maximum percentage modulation without distortion in an
a. 20% amplitude modulation system is
b. 80% a. 20%
c. 0.80 b. 50%
d. 0.20 c. 110%
d. 100%

85 86

Sample Board FREQUENCY MODULATION

Problems
type of angle modulation
wherein the frequency of
the carrier is varied
19. A form of AM in which the carrier is transmitted at full power, but only relative to the amplitude
one of the sidebands is transmitted. of modulating frequency
a. SSBFC (signal)
b. SSBSC
c. DSBFC
d. DSBSC
General Equation of the FM Wave

νFM (t) = Vc sin (ωc t + mf sin ωm t )

20. Emission with only one sideband transmission
a. A3E
b. J3E where
c. 11BE Vc = carrier signal peak voltage
d. H3E ωc = 2Πfc = carrier signal angular frequency
ωm = 2Πfm = modulating signal angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
mf = modulation index

87 88

Frequency Domain of Standard FM Time Domain of Standard FM

νFM(t)

fc

fc + nfm
fc - nfm

89 90

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Frequency Deviation (δ) NOTE

The intelligence amplitude determines the a mount of
▪ the amount of change in carrier frequency produced carrier frequency deviation. The intelligence frequency
by modulating signal determines the rate of carrier frequency deviation.
▪ the maximum frequency deviation occurs at the
maximum amplitude of the modulating signal δ α Em
δ = k Em

δ = fmax - fc k=
δ = fc - fmin

where δ = fmax + fc
δ
fc = carrier frequency CS
fmax = maximum frequency δ δ = fc - fmin
change of the carrier
fmin = minimum frequency
change of the carrier CS (Carrier Swing)

91 92

Example Solution
Find the carrier and modulating frequencies , the modulation δ = mf fm
index and the maximum deviation of the FM wave represented = (5 x 198.94)
by the voltage equation νFM(t) = 12 sin (6 x 108 + 5 sin 1250t).
What power will this FM wave dissipate in a 10Ω resistor? δ = 994.72 Hz

Given
νFM(t) = 12 sin (6 x 108 + 5 sin 1250t)
2
Solution
ωc = 6 x 108 ωm = 1250
P = 7.2 W
fc = 95. 49 MHz fc = 198.94 Hz

mf = 5

93 94

Example
Carrier Swing A modulation frequency range from 30 to 15000 Hz is permitted
in an FM system, together with a maximum deviation of 50
kHz. What will be the minimum and maximum possible values
the total variation in of modulation index in the system.
frequency of the carrier Given
fm = 30 – 15000 Hz
Modulation Index δmax = 50 kHz
Solution

NOTE
The modulation index determines the number of
significant sidebands in an FM signal. The
modulation index for FM is directly proportional to mf max = 1666.67 mf min = 3.33
the modulating voltage and at the same time inversely
proportional to the modulating signal frequency.

95 96

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Deviation Ratio Wideband FM vs. Narrowband FM

The ratio of the maximum permissible

frequency deviation to the maximum Descriptions Wideband FM Narrowband FM
permissible modulating frequency. Applications FM broadcast Mobile
and communications
entertainment
Modulation 5 – 2500 ≈1
index (mf )
Percentage of Modulation Maximum 75 kHz 5 kHz
deviation (δmax)
Modulating 30 Hz – 15 kHz 3 kHz (max)
frequency (fm)

97 98

Example
For an FM signal in the 88 – 108 MHz broadcast band with a Frequency Spectrum of the FM Wave
frequency deviation of 15 kHz, determine the percent
modulation.
νFM = J0 (mf ) sin ωc t + J1 (mf ) [ sin (ωc + ωm)t – sin (ωc - ωm)t ]
Given
fm = 88 – 108 Mhz
δmax = 15 kHz amplitude of sidebands
the carrier with
Solution signal frequencies

NOTE
For a single fm , you can produce an infinite number
of sidebands, in pairs, but most of them would be of
negligible amounts.
mf = 20%

99 100

Transmitted Power

In FM, PT is constant.

NOTE
In FM, the total transmitted power always
remains constant, but with increased depth
of modulation the required bandwidth is
increased.

101 102

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Bandwidth Formulas for FM Example

What is the bandwidth of a narrowband FM signal generated
a. Theoretical BW for FM by a 2 kHz audio signal and a 110 MHz FM carrier?

