E t r d cc rdi g t

n e e a o n o Ac t of Co n g ss
re ,
i n th e y r
ea 1 8 80 , by
GE O RG E A . H IL L ,

i n th e c
o ffi e o f ~ h e Li br ri
a an o f Co n gr ss e ,
at Wa sh i ngto n .

J . S . C US HI N G 85 P R IN T E R S , 101 P E AR L S T RE E T , B O S T ON .
 PRE F ACE .

“ HE r
fo m a m e l
t hi ng G m try th w fin d it i n E
od of c li d

l
eac eo e , as e u

nd i a th m m n t x t b ok
n e wh t r m y b i t m rit i s
co o e -
o s, a ev e a e s e s,

a ve ry b d m th d f b g i n n r It m k s t h t dy o f t h s bj ec t
a e o or e e s . a e e s u e u

u n c rily d y t d i o
n e essa n d d i ffic lt ;
r ,
n d it i n r
e g i n
us , a m o t c e u a o es , s as s ,

t h gr
e t l w o f m t l d l p m n t th t c l r p r pti o nd i n t i
ea a en a eve o e , a ea e ce ns a u

ti ons m s t pr c d t h i n t llig n t s o f th f c lti

u e e e e f o m p ari o n
e e u e e a u es o c s

a n d r as n i n
e g oT h s l o.n q n i th t thi
e u ua m e th d x
c e r c is
se ue ce s a s o e es

t h m m ry m r
e e th n t h i n t lli g c nd tt erly f il t o i mp rt any
o o e a e e en e , a u a s a

h b it o f th o g ht th t
a s s f l i n ft r li f
u a are u e u a e -
e .

I t h pr en t w rk
n e m th d i
es m pl o y d whi h
o ,
m t o the
a e o th o r s e e c s ee s au

m c h b tt r s it d t pr o m t th n t r l gr wth o f t h m en t l p wer s
u e e u e o o e e a u a o e a o .

T h m th d will sp k f
e e o it l f t th s w ho will t k t h tr o b l to
ea or se o o e a e e u e

e x mi
a it A m rk d f t re o f it o n ist i n t h n m r o s x r i
ne . a e ea u c s s e u e u e e c ses

w hi h c t b w rk d b y t h l r n r
are o e oB y thi k i d f w o rk i f t h
e e ea e . s n o , e

e x r is s
e c e w ll
e h s
ar n d f ith f ll y
e t di d th i
c o en a ti f lt y i a u s u e , e nv e n ve ac u s

ca ll d i t p l y d th h b it f ei i g q i kly t h tr r l ti n f
e n o a , an e a o s z n u c e ue e a o s o

thi g s i
n
q ir sd A n
ac d itu i j s teh r e .
— i n i t p w r t f r m s thi u e , s o e o o s

h b it f m i nd —
a o th t th l , f th t d y o f G m try
a e va u e opr p r e s u eo e , as a e a

a ti f t h ri d d ti
on or e va nd l b r e f li f u h r d ly b v r e s ti
es a a o s O e, ca n a e o e -

m t d
a e Do . n t th p o s s i o n o w n t o f thi h b it n tit t i n
es o e se s r a s a co s u e,

m o t i n t nc
s th
s a hi f i t ll e t al d iff r
es , e cb tw n e m n who
n e c u e e n ce e ee a a

su cc ee d s i t h w rl d n d m n wh d
e o no t an a a o o es

In G r m y t h tre anw rth o f G m try e uen ed ti o n l m

o i eo e as a u ca a ea n s s

b ett er r c gn i ed th n l w h r e ; n d t he s i m pl er p rt o f t h
e o z a e se bj t
e a a s e su ec ,

8 005 4 2
IV R
P E FACE .

tre t d mch
a e u as thi
rk h v b en i n tr o d ed w it h th h ppi t
in s wo , a e
“

e uc e a es

r lt i n t th
es u s c o mm n o ch o l e T h th r w hil r si d i g i n G
o s o s . e au o , e e n er

m ny i n 1 8 7 7 n d 1 8 7 8 m d e hi m l f f m ili r w ith th eir m th o d

a a , a d se a a e s an

t x t b o k nd h h fr e ly
e -
o s, a d t h k n wl dg th
e as cq r d in
e u se e o e e us a ui e

writi ng t h pr en t w o rk e es .

A r g rd th
s e bj c t tr t d i n t he l as t fo
a s e su e h pt er t h t ho r
s ea e ur c a s, e au

w as n t a ti fi d with w h t h
o s s fo nd e n i n t h b s t G r m n t x t
e a e u , ve e e e a e

b o k an d h e h s pl nn ed and w ritt en t h e se c h pt er
o s, a a cco r d i ng t hi a s a o s

o wn i d e as .

T o m ke t h e s t dy b o t h m o re i n t er s ti ng an d m o r
a u ef l m ch e e us u , u

a tt e n ti o n h s b een g i en t o t h
a pr c ti c l e o f G e m try ; ch fo
v e a a us s o e su , r

ex m pl e
a m ,
ri ng i n cce i b le d i t nces nd c m p ti ng l eng th
as easu a ss s a , a o u s,

ar eas an d , o l m es v u

In a few c s e th e m e th o d o f Li m it h
a s be n u d B y thi m e n s as e se . s a s

rigo r f pro o f h s b een ec r ed ; an d w h n t he m th d i pres t ed i n

o a s u e e o s en

i t s i m pl t fo rm ( as o n p g
s es th e th o r b li e t h t it i q it
a e au e v es a s u e

Wit h i n t h co m pr h en i o n o f t h e
e e r g e b y fift en ye r
e s Ol d av a o e a s .

If n w er t o t he exer c i se are g ener lly d ir ed t h y w ill o o n b

a s s s a es e s e

p b li h ed
u s .

T h a th o r d e ir e t o expr es h i
e u b li g ti o n t o Pr f G A WE N T
s s s s o a s o . . .

WO R T H w h o has k i n dly r e d t he pr o o f sh ee t and f r n i h d h i m w ith

,
a -
s, u s e

m any val u b l e s gges ti o ns a u .

G . A . HILL .

CAM B RID G E , J u ne I, 1 8 80 .
 CO N T E N T S .

C H APT E R I .
—IN T R O D U C T IO N
I pc
. S II T ha C b
e I II T h C yl i d r . e
'

u e 2 . e n e

IV B d i s S urf c s L i
. o s d P i ts
e , 7 V G r ti a e ,
ne ,
an o n . e ne a on of

Sp c M g i tud s
a e V I S r ight
a d C urv d Li
n s
e . t a an e ne

V II Pl d C urv d S ur f c s
. a ne V III C r r d
an d C urv e a e . o ne e an ed

B di s o IX Ge m try . eo e

P
C HA T E R II .
—S T R A IG H T L IN E S

I Di. r ct i
e on of One L i n e 21 II C. h g f D ir cti
an e o e o n. T he
Ci rcl ( M 6 e 2 Il l . Di r ct i s f T w
e on o o Li s (N 9
ne 2 ,
IV . Di
re cti s f T hron o ee Line s V L gt h . en of a Li ne ( N 32 V I Ra .

tio of T wo Li n e s 37 ,
V II . Un i ts of Le n gth 39
V III . M eas uri g n a Li n e 42 ,

C HAPT E R III . AN G LE S
I. De fi iti
n on g itud
o f an An gl e II . Ma n e o f an An gl e 4 5 ,

III M g i tud s f P rt i cu l r A gl s ( N 4 7 ur
.
. a n e o a a n e IV . M e as e

o f an A gl ( M 5 n V A gl s m d by T w
e 0 . n e a e o Li ne s ( N 53 ,

VI . A gl s m d by T /
n e Li s 55 a e zr ee ne

C H APT E R IV . T R IA N G L E S

I Si
. ds
r i gl ( N 5 9
e of a II A gl s f
T T ri gl
an e . n e o a an e ( M 64
I II S i m i l ri ty E qu i v l
. c ad E qu li ty ( M 67
,
IV a en e, an a , .E q a T ul i r

an gl s 69 e V S m C s qu c s f h E qu li ty . o e on e en e o t e a of T i an r gl s e

8 V I App l i c t i
0 s 94 . a on

C H APT E R V .
—QUA D R IL A T E RAL S

I . Si d s d A gl s
e an n e of a Q u dri l t r l
a a e a 99 ,
II D iffe
. r t K i ds en n

of Qu dri l t r l s
a a e a 101 I II . Co n s ruct i
t on of Qu dri l t r l s
a a e a

(M 1 06 IV . S ubdi vi s i on of a L i ne (M1 12
VI CO NT E NT S .

C HAPT E R V I . P OL Y G O N S

I Si. ds e a nd An gl s e of a l yg o n ( N 1 1 5
Po II. Re gul r P lyg s
a o on

(N 118 I II . S y m m etri c a l F i gure s

C HA PT E R V II .
— A RE A S
I Uni t
. s f Ar ( N 4 o ea 12 ,
II T h e A
. r s
ea of Po lyg o ns ( N 1 26

III Pr c i c l E
. rc i s s a t a xe e and Appli c t i s ( N a on 1 36 IV . T h e o re m

of Pyth g r s ( N 4 a o a 1 2, V T r s f rm t i
. an o a on of Fi gur s ( N
e 1 44

V I P rt i t i
. f F gur s
a on o i e (N 15 1

C HAPT E R V III S IM IL A R F IG UR E S .
-

I Pr p r i
. l L i s d Figur s ( N 56
o o t o na ne an e 1 II S i m i
. l ar T ri g l s
an e

( N 59 1I II Pr b l m s d App l i c t i s . o e an a on ( N 1 69 IV , S imi
l P l yg
ar s (N 77o on 1

C H APT E R IX .
—T H E CIR C L E

I Se. ct rs A gl s t th C tr C h rds S gm ts ( N 8
o ,
n e II I a e en e, o ,
e en 1 0 . n

scri b d A gl s ( N 85
e I II S c
n ts d T g ts ( N 89
e 1 . e an an an en 1

IV T w C i rc l s ( N 93
. o V I scrib d d Circu m scrib d F ig
e 1 , . n e an e

ur s ( N 95
e VI L g h f Ci rcu m f r c
1 (N 8 . en t o a e en e 20

V II Ar f C i rc l ( N
. ea o a e 2 12

C HAPT E R X .
—T H E E L L IP S E

I . T he P r p rti s
o e e of th e E llips e ( N 21 9 II . Co n st ruct i on of

E ll i pse s ( N 2 2 2

C H APT E R X I . P L AN E S

I . St r i ght
a Li n e s -

in S p c (N 5 a e 22 II . A Pl a n e (N 228

III . A Pl an e a nd a S r i ght Li
t a ne
(N 23 1 IV . T wo l
P an e s
( N 236 V . T hr Pl s N
ee an e VI . So i l d Angl e s ( g)

C H APT E R X II .
— GE O M E T R IC A L B O D IE S

I Po. lyh e dro n s (N 242 , II . T he P i m , C rs yli d r Pyr

n e ,
am i d ,
and

Co n e (N 2 44 III T h e S . ph r e e ( N 25 1 ,

C HAPT E R X M L —S UR F A C E S A N D V O L U M E S O F B O D IE S 27 9

I . Su f c s f B d i s ( N 53
r a e II V l u m s
o f B d i s ( N 59
o e 2 . o e o o e 2

III E rci s s d Appli c ti s ( N 7 5

. xe e an a on 2
 G E O M E T RY F OR B E G IN N E R S .

CH APT E R I .

IN T R O D UC T IO N .

C O NT E N c T S .
—I
II T h C ub ( N
. III T h Cyl i d r
S pa e . e e 2 . e n e

IV B d i s S urf c s Li
. o s d P i ts ( N 7
e ,
V G r ti f S p c
a e ,
ne ,
an o n . ene a on o a e

M g i tud s
a n V I S tr ight
e d C urv d Li s V II Pl d . a an e ne . a ne a n

C urv d S u f c s
e V III C r r d d Curv d B di s
r a e IX G m . o ne e an e o e . eo

e t ry N
I .
— S p ace .

We c anno t d efine sp ac e We k no w ho w ever t hat all

1 . .
, ,

t hi ngs exi st i n s p ac e I l ay a b o o k o n t he t ab l e :it has n o w a .

d efin it e p o siti o n i n s p ac e o n t h e t ab l e T he t ab l e i s i n t he sp ac e .

o c c u pi ed b y t h e r o o m t h e r o o m i s i n t h e s p ac e e n c l o sed b y t h e

ho u se ; t h e ho u se r est s u p o n t h e eart h ; an d t h e e art h i s al ways

m o v i n g sw i ftl y t hr o u gh s p ac e T hu s al l t hi ngs are i n sp ac e b ut .

w h a t s p ac e i s w h er e it b egi ns o r w he r e it e nd s t h ese are q u esti o ns

, , ,

w hi c h n o m an c an an sw e r .

Sp a ee di recti o ns , w i t/t o u t
’ '

eo n za zn s a l l l l zzngs , a nd ex ten d s in al l
‘

é eg znnzng w i t/l o w en d
' '

a nd .

II . T h e Cab a l

§ 2 T he Cu b e
.
( ig
F . 1 ) o c cu pi e s a p o rti o n o f sp ac e whi c h i s
li m it ed o n al l s i d es A li m it e d
. p o rti o n o f s p ac e i s c all e d a B O DY
( s ee T her e fo r e t h e c b e u is a bo dy .

1 A mo d l f th cub i su pp s d r st
e o e e s o e to e on th e t bla e or o th r supp rt wi h
e o ,
t

o ne fa c tur d t w rds t h y f th l r r
e ne o a e e e o e e a ne .
2 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS .
3 .

T he c ub e is t
ex end e d in s p ac e i n l /zree c h ef i d ir ec ti o ns :fr o m
r o m a l ne
mg
r/
at o l ef l , fr o m f r an i t o l a ck , f o

d w nw a d We expr ess t hi s fac t b y say o r s .

i ng t hat t he c u b e h as t hr ee DIM E N S ION S ,

an d w e n am e t h e m Lengt h B r e ad t h an d , ,

T h i c k n ess ( H e i gh t o r De pt h ) E it he r o ne .

o f t h e d i m ensi o n s m ay b e t er m e d l en gt h

o r b r e ad t h o r t h i c k n ess b u t t he t er m s ,

h ei gh t an d d e pt h a e appli e d o nl y t o t he r
F ig I
d i m en si o n fr o m ab o v e d o wnwar d s
. .

T he t hr ee d i m en si o n s o f t he c u b e are e q al i n m agn it u d e u .

E x rc i s se —1 H r e s v r l ub s H v th y l l th s m h p ?
. . e e a re e e a c e . a e e a e a e S a e

th e s m si a m g itud
e ze A th y l l m p s d f th s m b t
or a n e? re e a co o e o e a e su s a n ce

or m t i l Why
a er a th y ll d b di s ? Why th y ll d ub s ? are e ca e o e a re e ca e c e

2 M ti . bj ts which
en on ubi l i sh p
o ec r s mb l ub a re c ca n a e, or e e e a c e .

( L u m ps f sug r p i s f s p t h sts s m b s t )
o a , e ce o oa , ea c -
e ,
o e o xe ,
e c .

3 . T he c ub e is li m it e d
i d es b y a SUR FACE or b o u n d ed o n al l s .

Wh en w e h and l e t h e c ub e it i s i t s su r fac e al o n e w h i c h w e t o u c h .

If t h e c u b e i s n o t tr an sp ar ent it i s i t s su r fac e al o n e wh i c h w e ,

are ab l e t o s e e .

T h e en tir e su rfac e c o n si st s o f si x p art s o r p arti al su r fac es c all ed ,

i t s F ac e s t h e u pp e r l o w er fr o n t b a c k ri gh t an d l e ft fac e s
, , , , ,
.

E ac h fac e h as l zo o d i m en si o n s l engt h an d b r ead t h ( h e i gh t ) ,

.

T hu s t he u pp er fac e h as l en gt h ( e xt e nd i n g fr o m ri gh t t o l eft ) and

b r ead t h ( ext en d i ng fr o m fr o n t t o b ac k ) t h e fr o n t fac e h as l engt h

a nd h e i h t e t c
g ,
.

T h e fac es o f t he c u b e are fl a t o r pl a n e su r fac es .

E x rc i s —
e 1 N m th f
se . s f th ub . d l ik wis th di m
a e e si s a ce o e c e, an e e e en on

o f hf
eac ac e.

2 H v th f
. as f th ub th s m sh p
e e ac e f rm
o th esm ic e e a e a e or o ? e a e S ze ?

H w o y t
c an st wh th r th
ou y h v
e t h s m e si e te? e a e e a ze or no

A w ns—L y t h cub
er p i c f p p r m rk r u d i b s wi th p
a e e on a e e o a e a a o n ts a e a en
il h pply t th surf c thus m rk d th oth r f c s f h c ub
. ,

c ,
t en a o e a e a e o ut e e a e o t e e,
 CHAPT E R I .
— INT R ODUCT IO N . 3

3 . Gi v e exam pl s e of pl a ne surf ac e s b th l i k
o e an d u n l i ke th e fac e s of th e

c ub e i n fo m r .

4 . D o t h e fa c e s o f o ne c ub h v e a e th e s a m e s/
za
p e as th s o e o f an o th r ub e c e?

th e s am e s i ze

4 . T he fac es o f t he b o u nd e d b y i t s E d ges
cub eT h ese are .

e d ges are LI NE S , an d w e see , ( a ) t h at ea c h fac e i s b o u nd e d b y fo u r

li nes o r e d ges , ( )
is t h at e a c h e d ge i s al so t h e pl ac e w h er e tw o fac es

m ee t .

T he ly o n d i m ensi o n l ength
e d ges o f t h e c u b e h av e on e .

T h e e d ge s o f t he c u b e ar e l r ig l zl li nes s a .

E x r i — 1 H w m y dg s h th cub i l l ?
e c ses . . o an e e as e e n a

2 If th . ub h 6 f c s d ch f h 4 dg s why h
e c e t th
as a e , an ea ac e as e e ,
as no e

cub i l l 6 X 4 : 4 dg s ?
e n a 2 e e

3 H v th . dg s f th cub th s m f rm th s m si ( i th r
a e e e e o e e e a e o ? e a e ze n o e

w rds th s m l g/1 ) ? T st wh th r th y h v th s m l gth

o , e a e on 1 e e e e a e e a e en .

4 O f th s cub s which h
. th l g st dg s ? Whi h th sh rt st ?
e e e ,
as e on e e e c e o e

§ 5 . T he li m it e d b y its Co rner s T hese

e d ge s of t he c u b e are .

c o r n er s ar e PO INT S an d w e s ee ( ) t h a t e ac h e d e i s li m it e d b
g a
y
t w o c o r n er s ( i ) t h at e ac h c o r n e r i s t h e pl ac e w h e r e t hr e e e d ges
,

m ee t .

T h e c o r n er s o f t h e c u b e h av e n o d i m ensi o n s n e it h er l engt h , ,

b r e ad t h n o r t hi c k n e ss
,
.

H o w m any c o r n ers are t her e o n t he c u b e ?

i s E xe rc se .

1 T his b dy ( F ig
. I) i thr id d ( tri gu l r ) Prism
o . 2, . s a ee S -
e or an a

( ) P i ta t d m i t di m
o n si s ( h ight l gth d br dth )
ou an na e s en on e ,
en , an ea .

N — T h fr
OT E dg g i v s h l ig nt f h pri s m T h h r t w d i m
e o nt e e e t e ze o t e e ot e o en
si s d st c m h s dg t pp s i t f c d ( ) h up p r
.

on ( ) h
a re , f 1 t h e i an e ro t i e e o t e o o e a e , an 2 t e e or
l w r dg f th i s f c
o e e i th r f h s m y b
e o k ah l g zl
e d h
; e h e o t e e a e ta en as t e en
‘
z, a n t en t e
oth r wi ll b h b dl /
e e t e r ea z .

( b) H w m y f c s dg s o r rs an th r Whi h surf c s
a e ,
e e , co n e , a re e e c are a e ,

which l i s which p i ts ( I pris m s th upp r d l w r f c s

ne ,
o nc ll d ? n e e an o e a e a re a e

th b e th th r f c s th l
a ses , l f c s )
e o e a e e a zer a
‘
a e .

( ) P ci t t d m
o n t h di m si s f ch f c
ou an na e e en on o ea a e .
4 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 6 .

( )
d B y h o w m an e y dg s ( l i s ) i ch f b u d d ?
e ne s ea ac e o n e

y
( e) H o w m an fa c e s m t i ch dg ? ee n ea e e

(f ) How m y dg s m t t ch c r r ?
an e e ee a ea o ne

( g) H a e v th f c s t h s m h p ( f rm ) th s m si ( m g itud ) ?
e a e e a e S a e o ? e a e ze a n e

( )
i i H a e v th dg s th s m f rm th s m m g itud ?
e e e e a e o ? e a e a n e

( )
i D s /p
o e s za e o r si m t i l d t rm i
ze o r wh th r b dy i thr sid d
a er a e e ne e e a o s a ee -
e

P ris m ?
2 . E i
xam n e i n th e s am e w ay th e fo ur i d d ( squ r ) Prism ( F ig IL)
-
S e a e . 2 ,
.

3 . E xa mi ne i n th e s am e w ay t h e i sid d ( h
s x -
g l ) Pris m ( F g
e e xa o na z . 2,

4 . E xa mi ne i n the s am e w ay t h e f ur id d ( r ct gu l r ) Pyr m id ( F ig
o -
S e e an a a . 2,

N ) .

F ig . 2.

1
nde
'

T h e Cy l l r.

Cy li n d e r ( g 3)
F i si a l s
. o li k e t h e c u b e a li m ,
it e d ,

p o rti o n o f sp ac e i n o t h er w o r d s a b o dy ,
.

It s t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s ar e u su a ll y c all e d
l engt h b r ead t h an d hei ght T he h ei ght
, ,
.

( t h e s tr a i g h t d o tt e d li n e i n t h e fi g u r e ) m a
y
h a e a n y av l u e : s o m a y t h e
v l e n g t h a n d
r t
b e ad h b u t t h e y m u s
,
t b e a l w a y s e q u a l t o

e ac h o t h e r .

T he y c li n d e r i s b o u n d e d b y t h r e e su r

fac es t w o pl an e su r fac es c all e d i t s B ases ,

an d a c u r ve d su r fac e T h e b as
. e s o f t h e c yli n d e r a re C ir l
c es .

S v r l m d ls f r igh cy l i d rs supp s d pl c d t ch r s ’

1 o t n e a re o e to be a e o n th e ea e
e e a o e

de sk b f r th y s
e o e e e e o f t h pup i l s
e .
 CHAPT E R I .
— INT RODUCT IO N . 5

T he c
yli n d e r h as on ly tw o e dges t h ese r
fo m t he b o u n d a ri es o f
t he b ases, an d are c all e d Cir c u m fe r e n c e s T h ey a re no t s tr a i h t
.
g
li nes ,
but c a r ve d li n es .

T he cy li nd e r has no c o ne s r r .

i
E xe rc ses . 1 . r
s v r l cy l i d rs H
He e are e e a n e . ow do th y diff r fr
e e om

o ne th r
an o e ? I wh t d th y g
n ?
a o e a re e

2 Gi v . e e xa m p l s f bj cts which h v t h sh p
e o o e a e e a e of cy l i d rs
n e (a p cil
en ,

st v fu l
o e -
nne ,

3 . E i
xa m n e , a s r g rds di m s i s surf c t
e a en on ,
a e, e c .
,
th e ( g 4,
Co n e
F i .

4 . E xa m i n e i n l ik m e r th T ru c t d C
an ne e n a e
1
o ne
( g 4 , IL )
F i . .

5 . E xa m n e i in l ik m e r th S ph r ( F ig 4
a nn e e e e .
,

IV . S u r f a c es , L i n es , an d P oi n t s .

§ 7 . A b o dy ,
in li m it e d p o rti o n o f
c o m mon l an gu age ,
is a

s p a e fil l ed w i t/ m i l
c w h i h w e c an see t o u c h han d l e et c
z a er , c , , ,

fo r e xam pl e a p en c il a b o o k t h e t ab l e a tr ee t he e art h t he s n
, , , , , ,
u .

B u t i n G e o m e tr y w e p ay n o r e g r d t o t h e m tt e r o f wh i c h a b o d y a a

is co m p o s e d ; w e st u d y s i m pl y i t s / p an d i t s i : i n o t her s za e s ze

wo r d s w e r egar d it s i m pl y s
,
li m it e d p o rti o n o f sp ac e a a .

D e fin i t i o n A G E OM E T RICAL B OD Y
. S O LID i a l i m i l d p ,
or ,
s e o r -s

ti o n f sp a ce
o .

1 T r u nc at ed m ea n s cut o f . T he b dy i l s c ll d
o s a o a e t h e F r u stu m o f a c o ne .
6 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 8 .

A bo dy Iza s tb nee d i m ens i o ns, d en o ted by tb c ter m s l eng th , br ea dt/i ,

a nd tb i c/
en es s
( g
b ez /zt a nd d ep th ) .

N OT E E i e
~ — th r d s c ll d l
i m e n i o n m ay b e a e en gth br d th th i ck ss A
or ea or ne
d s s d r b l w u w rds i ft c ll d b gl t t h h igh f
. .
, ,

i m e n i o n e ti m a te f o m e o p a s o en a e a i as e e t o
u t d s s d rm b v d w w rds i f c ll d d p t/
, ,

a m o n m en ; a i m e n i o n e t i m ate f o a o e o n a s o ten a e e z,
d pth w ll l s us d i t h
Wi d t/z i s a o s s f b dt/
,

a s th e e of a e . e n e en e o rea z.

8 . li m it s o r b o u n d ari es o f a b o dy are su r fac es S r fac es

T he . u

e xi s t n o t o nl o n t h e e xt e ri o r o f a b o d y t h ey m ay al s o b e t h o u gh t
y ,

o f as e xi sti ng i n i t s i n t e ri o r When w e c u t an a ppl e i n t o t wo p art s

.

an d t h e n h o l d t h e p art s t o ge t h e r t h e c o m m o n b o u n d ar y b e t w ee n
,

t h e tw o p art s i s a su r fac e B t w it ho u t ac t all y c u tti ng t h r o u gh a

. u u

b o d y w e m ay i m agi n e a su r fac e e xt e n d i ng i n any d ir e c ti o n c o m

p l et e l y t h r o u h t he b o d y
g T h i s su r fac e w o u l d d i v i d e t h e b o d y
.
,

i nt o t wo p art s and fo r m t he c o mm o n b o u n d ary b e t w e e n t he m .