BW = 2 x fm x no. of highest needed sideband Modulation Index Sidebands or

(Mf ) J – coefficients
b. Approximate BW 1 3
2 4
BW = 2(fm + δ) John Carsons Formula
3 6
c. NBFM 4 7
5 8
BW ≈ 2fm
Given
d. WBFM fm = 2 kHz
fc = 110 MHz
BW ≈ 2δ

103 104

Solution
B = 2 x fm x no. of highest needed sideband Advantages of FM over AM
B = 2 x 3 kHz x 7
1.The amplitude of the FM carrier remains
B = 42 kHz constant.
2. Increase in the S/N ratio (less noise)
3. It is possible to reduce noise still further by
increasing deviation and fitting with
NOTE
amplitude limiters.
negligible negligible 4. Less adjacent channel interference because
there are guard bands between FM
stations provided by the FCC and CCIR.
5. It is possible to operate several independent
transmitters on the same frequency with
The theoretical bandwidth needed in FM is infinite. considerably less interference.

105 106

Disadvantages of FM Capture Effect

1. A much wider channel is required by FM, 7 to
15 times as large as that needed by AM.
2. FM transmitting and receiving equipment
tends to be more complex, particularly
for modulation and demodulation,
therefore more expensive.
The inherent ability of FM to minimize the
effect of undesired signals (noise), also applies
to the reception of a strongest signal or
stations and minimizing other signals
operating on the same frequency.

3. Since reception is limited to line of sight, the

area of reception for FM is much smaller
than AM.

107 108

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Block Diagram of an FM Transmitter Pre -emphasis

The boosting of the

higher modulating
Exciter frequencies at the
RF (the means of Power transmitter, in
oscillator providing an amplifier accordance with the
FM RF signal )
pre –arranged curve to
improve noise
immunity at FM and
prevent the higher
Audio Pre-emphasis frequency component
amplifier network
of the transmitted
intelligence being
degraded.

109 110

De -emphasis NOTE
If two modulating signals have the same initial amplitude
and one of them is pre – emphasized to twice this
Reducing the amplitude, whereas the other is unaffected, being at a
amplitude of the much lower frequency , then the receiver will naturally
higher modulating have to de –emphasize the first signal by a factor of 2 to
ensure that both signals have the same amplitude in the
frequencies at the output of the receiver.
receiver to the same
amount as it was
before the
pre – emphasis
circuit.

NOTE
The pre –emphasis and de – emphasis networks have a time
constant of 75 μs (150 μs for Europe , 25 μs for Dolby) and a
cut – off frequency of 2122 Hz.

111 112

Forms of Interference in FM Stereophonic FM Multiplex System (1961)

1. Image Frequency modulation system in which two – channel
▪ effect of two stations being received system with left channel and a right
simultaneously channel transmitted simultaneously and
independently
2. Co – channel Interference
NOTE
▪ true to mobile receivers; when travelling Stereophonic uses 38 kHz subcarrier from a pilot carrier of
from one transmitter toward another. 19 kHz to produce sum and difference of the two channels.
Also, a 67 kHz subsidiary communications authorization
This minimizes by capture effect. (SCA) is added for optional transmission in FM
broadcasting. Optional SCA
3. Adjacent Channel Interference transmission
sum channel sub – difference channel
▪ created between tuning two adjacent (L + R) carrier (L - R)
stations due the imperfection of filter
circuits like channel 2 and 3. 0 15 19 23 38 53 59.5 67 74.5
audio DSBSC AM FM

113 114

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▪ The equivalent capacitance depends on the

Generation of FM Signals device transconductance. The capacitance can be
originally adjusted to any value, within reason, by
A. Direct Method
varying the components R and C
▪ Varying the frequency of the
carrier oscillator directly Ceq = gm RC
Since

1. Reactance Modulator
Reactance of the capacitive or
inductive components of the
tank circuit vary in direct ▪ The expression gmRC has the correct dimensions
relationship to the audio of capacitance; R, measured in ohms, and gm
signal which causes the measured in siemens (S).
oscillator frequency to vary
thereby directly producing
AM. Therefore

115 116

Example
Determine the value of the capacitive reactance obtainable from
a reactance FET whose gm is 12 millisiemens (12 mS). Assume
that the gate – to – source resistance is 1/9 of the reactance of
the gate – to – drain capacitor and that frequency is 5 MHz.
2. Varactor Diode
Modulator
Given n
gm = 12 mS Uses a varactor (voltage
R = 1/9 Xc Xc = 9R variable capacitor)
diode that when
Solution reversed biased exhibits
a junction capacitance
that varies inversely
with the amount of
reverse voltage.

Xc eq = 750 Ω

117 118

high fc
and mf
Crystal carrier only
oscillator medium fc low fc high fc
B. Indirect Method and low mf and mf and mf
FM wave(very low
▪ Armstrong Method fc and mf )
Class C
The modulating signal is modulated using Buffer Combining 1st group of Mixer 2nd group of
power
network multipliers multipliers
balanced modulator then fed to a summing amplifiers
device together with a crystal that is shifted sidebands only
90°. Wideband FM then obtain by
successive frequency multiplication of the 90° Phase Balanced Crystal
shifter Modulator oscillator
output.
equalized audio

Audio
carrier at equalizer
90°

119 120

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General Equation of the PM Wave

Phase Modulation
ѵPM(t) = Vc sin(ωc t + mp sin ωm t)
modulation wherein the phase of the
carrier is made proportional to the where
instantaneous value of the modulating mp = kpVm
signal
mp = modulation index
kp = proportionality constant

Under identical conditions:

mp = mf but when fm is changed
mp k
mf changed

121 122

Example Solution
The equation of an angle modulated wave is a. frequency modulated
ν(t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 2000t). Calculate the maximum
deviation. Rewrite this equation if the modulating frequency is
halved, but all else remains constant, assuming that the wave is:
a. frequency modulated
b. phase modulated

Given νFM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 40 sin 1000t)

νPM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 2000t)

Solution b. phase modulated

νPM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 1000t)

fm = 318.31 Hz δ = 6.37 kHz

123 124

Frequency Modulation vs. Phase Modulation

Sample Board
Problems
Comparisons Phase Modulation Frequency
Modulation
deviation (δ) δp is proportional to δf is proportional to
Vm, independent on Vm 1. Which of the is not an advantage of FM over AM.
fm a. better noise immunity
b. lower bandwidth required
c. transmitted power is useful
modulation index mp is proportional mf is proportional d. less modulating power
to Vm to Vm
and inversely 2. In an FM Stereo Multiplex transmission , the
proportional to fm a. sum signal modulates the 19 kHz subcarrier
b. difference signal modulates the 67 kHz subcarrier
c. difference signal modulates the 38 kHz subcarrier
when fm is changed mp will remain mf will increase as
d. difference signal modulates the 19 kHz subcarrier
constant fm is reduced, vice
versa

125 126

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Sample Board Sample Board

Problems Problems

3. When modulating frequency is doubled, the modulation index is 5. The commercial FM radio broadcast band is
halved, and the modulating voltage remains constant, the modulation a. 535 – 1605 kHz
system is b. 27 – 29 kHz
a. AM c. 88 – 108 MHz
b. PAM d. 300 – 3000 MHz
c. FM
d. PM 6. For an FM broadcast station, the maximum deviation produced by
audio modulation is 45 kHz. The percent modulation is ____________.
4. Pre – emphasis and de – emphasis are used in the FM stereo multiplex a. 10
system to b. 45
a. SWR c. 60
b. power ratio d. 100
c. S/N
d. CMMR

127 128

Sample Board Sample Board

Problems Problems

7. The modulation index of an FM signal is one half the original index if 9. Which of the following is an indirect method of generating FM?
the modulating frequency is a. Reactance FET Modulator
a. doubled b. Varactor Diode Modulator
b. halved c. Armstrong Modulator
c. increased d. Reactance BJT Modulator
d. decreased
10. What is the deviation ratio for the station in the commercial FM
8. An FM signal with a modulation index, mf is passed through a broadcast band?
frequency tripler. The wave in the output of the tripler will have a a. 5.5
modulation index of b. 5
a. mf /3 c. 4
b. mf d. 6
c. 3mf
d. 9mf