E v er y b o dy i s d iv i si b l e i n t o p art s and t h e c o m m o n b o u n d ary ,

b e t w e en t wo adj ac ent p art s i s a su r fac e .

D e fin i t i o n — A S UR FACE i tb c l i m i t f a bo dy
. s co m m o n o ,
or

bo u n d a ry betw een tw o f
a a a cen t p a r ts o f a bo dy .

A sut f a ce h a s tw o d i mens i o ns, l ength a nd br ea dth

9 . T he li mit s r fa c e o f a su
a re li n es L i n es e xi s t n o t o n l y a s .

t h e li m it s o r b o u n d ari e s o f su r fac es : w e c an al so t hi nk o f t hem

as exi sti n g an yw h e r e i n a s r fac e w h er e t h ey fo r m t h e c o m m o n

u ,

b o u n d ari es b e t we en adj ac ent p art s o f t h e s r fac e u .

D e fin i t i o n — A L IN E i s M e l i m i t f a su i f a ce o r t/ze co m m oon ,

f f
'

b o u n d a ry bet w een tw o a aj a cen t p a r ts o a s u na ce.

A l i ne na s o ne di mens i o n, l engtl z .

.
li it
1 0 T he m s o r end s o f a li n e are p o i n t s P o i n t s e x i st n o t .

o n l y at t h e e n d s o f li n es b u t al so b t e w e e n t h e e n d s w h e r t y
e h e
,
,

r
fo m t he c o mm o n b o u nd a ri es b e t w ee n a dj ac e n t p ar t s o f t h e li n e .

D e fin i t i o n — A PO INT i s t/ze i l m i t f a l i n e o r co m m o n b o u nod ,

a ry bet w ee n tw o j
a a a cen t p a r ts o f a l i ne .

A p o i n t l za s no d i mens i o ns .
 I L
] CHAPT E R I .
-
I T N RODUCT ION . 7

11 i es su r fac es li n es an d p o i n t s are fo u r d i ffer e nt k i n ds

. Bod , , ,

of t hi ngs r elati ng t o sp ac e w h i c h w e c an t hi nk and r easo n ab o u t .

D e fin i t i o n — B o di es f l i n es , a nd o i n ts ca l l ed
.
,
s u r a ces ,
p a re

SPACE CO N CE PT IO NS .

T h e fi r st t h r e e b o d i e s, su rf a c es, an d li nes ,
are ex te n ded in s p ac e ,

an d h en c e p o ssess s/
p (
za f or m
e
) an d s i z e
( m ag n i t u d e
) .

D e fin i t i o n .
-
I/Vi t/i r ef er en ce to f or m, bo di es , f
s u r a ces , a nd

l i nes a r e ca ll ed S PACE F IGU RE S w i tb f

r e er en ce to m ag n i t u d e, tb ey

a r e ca ll ed SPACE M AGN IT UD E S .

T he p o i nt has no t
ex ens o n , i t her efo r e ne it he r fo m r no r m agn i
t ude .

§ 12 . We h ave se en t hat t w o fac es o f the c u be , pri sm ,

etc .
,

m ee t i n an e d ge , t hat i s to say, in a l i ne . Whe never t wo su r fac es

m ee t t hey are sai d t o c t o r i nt ect e ac h o t he r and the pl ac e o fu er s ,

m ee ti n g i s a li ne c all ed t he i r In t erse c ti o n T h i s li ne li e s at o n c e .

i n b o t h su r fac es o r i s co m m n t o b o t h S irfac es
,
o t .

Agai n as w e ha e seen t he e d ges o f t he c u b e et c m ee t at the

,
v , ,
.
,

c o r n er s ; t h at i s t o say i n p i n t When e er two li nes m ee t t he

,
o s . v ,

pl ac e o f m ee ti ng i s a pdint c o m m o n t o b o t h lin es and i s c all e d ,

t heir i nt ersec ti o n .

D e fin i t i o n . Tb e pl a ce w /zer e t w o s u r a ces f or tw o l i nes m eet

is c a l l ed t/zei r INT E RS E C T IO N .

Tb e i n ters ecti o n of tw o f
s u r a ces is a l i ne .

T /ze i n ter secti o n of tw o l i n es i s a

poi nt .

13 D i vi d e ppl e ) i n t o a ny n mb r
b o dy ( f e xa m pl e
'

.
-
a or ,
an a u e

o f p art s ; eac h p art i s al s o a b o d s m ll e r o f c o u r s e t han t he a

y ,

w ho l e b o d y b e c au se a p art o f a t hi n g i s l e ss t h an t h e w ho l e
,
.

G ri n d a l u m p o f s lt i n t o t h e fin e st p rti c l es y o u c an so fin e
a a ,

t hat yo u c ann o t d i sti ng i sh t he m b y t he eye Un d er a m i r o u . c

s c o p e e ac h p arti c l e i s s een t o b e w h at i t r e ll y i s
,
a littl e l m p a ,
-
u

o f salt h av i ng l en gt h
,
b r e ad t h and t h i c kn ess : i n o t h er w o r d s a
, , ,
 8 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GIN NE RS . 14 .

b o dy . In sho rt
i i d e a b o dy i n t ho u ght as far as yo u pl ease
,
su b d v
,

the s m all est c o n c e i vab l e p rt i s al so a b o dy o c c u p yi ng sp ac e an d

a
, ,

h av i n g l engt h b r e ad t h an d t hi c k n e ss
, We o u l d n ev e r arri v e at
, . c

a p r t w h i c h w as a su r fac e a li n e o r a p o i n t
a
, , .

In li k e m an n er e e r y p art o f a su r fa e h o w e er sm all i s al so a
,
v c ,
v ,

s u r fac e an d e v e r p art o f a li n e i s al so a li n e
y .

T /ze p a r ts of a b o dy a re bo d i es , t/ze p a r ts f
o a f
s u r a ce a r e s u r

a ces , a n d tb c
f p r ts of
a a l i n e a r e l i n es .

§ 14 . rfac e t her efo r e i s n o t a p art o f a b o dy Lay i n

A su , , .
,

t ho u gh t any n m b e r o f su r fac es o n e u p o n t h e o t h e r :
,
u i n t h i s w ay
o u w o u l d n ev er o b t ai n a b o d b t l w i r f T h
y y u a a
y s aga n a, s u ac e e .

c o m m o n b o u n d ar w h i c h s e p a r a t e w at e r
y s

fr o m o il r esti ng o n i t ( F ig i s n e it h er .

w at e r n o r o i l n o r any o t h er su b st an c e : it
i s n o t a b o d y b u t a su rfac e A su r fac e i s
, .

n o m o r e a p art o f a b o dy t h an a sh ad o w

i s a p art o f t h e w all o n w h i c h it r est s .

A li n e i s n o p art e it h er o f a s r fa c e o r u

o f a b o dy Lay any nu m b er o f li n e s si d e
.

b y S i d e t h e r e su lt i s n e it h er a su r fa c e n o r
,

a bod b u t al w a s a li n e T h e li n e w h i c h
y y ,
.

fo r m s th e c o mm o n b o n d ary b e t w een a u

red su r fac e an d a b l u e su r fa c e i s it se l f n e it h e r re d n o r b l u e n o r ,

h as it an y o t h e r c o l o r .

Lastl y a p o i n t i s n o p art o f a li n e a su r fac e o r a b o dy

, ,
In ,
.

c o n e r sati o n w e o ft en h e ar t h e w o r d p o i n t u sed i n t he sense o f “ ”

v

a su r fac e o f a c e rt ai n ext ent T hu s w e S p eak o f t h e p o int o f “

.
,

c r o ssi n g o f t w o o r m o r e r o ad s S u b stit u t e i n t ho u gh t fo r t hes e

”
.
, ,

r o ads li nes ab so l u t el y w it ho u t b r ead t h o r t hi c k n ess t hen t he ir i n

,

t ers ec t i o n w o u l d b e a p o i n t as t h i s w o r d i s u n d er st o o d i n G eo m
,

etry .
 CHAP T E R I .
— INT RODUCT ION . 9

§ 15 . E xc e pt
t ho u ght su r fac es li n es and p o i n t s c ann o t
in , , ,

e xi st a p art fr o m b o d i es In t ho u gh t h o w e er w e c an d e t a h.
,
v ,
c

t he m so t o sp eak fr o m b o d i es and st ud y t h e ir fo r m s an d pr o p e r
, , ,

ti e s ap art fr o m t he b o d i es to whi c h t hey b el o ng .

T o ai d t h e m i n d i n r e aso n i ng ab o t s p ac e c o n c e pti o ns w e p u ,
re

r es e n t t h e m t o t he e y e as fo ll o w s

A p o i n t i s r e pr es e n t e d b y a fin e d o t m ad e w it h a p e n c il o n p ap er
( F ig . o w it h a c r a o n o n t he
y r

b l a kb o ard an d i s n a m ed b y m eans
c

o f a l e tt e r
I

( A B C , , ,

A li n e iS r e pr e s en t e d b y t he fin e
c o n ti nu o u s tr ac e o f a p en c il o n
pa
p e r ,
o r o f a c r a
y o n o n t h e b l ac k
b o ar d an d n am e d e it h e r b y t wo l e t
,

t ers pl ac e d o ne at e ac h o f i ts e n d s
,

( s e e F i g o r b y.a s i n g l e s m a ll
l e tt er ( b c a, , ,

A su r fac e i s r e pr esen t e d an d n am e d b y m e n s o f t he li n es w hi c h a

fo r m i t s b o u n d ari e s .

A b o d y i s r e pr esen t e d an d n am e d b y m e ans o f t he su rfac es

wh i c h fo r m i t s b o u n d ari es .

E x rc i e — 1 G iv ses m p l s f b di s
. . e e xa e o o e .

2 I th sp c
. s cupi d by th r m b dy ? Why ?
e a e oc e e oo a o

3 N m th l rg st b dy y
. a e e ;a l s th s m ll st
e o o u c an a o e a e .

4 P i t . t d
o n m th di mou si s f th r m ; this b k ; this p
an na e e en on o e oo oo en

c il ; this pi c f rubb r e e o e .

5 N m t h d i m si s f b rd ;
. a e e t w r ; ditch ; w ll
en on o a oa a o e a a e .

6 H w m y p ti l surf c s h th r m? P i t d m th d i
‘

. o an ar a t a e as e oo o n ou an na e e

m i
en s o n s o f ch ea .

7 H w m y dg s h
. o th anr m ? H w m y c r rs O f wh t
e e as e oo o an o ne ? a are

th e e dg s th i t rs ct i s ? th c r rs
e e n e e on e o ne ?

8 H w m y surf c s h
. o this pi c f rubb r ? N m th ir d i m si s
an a e as e e o e a e e en on .

Which qu l i m g i tud ?
are e a n a n e

9 A g l ss tu m b l r h
. a t ri r ( ut r) d i t ri r ( i r) sur
e as an ex e o o e an an n e o nn e

fac e . Gi v th r m p l s f s ch b di s
e o e e xa e o u o e .
10 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 16 .

10 . y dg s d r rs h p
H o w m an e f g l ss
e an co ne as a an e o a

1 1 C t twic thr ugh this b dy ( y

. u e pp l )
o t divid i t ( i f p
o sa ,
an a e so a s o e os

sib l ) i t t w p rts ; thr p rts ; f ur p rts ; fi p rts

e n o o a ee a o a ve a .

12 A . m st re tur l bj ts ( f
o m pl
na st s tr s l v s fl w rs
a o ec o r exa e, o ne , ee , ea e , o e ,

an i m l s ) si m p l ( l ik th ub pris m t )
a e e mpl i sh p
e c e, , e c . o r co ex n a e

13 Wh . w su h
en pr ssi
e u se sh p l ss m ss d w m
c a n ex e o n as
“
a a e e a ,
”
o e ean

th t th m ss h
a e sh p t l l Wh t d w r ll y m
a as n o a e a a a o e ea e an

1 4 I th pr c ss f b ti g g l d l v s
. n e o e bt i d t v r 337 1 6
o ea n o ,
ea e a re o a ne no o e
1
6 02
5
o f ani ch thick A such l v s sur f s b di s ?
n . re ea e ac e or o e

15 I c v rs ti
. n onw ft h r stri g t l gr ph wir t sp k
e a o n, e o en ea a n ,
a e e a e, e c .
,
o en

o f asli Wh t
n es . th y stri t l y p ki g ? Wh y ?
a a re e , c S ea n

1 6 I th tr c
. s f e p ci l p i t
a p p r which w ll l i r ll y
e o a en -
o n on a e , e ca a n e, ea a

l i ? Wh t i i t Why ?
ne a s ?

1 7 Wh . w m k en p i t p p r with th d f p i l i i t r ll y
e a e a o n on a e e en o a e nc ,
s ea

a p oi t d s i t t d f
n , or oe
p t p i t ? Wh t i i t stri t l y sp k
s an or or re r esen a o n a s ,
c ea

i ng ? Why ?

V . G e n er a t i on of Sp ace M a g n i t u d es .

Wh en w e m o v e t h e p o i n t o f a p en c il o n p ape r it l eaves
16 .
,

b eh i n d a tr ac e w hi c h w e c all a li ne r e d u c e i n t h o u ght t he p o i n t , ,

o f t h e p en c il t o a p o i n t as u n d er s t o o d i n G e o m e tr y t h en i t s tr ac e ,

o r p a t/ z would b e a e o m e tri c al li n e A ai n e v e r y o n e h as o h
g g .
,

se r v e d t h at t h e p a t h o f t h e re d h o t e n d o f an ir o n ro d w h en -

m o v e d r api d l y i n t he d ar k pr e sen t s th e ap p e ar an c e o f a l u m i no u s
,

li ne .

T he p at h o f a m o v i n g p o i n t i s al w ays a li n e : i n o t h e r wo r ds ,

wh en a p o i nt m o v e s i n sp ac e it d escr i bes o r g en er a tes a li n e .

When a li n e m o v es i n s p ac e it u su ally gener at es a su r fac e ,

.

T h i s fac t m ay b e ill u str at e d b y m o vi n g a c r ayo n o v er t he su r fac e

o f t he b l ac k b o ar d w it h i t s l o nge s t si d e pr essed agai ns t t h e b o ar d
,
.

Wh en a su r fac e m o ves i n sp ac e it u su ally gener at es a so li d ,

.

We m ay ill u str at e t hi s tr u t h b y t ak i ng a t hi n pi e c e o f b o ar d ( o r a
sl at e ) t o r e pr esen t a su r fac e an d pr e ssi ng it d o w n t h r o u gh a so ft ,

su b st an c e li k e sno w : t h e l zo / t h u s m a d e i s t he pat h o f t h e sur e

fac e an d i s a geo m e tri c al b o d y o r so li d

,
.
 2 GE OME T R Y FOR BE GINN E RS . 1 8 .

E xe ri
c se s .
—1 . O n th e b l ckb rd
a oa a re li ne s a, b, c, d, e tc . Wh at ki d n of

a line is a ? Why ? b c ? d ? e tc . G iv th r s i ch c s
e e ea o n n ea a e .

2 . D rw with l tt rs t w
a a n d n am e e e o l i s f ch k i d I wh t tw w ys
ne o ea n . n a o a

m y y
a m ou nad t li ? e or e no e a ne

3 Wh t ki d f l i s
. a th dg s f th cub ? th pris m ? th pyr
n o ne a re e e e o e e e e a

m i d ? th cy l i d r th i s t b l ? this ru l r ? this ubb r th r m l s th

e n e ? a e e r e ? e oo ? a o e

r im f tu m b l r th sp k s f
o a erri g wh l ? i t tir ? t l gr ph wir ?
? e o e o a ca a e -
ee s e a e e a e

t h l tt rs M N O U V Z ?
e e e , , , , ,

4 W h. t s rt f l i
a d s o fl sh fo l ight ia g ft ne s m b l
oe ? ( F iga 8 ) a o n n o e n re e e .

5 W h.
t i th p th a f f sll i g pp l e? b ll
a thr w o i t at h ai ? t h nd a e a a o n n o e a r e en

of w tch
a h d ? th
a d f
-
an p du l u m ? dre en p f r i ? ofl yi g bird
a ? a en a o o a n a n

p i t th tir f c rri g wh l ?
o n on e e o a a a e -
ee

6 G iv . th r m p l s f str ight l i s d curv s

e o e e xa e o a ne an e .

7 I th.
s rn is s h ve e w b usi
e xe c g th w rd
e li a e i i t stric t e ee n n e o
“
ne n s

g m tri l s s ? Wh y ?
eo e ca en e

VIL — P l an e an d Cur v e d S u r f a c es .

§ 18 . T h e fac e s o f t h e c u b e are fl a t or p l a ne :t he S i d e of a,

c li n d er t
Ho w we d efin e h ese t wo c l assee
is r o u nd o r c u r ved c an
y .

o f s urfac es ?
é j rg CHAPT E R I. INT RODUCT ION .

D e fin i t i o n s . I A PLAN E SUR FACE

.
,
or PLA NE ,
is f
a s u r a ce o n

w /i i c/c s tr a z g/zt l i n es ca n be d r a w n i n al l d i r e ct i o n s .

II A CU . RVE D SUR FACE is a s u r a ce f on w /zi c/z s tr a i gh t l i nes

ca n n o t be d r a w n i n a ll d i r ecti o ns .

A tr ai gh t li n e w hi c h m o es i n s p ac e w it h o n e en d fixed an d
s v ,

t h e o t h e r e n d sli d i n g l o n g an o t h e r s tr ai gh t li n e gen e r at e s a pl an e
a ,

s rfu eac b t i f t h e se c o n d li n e i s a c u r v e t he su r f c e gen er at e d i s

u ,
a

i n ge n e r l a c r v e d s r fac e
a u u .

If fo r e xam pl e t he s e o n d li n e i s t he c ir c u m fe r e n c e o f a c ir c l e
, ,
c ,

t h e s r fa e ge ne r at e d w ill b e t h at o f t h e c o n e ( F g
u c e xc e p t i .

w h e n t he m o i ng li n e i s i n t h e pl an e o f t h e c ir c l e
v i n t hi s c ase t he
s u r fa c e e n e r a t e d w ill b e a pl an e s r f c e a
g u .

T e s t o f a P l a ne S u r f a c e Appl y t o t he su r fac e i n d i ff er ent .

,

d ir e c ti o ns t he str ai gh t e d ge o f a r u l e r i f t he su r fac e i s pl an e t h e
, ,

e d ge o f t h e r u l e r w ill al w a s t o u c h t h e su r fa c e fr o m en d t o en d
y .

E x r i e c ses 1 O ti p il p i t
. t. p l surf c ; curv d surf c
n a n a o n ou a an e a e a e a e .

2 Wh t ki d f sur f c s
. a th f c s f
n o pyr m id ? th id f a e ?a re e a e o a a e S e o a co ne

i t b s ? th sur f
s a e f th sph r ?
e ac e o e e e

3 A th w ll s f th r m p l
. re e a curv d ? th surf
o ef th t b l ?
oo an e or e e a ce o e a e

o f l m p sh d ? f h t f m irr r ? f w sh b si ? f th w t r i
a a -
a e o a a ? o a o o a a -
a n o e a e n

t h b si ?
e a f nfl w r ? f th c ?
o a o e o e o ea n

4 G iv . th r m p l s f p l
e o e d curv d surf
e xa s e o an e a n e ace .

5 C .
y dr w str ight l i
an ou th sid
a f a y l i d r ? th sid f
a ne o n e e o a c n e on e e o

a c ? th surf c f asph r ?
o ne on e a e o e e

6 T st wh th r t h sur f
. e f y ur d sk i
e e p rf ct p l
e ac e o o e s a e e ane .

VIII . C or n er e d an d C ur v e d B o d i es .

19 . T he c u b e an d the b o d i es s ho w n in F i g . 2 are e xa m pl es o f
co r n er ed bod i es . T he
y li n d e r an d tch e bo d i es sh o w n in F ig 4 .

are i nst an c es o f c u ved b o d i e s

r .

D e fin i t i o n s . I A CO RN E R E D B O D Y
.
,
or PO L H E Y D RO N ,
is a bo dy
bo u n d ed en ti r el b
y yp l f
a n e s u r a ces .

II . A CURV E D B OD i s a bo dy Y bo u n d ed p a r tly or w /zol ly by

c u r ved s u r a ces . f
14 GE OME T RY FOR B E GINN E RS . 20 .

E xe rc i s s 1 G iv
e m pl s (
. . e e xa e a
) o p l yh dr s ( b) f urv d b d i s
f o e on , o c e o e .

2 . T o whi h l ss d s th rthc c a oe e ea on which w liv b l g ? e e e on

IX . G e om e tr y .

20 . T b e S ci en ce o f spa ce co n ce
pti o n s i s ca l l ed GE OM E T RY .

T he ai m o f Ge o m e t ry i s t hr eefo l d
I . T o di sco ver t/ze va r i o u s p p ro er ti es f p
o s a ce fig u res a r i s i ng

f rom t/zei r h a vi ng d if f or ms
f
eren t .

IL — T o sb ow b o w to d r a w or c o n s tr u ct s
p a ce fig u r es .

III . T o sb o w b o w sp a ce m ag n i t u d es m ay be m ea s u r ed .

G eo m e y is tr u su ally d i vi d ed i n t o Pl an e G eo m e tr
y an d S o li d
Ge o m e y tr .

PLAN E GE OM E T RY tr ea ts f p
o s a ce co n ce
p ti o ns co n fined to o ne a n d

th e sa m e
p l a n e .

SO LID G E OM E T RY tr ea ts f p
o s a ce co n ce
p ti o ns n ot co n fined to o ne

pl a ne
(f o r ex a m
pl e, so l i ds a nd c u r ved s u r a ces f ) .

Chapt er s II .
—X
t hi s w o r k tr eat o f Pl ane G eo m e try the re
. of

m ai ni n g c hapt ers o f S o li d G e o m e try , .

N T — T h w rd G m t y c m s fr m tw G r k w rds m i g l d
O E S 1 e o eo e r o e o o ee o e an n an

ci t t i m s wh t h sc i c w i i t i f cy i t c s i st d
. .

m i g
eas u r n I n an en e en e en e as n s n an on e en
f w pr ct i c l ru l s m p l y d i m suri g l d d us d sp c i lly by h
.
, ,

ti re ly f o a e a a e e o e n ea n an an e e e a t e

E gy pt i s i s ttl i g d i sput s b ut b u d ry l i s d str y d b y th ul vr

,

an n e n e a o o n a ne e o e e ann a o e
fl w f t h ri v r N i l
o o H c h
e m G e m try ( l d m suri g ) w g v
e en e t e na e eo e or an -
ea n as i en
h sc i c by h G r ks
.

to t e en e t e ee
N sc i c c ls G m try i th u m b r d i m p r c f i t pr c c l
.

2 o en e ex e eo e n e n e an o t an e o s a ti a
ppl i c ti s T h i s f ct i striki gl y s i th p w r wh i ch i t g iv s us f m
.

a a on a s n ee n n e o e e o e a su r

i g s p c m g i tud s sks :H w m uch m r w i ll gr w h s fi l d th

.

n a e If a n e o ne a o o e o on t i e an

th t ? h w m uch m ust th i s sh ip b l d d s i k f t i t w t r ? h w
.

on a o ne o e oa e to n ten ee n o a e o to
fi d h r i ght w y cr ss h p th l ss c
n t e ? h w m ps f t h l
a a od d t e a e o ea n o a o e an an s ea a re

m d ? h w h d i st c
a e o f th m t b f u d ? t pr c i s l y wh t
e an st t
e o e o o n c an e o n a e e a in an an

e cl ips f h e owi ll k pl c ? wh
t e su n c m t w ill g i b s tah w c e a e en a o e a a n e e en o a a nno n

m ust b p i t d i e rd r h t h b ll m y h i c rt i m rk th s d m lm
o n e n o e t a t e a a t a e a n a -
e e an Sl l

qu sti s ly m ski ll d i G m try

e on ,
on a sw r an e n eo e c an a n e .
 CHAPT E R 1. I T N RODUCT ION . 15

RE VIE W O F CHAPT E R I .

Q UE S T IO N S .

y dim si s h th ub
H o w m an d wh t th y l l d ?
en on as e c e, an a are e ca e

H w m y f
o s dg s d r rs h th ub ?
an ace , e e , an co ne as e c e

H w m y f
o sm ti andg ? h w m y dg s i
ac e r r? ee n an e e o an e e n a c o ne

A th f
re s qu l u qu l ? th dg s
e ace e a or ne a e e e ?

A sw r th pr
n di g qu sti s f
e e h f th b di s i F ig
ece n e on o r e ac o e o e n . 2 .

Wh t au t y giv f
ac c o t h sur f sn d dg s
c anf t h b di s ou e o e ace an e e o e o e in
F i gs 3 a n d 4 ?
.

N am e a o b dy whi h h c as n o r rs ; l s
c o ne a o o ne whi h c h as ne ith r dg s e e e

nor c r rs o ne .

D e fin e a sol i d , a
f
s u r a ce, a l i n e, a
p oi n t ; h o w m an y dim si s en on has
e ac h ,
an d wh t a ar e th y ll d ?
e ca e

De fine t h e i n ter sec ti onf sur fos ace or of l i nes . Wh at i s th e i t rs ti

n e ec on

of a s rf ? fu ac e o a li ? ne

Wh t a p
are s pt i p m g it d
a ce co n ce
p fig on s s a ce a n u es s a ce u r es

Wh t a th p rts f
a re b dy ? th p rts f surf ? th p rts f li ?
e a o a o e a o a a ce e a o a ne

Il l us tr t th f cts th t
a e surf c i
e a p rt f b dy d th t l i i
, a a a e s no a o a o , an a a ne s

no p rt f surf c
a o a a e .

Ill st t wh t i m
u ra e t by p i t i G m try
a s e an a o n n eo e .