129 130

Sample Board Sample Board

Problems Problems

11. What is the frequency deviation necessary for 80% modulation in the 13. In FM, if a carrier is modulated by a single frequency, the number of
FM broadcast? SB’s produced is
a. 75 kHz a. 1
b. 75 MHz b. 2
c. 60 kHz c. 3
d. 60 MHz d. greater than 3

12. In frequency modulation, noise components which affect the 14. The maximum frequency deviation of a standard FM radio broadcast
amplitude can be eliminated using station is
a. an oscillator a. 25 kHz
b. an integrator b. 40 kHz
c. an FM limiter circuit c. 75 kHz
d. differentiator d. 200 kHz

131 132

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Sample Board Sample Board

Problems Problems

15. The modulation index of an FM signal having a carrier swing of 17. Maximum FM broadcast deviation is 75 kHz and maximum
100 kHz when the modulating signal has a frequency of 2 kHz is modulating frequency is 15 kHz. The maximum bandwidth
a. 75 kHz requirement is
b. 25 kHz a. 180 kHz
c. 50 kHz b. 160kHz
d. 0.50 kHz c. 140 kHz
16. In FM stereophonic transmission standards, the suppressed d. 90 kHz
subcarrier frequency is
a. 19 kHz 18. An FM signal with a deviation δ is passed through a mixer, and has its
b. 67 kHz frequency reduced fivefold. The deviation in the output of the mixer is
c. 38 kHz a. 5δ
d. 69 kHz b. indeterminate
c. δ /5
d. δ

133 134

Demodulation
Sample Board
▪ the process by which the modulating signal
Problems
is recovered from the modulated carrier
▪ found in receivers

19. The permissible range in maximum modulating index for commercial Functions of a Receiver
FM that has 30 Hz to 15 kHz modulating frequencies is
a. 5 and 2500 1. selects the desired signal
b. 50 and 250 2. amplifies
c. 50 and 2500
d. 5 and 50
3. demodulates / detects
4. displays
20. The carrier swing necessary to provide 80% modulation in the FM
broadcast band is
a. 150 kHz
b. 120 kHz Standard AM Receivers
c. 75 kHz
d. 60 kHz 1. Tuned Radio Frequency
2. Superheterodyne Receiver

135 136

RF Amplifier
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
It amplifies weak signal from the antenna. It has
a variable resistor that controls the RF gain and
▪ a simple “logical” receiver
sensitivity.
▪ simplicity and high sensitivity
▪ aligned at broadcast frequencies 535 – 1640 Hz
Detector
Power
amplifier It provides rectification and detection for
modulated signals.

1st RF 2nd RF AM AF AF Amplifier

amplifier amplifier detector amplifier
Volume – controlled amplifier that raises the
ganged power level of the audio (AF) signal to a value
sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the
receiver.

137 138

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NOTE AM Superheterodyne Receiver

RF stage provides greater gain, prevention of re –radiation
of the local oscillator, improved rejection of adjacent
unwanted signals and better coupling of antenna with the fo fIF
RF 1st IF 2nd IF AM AF
receiver. amplifier
Mixer
amplifier amplifier detector amplifier
fsi
fs
Crystal
Problems in TRF Receivers oscillator
ganged
1. instability
2. insufficient adjacent frequency RF Amplifier
rejection Amplifies the weak NOTE
3. bandwidth radiations The RF section provides
RF signal received discrimination or selectivity against
from the antenna. image and intermediate frequency
Selectivity of the signals, provide an efficient coupling
receiver depends on between the antenna and the first
stage of the RF amplifier.
this section.

139 140

Local Oscillator 2nd IF Amplifier

A crystal oscillator whose frequency “beats” with Further amplification and selectivity of the IF
the incoming signal to produce the correct signal. Most of the gain (sensitivity) of the receiver
intermediate frequency. are achieved on the IF amplifiers.

Mixer (First Detector)

Combines the incoming RF signal and the signal AM Detector (2nd Detector)
from the oscillator, and produces two original It demodulates the IF signal and recovers or
frequencies, their sum and differences, and extracts the original audio signal.
harmonics. It produces desired intermediate
frequency (IF).
AF Amplifier
1st IF Amplifier It raises the power level of the audio signal; to a
Tuned to 455 kHz (IF of AM), amplifies it and value sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the
rejects the remaining output frequencies receiver.

141 142

Demodulation
FM Superheterodyne Receiver
The process of shifting the spectrum back to
the original baseband frequency range and
reconstructing the original form. Also known
as detection.
RF amplifier
and
preselector

Sensitivity
IF amplifier De-emphasis Audio
Mixer (10.7 MHz) Limiter Detector network amplifier
Ability to amplify weak signals

Selectivity
Local
oscillator
Ability to reject unwanted signals(adjacent)

143 144

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Image Rejection Ratio (α) Example

In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having loaded Q of 100
▪ Provided by tuned circuits to block fsi
in the antenna coupling circuit. If fIF is 455 kHz. Calculate the
▪ The ratio of the gain at desired frequency (fs) image frequency and its rejection ratio of 1000 kHz.
to the gain of image frequency signal (fsi)
Given
Q = 100
where fIF = 455 kHz
Q = quality factor provided by
fs = 1000 kHz
tuned circuits to block fsi
fs = signal frequency
fo = oscillator frequency Solution
fIF = intermediate frequency fs = fs + 2fIF
fsi = image frequency signal = 1000 kHz + 2(455 kHz)
fsi = 1910 kHz
NOTE
fsi = fs + 2fIF ; the higher the fIF, the better
the image rejection α = 138.65
fsi = fo + fIF

145 146

Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
1. Modulation means ____________. 3. A process that occurs in the transmitter.
a. Varying of some parameters of a carrier such as its amplitude to a. Demodulation
transmit information b. Modulation
b. Transmit pulses in DC form of a copper wire c. Mixing
c. Varying information d. Beating
d. Utilization of a single transmission channel
4. A process that occurs in the receiver
2. The modulation system used for telegraphy is ____________. a. Beating
a. Single tone modulation b. Modulation
b. Two –tone modulation c. Mixing
c. Frequency – shift keying d. Demodulation
d. Pulse code modulation

147 148

Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
5. What is the amount of carrier swing necessary to produce an 80% 7. Which symbol indicates that only one sideband is transmitted?
modulation for the audio portion of the TV band? a. A3E
a. 40 kHz b. B8E
b. 50 kHz c. C3F
c. 20 kHz d. H3E
d. 25 kHz
8. Refers to an emission designation for facsimile
6. The letter number designation B8E is a form of modulation is also a. J3E and F4E
known as ____________? b. A3J and A4E
a. Pilot – carrier system c. A3E and F3C
b. Independent sideband emission d. R3E and A3E
c. LINCOMPEX
d. Vestigial sideband transmission

149 150

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Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
9. Which of the following refers to a double sideband full carrier? 11. In a filter system of J3E, how many circuits must be balanced?
a. A3E a. 0
b. A3J b. 1
c. F3 c. 2
d. R3A d. 3

10. What is emission of F3F? 12. Independent sideband emission

a. Facsimile a. H3E
b. Modulated CW b. R3E
c. RTTY c. J3E
d. Television d. B8E

151 152

Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
13. Type of emission produced when an amplitude – modulated 15. What is the emission designation for FM telephony?
transmitter is modulated by a television signal. a. F3E
a. F3F b. G3E
b. A3C c. J3E
c. F3C d. H3E
d. A3F
16. What is the maximum power of output of an A3E emission?
14. The output of a balanced modulator is a. 4 W
a. AM b. 10 W
b. FM c. 3 kW
c. SSB d. 10 kW
d. DSB

153 154

Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
17. If the modulation index of an AM wave is doubled, the antenna current 19. What is the letter number designation for an FM facsimile?
is doubled, the AM system being used is ____________. a. F3E
a. A5C b. F3C
b. A3J c. A3E
c. A3H d. C3C
d. A3
20. Which symbol indicates that only one sideband is transmitted?
18. What is the power saving in J3E system at 100% modulation? a. A3E
a. 33% b. B8E
b. 100% c. C3F
c. 83.3% d. H3E
d. 66.67%

155 156

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Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
21.Vestigial sideband emission 23. What is the shape of a trapezoidal pattern at 100% modulation?
a. C3F a. Circle
b. R3E b. Square
c. J3E c. Triangle
d. B8E d. Rectangle

22. The third symbol radio emission which represent telephone 24. ____________ is the maximum sideband suppression using filter
transmission including sound broadcasting. system?
a. W a. 50 dB
b. F b. 60 dB
c. C c. 40 dB
d. E d. 30 dB