H w o sp c c c pti s r pr s t d d m d ?
are a e on e on e e en e an na e

Il l ustr t h w sp c
a e m g itud s
o g r t d by m ti
a e Wh t a n e are ene a e o on . a are

th ge r l l ws ? th
ene a pti s t th m ?
a e e xc e on o e

D fi e neth f ur ki ds e f li s
o d giv m pl s n o ne , an e exa e .

D fie nep l d v d
a n e ansur f s H w i p l surf t st d ?
cu r e ac e . o s a an e ac e e e

Sh w h w
o l i m ust m v t g r t
o a ne p l surf ; urv d sur o e o en e a e a an e ac e a c e

fac e .

Defi p ly / d
ne o ze r o n s an d c u r v ed bod i es, an d gi v e e xam pl se .

Wh t i G m t y ?
a s eo e r i ts c hi ef a i ms ? i ts c hi f d ie v i si o n s ?

E X E RC IS E S .

G iv e exa m p l s f b di s sh p d l ik pris m pyr m id

e o o esph r a e e a , a a , a c o n e, a e e .

N am e th dim si s f t l gr ph wir m u m t riv r w ll

e en on o a e e a e, a on en , a e ,
a e .

N am e th di m e si s f y l i d r ( ) wh st di g
en on it b s
o ( )
b a c n e ,
a en an n on s a e,

wh en r st i g i t sid
e n on s e .

Ho w c an y t prism i tw
ou cu th t h p rt wil l ls b pris m ?
a n o so a e ac a a o e a
16 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GIN NE RS .

How pl tw y l i d rs h vi g qu l b s s t g th r
c an yo u a ce o c t n e a n e a a e o e e so as o

f rm
o th r y l i d r ?
an o e c n e

C an y p lou t w ub s t g th r
ace t f rm o cw ub ? e o e e s o as o o a ne c e

H r e e are s v r l qu l ub s :put th m t g th r
e e a e t f rm
a c w e e o e e so as o o a ne

c ub H w m y ub s d s i t t k ? H w m u h l rg r i th
e . o an c e w oe a e o c a e s e ne

cub th e anf i t p rts ? i t f

o ne o th th f f s f i t p rts ?
a s ac e an e ace o one o s a

it s edg th th dg f
e an f i t p rts ?
e e e o o ne o s a

M ti en b di s f g l sh p but diff ri g sh p fr m th s thus

on o e o re u ar a e, e n in a e, o o e

far e xa mi d ne .

Wh t ki d f sp
a n m g itud i th hu m
o ski ?
ac e a n e s e an n

G iv e an i st c wh r m r th tw li s i nt rs t i th s m p i t
n an e e e o e an o ne e ec n e a e o n .

C an m r th o tw sur f
e s i t rs t i th s m l i ? C y giv
an o ac e n e ec n e a e ne an ou e an

i l l ustr ti ? a on

Wh wi ll l rg b dy pp
en a v ry s m ll ? G iv
a e m pl s
o a ea r e a e e xa e .

Dr w ( i f p ssib l )
a l i with
o ds withe d with tw ds
a ne n o en o n e en o en

wi th m r th tw ds o e an o en .

If y slid str ight l i l g th tw r i l s f r ilr d wh t ki d

ou e a a ne a o n e o a o a a oa , a n

o f asurf w u l d b g r t d ?
ac e o e en e a e

If y m v
ou str ight l i
o e r u d th tir s f tw rri g wh l s
a a ne a o n e e o o ca a e -
ee

s m l ( l w ys k pi g i t i c t t with b th tir s ) wh t
"

on th e a e ax e a a ee n n o n ac o e , a

ki n d f surf w u l d b g r t d ?
o a ace o e ene a e
 R —ST RAIGHT
2L
] CHAPT E II . LIN E S . 17

CHAPT E R II .

S T RA IG H T L IN E S .

CO N NT S —I D ir ct i
T E . . e on of O ne Li n e (N 21 II C . h g an e of Di r ti
ec o n.

T h C i rc l ( N 6
e e 2 Il l . r ct i s f T w Li s ( N 9
Di e on o o ne 2 , IV . D i re c
ti s f T hr Li s
on o ee ne V L gth f Li ( N 3
. en o a ne 2 V I Ra i o
. t of

T w Li s ( N 3 7
o ne ,
V II . U its f L gth ( N 39
n o V III
en . M ea suri g n a

Li n e (i i 42 .

L —D i r e c ti on of On e L i n e .

21 . A s tr ai ght li ne ,
AB ( F ig . m ay b e regar ded as hav

B, or t he o
pp os i te d ir e c ti o n fr o m B to

r A i n t he fir st c ase w e sho u l d
w a ds ,
Fg 9 i
c all i t t he li n e A B i n t he se c o nd c ase
. .

, ,

the li n e B A S o m eti m es ( as fo r i nst an c e o n a gu i d e post ) an

.
, ,
-

arr o w head o r a h an d i s u se d t o po i n t o u t w h i c h d ir e c ti o n i s i n
-

t en d ed ; b ut i n gener al we may assi gn to the li ne eit her direc

, ,

t ion .

22 . If w e k no w on l y t he d irec t i on o f a strai ght li ne , we c an

no t d e t e r m i ne i t s
p o siti o n o r l o ca te it
fo r t hro u gh di ffer en t p o i n t s A B C
, , , , ,

D ( F ig
,
d i ffe r en t s tr ai ght l i n es
.

m ay b e d r awn al l h av i ng t he same ,

d ir ec ti o n .

Li k ew i se if w e k no w o n l y t hat a
,

st r ai gh t li n e p asses t hr o u gh a k n o wn o r

i ven p o i n t A t h e li n e i s n o t k n o wn
g , ,

fo r thro u gh a p o i n t any n u m b er o f s tr ai gh t li n es m ay b e
,
drawn .
18 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS . 23 .

t hro ugh the po i nt A i n a gi ven d ir ec ti on as t hat o f the

B ut , ,

arr o w o nl y n ,
s tr ai ght li n e c an b e d r awn
o e An d al so t hr o u gh .
, ,

any t wo p o i n t s as A an d i ll b u t n e str ai gh t li n e c an b e d r awn

, ,
o .

T hese t wo tr u t hs m ay b e st at ed as fo ll o w s i n a gen er al fo r m , ,

wit ho u t refer en c e t o F ig 1 0 o r t o any parti c u l ar c ase .

,

I . T b rougb a gi ven p o i nt i n a g i ven d i r ecti o n o nly o n e s tra z /

g zt
l i ne ca n be d r a w n .

II .
—T /zr o ugb t wo gi ven p oi nts o n ly o ne s tr a z g/zt l i ne ca n be

H enc e, if o ne
p o n i t and th e d i r ecti o n of a li ne are g i v e n ,
or if
t w o po n i ts o f t he lin e are gi ven ,
the li ne i s deter mi ned i n p osi ti o n .

23 . F o r dr awi ng
tr ai ght li nes o n p ap er o r o n the b l ackb o ar d
s , ,

a RULE R it t i t pl
( g
F i I ] ) 1
w h s r a
.
g h e d g e i s e m o yed a .

In o r d er t o d r aw a li n e o n p ap er t hr o u gh t wo giv en p o i n t s l ay ,

t he ru l e r o n t he p ap er so t h at i t s e d ge

j u st t o u c hes t he t wo p o i nt s t h en d r aw
t he li n e w it h a h ar d w ell shar p en e d ,
-

p en c il h o l d,i n g t h e p e n c il n e ar l y v e rti c a l a n d al w ays i n co n t a c t ,

wit h t he e dge o f t he r u l er .

When we d r aw a li ne w it ho u t the ai d o f any i nstr u m ent t o

gu i d e t he han d w e are sai d t o d r aw it F R E E HAN D
-
.
,

E x r c i ses
e 1 D r w f ur li s thr ugh p i t
. a d m th m with l tt rs
o ne o a o n , an na e e e e .

2 M k t w p i ts
. a e d th j i th m by str ight l i
o o n , an en o n e a a ne .

N OT If A E d B t w p i t s th an p i
a re j i A B i t b u d rst d
o o n e ex re ss o n o n s o e n e oo
i g d w
.
,

as m ea n n t g/t l i f m A t B
ra a s ra z i ne ro o .

3 M k thr p i ts
. a e t i th s m l i
ee o n ; th j i th m by str ight l i s
no n e a e ne en o n e a ne .

H w m y str ight l i s i
o an ll a b dr w ? ne n a c an e a n

4 H w m y str ight l i s i this w y

. o an a b dr w b tw ne f ur p i ts ?
n a c an e a n e ee n o o n

fi vep i ts ? i p i ts ?
o n s x o n

5 Dr w f. b a d str i ght li ; th c rr t
,
r ee -
an ,
a t ify i t with th
a idne en o ec o r r ec e a

of rul r R p t th
a e . rcis s v r l ti m s
e ea e e xe e e e a e .

1 d i vi d d rul (
T he wh i ch e e se e th e pup i l r qu ir s e e fo r o th r p urp s s
e o e
wi ll l s s rv f dr wi g s r ight li s
,

a o e e or a n t a ne .
20 G E OM E T RY FO R BE GI NN E RS . 24 .

fl oo r ili ng are ho ri z o n t al pl anes ; the r o o f o f the ho u se i s

an d ce -

an i n c li n e d pl an e .

N — T h surf c f w t r if f c s i d b l
OT E S 1 t t(h c f i
e a e o a e o on era e ex e n t e o ea n , or n
st c ) i s s i b ly curv d urf c b c us h rth i r u d T h i s cu v t ur
.
,

an e s en a e S a e, e a e t e ea s o n r a e
m k s i ts l f v d t h s sh r wh w w tch sh i p s il i g f s i ght
, .

a e e e i en on t e ea o e en e a a a n out o on
t h h ri
e :first h hu ll s i ks t f s ight ; th th s i ls d l w r p rts f h
o zo n t e n ou o en e a an o e a o t e
m s s ; l st f l l h
a t ps f h m sts B t
a o a p d thr t f ur m i l s i
e to o t e a u on a on ee or o e n
l gth t h curv ur i s m ll th t c t b bs v d ; h c f l l c m m
, .

en e at e s so a a it ann o e o er e en e, or a o on
purp s s h surf c f h p d i r g rd d pl
,

o e t e a e o t e on s e a e as a a ne .
O p p r d w v rt c l l i s t w d h r t s r
,

2 . n a e
f m y ; rai l l i f m ig i t
e i a ne o ar s o r ro ou o zo n a ne o r /

t o l ef t , or l ef t t o ri
g/i t .

E xe rc is es .
—1 . O f th e l in e s on th e b l kb rd which
ac oa , a re v rti l ? whi h
e ca c

h ri
o t l ? d whi h i l i d ?
zo n a an c nc ne

2 Dr w li . p p r ; th h l d th p p r th t th l i sh ll b
a a ne o n a e en o e a e so a e ne a e

v rti l I w th p l
e ca . f th p p r l s v rtic l ?
s no e an e o e a e a o e a

3 H l d p ci l v rtic l ; h ri
. o t l ; i li d
a en e a o zo n a nc ne .

4 H l d b k v rti l ; h ri
. o t l ; i li d
a oo e ca o zo n a nc ne .

5 D r w thr
. li s f ch ki da ee ne o ea n .

6 Dr w . v rtic l l i m rk fi p i ts
a a it ed thr ugh th s p i ts
a n e, a ve o n on , an o e e o n

dr w h ri t l l i s
a o zo n a ne .

7 O th . ub p i t t v rti l dg s d f s ; l s h ri t l dg s
n e c e, o n ou e ca e e an ace a o o zon a e e

an d f c s a e .

8 Wh t dir ti s h v th
. adg s f th pris m ? th s f th pyr m id ?
ec on a e e e e o e o e o e a

th s f th y l i d r ?
o e o e c n e

9 Wh t dir cti
. h l dd r wh l i g g i st w ll ? wh l yi g
a e on as a a e en ean n a a n a a en n

on th gr u d ? wh
e susp d d fr m
o n d by r p ? Wh t dir ti
en en e o o ne en . a o e a ec on

h v th
a e d f th l dd r i th s thr
e r ou n c s s?
s o e a e n e e ee a e

1 0 Wh t dir ct i. h th m st f a ship ? th p th f f ll i g pp l ?
e on as e a o a e a o a a n a e

th b e m f b l c t r st ? th surf
ea o a f l k ? th id f h u ?
a an e a e e ac e o a a e e S e o a o se

it r f?
s oo

1 1 At wh t ti m
. f th y r th su s r ys m st
a rl y v rtic l ?
e o e ea are e n
’
a o n ea e a

Wh th su s r ys h ri
e n a re t l? e n
’
a o zo n a

1 2 G iv th r m p l s f th v rti l d h ri t l l i s d p l s
. e o e e xa e o e e ca an o zon a ne an an e .

1 3 Wh i
. th m i ut h d f c l k v rti l ? wh h ri t l
en s e n e -
an o a oc e ca en o zon a ?

A sw r t h s m qu sti s f
n e t h h ur h
e a d e e on or e o -
an .

14 Wh tw. v rti l p l s ( f en m pl th t w sid s

o f r m) i
e ca an e o r e xa e, e o e o a oo n

t
e rsec t h th r wh t ki d f l i i th ir i t rs cti ?
e ac o e ,
a n o a ne s e n e e on

1 5 Wh . v rti l p l i t rs cts h ri t l p l wh t ki d f
en a e ca an e n e e a o zo n a an e a n o a

l i i th ir i t rs cti ? G iv
ne s e m pl
n e e on e a n e xa e .

1 6 T hr ugh p i t h w m y v rti l l i s
. o b adr w ? h w m y
o n o an e ca ne c an e a n o an

h ri t l l i s ? h w m y i li d l i s ? h w m y p l s f h ki d ?
o zon a ne o an nc ne ne o an an e o eac n
 17 v rti l pl h
. In a e ca ane ow m an y v rti l li s
e ca ne c an be dr w a n? h o w m an y
h ri t l l s ?
o zo n a i ne

18 I h ri t l pl
. n a o zon a an e h o w man y v rti l li s
e ca ne c an be dr w a n? h ow
m y h ri
an t l li s ? o zo n a ne

25 . A p p l i c at i o n s —I . In o r d er t o t est whet her a li ne or a

pl ane ( as a w o o d en b eam ,
t he w a ll of a ho u se, et c .
) is v er

ti ca l , a PLUM B -
RULE ( g
F i . 13 ) is t
o f en u se d . It c o ns s s o f it
a p i ec e o f w o o d h av i n
g t w o s tr ai ght e d ges ev e r w h e r e e u all
y q y
d i st ant fr o m eac h o t he r N ear o ne end exac tl y h al f w ay
.
,

b etw e en t he ed ges a pl u m b li ne i s att ac h ed ,

N ear t h e -
.

o t h e r end al s o e xac tl y h al f w ay b e t w e en t h e e dge s a m ar k

, ,

i s m ad e If w e pl ac e o n e e dge o f t h e pl u m b r u l e agai nst a

.
-

su rfac e w hi c h i s v erti c al t he li n e w h en at r est w ill c o v er

, , ,

t h e m ar k if t he su rfac e i s n o t v erti c al t he li n e w ill p ass o n ,

o n e S i d e o f t he m ar k It i s w ell t o appl y th e t e st t wi c e
.
,

u si ng fir st o n e t h en t h e o t her e dge o f t h e p l u m b r u l e in -

b o t h c ases t h e li n e o u ght t o c o ver t he m ark

, .

II T o t est w het h er a li ne o r a p l ane su r fac e i s b or i zo n t l ( o r

. a ,

as w o r k m en say l evel i n str u m en t s c all ed LE VE LS are u se d

) , , T h e .

si m pl e st k i n d o f l ev el i s t he Pl u m b l i ne L evel
( F ig It con -
.

si s t s o f t h r ee pi e c es o f w o o d pu t t o e t he i n t h e s h ap e o f t h e l et
g r

t er A w it h a pl u m b li n e s u sp en d e d fr o m t h e t o p
,
-
In o r d er t o .

a dj u st t h e i ns t ru m e n t fo r se a m ar k m st b e m ad e o n t h e c r o ss
u ,
u

pi ec e wh er e the plu mb li ne p asses when t he fee t o f the l ev el are

,
-

at t he sam e h ei gh t , or ho ri z o n t a
l . i s i s d o n e as foll o ws Pl ac e
T h
t he fe e t o f t he l e el
v o n an y t wo p o i n t s an d m ar k o n t he c r o ss bar
,
-
22 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GINN E RS . 2
5 .

t he pl o f t he pl
ac e li ne ; t hen turn the i nstru m ent en d fo
u mb -
r

en d r e st it o n t he sam e i t
, p o n s a n d a g i n m ar k t h e pl ac e o f t he
a ,

p l u m b li n e -
T h e po i nt m i d way b e t w e en t h e t wo m ar k s i s t he
.

ri ght o ne .

F g 1 5 S ho w s t he i n str u m en t i n u se t o t est w h e t h er a w o o d en
i .

b eam i s h o ri z o n t al AS w e s e e i n t h e figu r e th e pl u m b li n e p asse s

.
,
-

a littl e t o t he l e ft o f t h e m ar k o n t h e c r o ss b ar Whi c h en d o f t he -
.

b e am i s t h e hi gh est ?
In t e sti n g wh e t h e r a f
r a ce
( as t h at o
su f a t ab l e ) i s h o ri o n t al z ,

w e m u st appl y t he l ev e l i n at l e ast t w d i ffe r e n t d ir ec t i o n s b e c u se o ,

a

a li n e i n o n e d ir e c ti o n o n t h e su r fac e m i h t b e ho ri z o n t al w h il e
g
li n es i n o t her d ir ec ti o ns w er e i n c li ned B u t i f two li n es o n t he .

su r fac e i n d i ffer en t d ir e c ti o n s are h o ri o n t al t hen t h e su r fac e m u s t z ,

b e ho ri z o nt al .

N T S —
O E A c mm 1 Sp i i t l l i sh w
o on i F g 6 r -
It i m r
ev e ccur t
s o n n i 1 s o e a a e

th h pl u m b l l v l b ( wh pr p rl y
. . .

an t e -
i ne e e ut en o e
m d ) m r p s i v T h ss i l p rt f
,

a e o e ex en e e e e nt a a o

h sp i r i l v l i gl ss t ub sl igh ly curv d
.

t e t -
e e s a a e, t e

d fi ll d w i th l c h l c pt t h sp c
,

an e a o o ex e e a e oc

p i d by bubb l f i wh i ch lw ys s ks
,

cu e a e o a r, a a ee

th h igh st p rt f h ub e e a o t e t e .

2. S urv y rs d
e o g i rs i st b li sh i g h ri t l l i s th gr u d
an en n ee n e a n o zo n a ne on e o n or
pr l g i g th m l v l s m u t d ith r
, ,

o on n e u se e e o n e e e on
st ff wh i ch i dri v i t h gr u d
,

a a s en n o t e o n o r on
thr l gg d st d ( rip d ) wh i ch r sts h
,

a e e- e e an t o e on t e
gr u d O m y m k s i mpl ( but v ry o n ne a a e a e no t e

ccur ) pl m b l l l f h gr u d
.

a at e u -
i ne eve o r u se o n t e o n
f ll ws F s c m m c rp t r s squ r
,
’

as o o a te n a o on a en e a e

( F g 7 ) i s l i t i h p f i s ff by1m s n a n t e to o a ta ean

scr w d th i pl u m b —
.

f o a li t h e an en t e a ne a t e
gl h t i m y h g b sid
,

an e so m t a t a an e e o ne ar

Wh b m d by tur i g
.

i h d en t as e en a e to o so n n
h squ r t h th r m will b h ri t l
t e a e, e o e ar e o zo n a .

E xe rc is es —1 . C h s s
oo e o me o bj t ec i n th e r o om, an d t st wh th r i t i
e e e s

v rti l
e ca .

2 . C h s s m bj t i th r m
oo e o e O ec n e oo ,
and t st wh th r i t i h ri t l
e e e s o zo n a .

3 . Dr w t h b l ckb
a on rd ( with th e a oa e a id f p l u m b ru l ) v rti l l i
o a -
e a e ca ne .

4 . Dr w th b l
a kb rd ( with th
on e ac oa e a i d f th p l u m b l i
o l v l ) h ri e -
ne e e a o

z o n ta l li ne .
 CHAPT E R II .
— ST RAIGHT LIN E S . 23

Il l — Ch a n g e of D i r e c ti on . T h e Ci r c l e .

§ 26 T h e d ir e c ti o n o f
. a s tr ai gh t li n e is s u sce
p t i bl e
f
o el za n e
g .

T h e h an d s o f a c l o c k , fo r i nst an c e m ay b e r eg r d ed as tw o li n es ,
a

w hi c h a e c o nst an tl y c hang i n g i n d ir e c ti o n
r T he mi n t e han d i n . u -

t h e c o u r se o f an h o u r p o i n t s i n al l p o ssi b l e d ir e c ti o n s c o n t i n e d
,
a

i n t h e pl an e o f t h e f c e o f t h e c l o c k a .

Wh en a str ai ght li n e A B ( F ig m o v es w it ho u t l eavi ng t h e

, .

p o i nt A u ntil it has ano t he r d ir ec ti o n

, ,

as A C i t i s sa i d t o t u rn o
,
ROT AT E r

ab o u t t h e p o i nt A If t he m o ti o n
.

c o n ti nu es t h e r o t ati ng li ne w ill at
,

l engt h r e t u rn t o i ts fir st p o siti o n A B ; ,

it i s t hen sai d to have m ad e o ne RE V

O LUT ION .

27 . If, d u ri ng the m o ti o n ab o u t A, t he l engt h of t he li ne re

m ai ns u n c h an t he r e n d B w ill
e
g ,d i ts o , ,

d es c ri b e a cu r v d li n e w h i c h r e t u r ns i nt o
e

it sel f and has t he pr o p e rt y t hat all i ts

,

p o i nt s are at the sam e d i st anc e fr o m A .

T h i s c u rv ed li ne ( F i g 1 9 ) i s c all e d a .

CIR CUM FE R E N CE ; t h e po i nt A i s c all ed

i t s CE NT R E O f al l c u rv ed li n e s t h e
.
,

c ir u m fe r e n c e i s t h e s i m l est an d t he
c
p
m o st i m p o rt an t .

D e fin i t i o n s —I . A c u r ved l i n e w /zi cl i i s every w /

zer e e
q uall
y
d i s ta n t f r o m a p o i nt is ca l l ed a CIR CUM F E RE NCE .

II . T h e po i n t i s ca l l ed tl i e CE NT R E .

III . A p a r t of a ci r c u mf er ence i s ca l l ed a n ARC (f or ex a m l

p ,e

B C or C D , F ig .
24 GE OME T RY FOR BE GINNE RS f§ 2 8 .

IV . A s tr a z
g/zt l i n e
j o i ni n
g tb e cen tr e to tb e ci r cu m er e n ce f is
ca l l ed a RAD IUS 1
( f o r ex a m l e A B o r A C F i
p g , , .

V . T be p l a ne s u rf a ce bo u n d ed b
y a ci r c u
mfer en ce is c a l l ed a

CIR CLE .

N OT E T he —
w rd i l i l s us d i rt i pr ss i s i th s s f i
o c rc e s a o e n ce a n ex e on n e en e o c r
hus
c u mf e ren ce ; t h pr ss s t d w Inl f t i le stri ctly
ex e i on
“
o ra a c i rc e ,
" “
a rc s o c rc es ,
"

sp k g C rc l but h C rcu m f r c f h c i rc l i m t
, ,

ea i n n o t th e, b i d y e t e i e en e or ou n ar o t e e s ea n .

F r o m d efiniti o n s I an d IV i t fo ll o w s t hat . .

Al l r a di i c
f t/ze s a m e ci r cl e a r e e u a l
q i n l eng tb .

i ses 1 N m bj ts whi h ir l s d circu m f r s pr s t

E xe rc .
. a e o ec on c c c e an e ence e en

th m s l v s ( ds f y l i d r i m f t
e e e en
p h p o a c n e ,
r o a ea cu
-
,
a oo ,

2 Wh t d s t h tir
. f a rri g wh l r pr s t ? th sp k s th
oe e e o a ca a e -
ee e e en e o e ? e

l th p rt f th tir b tw
ax e ? e tw sp k s ?
a o e e e ee n o o e

3 I F ig 8
. A B r t t s b ut A wh t ki d f p ths d p i ts b
n . 1 , as o a e a o , a n o a o o n e

tw A d B d s rib ?
e en an e c e

§ 28 .
( Cir c l es
p e ak i n g m o r e exac tl y c ir c u m fe r en c e s an d
o r, s ,

ar c s ) are d r aw n o n p ap e r e t c b y t he ai d o f an i nstr u m en t c all e d .

, ,

t h e CO M PAS S E S o r D IVID E RS 2 ( F i g .

T h e c o m p asses ( fo r u se o n p ap er ) c o nsi st o f t w o m e t al l egs

c o n n e c t e d t o ge t h e r b y a pi v o t ab o u t w h i c h

t h ey c an t u rn T he l egs hav e fine hard .

,

s t e el p o i n t s T h e l o w e r p art o f o n e l eg .

c an b e r em o v ed ( b y t u r ni n g a sc r ew o n
t h e s i d e ) an d i t s pl ac e su ppli ed b y a p n ci l e

l eg o r a l eg pr o v i d ed w it h a st e e l p en ,
.

In F g 2 0 t h e p en c il l eg i s S ho wn i .
-
.

T o d r aw a c ir c l e w it h a gi en r ad i u s say v ,

two i nc h es fit t h e p en c il l eg t o t h e c o m ,
-

p asses o p en the l egs till th e d i st anc e ap art ,

o f t h e ir p o i n t s o r o en i n i j w i h an d t hen pr o c ee d
p g s u,st t o n c es , ,

as sho wn in F ig . 20 .

1 P l ural a d i i ,
r .

2 S o c all e d fro m i ts u se i n d i v i d i ng l i n e s an d a n gl s i t qu l p rt s
e n o e a a .
 CHAPT E R II .
— RA GH ST I T LINE S . 25

O n t h e gr o u n d , c ir c l es ar e o ft e n d esc ri b e d b y t h e ai d o f a c o r d .

When a gar d en er , fo r i nst an c e, w i shes t o tr ac e a c ir c u m fer e n c e , he

pr o c e e d s as ill str at e d u in F ig . 21 .

E xe rc i s es .
—1
scrib h w t dr w circ l f giv r dius p p r
. De e o o a a e o en a on a e .

2 D sc ib h w g rd
. e r r tr c s circ l
e o th gr u d
a a ene a e a e on e o n .

3 Dr w (
. p p r) cir l with r dius qu l t th br dth f y ur
a on a e a c e a a e a o e ea o o

ru l r divid d ru l
e or e e .

4 Dr w. circ l with th l rg c m p ss s t h b l ckb rd

a a e e a e o a e on e a oa .

5 C .
y dr anw circ
ou l t h bl ackb rd with
a r dius gr t r th
e on t h e a oa a a ea e an e

gr t st p i g f th c mp ss s ?
ea e o en n o e o a e

6 D r w s v r l rcs f circ l s :
. a e e a a o e

7 D r w fr
. h d s v r l circ l s Which i dr w th b st ?
a ,
ee -
an ,
e e a e . s a n e e

8 D r w thr
. c irc l s l l h vi g th s m c tr
a ee e t i cir l s
a a n e a e en e , o r c o n cen r c c e , as

th y c ll d T h w v s c us d by thr wi g st
e are a e . e i t wtr
a e a m e o n a o ne n o a e a r e e xa

p l s f c c tric circ l s wh t i th i r c m m c tr ?
e o on en e a s e o on en e

9 Dr w ( )
. ay circ l ; ( b)a c i rc l with p i t A c tr
an e d y a e a o n as en e, an an

r dius ; ( ) circ l with r dius f

a c a e f t d i y p siti a ( th t i h
a o o ne oo , an n an o on a s, av

i g
n y p i t
an c tr ) ; ( d ) circ l with th p i t A c tr
o n as en e d a e e o n as en e, an a ra

di s f
n o f t one oo .

1 0 Wh t t w thi gs c m pl t l y d t rm i
. a o th p siti
n d m g itud
o f
e e e e ne e o o n an a n e o

a c ir l ?c e
26 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GINN E RS .

II I — D i r e c t i on s of T W O L i n es .

§ 29 . T wo s tr ai gh t li n es i n t he sam e p l an e m u st hav e e it he r
( )
a t he sa me or
( ) jf
b d z er en t d ir ec ti o ns .

Ca s e I
.
—When two d i ffe r en t li n es ,
as AB an d CD ( g
F i .

lle d PARALLE L li n es B eari ng i n

ca .

m i n d wh at w as s ai d i n 21 w e m ay ,

al so r e ar d o n e o f t he m as h av i n
g g o n e
G — H
d ir e c ti o n an d t he o t h er t h e pp osi te
,
o
F ig 22
d ir e c ti o n It i s al so ev i d en t t ha t se v
. .

e r al li n es as A B
,
C D E F G f ] m ay b e p ar all e l t o o n e ano t h e r
, , , , .

D e fin i t n — PARALLE L LIN E S a re l i n
. w /zi cl i ti a ve tl z s m es e a e

d i r e c ti o n
T h at a li ne ABp ar all el t o a li ne C D i s so m e ti m es ex
is
e e d f o r t h e sak e o f b r ev it b t h A B II C D
p r ss , y y a S g n ,
u s i .

T he t w o r ail s o f a r ailr o d fu r n i sh a fam ili ar ill u str ati o n o f p ar

a

all e l li n e s su b s tit u t e fo r t h e r ail s

g eo m e tri al li n es an d t h e s e
c w o u l d ,

b e p ar all e l li n es as u n d er st o o d i n G eo m etr y T h e o p p o sit e e d ges

.

o f a t ab l e a e an o t h e r e xam pl e o f p ar all e l li n es
r .

E r y o n e has o b ser e d-t hat t he r ail s o f a r ailr o ad c o u r se al o ng

ve v

wi t ho u t e it h e r appr o ac hi ng o r separ ati ng We may suppo se t he m .

28 GE OM E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS .
3 0 .

an d at l ast m ee t i n
p o i n t 0 c all e d t h eir i nt r cti n a , ,
e se o

T wo e dges o f a t b l e wh i h m ee t at a c o rn e r are an exam pl e a c

o f li n es h avi ng d i ffe r en t d ir ec ti o n s ; t h e c o rn e r i s t h e ir i n t erse c

ti o n .

r i ses —l Which l i s
E xe c th
. b l kb rd . p r ll l ? which t ne on e ac oa ar e a a e no

p r ll l ? Pr l g th l tt r u ti l th y m t
a a e o on e a e n e ee .

2 C tw l i
. s t p r ll l i t rs ct i m r th
an o ne p i t?
,
no a a e ,
n e e n o e an o n e o n

3 H w d y . r d th pr ssi A B C D
o o ou ea e ex e on

4 H l d t w p ci l s ( ) p r ll l ; ( b)
. ,
o o th t th y w u l d i t rs ct ; ( )
en a a a e so a e o n e e c

so th t th y a ith r p r ll l
e w u l d th y i t rs t
are n e e a a e nor o e n e ec .

5 H l d tw b ks ( ) p r ll l ; ( b)
. o ot p r ll l oo a a a e no a a e .

6 H l d p ci l
. d o b k ( ) p r ll l ; ( b) t p r ll l
a en an a oo a a a e no a a e .

7 P i t . t th o nub ( ) p r ll l dg s ; ( b) i t rs cti g dg s ( )
ou on e c e a a a e e e n e e n e e c

e dg s ith r p r ll l
e ne i t rs cti g
e a a e no r n e e n .

8 E mi
. i t h s m w y th
xa dg s f th pris m d th pyr m id
ne , n e a e a , e e e o e an e a .

9 Which dg s f th r m
. p r ll l t th fl r ?
e e o e oo a re a a e o e oo

10 G iv . th r i st ef p r ll l l i s ; f p r ll l p l
an o e s f li
n an c e o a a e ne o a a e an e o a ne

p r ll l t p l
a a e o a an e .

11 A t w v rti l l i s p r ll l t
. re h th r ?
o e ca ne a a e o e ac o e

A m—S tri ct l y sp k i g N ; b c us
r w i g h r u d sh p f th rt h
ea n o e a e, o n to t e o n a e o e ea
v rt i c l l i s rs ct t p m r h c tr f h r h B t h d i
, ,

tw o e a ne i nt e e a a o t n ea t e en e o t e ea t u t e s
c t th rth s c tr ( rly f ur h us d m i l s ) i gr t c m p r d w i th
.

’
t an e o e ea en e n ea o t o an e s so ea o a e
th d i st
e c p rt f w v rt i c l l i s such th dg s f h us
an e a a o t h t th
o e a ne as e e e o a o e , e tc t a e
l tt r lw ys r g rd d p r ll l
.
, ,

a e a re a a e a e as a a e .

12 A h ri . t l l i s l w ys p r ll l t
re o h th r ?
zo n a ne a a a a e o e ac o e

13 C tw . v rtic l p l s i t rs ct ch th r ?
an o e a ane n e e ea o e

14 C tw . h ri t l p l s i t rs t ch th r ?
an o o zon a an e n e ec ea o e

1 5 G iv . i st f p r ll l l i s which
e an v rti l ; h ri t l ;
n an c e o a a e ne a re e ca o zon a

i li d
nc ne .

§ 30 T he . s p ri m pl est
ll e l t o eac h o t h e r w ay t o d r aw li n es a a

e sp e c i all r l re d esir ed ill u str at e d

( y w h e n se v e a a ) i s i n F g 26 i . .

B esi d es a r u l e r a p i e c e o f w o o d w it h t hr ee sm o o t h str ai gh t e dge s

, ,

c all e d S QUAR E i s n ee d e d
a K e e p t h e r u l er at r est S li d e t he
,
.
,

s q u ar e l o ng t he e d ge o f t h e r u l r and i n d i ffer en t p o siti o ns o f

a e , ,

t h e sq u a r e d r aw li n es al o ng i t s e d g ; t h e se li n e s will b e p ar all e l
,
e

t o eac h o t her T o d r aw a li ne t hr o u gh t h e p o i n t M p ar all el t o th e

’

.
,
 CHAPT E R II .
—S T RAIGHT LI NE S . 29

li ne P Q pl ac e t he r ul er and sq u ar e as sho wn i n t he figu r e

, ,

sli d e t h e sq u ar e al o n g till i t s

ed g e j u st t o u c hes [V] ; t he
li n e d rawn t hr o u gh i ll al o ng ,

t h e e d ge o f t he sq r e w ill ua ,

b e t he p arall e l r eq u ir e d .

N —H w p r ll l l i s
OT E o a a e ne a re
dr w w i h ru l r d m ss s wi ll
a n t e an co a e

be ex pl i d l t r (S
a ne a e . ee

E x r ise c 1 D w t i gh t
es . . ra a s ra

l i ; d th
ne an thr ugh p i t t
en , o a o n no

on th l i e p r ll l t i t
ne , a a a e o .

2 D r w astr ight l i
. a d thr ugh a p i t th l i p r ll l
n e , an , o a o n on e ne, a a a e .

3 D r w fi p r ll l l i s b ut qu ll y d i st t fr m
. a ve a a ch th r
e ne a o e a an o ea o e .

4 Dr w fr
. h d s v r l p r ll l l i s T st d c rr t th m
a ee -
an e e a a a e ne . e an o ec e

ru l r d squ r
e an a e .

IV .
— D 1 r e c t i on s
'

of T h r e e L i n es .

31 . T h r ee str i gh t li n e s i n
a t h e sa m e pl ane pr esen t as r egar d s
d ir ec ti o n f ,
o u r c as e s ,

( ) a T he ht r ee li n e s a e al l p ar all e l r

( )
b T w o o f t h e li n es a e p ar ll e l r a

( )
c N o t w o li n es e p r all e l an d al l i n t e rs e c t i n o n e p o i n t
ar a ,

( )
d N o t wo li n es ar e p ar all e l an d t h ey d o n o t ll i n t e r se c t i n ,
a a

p o i nt .

T h e se c as es are al l i l l u str at ed in F ig . 27 . Wh en n ec e ssa ry ,

t he

F ig . 2 7.

li n e m st b e pr o l o nge d u ntil t h ey i n t er se t In c ase ( d ) the

s u c .

li nes ( pr o lo nged i f n ec essary) in t er se t i n t hr ee p o in t s and c o m

,
c ,
30 GE O ME T RY FO R B E GIN N E RS .
3 2 .

p l e t e l y en c o se l a p o rti o n of a pl an e su r fa c e, wh ich is ca ll e d a

T R IANGLE .

N OT E —T
pr p rti s f th tri gl w ill b stud i d i Ch pt r IV
he o e e o e an e e e n a e .

E x i es 1 Dr w y thr l i s d th pr l g th m ( by d tt d
e rc s . . a an ee ne ,
an en o on e o e

l i s ) ti ll th y i t rs ct
ne e n e e .

2 I h w m y p i ts
. n o f ur l i s i t rs ct
an o n th r ( ) wh l l
c an o ne n e e o n e ano e ? a en a

f ur l i
o s ne p r ll l ? ( b) wh thr
a re a a p r ll l ? ( ) wh tw
e
p en ee a re a a e c en o a re ar

a ll l ? ( d ) wh
e tw p r ll l ?
en n o o a re a a e

3 E . mi fi l i s i th s m w y
xa ne ve ne n e a e a

V .
—L en g th of
‘

a Li n e .

32 . T he s trai ght li ne wh i c h p asses t hr o u gh two p o i nt s A and ,

B ( F ig i s sho rt e r t han an y o t h e r li n e
.

a si n g t hr o u gh t h e p o i n t s an d h e n c e i t s
p s ,

l engt h i s t ak en as t he DIST AN CE o f the

p o i n t s fr o m e a c h o t he r .

We al l l ear n as so o n as w e b egi n t o
w al k an d t o m o v e ab o u t fr o m pl ac e t o

p l a ce t h at ,
a s tr a igb t l i ne i s t/ze s/
i or tes t d i s ta n ce betw een tw o
o i n ts
p .

Il l u s t r a t i o n .
—We
ill u str at e t hi s tr u t h as fo ll o w s F ast en
m ay
o n e e n d o f a s tri ng t o a n ail w h i c h i s fixe d i n a wall an d p ass t h e ,

o th er en d t hr o u gh a ri ng al so at t ac hed t o t he w all N o w p u ll t he .

fr ee en d w h it p ar t o f t he stri ng b e t ween
o ne h an d , an d t he t he

w all and t h e n ail w ill d i m i n i sh i n l engt h u ntil it i s str ai gh t ; an d

t hen i t c anno t b e m ad e any sho rt er .

 33 ] CH APT E R II .
—ST RAIGHT N
LI E S . 31

A p p l i c at i o n .
— S i gn
p ai nt e rs c arp en t ers et c m ak e u se o f
-

, ,
.
,

t hi s pr o p ert y wh en t h ey w i sh t o tr ac e str ai ght li nes o n w o o d T hey .

c hal k a c o r d an d s tr e t c h it ti gh tl y b e t w e en t h e p o i n t s t hr o u h w h i c h
g
t h e li n e i s t o p ass T h e n s e i i ng t h e c o r d b y t h e m i d d l e t h e y
. z ,

d r aw it aw ay a littl e fr o m the w o o d an d t hen l et it go It spri ngs .

b ac k , tri k es t he w o o d a sharp b l o w
s ,
an d l e av e s o n it a w hit e tr ac e ,

w hi c h i s a str ai gh t li n e .

§ 33 . As r egar ds l engt h ,
two li nes m u st b e e it h er equ a l or

u n equ a l .

D e fin i t i o n .
—T w o s tr a i gh t l i n es a re E QUAL, if ,
w h en l a i d o ne

the o th er , th ei r en ds o r ex tr e m i ti es be m a d e to co i n ci de
u p on ca n .

If th i s ca n n o t be d o n e the l i nes a re UNE QUAL

—
.

E xp re s s i o n o f E q u al i ty . If t w li o n es, AB an d CD, are

T h i s e xpr essi o n i s c all ed an E QUAT IO N ,

an d is

T he S i gn is c al e d l t he S IGN OF E QUALIT Y
—
.

E xp re s s i o n of In e q u a l i t y . T h e li n es A B an d B F ( F ig .

3 1 ) are u n equ al li n es A B i s g rea ter th a n E F , o r . EF i s l ess

th a n A B In pl ac e o f t h e w o r d s i n it ali c s , w e o ft en
. em pl o y t he
s i gn s an d an d w rit e :A B > E F an d E F , <AB .

E xe ri
c se .
— Re a d th e f ll wi g : = b ;
o o n > ; a c a x <y ,
°
AB <P Q
RS > P Q ; E F z HK ; G O > H K ; X Y < CD .
32 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NNE RS .
34 .

34 . r d er t o t est the equ alit y o r i n equ alit y o f t wo li nes i t

In o ,

i s n o t n e c essar y t o pl ac e o n e li n e u p o n t h e o t he r as t h e d efin iti o n ,

o f t h e l ast sec ti o n m i ght s ee m t o r equ ir e We find i t u su al l y m o re .

‘

c o nv en i en t t o c o m p ar e b o t h li n es w it h a th i d li n e w h i c h c an be r ,

r ead ily pl ac ed u p o n o r b y t he si d e o f each o f t he m .

In c o n str u c ti n g ge o m e tri c al figu r es an d d i agram s w e m ak e t hi s ,

c o m p ari so n ( esp e c i all y w h en gr e at ac c u r a c y i s r e u ir e d

q ) y
b m e an s

o f t h e d i v i d er s ( c o m p asse s ) S pp o se fo r e xam p l e t h at w e w i sh . u , ,

t o t es t w h et h e r t h e li n es A B an d C D ( F ig 3 1 ) are e q u al O p en . .

t h e d i v i d e r s and pl ac e o n e po i n t o n A t h e o t he r o n B ; t hi s i s
, ,

c all e d ta hi ng th e d i s ta n ce A B bet w een th e p i n ts f th e d i vi ders o o .

T h en t ak i ng c are no t t o alt e r t h e o p en i ng o f t h e d iv i d er s pl ac e
, ,

o n e p o i n t o n C an d o b ser ve w h e t he r t h e o t he r p o i nt will fall o n

D ; if it d o es fall o n D w e k no w t hat C D AB , .

—I g r l l i s
OT E n c m p r d l gth by m
ene a i g th m
ne d xa re o a e in en eas u r n e an e
pr ss i g t h i r l gths f t m i l s m tr s t w i ll b pl i d i P rt s VII
.
, ,

e n e en In ee e e e e c as e ex a ne n a

d V III f t h i s ch pt r
, , , .
, .

an . o a e .

E x r i e c ses 1 D r w tw li s
. .d th t st wh th r th y
a qu l o ne , an en e e e e ar e e a .

2 D r w h ri
. a t l li
a th dr w v rtic l l i qu l t i t
o zon a ne en a a e a ne e a o .

3 E pl i h w t m k
. x a n li oqu l t giv l i
o a e a ne e a o a en ne .

4 Dr w l i
. a qu l ta dg f this cub
ne e a o o ne e e o e .

5 D r w l i s qu l t th di ff r t dg s f this pris m
. a ne e a o e e en e e o .

6 Dr w f ur l i s
. a b o d f ll ws :
ne b , > d<b
a, ,
c, ,
as o o a ,
c a, .

7 Dr w
. y f ur l i
a s m
an p th
o t st th ir l gths d wri t th
ne , , n , o, , en e e en ,
an e e

r su l ts with th pr p r sig s
e e o e n or or

8 T y t d w fr
. r o h d tw q l l i s
ra ,
ee h ri t l th th r
-
an ,
o e ua ne ,
o ne o zo n a , e o e v er

ti l th t st th ir qu l ity
ca en e e e a .

9 Dr w tw l i s
. a h l g r th th gr t st p i g f th divid rs
o ne , e ac on e an e ea e o en n o e e .

H w o c an
y t st wh th
ou r th y e qu l et ? e e a re e a or no

35 t esti ng wit h the d i vi d er s the l engt hs o f two li n es t he

. In , , ,

t hir d li ne wit h whi c h w e c o m p ar e e ac h o f t hem i s t he di sta n ce b e

t ween the po i n t s o f the d i vi d er s We a ss m e t hat i f t he t wo li nes . u

are e ac h e q u al t o t h i s d i st an c e t h ey m st b e e q u al t o e a c h o t h e r ,
u .

T h i s assu m pti o n i s so v e ry o bv i o us t hat it al most e sc apes n o ti c e .

 CHAPT E R II .
—ST RAIGHT LI NE S . 33

If t wo li nes —o r any t wo m agn it d es a e e ac h equ al t o a t hird u r

,

of co u r s et hey a e eq u l t o e ac h o t h er In f t t hi s i s a tr t h so
r a . ac , u

s i m pl e i n i t s n a t r e t h t i t c nn o t b e m ad e c l e r e r b
u tr
a i n t a a
y y g o

ev .
—
pr o t T r t hs o f t hi s k i nd t h t i s t o say lf vi d n t tr ths
i u a ,
se -
e e u

a e c all e d AX IO M S
r .

B e si d es t he axi o m her e u nd e r c o n s i d e r ati o n t h er e a e fo u r ,

r

o t h e r s o ft e n se f l i n G e o m e tr y We shall n o w s t at e t he m ll an d
u u . a ,

s hall r e fe r t o t he m he r eaft e r as he r e nu m b e r e d .

Axiom s .
— I If . tw o m ag ni tu d es a re ea ch e ual
q to a thi r d ,
th ey a re e
qu al to ea ch o th er .

II [ th e s u m s a re e al
f . e
qu a l s a re a dded to equ a l s , q u .

III [f the r e m a i n d er s
. e
qu a l s a re s u btr a cted f rom eq u a l s , a re

e
q l
u a

IV . [f eq u a l s a re m u l tipl i ed by equ a l s , th e pr o d u cts a r e equ a l .

V . [f equ a l s a re di vi ded by equ a l s, th e qu oti en ts a r e equ a l .

36 l engt h o f a li n e ( li k e it s d ir e c ti o n ) i s su sc e pti bl e o f
. T he
c h a ng e We m ay su pp o se it e it he r t o i n c
.
o r t o d i m i n i sh r e a se .

Pr o l o n g t he li n e A B ( F g 3 2 ) t o any p o i n t C ; t h en t he li ne .

A C i s e q al t o t he s m o f t he li n es
u u
' ' l
B
A B n d B C ; he r e w e m ay e m pl o y
a
A C
Fg 3 t 2.
to d an t ge t he S gn
a v o f add t o n
a i i i ,

a n d w rit e ,

A C: AB + B C .

Co nv e r se l y, t h e li n e A B i s t h e d i/fi r e n ce b e w ee n t he n es A C t li
an d B C; or w e m ay u se t h e S gn i o f su b ac o n , an d w e,tr ti rit
AB z A C — B C .

P li n e A B ( F g 3 3 ) b y add i ng t o it r e p eat ed l y ( b y
r o l o ng a i .

m e ans o f t he d i i d e r s ) li n e s B C C D D E v et c e ac h e q al t o , , ,
.
,
u

AB T h e n A C i t w i c e as l o ng as A B A D i s t hr ee ti m es as
. s ,

l o n g A E fo r ti m es as l o ng et c
,
T h at i s w e h a e m l tip l i ed t h e
u , .
,
v u
34 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS .
36
.

li n e A B by 2,
3, 4, et c . It i s u su a l to om it t he S i gn x of m u lti ~

p l i c ati o n ,
an d w rit e the r esu lt s t hu s A C 2 AB, AD s
3 A B
A B : 4 AB , et c . Al so A B : 2 A C, A L 5 A C : 2 AF .

A B C D E F G K L

Co nv er sel y, a li ne c an a l ways b e di vi d ed i nt o eq u a l p art s . In

t h e ab o v e li ne fo r e xam pl e A B i s o ne h al f o f
, ,
-
A C, o n e t h ir d of

AD, o ne -
fo u rt h o f A E et c i n o t h er w o r d s, .
,

AC AD AE
5—9
4 :
,
et c . Al so , A C
2 3 4 3

T h e se r esu lt s m ay b e su mm e d u p i n t h e fo ll o w i ng gen er al tr u t h
L i nes , l i he n u m ber s , m ay be a dd ed , s u btr a cted , m u l ti l i ed , a n d d i
p
vi ded .

R em a rk .
—O b ser ve ,
h o wev e r , t h at w e h av e
l y m u ltipl ied and on

d iv i d ed a l i ne b y a n u m ber and t h at t h e r esu lt h as al ways b e en ,

a n o ther l i ne If fo r i n st an c e w e m u ltipl y t he li n e A B b y t h e
.
, ,

nu m ber 1 0 w e si m pl y r e p eat t h e li n e a c e rt a i n n u m b e r o f ti m e s
, ,

an d t h e r esu l t i s t h e li n e A L ; o r w riti ng t h e o p er ati o n i n t h e ,

fo r m o f an eq u ati o n ,

10 X AB = AL

In t he c o nv e se o pe ar r ti o n of d i v i si o n t h er e are two c ases

(a) We y d
ma i v i d e t h e l i n e A L b y t h e n u m be r 1 0 ,
o b t ai n i ng
as t he q u o ti e nt t h e l i n e AB I n t h i s c ase w e d i vi d e th e l i n e i n to
.

a cer ta i n n u mber o f equ a l p a r ts .

( )
b O r ,
w e m ay d i vi d e t he l i ne A L b y t h e l i ne A B , an d now

o ur q u o ti ent w ill b e t h e t hi s
n u m ber 10 . In c ase we fi nd h ow

m a ny ti m es o n e l i n e i s co n ta i ned i n the o th er l i ne . In t hi s s e n se

d i vi si o n i s t h e co m p a r i s o n, a s r eg a r d s m ag n i t u d e,
of t w o t h i ng of
s

the s a me hi n d , an d the q uo ti t
e n i s t h e re l a ti v e m air
g n i t u d e o r r a ti o .
36 G E OM E T RY FOR B E GI NNE RS .
38 .

For exam pl e :ia g 3 4 .

,
w h ere A B B C : CD DE =B F,
t he li n e A B i s a m ea s u r e of AB, of A C, of C F , in sh o rt ,
of
ev e r y li n e r e pr e sen t e d i n t he figu r e ; t her efo r e A B i s a o m m n c o

m a su e o f al l t h e se li ne s
e r . O n t he o t her hand al l t h e li nes i n th e ,

figu r e are m u l tip l of A B es .

If w e r the t wo li nes A B an d A F w e see t hat t he ir

com
p a e ,

c o m m o n m e asu r e A B i s c o n t ai n e d o n c e i n A B an d fiv e ti m e s i n
A F ; h en c e t he li n es A B an d A F are t o e ac h o t he r as t he n u m
,

b er s I an d 5 t hat i s t h ey h av e t he a ti o 1 : , 5 B y ex pr e ssi n g t hi s r .

r ati o as a fr ac ti o n w e o b t ai n t he equ ati o n

, ,

AB I X AB 1

AF 5 X AB 5
T he r eci
p r oca l r ati o of AF to A B i s t h at of 5 to 1 , or s i m ply 5
—I c
.

N OT E n gu g i st d f us i g h t rm r i
o mmon l an a e, n ea o n t e e at o , we s ay , A B is
o n e fift h
-
as l g AFon r c ipr c lly A F i fi i m s l g
as ; o r, e o a ,
s ve t e as on as AB .

In li k e m ann er it i s easy to se e fr o m F ig 3 4 t hat

,
.

T h e li n e s A B and A C h ave t h e r ati o I 2

AC an d AB
B D an d AF
CF an d AE et c .

In th e fo r m of r ac ti o ns t h ese r ati o s w o u l d
f ,
b e w ritt e n ,

AB A C B D CF
£’ — 3
2 2
2 et c
. , . '
__ .
’ ’ ’
A C 2 AB 1 AF 5 AE 4

E xe rc i se .
— Wh a t i s th e r ti
a o of ( F ig 3 4 )
AD an d AB . AD and A C?
AD an d AD ? AD an d AE ? A D an d A F ? A C a n d A E ? AE a nd AF ?
Writ e
'

th e y al u e s b th with d ts (
o o z
) an d r cti s
as f a on . In th s r ti s wh i ch
e e a o ,

t rm i
e s th e an e t c d t ? which th
e en e co n e s qu t en ?