157 158

Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
25. Which test instruments displays the carrier and the sidebands 27. What is emission C3F?
amplitude with frequency to frequency? a. Facsimile
a. Oscilloscope b. Modulated CW
b. Spectrum Analyzer c. RTTY
c. Frequency Analyzer d. Television
d. Amplitude Analyzer
28. Which one of the following emission transmits the lower sideband
26. In what type of transmitters is balanced modulators used? and half of the upper sideband?
a. SSB a. A5C
b. A3E b. J3E
c. F3E c. A3J
d. FM d. A3H

159 160

Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
29. Single sideband reduced carrier emission type. 31. A type of emission is produced when an amplitude – modulated
a. H3E transmitter is modulated by a facsimile signal.
b. R3E a. A3F
c. J3E b. F3F
d. B8E c. A3C
d. F3C
30. Phase modulation type.
a. F3E 32. Double sideband full carrier emission type.
b. F3C a. A3J
c. F3F b. H3E
d. G3E c. R3A
d. A3E

161 162

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Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
33. What type of emission is frequency modulation? 35. If the input to a detector stage is an amplitude – modulated (A3E) IF
a. F3E signal then the output from the stage is
b. G3E a. A lower frequency carrier
c. A3E b. The audio – voice information
d. B3E c. A Morse code signal
d. The upper of lower signal sidebands
34. Standard way of designating AM
a. A3E 36. What is the major advantage of FM over AM?
b. B3E a. High frequency
c. AHE b. No interference
d. C3F c. Simple circuits
d. Less noise

163 164

Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
37. What percent of the radiated power is in the sidebands with 50% 39. Two AM transmitting antennas are close together. As a result the two
sinusoidal modulation (AM)? modulated signals are mixed on the final RF stage of both
a. 11% transmitters. What is the resultant effect on the other station?
b. 16.67% a. Harmonic interference
c. 33% b. Intermodulation interference
d. 20% c. Spurious interference
d. Cross modulation interference
38. The carrier in an AM transmitter is the
a. Transmitter’s output signal when the modulation is zero 40. The purpose why an RF amplifier is operated under linear class B
b. Transmitter’s output signal when the modulation is present conditions (as opposed to class C ) is to
c. Output signal from the crystal oscillator a. Generate even only harmonics
d. RMS value of the AM signal b. Generate even only odd harmonics
c. Increase the efficiency
d. Amplify an AM signal

165 166

Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
41. The type of emission that suffer most from selective fading 43. The negative half of the AM wave is supplied by a/an ____________ in a
a. CW and SSB diode modulator.
b. SSB and TV a. Tuned circuit
c. FM and double sideband FM b. Transformer
d. AATV and CW c. Capacitor
d. Inductor
42. A receive selectivity of 10 kHz in the IF circuitry is optimum for what
type of signals? 44. If the percentage modulation of an AM amplifier is 88% and the
a. AB voice modulating signal is 1 volt, the carrier has an amplitude of
b. Facsimile ____________.
c. FM a. 1.14 volts
d. Double – sideband AM b. 0.88 volts
c. 1.88 volts
d. 0.12 volts

167 168

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Self Test Self Test

Modulation Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question. Choose the letter which answer each question.
45. Mixer is also known as ____________. 47. Three audio waves with 100, 200 and 300 volts amplitude respectively,
a. Modulator simultaneously modulate a 450 volts carrier. What is the total percent
b. Suppressor of the modulation of the AM wave?
c. Converter a. 69%
d. Beater b. 115.5%
c. 50%
46. 100% modulation in AM means a corresponding in total power by d. 83%
___________.
a. 25% 48. For ____________ percent modulation in AM, the modulation envelope
b. 75% has a peak value double the unmodulated carrier level.
c. 100% a. 50
d. 50% b. 66.67
c. 100
d. 83.3

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Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

49. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 6.2 A when unmodulated
and rises to 6.7 A when modulated. What is the percent modulation?
a. 57.9%
b. 67.5%
c. 51%
d. 42.8%

50. One of the following can produce AM

a. Having the carrier value a resistance
b. Having the modulating signal vary a capacitance
c. Vary the carrier frequency
d. Vary the gain of an amplifier

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