38 . In or d e r t o find t he r ati o o f tw o li nes apply t he sho rt er ,

li ne t o t he l o nger li ne as o ft en as p o ssi b l e i f th e sho r t er li ne i s a

 CHAPT E R II .
— ST RAIG HT LI NE S . 37

m e asu r e o f t he l —
r i f fo r exam pl e it i s c o n t ai ned i n th e l o nge r
o nge

e x ac tl y fi e ti m es — t h e n
, , ,

i t h ra ti o o f t h e sh o rt e r li n e t o t h e
v , 5 s e 1

l o nger .

If ho w ev e r t h e sh o rt e r li n e i s n o t a m e asu r e o f t h e l o nge r t he
, , ,

pr o b l e m b e c o m es m o r e d i ffic u lt Aft e r w e ha e appli e d t he sho rt er . v

li n e t o the o t her li n e as m any ti mes as p o ssi b l e t her e i s a r em ai n d er ,

l ess t han t he sho rt er li ne F o r e xam pl e :i n the c as e o f t he li n es

.

M N and P Q ( F g w h e n M N h as b ee n a ppli e d twi c e fr o m

i .

F t o w ar d s Q t h e r e r e m ai ns t h e p o rti o n 1? Q o f t he l o n ge r li n e
, .

T o m ee t t h i s d i ffic lt y a ppl y R Q t o M N as o ft en as p o ssi b l e ;

u ,

t hen apply the n ew r e m ai nd er S N t o R Q whi c h c o n t ai ns it ex ,

ac t l y t w i e c .

T h i s se ri e s o f o p e r ati o ns i s pr e c i sel y li k e t h e pr o c e ss o f fin d i ng
‘

t he gr e at est c o m m o n d i v i so r o f t w o n u m b e r s ; i t i s i n fa c t t he , ,

m e t ho d o f fin d i ng t he g a te t c m mo n m ea u e o f t wo li n e s
re s o s r .

M
i —
§
— N
f 4

P
i - —4
1

F r o m w h at pr ec e d es w e see t hat
B Q 2 SN ;

M N : 3 R Q+ S N = 6 S N + S N = 7 S N ;

F Q 2 M N + R Q= I4 SN + 2 SN = I 6S N ;

P Q I 6S N 1 6 ,
M N 7 S N 7
)
MN 7S N 7 F Q 1 6SN 16

S N i s t h e gr e at est c o m m on m e asu r e of t he tw o li nes ; t he

l o n ge r t i
c o n a ns it si xt een ti m es t he o t her sev en ti m es ; ,
t he r ati o
of t he li nes t her efo r e i s t hat o f t he nu m b ers 1 6 and e it he r
, , 7,
or
38 GE OM E T RY F O R B E GI NN E RS .
3 8 .

It m ay happ en t h at w e c ann o t fin d a c o m m o n m easu r e o f t w o

li n es b y t hi s pr o c e ss, fo r the r easo n t hat t he li n es hav e n o c o m m o n
m easu r e su c h li n es
ll ed INCOM M E NS URAB LE LIN E S
are c a .

R em a r k T h e exac t r ati o o f tw o i n c o m m e nsu r ab l e li n e s c an

.
-

n o t b e e xpr esse d b y n u m b er s ; b u t b y d i v i d i ng o n e o f t he li n e s

i nt o a gr e at n u m b er o f equ al p art s and applyi ng o n e o f t hese p art s ,

t o t he o t h er li n e as o ft en as p o ssi b l e an d n egl ec ti ng t h e r e m ai n d er ,

( w h i c h w ill b e v e r y s m all c o m par e d w it h e it h e r o f t h e li n e s ) w e

are abl e t o a r ox i m a te v er y n earl y t o t h e t ru e v al u e o f t h e r ati o

pp .

If fo r i nst an c e w e d i v i d e o n e o f t wo li nes i n t o 1 0 0 0 e qu al
, , _

p art s and find t hat the o t her li ne c o nt ai ns m o r e t han 60 0 b ut l ess

, ,

t han 60 1 o f t hese p art s w e k no w t hat t he tru e v al u e o f the r ati o

, ,

li es b etw een { 3 and 4 3 3 F o r n earl y al l p u rp o se s w e sho u l d

50 0
0
50 1
3 0 .

assu m e t hat t he r a ti o w as
{ 0 o r g i n o t h e r w o r d s w e s h o u6l
50
d , ,

assu m e t hat o n e li n e was t hr ee fift hs as l o n g as t h e o t h e r -

.

E xe r i s s —l
c e . wh t li s i M N
. mm
In F ig 3 6, o f . m sur ? a ne s a co on ea e

How m y ti m s
an ti d e h f th m ? O f wh t l i s i P Q
i s i t co n a ne in e ac o e a ne s

l N ) mm m sur ? H w m
a co y ti m s i i t c t i d i
on ea h? e o an e s o n a ne n e ac

2 E pr ss th v l u s f th
x e th r l i s i t rm s f P Q
e a e o e o e ne n e o

—M N = 4 P Q;
.
.

Ans . AB = 24 P Q; C D = 16 P Q; E F= 17 P Q.

F ig 3 6 . .

3 . H ow m an yt i me i s s AP Q t i di
c o n a ne n e ac h li ne i n F ig 3 6 ? Is i t a
.

co mm o n sur f l l f th m ?
m ea e o P Q i t thra o ur e If w divid e e n o ee , fo fiv e , e t c , ,
.

e qu l p rts wi ll
a a f th p rts b
,
mm m sur
o ne o f l l t h lie s? a e a co on ea e o a e ne

4 O f wh t l i s i
. P Q a mm m sur ?
ne l ll N ?
s 2 a co on ea e 2

5 .W h t i t h gr
a t st c m m s m sur ef M N d A
ea e B ? f A B o on ea e o an o an d

CD ? of M l V, A B an d CD ? o f M TV, A B , C D an d E F ?
 CHAP T E R II .
— ST RAIGHT LIN E S . 89

i d th r t i f P Q t ch f th th r l i s i F ig 3 6 d writ
6 . F n e a o o o ea o e o e ne n .
, an e

th r su l ts b th fr ct i
e e ll y d with d ts o a o na an o .

7 F i d t h r ti
. f M N t l l th
n th r l i s d writ th r su l ts
e a o o o a e o e ne ,
an e e e

b th fr ti ll y d with d ts
o ac o na an o .

8 F i d th r ti
. f A B t th th r l i s d writ t th r su l ts
n e a o o o e o e ne ,
an e ou e e .

9 Wh t i t h r ti. f CD t E F a Wh t i th r ipr l r ti ?
s e a o o o ? a s e ec o ca a o

1 0 Dr w y tw li. s d th fi da th ir r ti an o ne , an en n e a o .

VI I . Un i t s of L en g t h .

p ari ng the l engt hs o f li ne s w it h o n e ano t he r a gr eat

39 . In com

a m o n t o f ti m e an d tr o b l e i s sa e d b e m pl i n u n i ts o f l e n t h
u
y o y g g u v

—
.

D e fi n i t i o n s I A UN IT f l eng th i a k n w n l ng th w h i h . o s o e c

m en ag r ee to em
p l oy a s a co mm o n ter m o f co m p a r i so n , o r co mm o n

m ea s u r e f o r all l i nes .

Unit s o f l en gt h r ec e i ve i nd iv i d u al n am es, as t he f oot ,

t he y a r d ,

t h e m eter , t he m i l e, et c .

II . T o M E AS U E R a l i ne i s to fi nd h ow o f ten i t w ill c o n ta i n a

u ni t o f l eng th .

In t her w o r d s
o ,
to m easu r e a li ne i s t o fin d i t s r ati o t o t he un it
of l en gt h .

III . T he n u mber o f ti mes a l i ne co n ta i ns a u ni t o f l ength

i s the N UM E RICAL VALUE f o th e l i n e w i th f
r e er e n ce to th a t u ni t ;

j o i n ed t o th e n a m e f
o th e u n i t, the w h o l e ex
p r essi o n is ca l l ed th e

LE N GT H of th e l i ne .

E xa mpl e s — 6 fee t 9 m e t ers 1 2 m i l e s

.
, , .

N OT E In o l d e n t i m e s u n i ts o f l n gth w e r e
usu lly k fr m s m p rt f e a ta en o o e a o
hu b dy w rd f t i d i c t s i rigi T h b t w h l gth f h
.
,

th e m an o T he o oo n a e ts o n e cu i as t e en o t e
r r r lb w f h m i dd l fi g r T h first tt m p t t
. .

fo e a m f o m t h e e o h d to t e en o t e e n e e a e o es
st d rd y d i E gl d w i h r ig f Ki g H ry I w h
.
,

ta b li h s a an i a ar n n an as n 1 1 20 , n t e e n o n en o
rd r d th t h y rd h c i l b w m ) sh ul d b f h
.
,

o e e ll (La l t e a t e an e nt e a ti n u na , e o ar o e o t e
c l g h f h i w m A h pr s t d y h rs s d scri b d y
, , ,

e xa t en t o s o m n ar t t e e en a o e a re e e as s o an
d h gh pl c i s m i m s s i d b y p d ist t T h
.
,

m
“
h an d s i an a a e s o et e a to e so an a ces an e
l l d ri v h i r rigi fr m h hu m b dy ; h
.
,

sp h p lm
an, d h f th m
t e a an t e a o a e e t e o n o t e an o t e

f th m w h d i st c b w h r m p i s f h u str ch d rm s B
,

a o as t e an e et een t e e xt e e o nt o t e o t et e a ut

u i s f l gth w r c g i d by l w m g c i vi l i d ti s dfi d
.

th e n t o en no e o n ze a a on ze na on a re e ne
by h S t wi th h u m st pr c i s i by r f r c
t e a te st d rd m d f pl i
t e t o e o n, e e en e to a an a a e o at
nu m th r h rd m l wh i ch su ff rs s s i bl ch g fr m g
or o e a g T hi s
et a e no en e an e o a e to a e

s d rd i k pt t h c p i t l f h t i d c r fu ll y m d c pi s f i
.
,

ta n a s e a t e a a o t e na o n , an a e a e o e o t a re
pr s rv d i pub li c bu i ldi gs i h ch i f c i ti s wh r th u i t i mpl y d
e e e n n n t e e e e e e n s e o e .
 40 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS .
40

40 . it s o f l engt h est ab li sh ed b y l aw and u sed fo r m o st

T he un
,

p u rp o ses i n t he Un it e d S t at es and in G r eat B rit ai n are t h e IN CH , ,

t h e F O OT t h e YAR D t he RO D t h e M ILE
, , , .

1 2 i n c he s t ar d s
( )
l n I fo o .

55 y ro d 1 .

3 fe e t 1
y ar d 3 2 0 r o d s 1 m il e .

N —T h g g ph i l
OT E e m il i
eo —s i h f d gr f m ri d i
ra ca o r s ea e s o ne xt i e t o a e ee o a e an
o f ht rth d qu l
e ea an mm is e t t t m i l s v ry
a to rly co on o r s a u e e ,
e nea .

E x i e rc seH w m y i ch s i
. o y rd i an d ni mfl e n o ne a n o n e ro n one e

41 . T he un it s o f l engt h no w
pl o ye d b y t he p eo p l e o f m o st em

ci vili e d n ati o ns and b y the m en o f s c i en c e o f al l n ati o ns a e

z , ,
r

c a ll e d M E T R IC n it s fr o m t h e n am e o f t h e f n d am e n t al u n it t he
u ,
u ,

m et er ‘
T h ey fo r m t ak en t o ge t he r a p art o f t h e M e tri c S yst e m
.
, ,

o f We i gh t s a n d M e asu r e s fir st ad o pt ed b t h e F r en c h j t aft e r
y ,us

t h e g e at r e v o l u ti o n o f 1 7 9 2
r .

D e fin i t i o n T he M E T E R . th e f un d a men ta l u n i t f r o m w h i ch

a ll o th er u n i ts i n th e m etr i c sy stem a r e der i ved i s d efin ed by l a w

as th e l ength of a cer ta i n pl a ti n u m ba r hept a t P a r i s .

N OT E S t s wh ch v d pt d
1 T h e na i o n i r c syst
ha e a o e k r t h e m et i e m ta e f o m

rs t r st p r ct c p s wh ch d c pt l
. .

t h e Pa i m e e t h e m o e fe o ie i c an b e m a e a n d i n t h e a i a of

ch t pr s rv d tr c sur s w gh s w h wh ch h s
,

ea n a i o n a re e e e a s et o f m e i m ea e and ei t it i t o e
us d by p l ust gr
e th e eo p e m a ee

u d rs tr c sys d fi d r
.

2 T h e fo n e o f the m e i te m e ne th e m e t e a s on e t en m i l l i on th -

tr rd ry rts w r
.

e d i s ta n c e f r o m t h e E u a t or t o t h e N or t h P o l e E i e ffo
p a r t of t h q x ao na e e

d c s ruct pl u wh ch sh u l d h v h s ct v l u
.

m a e to o n t a at in m b a r i o a e t i e xa a e An a rc o f
r d p ss g hr ugh r c p sur d w th tr cr
.

a m e i i an a in t o F a n e a n d S a i n w a s m ea e i ex e m e a e,

an d by c b g r su l s w h th r k w c s d st c r
o m i ni n the e t it o e no qu r
n fa t t h e i a n e f o m th e E ato

l c l cu l t d
t o t h e Po e w a s a pl u
a e T heb s d th s su l s
ati n m b a r supp s d
a e on e e re t w as o e

t ctly wh dfi d l g rw rds rr rs
.

a t t h e i m e t o b e e xa a t i t w as e ne to b e B u t n o t o n a ft e a e o

sur ts w r d sc v r d k w h rs t r
.

n t a t t h e Pa i me e
—
i n t h e m ea e m en e e i o e e and i t i s no w no

pl u l ss th t d d v l u by u t c d g n
,

m i m n o t ex e e i n
( t h e a t i n b a r ) s e a n i ts i n e n e a e a n a o n
o f th e wh l o e .
5

T he o t he r u n it s o f l engt h are m u lti pl es an d d i vi si o ns o f t h e

m e t e r as fo ll o ws
T en m t s a e ca ll ed o ne DE KAM E T E R
e er r .

One h u n d d m et s a r e ca l l ed o n e H E KT OM E T E R
re er .

1T he o w rd
m ete r o m e f c s rm o a G r k w rd
ee o m e an i n g m ea su re ,
an d i s p ro
no u nc e d m eé t er T he F en ~
. r ch wri t e t he w rd met
o re.
 CH APT E R II .
— ST RAIG HT '

LI E S N . 41

O n e th o u s a n d m eter s a r e ca l l ed o n e KILO M E T E R .

O ne ten th of a m eter i s ca ll ed o n e DE CIM E T E R .

O ne h u n d r edth f N T IM oE T E R a m eter i s c a l l ed a CE .

O n th o a n dth of a m t
e us is c ll d M ILLIM E T E R e er a e a .

N T
OT E S h us d m t rs i l s c ll d M AM
1 en t o an e e s a o a e a Y RI E T E R
m s f h m u l t i pl s d h m h t m t r h l m
. . .

T h
2 e na e o t e my m t e e a e t e r, ec o e e i o e t e r, ri a e e r a re
f r m d by p fi i g h w rd m t r t h G r k u m r l s d k h ct
.
,

o e re x n to t e o e e e ee n e a e a e o

kli o d m yri anf h d i vi s i s f h m tr h L t

a m or t e on o t e e e, t e a in nu e rr
l d i
a s, ti
ec d mil l
,
cen us d,
an i a re e .

A b b rev i at i o n s M e t er m d ek a m e t e r . dk m h e ct
m e t er hm k il o m e t e r km d ec i m e t er dm c en ti m e t er

cm m illi m e t er mm .

T AB ULAR V Hfi V .

m . dm .

1 000 1 0000

1 00 1 000

10 1 00

I IO

i s t ab l e sho w s t hat gi ven n m b e r o f u n it s o f o n e v al e are

T h a u u

r ed u ed t o n it s o f t he n e xt l w
c u al e b
y m u l ti ly i ng b
p y 0 a n d o er v u 1 ,

t o u n it s o f t h e n e xt hig h al u e b
y d i v i d i n b
g y O er v I .

E x m pl a 1 R duc 3 m t rs t d ci m t rs
es .
. d l s t d k m t rs
e e 2 e e o e e e , an a o o e a e e .

An s .

2 duc
. Re f ki l m t r t m t rs
e o a o e e o e e .

S l ti o u —S i c w w i sh r duc k i l m rs
on n h t h i d l w r u i t w m ust
e e to e e o e te to t e r o e n e
m u l p l by m s d c i m l fr c i s h i s i d by m vi g h
.
,

ti thy A 10 ree ti e s in e a a t on t s o ne o n t e
d c i m l p i t th p l c s h g h t
.
,

e a o n ree a Ae 7 64 to t e ri . ns .
m

3 R duc 3 7 6 m i ll i m t rs t ki l m t rs
. e e e e o o e e .

S l t —H r w h v
o u i on r duc m ill i m rs t h i th h igh r u i ; h r
e e e a e to e e et e o t e s x e n t t e e
f r w m ust d d by im s T h t i m v l p i pl c s
.

o e, e i vi eh d 1 0 si x t e . a s, o e t e e c nn a o nt si x a e
t o t h e l ef t . An s . 0 000 3 7 6k m
.

Rem ark s — 1 . T he un it s m os t u sed are , the k il o m e t e r ( fo r

l o ng d i st an es ) th e m e t e r an dc , ,
t he c en ti m e t er an d m illi m e t e r ( fo r
l engt hs l ess t han o ne m et er ) .
 2 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS .
41 .

2 . In p r ac ti c e ,
o nly o n e u ni t is em pl o yed t o exp ess r a l engt h .

We say 7 6
cm
or 7 60
mm
( not 7
‘1a
33 2
( not 3
hm
3
dkm
2
m
,
dk m m
an d n o t 33 2 ) , etc .

3 .r e ad i n
In g t h e f a c t i o n o f a u n it t h e w o r d si n i f i n
g y g t he n u m
r ,

ber o f d ec i m al pl ac es m ay b e o m itt e d ; t hus 4 5 m ay b e r ead ,

.
m

fo r m e t e r s fiv e ;
u m ay b e r e a d : fo u r m et er s fifty two et c -

, .

T hi s i s an al o go us t o t h e c o m m o n w ay o f r ead i ng m o n ey ;
fo r i nst an c e i s r e ad : t w o d o ll ar s sev en t y fiv e ( o r y et m o r e si m
,
-

py l :t w o s e v e n t y fi v e ) I n t h e c a s e o f m
-
o n e y t h e.o m itt e d w o r d ,

i s c en t s ; w it h m e tri c u nit s it i s t en t hs hu n d r e d t hs t ho u san d t hs , , ,

et c ac c o r d i ng t o t h e nu m b er o f d e c i m al pl ac es
.
,
.

4 I n . a dd i ng s u bt a ct i n g e t c ,
m e tri c u n it s t hre y m u st fi r s t all
,
.
, ,

b e re d u ced t o a c o m m o n u n it as fo r e xam pl e t h e m et e r T hu s , , ,
.
,

m m m
64 . 27 64 . 0 27 .

CO M PA IS O R N OF ME T RIC AN D E N GLIS H UNIT S .

I ki l ome e tr mil s e ( b ut
a of m il ) o a e .

1 me tr e y rds
a ( baut 3 9o i ch s )
1
7
3 n e .

1 cen ti m t r e e i h
nc ( b aut i
o ; f i chf) o an n .

m i ll i m t r i h ( b ut g g f i h) i
1 e e nc a o o an nc .

1 il
m et rs ( b ut % ki l m t rs )
1 60 9 me e a o 1 o e e .

y rd m t r b ut — t r
1 a ( i I m ) e e a o e e .

1 f t oo m t r ( b ut 3 c ti m t rs ) e e a o 0 en e e .

1 i h nc tim t rs ( b ut } c ti m t rs ) c en e e a o 27 en e e .

N OT EIt m i ght b w ll f h p u p i l t l r by h rt h pp r i m t v l u s
e e or t e o ea n ea t e a ox a e a e

th rs us g v p r h s s but b s b c r
.

(no t h t ) j
e o t i i e t ; h t w y enm f m
n i l i a en e e t e e a to e o e a a

w i th th v l u s f th m t r d i t d ivi s i s i by c mp ri g m t s i ck w i th
e a e o e e e an s on s o a n a e er t

a y rdst i ck b c m p ri g th di vi s i s
a y o d ivi d d ru l d by s lvi g rci s s
a n e on on a e e , an o n exe e

l ik th f ll wi g
,

e e o o n .

E x i s — l
e rc seG iv th m.
tri u its f .
l gths thus :
e
m il
e l i m t rs
e c n o en 10 e e

ma k c ti m t r
e 1 en ti m t rs m k d i m t r t
e e ,
10 cen e e a e 1 ec e e ,
e c .

2 W rit .
t bu l r vi w f
e a t h m tri
a u its f l gtha e o e e c n o en .

3 W rit with br vi ti e s : 8 m t rs ; 7a ki l m t rs
e ; a donk m t rs ; e e 2 o e e e a e e

d i t rs i i t rs
.

h t m t rs ; ec o ti m t rs
e e ; m ; 3 m ll m
c en e e ec e e 1 e e .
 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GINN E RS
.

29 . Why i s th e M e tri c syst e m l s c ll d a d i m l syst m ?a o a e ec a e

30 . Whi c h d y c o n sid er pre f r b l e m e tri c u n i ts th e fo o t y ard

o ou e a ,
or , , etc . ?

VII I .
—M e a s ur 1 n g ‘

a Line .

§ 42 . In o r d er to m easu r e a li ne ri o us i nstr u m ent s are e m

va

p l o y e d A m . o n g t h e m w e m a y m en ti o n t h e D i i d e d Ru l e t h e v ,

Yar d st i c k ( o r M e t er sti c k ) t he T ,
ap e Ru l e o r R o u l e tt e
-
an d t h e ,

S u r v eyo r s Chai n
’
.

Li n e s o n p a p er are gene r all y m easu r e d b y pl ac i ng b esi d e t h e m

a d i vi d e d r u l e A v e ry usefu l k i n d o f d i i d e d ru l e i s a r u l e o n e
. v

fo o t l o ng d i v i d e d o n o ne si d e i n t o i n c h es an d p arts o f an i n c h
, ,

o n t he o t h e r i n t o d e c i m e t er s c en ti m e t er s an d m illi m e t er s
,
On ,
.

t he b l ac k b o ar d a yar d s ti c k o r m et er sti c k i s u su all y e inpl o y e d .

Lo nger li n es su c h as t h e l engt h o f a r o o m o r o f a gar d e n c an

, ,

b e m o r e r api d ly m easu r ed b y t he h elp o f a t a p e r u l e o r r o u l tt e -

e .

T h e se are m ad e o f c l o t h o r fl exi b l e st eel w o u nd a r o u nd an axi s , ,

an d e n c l o se d i n a s m all c ase su it ab l e fo r t h e c k et T h ey are

p o .

m ad e o f v ari o u s l e ngt hs p t o o n e hu n d r ed fe et u .

In m easu ri ng li n es o n t h e gr o u n d su r veyo r s e m pl o y a c h ai n
si x t y si x fe e t l o n c o n t ai n i n n e h n d r e d li n k s o r a s t e e l t ap e o n e
g g o u
-

, ,

hu n d r e d fee t l o ng F r e n c h s rv eyo r s u se a c h ai n o n e d ek am e t e r
. u

l o ng c o n t ai ni ng fift y li nk s If a c hai n o r s t e el tap e i s n o t at hand

, .
,

a r o p e d iv i d e d b k n o t s i n t o r d o m e t e r s m a b e e m pl o ye d
y y a s r y .

In t he ab sen c e o f any b e tt er m eans o f m easu ri n g a li n e p ci ng ,

a

m u st b e r eso rt e d t o T h e av er age al e o f a p a c e m u st b e fo u n d
. v u

b y c o u n ti ng h o w m any p ac es are m ad e i n w al k i ng a c e rt ai n k n o wn
d i st an c e as t en m e t e r s Pac i n g i s n o t a v e r y exac t w y o f m eas
, .

a
u ri ng a li n e b u t it i s a r api d w a an d i s al w ays at o u r d i sp o sal
, y ,
.

In m any c as e s a li n e i s n o t m eas r e d d fly b u t i t s l engt h i s

’

u zr ec ,

co mp red fr o m li n e s o f k n o wn l en t h b
a m e t h o d s w hi c h w ill b e
g y
d es c ri b e d h er eaft e r In d ee d it o ft e n h a pp en s t h at t he d ir e c t
.
,

m e asu r e m e n t o f li ne i s i m p o ssib l e fo r exam pl e t he b r ead t h o f

a ,

a ri v e r t he hei gh t o f a m o u n t ai n t he d i am e t e r o f t he eart h an d i n
, , , ,
 CHARrE R Ii .
— ST RAIGHT LIN E
’

s . 45

ge n e a r l ,
t he d i st a nc e o f an i nac c essi b l e o b ec tj ( as t h e su n o r t he
m o o n) .

iE xe rc 1 M k sesl i 3 l g d divid i t i t c tim t rs

. . a e a ne
dm on , an e n o en e e .

2 D r w l
. i s with l g t
a hs f ll ws : 6
ne
m
75 en as o o 1
:
I
mm

3 Dr w l i s with l gths
. a f ll ws : 7 6
ne 4 ; 3 6 en as o o I dm 1 .
m

4 D r w fr. h d li 3 a
m l
,
g M sur i t with th divid d ru l
ee -
an ,
a ne d on . ea e e e e

and fi d wh t rr r y n h v m d R p t th
a e or is thr ti m sou a e a e . e ea e e xe c e ee e .

5 M sur i m tric u its with t h divid d ru l t h f ll wi g l i s

. ea e, n e d n ,
e e e, e o o n ne , an

writ t th e r su l ts :( ) L gth br dth d thick ss f b k ; ( é)

ou e e a en ,
ea , an ne o a oo

l gth d br dth f y ur d sk ; ( ) l gt h f y ur l d p ci l ( d ) l gth

en an ea o o e 6 en o o ea -
en en

of y ur m idd l fi g r
o e n e .

6 E ti m t first by th
. s y th m
a e sur with t h m t rsti
,
k t h h ight e e e, en ea e e e e c , e e

of th d r e oo .

7 M sur with
. r u l tt th l gth d br dth f th r m ; l s
ea e, a o e e, e en an ea o e oo a o,

th l egth d br dth f th p l y gr u nd
en an ea o e a -
o .

8 F i d th v l u
. f y ur p c by p ci g tw ty m t rs
n e a e o o a e a n en e e .

9 M sur by p ci g th d i st c fr m th sch l h us t y ur h m
. ea e, a n , e an e o e oo o e o o o e .

43 . If w e lo o k
try li k e th e Unit ed
on a m ap of a l ar ge coun

S t at e s w e see t h at d i st an c es w h i c h a m o u n t t o h u n d r e d s o f m il es
,

are d ced i n l engt/z an d r e pr ese n t ed b y li n es at m o st a few i n c hes

re u

l o ng It i s c l ear t hat i n c o nstr u c ti ng m ap s pl ans o f est at es et c

.
1
, , ,
.
,

t he a c t u al l en gt hs o f li n es m u s t b e v e r y m u c h r ed u c ed fo r o t her ,

w i se t he m ap o r pl an w o u l d n ee d t o b e as l arge as t he c o u n try o r
,

t he e st at e w hi c h i t r e pr es en t s .

A d i i d e d li n e o r o t h e r m e ans fo r en ab li ng u s t o r ed u c e l engt hs
v ,

m e as u r e d o n t he gr o u n d i n a gi e n c o nst an t r ati o i s c all e d a R E v ,

D UCIN G S CALE an d t h e o p e r a ti o n o f d r aw i n o n p a p e r li n es w ho se
g
l engt h shal l b e o ne hal f o ne fo urt h o ne t en t h o any o t her fr ac -

,
-

,
-

,
r

t i o n al p art o f t h e li n es m easu r e d o n t he r o u nd i s c a ll e d D RAWIN G

.

g ,

T O SCALE .

v y k ws wh t m p i ; p l i p r i f h ri
1 E er o ne no l sur f c a a a s a an s a o t on o a o z o n ta a e,

or surf c ssu m d h ri t l r pr s t d p p r g h r w ith i b d i i

a e a e as o zo n a e e en e on a e to et e ts s u v s

s d th r d t i l s f i m p r c wh i ch i c t i s A d i g m i y t f
,

i
on an o e e a o o tan e t on a n a ra s an se o

l i s dr w ppr i ll us r t s t m t i d i d m str ti ; th
.

ne a n on a e et c to t a e a ta e en or a n a e on a on e
c ll d F gw f G m try d i g m
.
, ,

so -
a e z r es o eo e are a ra s.
46 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GINN E RS .
43 .

S u pp o se , fo r e xam pl e t hat
r e d u c i ng sc al e t he d i
,
we t ak e as a

v i s i o n s an d su b d i v i s i o n s o f a d i v i d e d r u l e an d t h a t li n e s are t o b e
,

d r awn t o t he sc al e o f m e t er t o 5 0 0 m e t e r s i n o t h e r w o r d s t h t
1
,
a

t h e r a ti o o r ca l o f r e d c ti o n i s I s e T h en I m e t er w o u l d b e
u
5 00 .

r e pr esen t ed o n t he p ap er b y a li ne 3 50 3 mm
l o ng a d i st an c e “
2 ,

o f 4 8 m e t er s b li l l t t r
4 8 cm
h
“
y a n e 3 9 6 o n g a e n g o f 6 6 m e e s .

b y a li ne I u
3 3
m
l o n g e t c A n d i n g e n e r a l t h e r e d c ed , .
, ,
u

l engt h wo u l d b e fo u nd b y d i i d i ng th e r eal l en gt h b y 5 0 0 v .

Co nv er sel y t h e r e al l engt h o f a li n e w o u l d b e fo n d fr o m t he
, u

r e d u c ed l engt h b y m u ltipl yi ng t he r ed u c e d l engt h b y 5 0 0 T hu s .

,

a li n e 8 c en ti m e t e r s l o n o n t h e p a p e r w l d r e pr n t li n w h i h
g o u ese a e c ,

w as i n r ealit y 8 x 50 0 4 0 00 4 0 l o ng
cm m
.

S c al e s ar e n am ed b y expr e ssi ng t he r ati o o f r e d u c ti o n e it h e r ,

fr ac ti o nally t hu s T o 3 01 , ro d e o e t c ,
o r w it h o t w
,
o d o t s6 t h us
,
-

, .
, , ,

r : ro o o o etc
1 1 00
5 0 0,
1 , ,
.

A re d u c i ng sc al e i s so m e ti m e s pri n t d o r d r awn b y t he si d e o f t he e

m ap o r d i agr a m and i t s d i v i si o n s n u m b e r e d i n t er m s o f t h e r e al
_ ,

l engt hs o f the li n es r e pr esent ed o n t he p ap er We c an t hen eas ily .

asc e r t ai n w it h t h e d i v i d e r s t h e r e al l e n t h r e pr esen t e d b li n n
g y a e o

t he p a p e r Ho w ? .

T h e s c al e o f r e d u c ti o n m st be t/z s a m e fo r al l li n es o n t h e u e

sam e m ap p l an o r d i agram ,
If t h i s r l e w e r e n o t fo ll o w e d t he
, . u ,

a pp ear an c e o f t w o li n e s o n t h e p a p e r w o l d gi v e a fal se i d e a o f u

t heir ac t u al r el ati v e l engt hs and b esi d es th e /z p o f t he m p o r , ,

s a e a

d i agr am w o u l d d i ffer fr o m t h e sha p e o f w h t it pr o fesse d t o ep a r

resen t i n o t h er w o r d s t he m ap o r d i agram w o l d b e d i to t d ,
u s r e .

N T — T h ch i c f sc l d p ds
O E S I e h r l l o e gths f th l i s
o a a e e en on t e ea en o e ne
c m p r d w ith t h s i f h p p r wh i ch th y r pr s t d T h
. .

o a e e ze t o b t e a e on e are o e e e en e e

sc le ch s sh ul d b such w i ll b l us t r pr s t l l h l i s th p p r
.

a o en o e as e na e o e e en a t e ne on e a e

d ls l v f i r m rg i r u d h dg f h p p r
,

an a o ea e a a a n a o n t e e e o t e a e

f ll w i g m p l s f sc l s c u ll y m pl y d : U i t d S t t s
.

2T h e o o n a re e xa e o a e a t a e o e n e -
a e

C st S urv y ch rt s f s m ll h rb rs d w t 6 ; ch rts f
.

etc n 1 1 000 0 a o
oa e a 5 o a a o 1 1 000 o o
b ys s u ds dw t g r l ch rts usu lly :
.
, , ,

a o n e tc o n4 o; en e a a a I o ooo o

O rd c S urv y f G r t B ri t i p rtly i ch d p r tl y 6
, , .
, , ,

na n e e o m il ( ea a n, a 1 n to I e 1 an a

i ch s
n e m i l ( : 56 ) G v r m
to I e t S urv y f Fr c rig l sc l
1 10 0 o e n en e o an e, o i na a e,

sc l f c p i s :
a e o 4 o d e 8 1 0000 a n 1 0000
rd ry purp s r duc g c d d th p p r ; w
.
,

3 F
. i
or o na i l t b o m es , a e n s a e n ee no e a e on e a e e
 CHAPT E R II .
—ST RAIGHT LI E S N . 47

c h s
oo e sc l th c mput t h r duc d l gths d th l y ff th s l gths
th e a e, en o e e e e en an en a o e e en
h p p r wi h h i d f d i v i d d ru l wh gr t ccur cy i d m d d
,

on t e a e B t t e a o a e e ut en ea a a s e an e
c ss ry h v h p p r r duc i g sc l by m s f wh ch w
.
,

it i s ne e a to a e on d t e a e a e n a e ea n o i e c an e
t rm i h l g h f li W h tr m pr c i s i
e ne t e en tS uch r duci g sc l d
o a ne it ex e e e on a e n a e 15 e

scrib d i Ch pt r V III ( S p
.

e n a e . ee ,

E x r i — l Dr w fi p r ll l l i s
e c ses . d t k .th m t th s l a ve a a e ne ,
an a e on e o e ca e

1 200 th dist s 3 m 9 48 s
e a n ce 0
m
,
m
,
1 m
.

2 Dr w
.
y thr lai s d fi d wh
an t l gths th y r pr s t t
ee t h s l ne , an n a en e e e en o e ca e

1 200 .

3 . Wh t i a s v lu
th e a e of th e sc l if i r pr s t d by 4
a e 1 m s e e en e cm

4 . If 5 cm
r pr s t
e e en l oo m na tur l l gth wh t l gth wi ll r pr s t
a en ,
a en e e en 1 m
?
m km km
zo Id 12

5 . In wh t r t i a a o are n a tur l l gths r du d i f th s l

a en e ce e ca e is l i h nc t o th e

fo o ?t i h t th m i l
nc o e e ? 2 m i ll i m t rs t th ki l m t r ? e e o e o e e

An s .

6 . dist c b tw
T he an e e ee n t w s dr w
tw o o n ,
a n on p p rt
a e o th e s l : ca e 1
4 0000,

is r pr s t d by l i
e e en e a n e I dm l g ; fi d th dist
on n e an c e b tw e ee n th t w s
e o n .

Am .
4
1m

7 . r i l r d surv y th t t l l gth i ighty m il s Wh t s l wi ll

In a a oa e e o a en s e e . a ca e

en ab l us t r pr s t p l f th r d
e o pi e f p p r just
e en f t a an o e oa on a ec e o a e o ne oo

i l gth ?
n en

8 Dr w . th b l kb rd thr h ri t l l i s T h r pr s t th m
a on e ac oa ee o zo n a ne . en e e en e

on p p r h si g suit b l sc l f this purp s Writ th v lu f th

a e , c oo n a a e a e or o e . e e a e o e

sc l th p p r u d r th l i
a e on s e a e n e e ne .

RE VIE W O F C H APT E R II .

Q UE S T IO NS .

y dir cti s h
H o w m an str ight l i ? e on as a a ne

H w i str ight l i d t rm i d i p siti ?

o s a a ne e e ne n o on

H w i str i ght l i dr w ?
o
'

s a a ne a n

Wh t i f I d dr wi g ?
a s r ee - za n a n

Wh t i pl m b l i ?
a s a u ne

D fi e ti l fi i t l ad i
n e v er li d li s d giv ca mpl s , ar zon a ,
n nc ne ne , an e exa e .

D fi v rtic l h ri t l d i c l i d p l s d gi v
e ne e ampl s , o zon a , an n ne an e , an e e xa e .

H w y o t st wh th r l i
c an p l i v rti l ?
ou e e e a ne o r a an e s e ca

H w y o t st wh th r l i
c an p l i h ri t l ?
ou e e e a ne o r a an e s o zo n a
48 GE OM E T RY F O R B E GINNE RS .

Wh en i s a li ne s ida to r ota te a b ut
o a p i t ? Wh
o n en d s oe th e r t ti
o a on

am o u ttn o o n e r ev ol u t i on 9 .

De fi i
ne a c r cu mf it t
er en ce dis cen r e
; i l an a r c a ra us a c r c e.

Wh t i tru f r d i i f th s m ir l ?
a s e o a o e a e c c e

D s rib h w ir l s ( rcs t )
e c e o c c e dr w a , e c . a re a n .

I n co n sid ri g th dir tie n f t w l i s wh t tw

e ec o ns O s s ris ? o ne ,
a o ca e a e

D fi l l l li s d gi v m pl s
0

e p
ne ara e ne , an e e xa e .

S h w th t p r ll l l i s
o a a a e v rm t ne c an n e e ee .

A l i s whi ch w u l d
re ne v r m t l w ys p r ll l ? G iv
o ne e ee m pl a a a a e e a n exa e .

G iv m p l s f p r ll l
e exa e o ; f p r ll l p l
a a e c u r v es
; f al i d O a a e a n es O n e an a

pl a ne p r ll l t ch th r
a a e o ea o e .

H w o p r ll l li s dr w ?
a re a a e ne a n

Wh t f ur s s ri s wh w
a o ca e a sid r th dir ti s f thr l i s ?
e en e co n e e ec on
'
O ee ne

R pr s t th f ur
e e en s s by figur s
e o ca e e .

H w o w i ll ustr t th
c an e truth th t str i ght li i th sh rt st di
a e e a a a ne s e o e s

tan ce b tw tw p i ts ? G iv
e e en o pp l ic ti f th s m truth
o n e an a a on O e a e .

D fie ne e u a
q l d q an l l i s u ne ua ne .

E p l i h w th
x a n o qu l ity d th i qu l ity f tw li s
e e a an pr ss d
e ne a O o ne ar e e x e e .

H w i th
o s qu l ity f tw li s t st d ?
e e a O o ne e e

Wh t i a A i m
s an G iv A i m s I II III IV
x o e d V x o .
, .
, .
,
. an .

E pl i h w li
x a n o s dd d subtr t d m u l tip l i d d divid d
ne are a e ,
ac e ,
e , an e .

I wh t t w s
n a s s f th w rd
o en e O di i i b p r f rm d
e o li ?
c an v s on e e o e on a ne

D fi m f l i ; m l t ipl f l i ;
ea s u r e O a ne mma m u f e O a ne a co on ea su r e O
'

e ne a

tw o orm r l i s ; th o e ne ti f tw u m b rs d f t w l i s Wh t
e ra o O o n e an O o ne . a

are th t r m s f
e e r ti ll d ? O a a o ca e

I wh t tw w ys
n a o r ti b pr ss d writt e ?
a c an a a o e ex e e or n

H w i th r ti
o s e f tw l i s f u d ?
a o O o ne o n

Wh t a i
a re mm n co bl l i s?en su r a e ne

H w o wc an ppr i m t t th v l u f th ir r ti ?
e a ox a e o e a e o e a o

D fie ne a u nit f l gth ; m O i g
en l i ; th m i l
ea su r l nd th a ne e nu er ca v a u e an e

l gt/ f
en z oli a ne .

W ih t a th sr ti ef f a t t o O i h ?
a f y
oo rd t f
o an t ? f d
nct o a a o a oo o a ro o a

y rd ? f m i l t f t ? Wh t th rr sp di g ip l r ti s ?
a o a e o a oo a a re e co e on n r ec r oc a a o

D fie th m t
ne e e er .

N ma d d fi
e an th m u l tip l s
e ne d divisi
e s f th m t r e an on O e e e .

H w o mare tri u its

e r duc d fr n m d e m i ceti t th or ? o ne en o na on o an o e

Whi h f th m tri u its

c O e e m st us d ?
c n a re o e

I n ex pr ssi g l gt h h w m y i ts sh u l d b us d ?
e n a en ,
o an un o e e

H w o w u d
l y o r d l
ou gth ea t i i ag fr enti f u i t ?
co n a n n a ac on o a n
 CHAPT E R II .
—ST RAIGHT LI NE S . 49

In ddi g subtr ti g t m tric u its wh t ru l m ust b bs rv

a n ,
ac n , e c .
, e n , a e e o e e d?
Wh t i th v l u f
a m t r i i ch s
s e a e o o ne e e n n e ?

H w o li s p p r usu ll y m sur d ? l g r l i s such

are ne on a e a ea e on e ne , as th e

l gth f r m ? l i s
en o t h gr u da oo ne on e o n ?

Wh t th
a dv t g s d dis dv t g s f p i g
a re e a m an a e an a an a e O ac n as a ean s Of

m suri g
ea li n a ne ?

G iv m pl s f l i
e e xa s which c t b dir t l y m sur d
e O ne an n o e ec ea e .

Wh t i ad i g l d wh t i d
s a re wi g tuc nl sca e, a n a s ra n o s ca e 9 .

H w o s l s f r duct i
a re m d d writt
ca e ? o e on na e an en

Wh y m ust th r ti sc l f r ducti b c st t f l l li s b
e a o or a e O e on e on an or a ne e onl g
i g t th s m m p p l
n o d i gr m
e a e a . an , o r a a

E X E RC IS E S .

I . y str ight li s
H o w m an b dr w thr ugh th N rth d S uth a ne c an e a n o e o an o

p l s f th rth ?
o e O e ea

2 H w m y str igh t l i s
. o b dr wan thr ugh p i ts ( b i g y
a ne c an e a n o n o n n e n an

u m b r) ch l i c
n cti g t w p i ts ?
e , ea ne o nne n o o n

S l ti —Fr m h first p i t w
o u on dr w li s thr ugh l l th th r p i ts ;
o t e o n e c an a ne o a e o e o n

th r f r — li s T h s m u m b r m y b dr w fr m ch f h
.

e e o i ll e, n a fl I ne e a e n e a e a n o ea o t e
th r p i s d s i c th r p i ts th s w u l d m k ( — ) l i s i l l
.
,

o e o nt an n e e e a re n o n i o a e u n I ne n a
th i s w y tw l s w u l d b dr w i v ry c s thr ugh h s m w
, .
,

B i
u t, n a o i ne o e a n n e e a e o t e a e t o
p i s ; h s w l i s h w v r w u ld c i c i d d f rm but l i by 22 II
,

o nt t e e t o ne o e e o o n e an o o ne ne
T h r f r t l u m b r f d ff r t str ight l i s wh i ch dr w i
, , , .
'

e e o h e, t e to a b n e O i e en a ne c an e a n s

72 ( 72 —1 )
2

3 . F i d th gr t st p ssib l u m b r f str ight l i s whi h

n e ea e b dr w o e n e o a ne c c an e a n

thr ugh t p i ts
o en o n A 45 . ns . .

4 . T hr ugh o v rt i c l l i h w m y v rti l p l s
a e b p ss d i
a ne o an e ca an e c an e a e n

th ught ( th t i h w m y d i ff r t v rtic l p l s
o a b i m gi
s, d o an e en e a an e c an e a ne ,

a ll f wh i ch sh ll c
O t i th v rt l l i ) ? h w m y h ri t la on a n e e i ca ne o an o zo n a

pl s ? h w m y i c li d pl s ?
an e o an n ne an e

5 . T hr ugh o h ri t l l i h w m y v rti l p l s
a o b p ss d ?
zo n a ne o an e ca an e c an e a e

h w m
o y h ri t l p l s ? h w m y i c l i d p l s
an o zo n a an e o an n ne an e ?

6 . T hr ugh o i c l i d l i h w m y v rtic l p l s
an n b p ss d h w
ne ne o an e a an e c an e a e ? o

m any h ri t l p l s h w m y i c l i d pl s
o zon a an e ? o an n ne an e ?

7 H w m y tr s cir l h v ? h w m y irc l s h v th ’

. o an cen e c an a c e a e o an c e c an a e e

s m c tr ?
a e en e

8 . C antw curv d su f s b p r ll l t ch th r ? curv d surf

o e d r ac e e a a e o ea o e a e ac e an

a pl surf c ? ane a e
50 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E R S .

Can y o u dr wa a li ne p r ll l
a a e to a giv en l i ne with th e aid on ly Of th e
divid rs
e ?
F i d i h w m y p i ts i l i s
n n o an i t rs ct o n th r s x ne c an n e e o n e an o e

—
.

C an y i ll ustr
ou t with u m b rs
a e A i m s II V ? n e x o . .

If y m u l tip l y th r ti f tw l i b y th ir ip l r ti wh t i ‘

ou e a o O o n es e r ec r o ca a o, a s

t h pr o
e du t l w ys qu l t ? c a a e a o

Dr w a y tw l i
an s d fi d th ir r ti
o ne ,
an n e a o .

Ch s tw l i s i th r m sti m t th ir r ti by th y th fi d
oo e o ne n e oo e a e e a o e e e, en n

i t by m suri g th m ea n e .

1 8 m
4
m 6 m
4 + 68
d h w m
c
y m t rs ? 2
mm
o an e e

9
km
2 20 m
84 m
7 h w mdk y ki l m t rs ? 2 h m
o an o e e

T h m f tw l i s i
e su O 4 f t
o d th ir d i li
ne i 9 f t ; fi d th
s 2 ee , an e e re n c e s ee n e

li s
ne
’

T w li o s t ne h th r 5 3 d th ir m i
are o e ac o fi d th l i
e s
as .
, an e su s n e ne .

A 8X 4 8 m : 3 a d 3
X4 8 m 8 ns . 0 m
, n s
8
_ 1
m
.

T h m
e su f t w l i O s i 8 4
m o d th ir r ti i
ne fi d th l i s
s
m
, an e a o s n e ne .

T h di ff r
e f tw l i s i
e e nc e O d th ir r ti i 4 :
o 9 ; fi d th l i s
ne s an e a o s n e ne .

d % x
9
A x 6 36 ns . zo m 1
m
,
an zo
m m

I r di wsp p r th t th riv r T h iss h f ll 3 0m

“ ”
ea n a ne a e a e e e as a en 0

mu h c this i h s ?
15 In nc e

Am g th s l s pr s rib d f
on e ca e th U it d S t t s e c gi r s rvi e or e n e -
a e en nee e ce are

g r l p l s f bui l di gs i h t
en e a an o f t ; m ps } m i l s squ r
n , 1 nc o 10 ee a 1 e a e, 2

f t t
ee m il ; d
o 1 3 m i l s squ r
e of t t
.
, m il ; d fr m 4 t 8
e a e, 1 oo o 1 e o .
, o o

m il s squ r 6 i h s t
e a e, m il d
nc 9 m i l s squ r 4 i ch s t
e o 1 m il e o .
, e a e, n e o 1 e

d o . t
,
no di g 4 m i l s squ r
exc e e n i h s t m il ; d 5 m i l s
2 e a e, 2 nc e o I e o .
, 0 e

squ r i h t 1 m i l E pr ss th s s l s fr ti s w ith u ity

a e, 1 nc o e . x e e e ca e as ac on ,
n

f or th um r t r
e n e a o .

A“ T 26 ’ 264 6 , s as o , l as so, T 3 84 U ’ 3 1
’

68 6 ’ sa l eo -

Whi ch s c al e r e du ce s l i n e s th e mo st °
a sc la e Of 1 i ch t
n o 1 m il e, o r a sc l a e

O f 1 c e n ti m e te r t o 1 ki l o m e t er ?

If th e s l ca e to whi h c a m ap i s m a d e is not k w no n, how c an i t b e fo u d? n

 52 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS .
45 .

In th e l ast
r ead i ng o r writi ng the angl e the l ett er at
c ase, in ,

t h e v e rt ex m u st st and b e t w ee n t he o t her s .

F o r e xam pl e : t h e an gl e O f t he li nes A B an d A C F
( g 3 7 ) is i .

c all e d e it he r th e a n l d o r th e a ngl A o r th e a ng l B A C o r
e
g , e , e

CA B In gen er al t he w o r d a ngl e n ee d n o t b e writt en t he l e t

.
,

t er s d o r A o r B A C o r C A 8 are su ffic i en t
, , , .

E xe rc i se s .
—1 . N am e th e an g l s dr w
e a n O II t h e b l ck
a

b rdoa .

2 . D r w f ur
a o an gl s ;
e n am e th
di ff r t w ys
em in e en a .

3 . If ( as i n F ig 3 8 ) . s v r l gl s h v th s m
e e a an e a e e a e

v rt which
e ex, me o th d
of na mi g gl
n t b an an e c anno e

us d ? Why
e no t ?

Il l —M a g n i t u d e of an A ng l e .

§ 45 Angl es d i ffer i n m agn it u d e

. We S hall get la c e ar e r no

i
t on O f t h e m agn it u d e O f an an gl e i f w e regard t he angl e as g en

er a ted or des cr i hed hy the r o ta ti o n of a l i ne .

H o l d o n e l eg O f t h e c o m asse s at p r est ,
an d m ak e t h e o t her r o t at e
ab o u t t hepi vo t i n t he d ir e c ti o n sho wn b y t he arro w ( F i g 3 7 ) .

t h en t he angl e m ad e b y t he l eg w ill i n c r ease i n magn it u d e O n .

t h e o t h e r h an d i f w e r o t a t e t h e l egs i n t he o pp o sit e d ir e ti o n t h e
,
c ,

an gl e w ill d i m i n i sh an d w h en t h e l egs are b r o u ght t o ge t he r it w ill

' '

v an i sh e n tir e l
y .

In li k e m ann e r w e m ay r eg d the a ngl m d hy ny tw l i n

,
ar e a e a o es ,

AB a nd A C ( F ig . as descr i hed hy th e r o ta t o n o i .

f o ne o f th e

l i n es a bo u t th ei r i n ter secti o n A, u n ti l it co i n ci d es i n d i r ecti o n w i th

th e o th er l i ne .

It i s i
Ob v o u s t hat t he s i ze o r m ag n i t ude Of an l ang e d epe n d s
en tir el y on th e a m o u nt o
f r o ta ti o n r equ ir ed to d esc ri b e it ,
an d no t

at a l l o n the l engt hs O f i ts s i d es .

D e fin i t i o n . Tzo o a ng l es a r e E QUAL if th ey ca n he pl a ced o ne

u
p on th e o th er s o th a t th ei r v er t i ces co i n ci de i n po s i ti o n , a nd th ei r

s i d es co i n ci de i n di recti o n o th er w i s e th e a ng l es a r e UN E QUAL .
 CHAPT E R II I .
-
N
A G LE S . 53

We S hall so o n se e t hat t he eq u alit y O f t wo angl es ( li k e t hat Of

t w o li n e s ) c an b e t es t e d w it h o u t a c t u all y pl ac i ng o n e u p o n t h e

o t h er .

E xe rc i s e s — 1 O f th tw gl s
. th . b l kb rd which h th e o an e on e ac oa , as e

l g r sid s which i th gr t r g l ?
on e e ? s e ea e an e

2 M ust t h t w sid s f
. g l h v th s m l gth ?
e o e O an an e a e e a e en

46 . l BA
If, i n t he g 3 9 ) t he an g e c .
,

s i d e A C i s m ad e t o r o t at e ab o ut t h e e rt ex v

A w ay f o m A B u n til it c o m e s i n t o t he
a r ,

p o siti o n A D it i s c l ear t hat t he angl e B A D

,

i s e qu al t o t h e s m o f t he an gl e s B A C an d u

CAD t ha t i s
.
°

B A D = B A C + CA D .

If, on th e o h e i de A D t r h an d , t h e s Of t he ang e l B A D be
mad e t o r o t at e to w a d A B u n til i t r s

a rri e s at t h e p o s iti o n A C t h e r e
v e ,
r

m ai ns t he an gl e B A C whi c h i s e qu l ,
a

t o t he d f en ce O f t h e angl e s B A D
’
i er

an d C A D : i n o t her wo r d s ,

B A C= B AD CAD .

If t he angl es A O B , B O C, C O D ,
D OE ,
E OF ( g
F i . are eq u a l
to o n e an o t h er ,
t h en A 0C 2 A OB ,

A O D = 3 A 0B , A O E = 4 A O B , A 0 F = 5 A 0 B .

Co nv e rs e l y, i t i s ev i d en t t h at ,

A O B = 3 A O C = 4A O D = 1
A 0E g A O E

A ngl es , i n th e sa me s ense as l i n es , m ay be a dde d , s u btr a cted,

m u l tip l i ed , a nd d i vi ded .

D e fin i t i o n s . I . T o B IS E CT a n a ngl e ( or a l i ne) i s to di vi de i t
i n to t w o equ a l p a r ts .

II . A l i ne w h i ch bi sects a n a ng l e is ca l l ed a B IS E CT O R .
 RY RS
.

54 GE OM E T FO R B E GINN E .
47

E xerc i ses . 1 In F i g 4 0
. a . wh t an gl e is e qu l t
a o th e su m B O C+ C O E ?
to th e di ff r e ence A OF C OF ?
2 D r w fr h d thr
. a g l s f whi h
ee an i t wi th
, th r fi tim s ee a n e , O c o ne s c e, e o e ve e
as l rg th first
a e as e .

3 B is t fr h nd
. ecgiv gl ee a , a e n an e .

4 H w m y bis t rs
. o gl h v ?
an ec o c an a n a n e a e

5 D ivid
. g l fr h d i t thr f ur fi i qu l p rts
e a n an e, ee an ,
n o ee , o , v e, s x e a a .

6 I F ig 4 wh t i th r ti
. n . f th
0 gl s A O B d A O F ? A O C
a s e a o o e an e an

and A OE ?

II I —M a g n i t u d es of P ar ti c ul ar Ang l es .

§ 47 . Angl es re c e v e i d i ffer en t n am es ac c o r d i ng t o t he ir m ag
n i tu d e .

li ne t o r evo l ve If w e c o nc e ve i a

r o u n d O ( F ig st arti n
g fr o m t h e .

i niti al p o siti o n O A an d r evo lvi ng i n

t h e d ir e c ti o n O f t h e arr o w it w ill ,

d e sc ri b e an angl e O f c o n st antly i h
c r e as i n g m agn it u d e .

When the li ne h as m ad e exac tly

o n ef ou th O f a c o m pl e t e r ev o l u ti o n -
r
,

t h e angl e d esc ri b e d A O C i s c all e d , ,

a RIGHT AN GLE it i s so m e ti m es d e
Fg 4 i 1
n o t e d b y t h e l e tt e r R
. .

When the li n e has m ad e o ne h a lf Of a r ev o l u ti o n it i s i n t he -

p o siti o n O E ; t h e angl e d e sc ri b ed A O E i s equ al t o t w ri ght , ,

o

angl e s an d i s c all e d a ST R AIG HT AN GLE

, b e c au se i t s si d e s O A an d ,

O F h av i ng o pp o sit e d ir e c ti o ns fo r m o n e s tr ai gh t li n e
, ,
.

Wh en t he li ne has m ad e th r eef o u ths O f a r evo l u ti o n i t i s i n r ,

t h e p o siti o n O G T h e angl e wh i c h h as b e en d e sc ri b ed A O G
.
, ,

i s e qu al t o th e ri ght angl e s re .

F i n all y w h en t h e li n e h as r et u rn ed t o t he i n iti al p o siti o n O A

, ,

it has m ad e a c mpl te r evo l u ti o n and has d esc ri b ed f o ri ght

o e ,
ur

angl es .
 CHAPT E —
R III AN GLE . S . 55

D e fin i t i o n s —I . A ST RAIGHT AN GLE i s th e a ng l e d escr i bed by

a l i ne w h i ch m a hes o ne -
h a lf o f a r ev o l u ti o n .

II A n . a ng l e l ess th a n a s tr a ig h t a ngl e is ca l l ed a CON CAVE

AN G LE a n a ng l e g r ea ter th a n a s tr a ig h t a ng l e is c a l l ed a Co N VE x

AN G LE .

AN G LE i s ha b f gh t
‘
III A RIGHT .
o ne -
o a s tr a i a ng l e .

IV . A co n ca ve a ng l e, if l ess th a n a ri gh t a ng l e, is ca l l ed an

ACUT E ANG LE if g r ea ter , i t i s ca l l ed an O BT US E ANGLE .

In F i g 4 1 , . A O B , A O C, A O D are c o n c av e an g es l ; A O F,
A O G, A O H are c o nv ex ang es l A O B is an ac u e , t A OD an

t
o b u se an g e l .

N OT E S cut d b us gl s — 1 s m ti m s c ll d bl i q
A e an gl s i
o t e an e are o e e a e o u e an e n
d s ct r m h right gl
. . ,

i ti n i o n f o t e an e

Wh v r tw l i s m t th r f r m d b th c cv d c v gl ;
.

2 en e e o ne ee e e is o e o a on a e an a on ex a n e
but wh t th rw i s st t d h c c v gl i b u d rst d
. ,

,
en n o o e e a e ,
t e on a e an e s to e n e oo .

S i n c e t he si d es O f a str ai gh t angl e fo r m a str ai gh t li n e and o n e ,

s tr ai gh t li n e c an al w ays b e pl ac e d o n an o t h er str ai gh t li n e s o as t o

c o i n c i d e w it h it i n d ir e c ti o n it fo ll o w s t h a t t w o st r ai gh t angl es sat ,

i sfy t h e t e st O f eq u al an gl e s 45 ) i n o t her w o r d s ,

Al l s tr a i h
gt a ngl es a r e equ a l to o n e a n o th er .

An d S i nc e ri gh ta ang e l i s hal f Of a s tr ai ght ang e, l it fo llo ws

( y
b Axi o m III ) t hat .

Al l ri ght a ng l es a r e equ a l to o n e a n oth er .

E xe rc is es .
-
l . O p en th e l e gs Of th e com p ss s th t th y m k
a e so a e a e a right
an gl e str ight ; ; thr a ri ght a an gl e ee an gl s ; e ut g l ; an ac e an e an o btus e

an gl c v gl
e av gl o n ca e an e a co n ex an e .

2 O th b l kb rd
. s v r l g l s wh t ki d i ch d why ?
n e ac oa are e e a an e a n s ea ,
an

3 Wh t ki d f
. gl s f u d th cub ? th prism ? th pyr m id ?
a n O an e a re o n on e e e e a

4 P i t . t gl s v r us bj cts ( d rs wi d ws t b l s w ll s f
o n ou an e on a io O e oo , n o ,
a e , a o

th r e m oo d m th ki d i , ch s Wh t ki d f g l ccurs
an na e e n n ea ca e . a n o an e o

m st fr qu t l y ?
o e en

5 Dr w fr . h d right gl ; a ,ut g l ; btus g l ;

ee -
an , a an e an ac e an e an o e an e a

gl ;
o n c av e a n v gl e a co n ex a n e .
‘

6 At . l k wh t g l d th h ds f w t h m k with
12 O c oc
’
a an e o e an O a a c a e o ne ah

o th r ? t 3 l ck ? t 6 c l ck ? t 9 c l ck
e a O c o
’
a O
’
o a O
’
o .
56 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS .
4 8 .

7 . M en ti
ti m f th d y wh th
on a g l b tw th h ds f
e O e a en e an e e e en e an o a

w tch i
a cut g l ? right g l
s an a e an btus g l ? e a an e? an o e an e

8 Wh t p rt f
. a r v l uti d s th m i ut h d d scrib i 5 m i
a o o ne e o on oe e n e -
an e e n n

t s (A 3 6 5 mi t s ?
5
u e ? ns .I 2
3 4 n 1 0 , 20 , 0, 0, 0 nu e

9 H w l g d s i t t k t h m i ut h d t d scrib
. o on oe ri ght g l ? th
a e e n e -
an o e e a an e e

h ur h d ?
o -
an

1 0 Wh t hi d f
. a gl d s th h ur h d d s rib i
n O h ur ? i 3
an a n e oe e o -
an e c e n 1 o n

h urs ? i 5 h urs ? i 6 h urs i 8 h urs ? i 9 h urs ? i

o n o n h urs ? o ? n o n o n 12 o
1

1 1 Wh t ki d f
. a g l d s v rti l l i m k with h ri t l
n O an an e oe a e ca ne a e a o zon a

li ?
ne

1 2 Dr w right
. a g l with a sid v rti l with an sid h ri t l ;
e o ne e e ca o ne e o zo n a

with sid i c l i d
o ne e n ne .

48 . D e fin i t i o n s .
—
I A . s tr a i gh t l i nei s sa i d to be PE RP E N .

DICULAR to a n o ther s tr a igh t l i n e w h en i t m a hes a ri gh t a ngl e w i th it ,

II . T w o l i n es n ot perpendi cu l a r to ea ch o th er a r e sa i d to be

IN CLIN E D to ea ch o th er .

E x am p l es —T he li n es A E an d CG ( F ig i gn . the s

i n arit h m e ti c a c o m m o n c r o ss , ,

t h e sl at s o f a w i nd o w ( F ig .

are exam pl es O f p e p en r

d i c u l ar li n e s ; t h e li n es A B
an d A C ( F i g 3 9 ) are i n c li ned .

li nes .

T h e S i gn J i s so m e ti m e s u sed .

fo r t h e w o r d pe pen di cu l a r r ,

t hu s :A E I C G i s r e ad :the
_

l i n e A E i s perp en d i cu l a r to th e
l i ne C G .

i s s 1 G iv
E xe rc e m pl s . . e exa e

Of p rp di u l r l i s ; f i l i d
e en c a ne O nc ne

li s ne .

2 Wh t i th
. di ff ra b s e e enc e e

tw p p
ee n d i la l i d
er en cu a r ne an a

ver ti l li ca ne
 C HAPT E R III .
— AN G LE s . 57

3 . p rp dicu l r t ch th r
If tw o line s a re e en a o ea o e ,
and o ne o f th em is v er

tic l m ust th th r b h ri t l
a ,
e o e e o zo n a ?

4 If t w l i s
. p rp dicu l r t ch th r
o ne a re e en a o ea o e , and o n e of th em is h rio

t l m ust t h
zo n a th r h v rt i c l
,
e o e e e a ?

5 G iv . m pl f tw p rp d i cu l rs
e a n e xa e o o e en a , o ne Of which is v rtic l
e a ,
th e

o th r h ri t l
e o zo n a .

49 . Am o ng t he m o s t p r o b l e m s w hi c h t h e su r v e y o rco mmo n ,

c arp e n t e r d r au gh t s m an e t c
,
ha e t o so l ve are ,
.
,
v ,

( )
i T .o e ct p e rp e n d i c u l r at a gi e n p o i n t O f a gi v en li n e
er a a v .

( )
i i T o l
. t f l l a p e rp e ne d i c u l r fr o m a gi e n p o i n t t o a gi en li n e
a a v v .

O n t he gr o u n d s rveyo r s u s e v ari o u s i nstr m en t s t h e s i m pl es t

,
u u ,

o f w hi c h i s t h e S C ( g
’
v y F i ur e ors r oss .

It c o n si st s o f a b l o c k O f w o o d h av i ng t w o saw c u t s m ad e v e r y -

pr ec i sely at ri ght angl es t o e h o t her T hi s b l o k ac . c

i s fixe d o n a p o i n t e d s t aff o n w h i c h it c n t r n a u

fr ee l y T O . ect a p e rp e n d i c l ar
er set t he c r o ss at u ,

t h e p o i n t O f a li n e w h e r e a p e rp en d i c l ar i s w an t e d u ,

t hen t u rn the b l o c k till o n l o o ki ng t hr o gh o n e saw u

c ut o u see t h e e n d s O f t h e li n e ; t he n t h e o t h er
y
s aw c t w ill p o i n t o t t h e d ir e c ti o n o f t h e p e pen
-
u u r

d i c u l ar T o l t f l l a p erp end i c l ar t o a li n e fr o m
. e a u

s o m e O bj e c t as t h e c o r n e r O f a fie l d a tr e e
( , ,

s et t h e c r o ss t a p o i n t o f t he li n e w h i h se e m s t o
a c

t h e e ye ab o u t ri gh t t he n n o t e h o w f r fr o m t h e O bj e t t h e p e p e n
,
a c r

dic l u ar at t h i s p o i n t stri k e s an d m o e t h e c r o ss t h a t d i st n e re
,
v a c

p eat t hi s o p er ati o n till t he c o rr e c t p o i n t i s fo u n d .

O n p ap e r o t h e b l c k b o d b o t h O f t h e ab o e pr o b l e m s a e
'

,
r a ar v r
,

r ead ily so l ve d b y m e an s O f t h e E l and t he S qu a e E xpl ai n u er r .

ho w .

N OT E —T
th d f s l vi g th s pr b l m s p p r wi th h c m p ss s
he m e o o o n e e o e on a e t e o a e

w ll sh w
i be h pt r IV o n in C a e .

E x i —1 D r w str ight l i
e rc s e s . d th fr h d ( ) r ct
. a a a n e, an en , ee -
an ,
a e e a

p rp dicu l r t p i t th l i ( b) l t f ll p rp d i cu l r fr m p i t
e en a a a o n on e ne, e a a e en a o a o n

no t th
on li T st d rr ct th r su l ts by th i d f th ru l r d
e ne . e an co e e e e a O e e an

th squ r
e a e .
58 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS .
5 0 .

2 . y p rp di u l rs
H o w m an b e en c a c an r t d t giv p i t f giv
e e ec e a a en o n O a en

line? H w m y b l t f l l fr m
o an can e e a o a giv p i t t giv l i ?
en o n o a en ne

3 D r w h ri
. t l li
a da t fi o zon a n e , an ,
a ve p i tso ni t r t p rp dicu l rs
on , e ec e en a .

Wh t ki d f l i s
a n th y ?
o ne a re e

4 Dr w . v rti l l i
a d a t fi e ca ne, an ,
a ve p i ts
o n on i t, e ecr t p rp di ul rs e en c a .

Wh t ki d f l i s
a n th y ?
o ne a re e

5 Dr w . i cli d li
a an d t fi n ne n e, an , a ve p i ts
o n on i t, e e r ct p rp dic ul r e en a s

Wh t ki d f l i s
a n th y ?
o ne a re e

6 Dr w h ri
. t l li
a r t p
a o zon a n e, e ec a e rp dicu l r
en a , an d at a p i t f this
o n o

p rp dicu l r r t l s p rp di u l r
e en a e ec a o a e en c a . Wh t dir tia ec on h as th s c dp
e e on er

pe n d i c u l ar ?
7 E e . r ct p rp dicu l r t p i t f li n th gr u d
a e en a a a o n o a e on e o n .

8 . Ch s p i t i th y rd ( p l ygr u d fi l d ) d l t f ll
oo e a o n n e a a o n or e ,
an e a a p r
e
p e n

d i c u l ar t tho r st sid f th y rd
e n ea e e O e a .

IV .
-
M e a s ur e of an A ng l e .

5 0 Angl es .
( li k e li n e s ) are m e asu r ed b y c ho o si ng a u n i t an d ,

t hen c o m p ari ng o t h er angl es w it h t h i s u n i t T he u n it fo r m e asu r .

i ng an gl es i s O b t ai n ed b y d i v i d i ng t h e ri ght an gl e ( wh i c h w o u l d b e
t o o l arge a u n it ) i n t o n i ne t y e q u al p art s an d c alli ng o n e o f t hese ,

p ar t s a d g r e eT h e dee gr
. ee i s s u b d i v i d e d i n t o m i n u te an d seco n ds s .

O ne n i neti eth p a t of a r i gh t a ngl e i s ca l l ed a DE GR E E

r .

O ne s i x ti eth p a t of a d g ee i s ca l l ed a M INUT E
r e r .

O n e s i x ti th p a rt of a m i n u te i s c l l ed a S E CO ND
e a .

Ab b r ev t i o n s
i a — D egr ee . m inu t e se c o nd

T hu s 8 " i
°
r d : '
d r m i n t es 8 s e c o n d s
4 , 72 s e a
I 2 4 e g e es 1 7 u .

T h e v al u es i n d egr e e s O f t h e an gl es d efin e d i n 4 7 ar e as fo l
l o ws
ri ght angl e
A An ac u e an g et l
A s tr ai ght angl e An l t
o b u se an g e

T hr ee ri ght an gl es 2 A c o n c av e angl e
F o u r ri ght angl es A c o nv ex angl e
E x r is s — I
e c e H w m y s
. ds i . o an eco n n in in in

2 R du 4 8 54 36 t s c ds
ce
” ° ’ o e on
. e .

3 R du
. e
" t d gr s
c e 1 20000 o e ee .
 GE OM E T RY FOR BE GI NN E RS .
t 5
§ 1 .

I .
—E q u a l a ng l es a t th e cen tr e o f a ci r cl e i n ter cept on the ci r

f
cu m eren ce equ a l a r cs .

II .
—E q ual a r cs on th e ci r cu m er en ce f cor r es p o nd to equ a l

a ng l es a t th e cen tre .

Ac c o r d i ngl y, t he
ir c m fer enc e o f a c ir c l e i s d ivi d ed i nt o 3 60
c u

e qu al ar c s e ac h c o rr es p o n d i n g t o an angl e o f 1 at t h e c en tr e
°
.
,

T h e se ar cs are al so c all e d deg ees an d ar e su b d i i d ed li k e t he an gu

r ,
v

l ar d egree i nt o m i n u te an d second
_
An d i n pr ac ti c e an angl e i s
s s .
, ,

m easu r e d b y fin d i ng ho w m any d egr ee s m i nu t es an d se c o n d s , ,

t her e are i n t he c o rr espo nd i ng arc it b ei ng Ob vi o u s t hat the n u m ,

ber f
o an u lar
g deg r ees, mi n u tes , a nd s eco n ds in an a ngl e i s the
s a me a s th e n u m ber f
o a rc d eg r ees , m i n u tes, a nd s eco n ds i n th e
a rc des cr i bed w i th y fan r a di u s rom the ver tex f
o th e a ngl e a s a

centr e, a n d i n ter ce ted bet w een i t s si des

p .

We have j u st sa i d t hat t h e are e m pl o yed to m easu r e an l

ang e

m ay b e d esc ri b e d w it h any ra
d i ns Wit h a l o n ge r r ad i u s w e
.

l o nger are
h av e, i t i s tru e ,
a

u t e ac h d iv i si o n O f
( F ig b .

t he arc i s al so c o rr es p o n d i ngl y
in c r ease d i n l engt h S O t hat the ,

n u m ber o f d iv i si o n s ( d egr ees ,

et c ) i n t he e n tir e arc r e m ai n s .

t he sam e as b efo r e .

We are n o w pr epar ed t o an
sw er t h e q u est i o n H o w can th e equ alit y O f tw o angl es b e t est e d
w it ho u t p l ac i ng o n e O f t he m u po n t he o th er ? We r e pl y : t wo ah

gl e s are e q u a l if w h en t
,
h e ir,
c o rr esp o n d i ng ar c s are m easu r e d ( as

sh o wn i n t h e n ext se c ti o n ) t hese arcs are fo u nd t o c o nt ai n t he

,

sam e n u m b e r O f d egr ees m i nu t es an d s e c o n d s , ,

.

N T E —H w
O o b d i v i d d i t d gr s
a n a rc c a n te i q u st ie wh i ch m ust
n o e ee e c s a e on

b d f rr d u t i l w k w m r b ut th pr p rt s f th C r l
,

e e e e n e no o e a o e o e ie o e i c e.
 — ANGLE
A

5 CHAPTE R i n . s . 61

E xe rc is e s i d th g l d scrib d by th h ur h d f w tch i
. 1 . F n e an e e e e o -
an O a a n

1 h ur ; h urs ; 5 h urs ; h urs

o 2 o o 12 o .

2 F i d th
. gl d scri b d by th m i ut h d f w tch i 5
n e an e e
5 e e n e -
an o a a n 1, ,
1 0, 1 ,

20 , 3 4 5 m
0, i ut s n e .

3 I h w m y m i ut s d s th m i ut h d d scrib
. n o an gl f n e oe e n e -
an e e an an e o

4 . Wh at an gl
h ds f w t h m k with ch th r t c l ck ?
e d o th e an o a a c a e ea o e a 1 O
’
o

at 3 t up
2, t ,
c l ck
e c ? .
,
o 12 o
’
o

rth tur s i t is i 4 h urs w h t gl d s p i t th

‘

5 T h . e ea n on s ax n 2 o a an e oe a o n on e

surf d s rib i h ur ? i 6
ac e e c 5 h urs ? 5 h urs ?
e n 1 o n ,
1 2, 1 o 2 o

p ap e r o r t he b l ac kb o ar d w hen gr eat ac c u r ac y i s n o t
52 . On ,

r eq ir ed angl es are m easu r e d w it h an i nstr m en t c all e d PRO

u ,
u a

T RACT O R It i s a se m i c ir c l e m ad e O f p ap e r ho rn , , ,

b r ass, or s il er
v ,
th e c ir c l r
w h i h i s d i i d e d i n t o 8 0 equ al
u a e d ge O f c v 1

p rt s o r d e grees T o m e as r e an angl e w it h t he pr o tr ac t o r pl a e
a . u ,
c

t h e c en tr e O f t h e i n str m en t o n t h e rt ex O f t he angl e an d i t s
u ve ,

z e r o li n e o n o n e S i d e t h en r e ad O ff o n t he e d ge o f t he pro tr ac t o r
t h e d i v i si o n t hr o u gh w h i c h t he se c o n d s i d e O f t h e angl e p asses .

O n t h e grou nd su rveyo r s an d engi neers e mp l o y for m easur i n g

,
62 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI N E N RS .
5 2 .

an
gl es,
c o stl
y i n s tr
u m e n t s c all e d T H E ODOLIT E S A c h.e ap su b s tit u t e

fo r a t h e o d o lit e i s sho wn i n F g 4 7 i . It c o n si st s O f t wo pi ec e s O f
.

w o o d shap e d li k e r u l er s m o u n t ed o n a v erti c al ax i s by a pi n d ri v en
,

t hr o u gh t he ir t c entr es T he v erti c al n eed l es i nsert ed n ear

e xa c .

t he e n d O f t h e r l e r s ar e u se d
u In pl ac e O f t h e n ee d l e
n e ar es t t h e e ye ,
it i s b ett er t o e m pl o y a t hi n strip O f w o o d A , ,

h av i n g a fin e v e rti c a l slit an d i n pl ac e o f t he o t h er ne e d l e a v er,

t i c al wire fixed in a li ght fr am e B , .

B y t h e h elp Oft hi s i nstru m ent arid a pro tr ac t o r o n e c an m eas

, ,

u re w it h c o n si d er ab l e ac c r ac y an angl e o n t he gro u nd ; fo r i n
u .

s t an c e t he angl e M O N ( F ig
,
.
 5 CHAPT E R m .
—A N GLE S . 63

E xe rc i ses b l ckb rd .
—1
s v r l gl s M sur
. On th eh a oa are e e a an e . ea e e ac

with th pr tr t r d writ th r su l t b tw i t sid s

e o ac o ,
an e e e e ee n s e .

2 D r w fi d i li
.
t g l s E sti m t th v l u f th first i d gr s ;
a ve e re n an e . a e e a e o e n e ee

th m sur i t w i th pr tr ct r Pr c d i l ik m
en ea e r with ch f th a o a o . o ee n e ann e ea o e

oth r g l s G iv th r su l ts i 3 c l u m s :i l u m
e an e . the sti m t d l e e n o n n co n I, e e a e va

u es i c lum th m
n sur d v l u s i l um 3 th diff r s b tw
o n 2, e ea e a e n co n , e e enc e e e en

th sti m t d d th m sur d v l u s
e e a e an e ea e a e .

3 Fr m p i t
. str ight l i dr w tw li s b th th s m sid
o a o n on a a ne a o ne , o on e a e e

of th g i v li
e m s r ch f th thr
en g l s th f rm d d dd th
ne ea u e ea o e ee an e us o e ,
an a e

r su l ts Wh t i th m ? Wh t ught th m t b ?
e . a s e su a o e su o e

4 T hr ugh p i t dr w thr
. o l i s m sur th i a g l s thus f rm d
o n a ee ne ea e e s x an e o e

ab ut t h p i t d d th r su l ts Wh t i th m ? Wh t ught i t t b
o e o n a e e . a s e su a o o e?

5 Op . th l gs f th c m p ss s
en th t th y m k g l s f
e e O e o a e so a e a e an e O
°
30

6 . Im a gi ne tw o l i nes dr w fr a n om y uro e ye ,right h d upp r

o ne t o th e -
an e

c r r f th r m th
o ne O th e oo , e o th r t e o e l ft h d upp r c r r ; wh t g l
e -
an e o ne a an e

w u l d th l i s m k ?
o e ne ,
a e

7 With th . i d f th pr tr ct r m k e a O e o a o a e an an gl e e qu l a to a giv en an gl e ?
8 Dr w . g l s qu l t a an e e a o
°
142

9 . E x pl i a n h o w th e i n stru m t i en n F ig .
47 is co n stru t d c e , d h o w yo u
an

w u l d pr
o o cee dt o m ea sur by m s e e an Of i t th e an gl e M O N in F ig 4 8 . .

V .
—A n g l es m ad e by T W O L i n es .

53 . T he an gl es A O C an d C O B ( g 49)
F i . are c a lle d y
a a a cen t

an g e s l .

D e fin i t i o n I . T wo a ng l es a re

ADJ ACE NT w h en th ey h a ve th e v er tex

a n d o n e s i de co m m o n , a n d th e o th er

s i d es a re opp o s i te p a r ts f
o th e sa m e

s tr a ig h t l i ne .

We se e f ro m t h e figu e r t h at F g, 49 ’ .

A O C + B O C = A OB = 2 R

S i n c e t hi s e qu a ti o n w o u d ho d l
l tr u e i n wha t e er d ir e c ti o n the li ne
v

0 C w as d r awn ,
we c o n c l u d e t h at i n a l l c as e s

f a ay a cen t a ng l es i s tw a gh t a ngl es , o r
'

T he su m o tw o ri
64 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS .
54 .

D — [f th e s u m of t w o a ngl es i s
e fin i t i o n II . ea ch is
c a l l d th
e SUPPLE M E NT of the o th er
e .

Adj ac en t an gl es are al w ays su ppl e m en t s o f e ac h o t her .

E xe rc is es .
-
1 . If o ne o f t wo a dj ac e n t an gl s e is a right an g l wh t
e, a is
th e o th r ?
e

2 . If dj o ne O f tw o a ac e n t an g l s i ut wh t i th th r ?
e s ac e, a s e o e

3 . If f tw dj c o ne O o a a en t an g l s i btus wh t i th th r ?
e s o e, a s e o e

4 If . f tw dj c o ne o o a a en t an gl s i k w h w i th th r f u d ?
e s no n, o s e o e o n

5 H w i th supp l m
. o s e e en t O f a giv gl f u d ?
e n an e o n

6 F i d th
. dj c t n e a a en an gl e s f t h f ll wi g gl s :
O e o o n an e

15
°
79 3
°
W h t i
1 t h ’
pp l m a s e su e en t o f
e ac h Of th s e e an gl s ?
e

54 . When ev er t wo li nes c r o ss o ne ano t her t her e are fo r m ed

ab o u t t h e i n t e r s ec ti o n O f t h e li n e s fo u r

an gl e s a b c d t
, ( g
F , , O f , h e se i .

an l e s t h e p air s a an d b b an d c c an d d
g , , ,

d an d a are adj ac en t angl es t he p air s

a an d c, b an d d ar e c all ed ver ti ca l

an
gl e s .

D e fin i t i o n . T wo a ng l es a r e ca l l ed

VE RT ICAL a ng l es if th ey h a ve a co m m o n

ver tex , a n d th e s i d es f
o o ne a n l e
g h a ve opp o s i te d i r ecti o ns to the si des

f
o th e o th er a ng l e .

If w e m e asu r e two v erti c al angl es as a an d c ( F g e it h er ,

i .

w it h a p r o tr ac t o r o r b y c u tti n g t h e m o u t o n a pi e c e O f c ar d b o ar d
an d l ayi ng t he m o n e u p o n t h e o t h e r w e sh all fin d t ha t t h e are
y ,

e q u al B ut w it ho u t m easu ri ng t h e m w e c an pr o v t hat t hey m u st

. e

b e eq u al i f w e b ear i n m i n d wh at has b een sai d ab o u t adj ac en t

,

an l es i n t h e l ast se c ti o n S i n c e b i an a dj a cent an gl e t o b o th
g s .

a an d c t h er efo r e , ,
 5 CHAP T E R III .
— AN GLE S . 65

H en c e i t fo ll ows fr o m Axi o m I .
( t t
s a e t he ax o m i ) t h at ,

a b b c

su b trac t b b

T he r e r e m ai n s a c

F o r if e qu al s ar e t ak en fr o m equ al s t h e r em ai nd ers are equ al

, ,

( A x i o m
S i n e t h i s re as o ni ng ho l d s go o d ho w e e r t he i n t er se c ti ng li nes
c ,
v

o u t eac h o t h e r w e c o m e t o t h e gen e r al c o n c l usi o n t ha t

, ,

T wo v er ti ca l a ng l es a r e a l w ay s equ a l to ea ch o th er

— In t he
.

R e m ark . ab o v e r eas o ni ng w e ha e m ad e u se Of the v

ge n e a r l tru t h S ho wn i n t he l ast se c ti o n ; n am ely t hat th m f ,

e su o

and al so O f Axi o m s I an d III

°
tw o a dj a cen t a ng l es is 1 80 By . .

reaso n n g u po n i t he se tr u t hs w e have p o ved o r dem o nst a t d a ne w r r e

tru t h ; n am e l y t h at t w o v ti l a ngl s a e equ a l

, G e o m e tri c l er ca e r . a

tr u t hs whi c h a e c ap ab l e o f pr o o f by reaso ni ng fr o m kno wn tr u t hs

r

are c all e d T H E O R E M S .

E xe c i se 1 Dr w dj
r s .t nd v t i l g l s d m th m
. a a ac e n a er ca an e an na e e .

2 Wh t i th
. m f tha gl ss d b (F g
e su Wh y ? o e an e a an i .

3 Wh t i t h
. m f th a gl s b
s d d (F g
e su Why ?
O e an e a, , c, a n i .

4 O . f th g l s f rm d by tw i t rs ti g l i s i
ne O e an e fi d th o e o n e ec n ne s n e

oth rs e .

5 O . f th g l s f rm d by tw i t rs ti g l i s i
ne O e an e fi d th oth rs e o n e ec n ne s n e o e .

6 Dr w .
y tw i t rs cti g l i s d fi d th v l u s f th
a an o n e gl s e n ne , an n e a e o e an e

f rm d t th i t rs cti
o e a e n e e on .

7 If . f th g l s f rm d by tw i t rs cti g l i s i k w h w
o ne o e an e o e o n e e n ne s no n, o

a re th th rs f u d ?
e o e o n

8 E .h f tw v rtic l g l s i
ac o fi d th v l u
o f e ch g l i th
a an e s n e a e o ea an e n e

oth r p ir f v rti l g l s
e a o e ca an e .

9 Pr v th t b = d ( F g 5 ) by r s i g l ik th t us d b v t sh w
. o e a i . 0 ea o n n e a e a o e o o

th t a a

VI .
-
Ang l es m a d e by T h r e e L i n es .

55 . T hu s far t he an g e s c o n s l i d er e d hav e had a c o m m o n v e r

te x l et us no w c o n s i d er a ng e s l f r m e d b o t t w o d i ffe r n t e
o a u e v r
66 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS .
55 .

ti c es Such angl es are fo r med when

. tw o s tr ai gh t li n es ar e c ut by
a t hir d li ne .

T he m o st i mport an t c ase, an d t he o n l y o ne whi c h we shall exam

i n e, i s t h at i n w h i c h t w o p a a l l l l i n es r e ,

AB an d CD ( F ig . are c u t by a

th d ir li ne E F, . T h er e ar e fo r m e d
ab o u t the two p o i nt s Of i n t ersec ti o n
ei gh t an l
g se . T h ese an gl es r e c e i e v

s p e i al
c n am es .

l c d n m whi c h
T he fo u r ang es, , , , ,

l i e b e t w e en t h e p ar all el li n e s are c all e d ,

IN T E RNAL AN GLE S t h e o t h er fo u r b p a e ,
cal l e d E XT E RNAL
a, ,
o, ,
r

ANGLE S .

An e xt ern a l an g e an d an l i n t e r nal an
g l e a s a an d m h av i n g d i f
, ,

ferent v e rti c es, l y i ng o n t h e s an d a m e si d e O f t he i nt er se c ti ng li n e ,

are c all e d C RR N N ANG LE S

O E S P O D I G 1 .

An ext ern al an gl e an d an i nt e rn al an gl e as a an d n havi ng d if , ,

ferent v erti c e s an d lyi n g o n d f pe n t si d es O f the int er se c t i ng li ne

, z re ,

are c all e d CO NJ UGAT E AN GLE S .

T wo ext er n al angl e s as a an d p o r t wo i nt erna l an gl es as d an d , , ,

m hav i ng d i ffe r en t v e rti c es an d l yi n g o n t he sa m e si d e O f t he i h

, ,

t ersec t i ng li n e are c all e d O PP OS IT E AN GLE S

, .

T wo ext er n al angl e s as a an d o r t w o i n t e r nal an gl es as d an d

,
0, ,

n havi ng d i ffe r en t v e rti c e s an d l yi ng o n d ifie en t s i d es O f t he i h

, ,
r

t erse c t i ng li n e are c all e d ALT E RN AT E AN G LE S

,
.

E xe c i ses — 1 N m th f ur p irs f
r . rr sp di g gl s i F ig 5
. a e e o a O co e on n an e n . 1

th f ur p irs f
e o jug t g l s ; th f ur p irs f pp sit g l s ; th
a o co n a e an e e o a O O o e an e e

f ur p irs f l t r t
o a o gl s a e n a e an e .

2 Wh i h . t c l whi h i t are l pp sit

ex er n a g l s ? whi h ,
c n er n a O o e an e c are ex

t
er n a l whi h i t ,
l lt r t
c gl s ?
n er n a a e na e an e

3 Whi h i th
. gl c p d
s i g t j g
e ant t p ? pp
e i t t
cor r es on n o co n u a e o o os e o

m a l ter n a te t o n 9 .

1
T h e
y a re a ls o c ll d
a e ex ter n a l - i nter n a l a n g l es .
68 GE OM E T RY F O R B E GI NN E RS .
57 .

R em a r k —T he o r em s O f en t i nv o lv e i ch are
c o n s e qu en c e s wh
e as il d e d u c e d fr o m t h e t he o r e m s
y
su c h c o n se u en c e s are
q c all e d in
G e o m e try CO R O LLAR IE S T he pr es .

e n t t h e o r e m f r n i s h es an e xa m pl e
u .

Co r o l l a ry If a 9 0 .
( t h at i s
°

if A B I E F i t fo ll o ws t h at m
°
0
9
( t h a t i s t h at C ,D L E F o r t o -
,

s t at e the c o r o ll ar y in e n e r al
g
t er ms
[f a s tr a igh tl i ne i s perpen di gu l a r to o ne o f tw o p a r a l l el s , it is
a l so er e n d i c u l a r to th e o th er
p p .

i es —
E xe rc 1 G iv t h pr f s p r t l y f
s . . h f th l st thr
e e oo e a a e or eac o e a ee

e qu ti s i ch f th b v f ur s ri s f qu ti s
a on n ea O e a o e o e e O e a on .

M d l ob == b c us wh
e s A B c i c i d s w i th C D b c i c i d s w i th
n, e a e en o n e o n e n.
R b c us wh A B c i c i d s w i th C D b b c m s dj c t t m
.
,

b m 2 e a e en o n e e o e a a en o
dj c t gl s i
, , ,

an d th m f tw
e su o o a a en an e s

2 F i d th th r s v g l s wh wh
‘

. n e o e e e n an e en a en a

3 Dr w t w p r ll l l i s
. a d l i i t rs ti g th m ; th fi d th
o a a e ne , an a ne n e ec n e en n e

e ig ht g l s thus f rm d usi g pr tr t r l itt l p ssib l

an e o e ,
n a o ac o as e as o e .

4 If ith r
. f th f ur p rts i
e e th oneth r m f this s ti i t
o e o a n e eo e o ec on s no

tr wh t
ue , w a lud t th l i s A B d C D ?
c an e co n c e as o e ne an

57 . T h eo r e m .
-
If t wo s tr a ig h t l i n es a r e cu t by a th i r d l i ne
so th a t tw o co r r esp o ndi ng a ngl es a r e equ a l , th e n the l i nes m u st be

If, for exam p e , l a m ( F ig . t hen i s A B II C D Fo r i f .

,

w e m o ve t ow ar ds C D k e e pi n g
AB ,
it p ar all el to i ts first p o siti o n ,

d u ri n g t h e m o ti o n t h e an gl e d o es n o t Chan ge b e c au se t h e di e c a r

ti o n O f A B d o es no t c han ge When the i nt er se c ti o n o f A B and .

E F c o i n c i d e s w it h t h e i nt er se c ti o n o f C D and E F A B m u st ,

c o i n c i d e i n d ir e c ti o n w it h C D si n c e a m T h er efo r e A B i n ,
.
, ,

it s fir st p o siti o n m u st b e p ar all el t o C D ,
.

Co r o l l a r y B y m ak i n g i n t hi s t heo r em a
. m we Ob “

tai n t he fo ll o wing c o r o ll ary

 CHAP T E R III .
—
AN GLE S . 69

If tw o s tr a ight l i n es a re bo th perpen d i cu l a r to a th i r d l i ne, th ey

a re p a r a l l el .
( F ig .

Re m a r k .
-
Al l t h e fo u r pr o p erti e s enu m er at ed i n t he t h eo r em
of t hel as t sec ti o n a r e S O r e l a t e d t h at i f e it h e r o n e O f t h e m i s

tr e t h e o t h e r t hr e e
u m u st al so b e tr u e an d t h e t w o i n t er se c t e d ,

li n es m u st b e p ar all el .

H en c e ari se s t h e i m p o rt an c e O f c o rr esp o n d i ng c o nj u gat e o pp o , ,

s it e an d alt e r n a t e angl e s
,
B efo r e w e c an ass ert w it h ab so l t e c e
. u r

t ai n t y t h at t wo li nes ar e p ar all el w e o u gh t t o S h o w t h a t t h e li n es , ,

wh en pr o l o nge d fart he r t h n ev en the i m agi n ati o n c an e ac h w o u l d a r

,

n o t m ee t S u c h an ac t u al e xt en si o n O f t h e li n es
.

i s O f c o u r se i m p o ssi b l e i t i s h o w ev e r q it e u n , ,
u

n ec essar y fo r t h e p ar all eli s m O f t w o li n e s i s

,
er
y v

S i m pl y t est e d b y t h e an gl es w h i c h ar e fo r m e d

w h en t h e li n es are c u t b y a t hir d li n e .

E xe ri c ses .
-
1 . Pr v th c r ll ry i d p d t l y
o e e o o a ,
n e en en

of th th re eo em , w i th l i s dr wne d l tt r d i a n an e e e as n

2 . Wh e n r th tw l i s p rp di u l r t
mo e an o ne are e en c a o a

third ,
a re th y l l p r ll l t ch th r ?
e a a a e o ea o e

58 . In F i g 5 5 , w e hav e d . r awn A B II C D and E F

If w e p r l
c o m a e t h e an g e a w h it e it her O f t he angl es x y 2 , , ,

t h t t heir S i d es a e re spec
a r

t i e l y p ar all e l
v B u t t h er e .

are t h es e d i ffe r en c e s
( )
i t h e .

si d e s of h a e t he
or m di
v sa e

r e ti o n r e sp e c ti vely as t ho se
c

e si d es O f 2
of a
( )
i i t h .

hav e oppo i t d ir e c ti o n s
s e
C

( )
i i i . t h e s i d e s O f y h e o n e av ,

t he sa m d ir e c ti o n t he o t her
e ,

th e opp i t d i re c ti o n
os e .
70 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NNE RS .

In c ase
( rr e s p o n d i ng an l es o n
a
g 2 b co t he p a r all el s E F
an d G H c o rr e s p o n d i n an l es o n p ar all el s C D
) an d x b ( g g t he '
2
,

an d A B
) t h e r e fo r e x ( A x i o m a

T h e o r em I If
'

. tw o a ngl es h a ve thei r s i des res

p ec ti vel
y pa r
al l el , a nd d i rected th e sa m e w ay f ro m the ver tex , th e a ngl es a r e

e ual
q
In c ase x 2
( rti
vec l an gl es
) a . An d a x ( T h eo r em
T he r efo r e a z
( Axi o m I .
)
T h e o r e m II . If tw o a ng l es h a ve thei r s i des r es p ecti vel
y p ar

a l l el , a n d d i r ected oppos i te w ay s f r om th e ver tex , the a ngl es a re equ a l .

In c ase
( ),
i i i x + y 2 1? ( adj ac e n an g e s
) B u t a x t l .

( T h e o rem T he r e fo r e a +y 2 R .

T h e o r e m II I . If tw o a ng l es h a ve thei r p yp s i des r es ec ti vel ar

a l l el , a n d di rected, th e ai r the s a m e w ay the o ther pa i r opp os i te

o ne
p ,

w ay s, f r o m th e ver tex , the su m o f the a ng l es i s tw o ri gh t a ngl es .

E xe rms e s . 1 . In F i g 5 5 , i f a z 1 . wh t i a s th e v lu
a e Of x ? Of y d z ?
2 . P rv
o e T h r eo em I , n . i n th e usi g pr oof th e an gl e c i n F ig 55 , . i st d
n ea of

th e an gl e b.

3 . Wh a t
r l ti i sts b tw e a d ( g
F on W h y ?ex e e en a an s i .

4 Pr v T h r m s I II
. o e d III witheo w figur
e dr w .
,
.
,
an .
,
a ne e, a n and l e tt er ed
diff r t l y fr m F ig 5 5
e en o . .

R E V IE W OF C H APT E R III .

Q UE S T IO N S .

De fi n e an a ng l e ; i ts si d es i ts v er tex .

H ow is d?
an a n gl e n am e

H w m y
o g l b c c iv d pr duc d by m ti ?
a an a n e e on e e as o e o on

O wh t d s th m g itud
n a oef gl d p d ? e a n e O an a n e e en

D fi
e
q l g l es
ne e u a an .

E pl i
x ( by
a n figur s ) wh t i m t by dd i g subtr ctieg a s ean a n ,
a n ,
m u l tip l yi g
n ,

and dividi g g l s n an e .
 CHAPT E R III .
— AN G LE S . 71

Wh a t i s bi sect i ng l i n e ? Wh at i s th e bi se t r o f an a n g l e ?
an a n gl e or a c o

D e fi n e a st a igh t a n g l e ; a co n ca v e a n g l e ; a c n v ex a n g l e ; a r i gh t
r o

a ng l e an a te a n g l e a n obt se an g l e
cu u .

S h o w th at al l straight a n g l e s are e qu a l ; a l s o th a t al l right a n g l e s a re ,

e q u aL

Wh e n are tw o l i n e s perpen d i cu l a r to e a ch o th er ? wh e n are th e y i n l i n d ? c e

Wh at are t w o o f th e c o m m o ne st pro b l e m s i n surv eyi n g a n d draw i n g ?

De scrib e th e s u r v ey o r s cr oss, a n d
’
h o w to u se it .

Ho w a re p rp dicu l rs t
e en a o a giv en lin e dr w a n on p p r?
a e

De fi dg
ne a mi e r ee, ad d n u t e, an a seco n .

Wh t a th v l u s i
a re d gr s f th g l s m t i d i Qu st i 8 ?
e a e n e ee O e an e en one n e on

E p l i why
x a n gl b m sur d by m s f th
an an e c an f circ l e ea e e an o e a rc O a e

i t rc pt d b tw i t sid s
n e e e e een s e .

Wh y i t h m sur f s e g l th s m f
ea y r dius
e O f th ?
an a n e e a e o r an a o e arc

H w i th
o qu l ity f t w
s e e g l s t st d with ut p l ci g
a O f th m o an e e e o a n o ne o e

on th th r e o e ?

D s rib th p t
e c e t e d h w t it
r o r a c or , a n o o u se .

D s rib
e c si m pl substitut f
e a th d l it
e d h w gl th e or a eo o e , an o an an e on e

gr u d i m sur d by m s f i t
o n s ea e e an O .

D fi e dj
ne a t g l s th ppl m t f
a cen an gl e e su e en o an an e .

S h w th t th
o m f tw
a dj c t g l s m ust b
e su o o a a en an e e

D fi e ti
n e v erl gl s ca an e .

T w v rti l
o e gl s ca qu l an e a re e a .
1

Wh t i th m
a s a eo r e

D fi e t l
n e ex er n a gl s i t l gl s ; an
p di ge gl s ; j n er n a an e cor r es on n an e co n u

g t g l s pp i t gl s l t t g l s
a e an e o os e an e a er n a e a n e .

If str ight l i i t rs ct t w p r ll l l i s th c rr sp di g gl s
a a ne n e e o a a e ne , e o e on n an e

a re equ l th l t r t g l s
a , e a qu l d th m f tw
e n a e an jug t e are e a ,
an e su o o co n a e

an gl s e f tw,
or O pp sit g l s i o O o e an e , s

Wh t r ll ry f ll ws fr m this th r m ?
a co o a o o o eo e

Wh t i a ll y
s a co r o ar

If t w l i o s t by
ne third l ia re c u th t tw c rr sp d i g g l sa n e so a o o e on n an e are

equ l th tw l i s p r ll l
a ,
e o ne ar e a a e .

G iv r ll ry f this th r m
e a co o a o eo e .

H w o y t
c an st i f t w str ight l i s p r ll l ?
ou e o a ne ar e a a e

1 r vi w w sh ll lw ys ( h r ) i m ply s t h h r
In t h e e e e a a a as e e S ta e t e t eo em to be pr v d o e

or pr b l m t b s lv d T h l r r i t u d rst d th t th pr
o e o e o e e ea n e s o n e an a e o of (o r s l uti )
o on

is r qu ir d
e e .
72 GE O M E T RY F OR B E GINNE RS .

33 . T wo gl s h v th ir sid s r sp ctiv l y p r ll l ; th
an e a e e e e e e a a e en,

( ) II f th s id s dir ct d
e e S t h s m w y fr
e m t h v rt
a re x i f th y
e e e a e a o e e e , or e

a red ir t d pp sit w ys t h g l s
ec e O qu l o e a , e an e are e a .

( ) 2I f t h sid s d i r cte d t h p ir
e t h s mare w y t h th rep i r e , e o ne a e a e a , e o e a

opp sit w ys th m f th g l s i 8
o e a , e su o e an e s 1 0
°

E X E RC IS E S .

1 . Wh at r ti f
i s th e right g l t thr right g l s ? f
a o o o ne an third e o ee an e O o ne -

o f right g l t f ur ri ght g l s ?
a an e o o an e

H w o y c ant st wh th
ou r t w e i t rs cti g lei se p rp dicu
o l r t
n e e n ne a re e en a o

e ac h th r ? o e

H w o y t
c an st w h thou r t h t w
e dg s fe squ
e r tru l
e y t right
o e e O a a e are a

an g l s t ch th r
e o ea o e ?

S gg t
u H w w
es i on . t h str i ght dg o f ru l r t st d
as e 23 E
a r is e e O a e e e
,
xe c e

M k a y e an g l d than by th
e, an i d f pr tr
en , ct r m k g
e l a O a o a o , a e an an e

f ur ti m s
o l rg e lsas a gl e f urtha l rg
o , a n an e o ne -
o as a e .

M rk thra p i ts j i th m by l i s th m sur th thr

ee o n ,
o n e gl s ne , en ea e e ee an e

which th l i s m k with e ne th r Wh t i th ir m ?
a e o ne ano e . a s e su

C an y m kou thr g
a l s e with tw l i
e e an s ? e o ne

If t w li s i t rs t d
o ne n e f th f ur
ec ,
g l s i right g l p v
an o ne O e o an e s a an e, ro e

th t th th r thr
a e o l s right g l s
e e e a re a o an e .

Dr w fi a l i s m ti g t p i t ; h w m y g l s
ve ne ee n a a f rm d ? wh t
o n o an an e a re o e a

i th ir
s m ? If t h
e su gl s qu l fi d th v l u f h i d gr s
e an e are e a ,
n e a e O e ac n e ee .

T en li s m t t p i t
ne ee t f rm
a a r gu l r t r y d st r ; fi d th
o n so a s o o a e a en -
a e a n e

v l u f th g l b tw
a e O e an y t w r ys e e e e n an o a .

Wh t i th supp l m t f
a s e f e en f O O o

Of tw dj c t g l s th gr t r i twi th l ss fi d th v l u s f
o a a en an e e ea e s ce e e n e a e o

th g l s i d g s Wh t i th r ti f ch t f ur right g l s ?
e an e n e re e . a s e a o O ea o o an e

T h bis ct rs f dj
e e o t gl sO a t right
ac en g l s t ch th r
an e ar e a an e o ea o e .

T h bis t r f
e ec o f t w v rtic l
O o ne O gl s bis ts th th r l s o e a an e ec e o e a o .

If t w p r ll l l i s
o a a t by
e third l i th ( ) th bis t rs f tw
ne a re c u a ne, en a e ec o o o

a lt r te n a e an gl s p r ll l t ch th r ; ( b) th bis ct rs f tw p
e a re a a e o ea o e e e o o o O

p i
os t g l s
e an p rp e dicu l
a re r t ch e th r en a o ea o e .

Wh t i th di ff r
a s eb tw th
e en ce m d e x i m ? b tw
e en a eor e an an a o e ee n a

th eor em an d a cor ol l a ry
 CHAPT E R IV
.
— T RIAN GLE S . 73

CH APT E R IV .

T R IA N G L E S .

CO T N N E T S .
-
I Si
. ds
ri gl e Of a
59 II A gl s f
T an e . n e O a Tri gl ( 65 an e

64 III S i m i l ri ty E qu i v l
. c d E qu l ity 67
a ,
a en e, an a ,
IV E qu l T i
. a r

an gl s ( N 69
e V S m C s qu c s f th E qu lity
. o e on e en e O e a o f T ri g l s ( N
an e

8 0 V I App l i c t i . s 94 a on

L —S i
’

d es of a T r i an g l e .

§ 59 . In F i g 5 6 are sev e r al figu r es e n c l o sed o n al l S i d es b y

.

li nes . E ac h i s a p o rti o n O f a pl an e su r fac e ( t h e su r fac e O f t h e

p ap er ) ,
and is ca ll ed a Pl a ne F ig u re .

D e fin i t i o n I .
-
A PLAN E F IGU RE is a
p or ti o n o f a p l a ne su r

f a ce bo u n d ed o u a ll s i des
by l i nes .

M any su r it
fac es w h w h c h w e are fam i ili ar fo r exam pl e t he o u t
,

s id e Of o u r h o u s e s, t h e floo r an d ili ng O f a r o o m
ce ,
t h e l eaf o f a

b o o k, an d , i n m any c ases, g ar d en s, fiel d s p ar k s et c, , .

,
fu r n i sh i n
74 GE OM E T RY FO R BE GIN NE RS .

t
s an c e s O f pl ane figu r es b o u n d ed b y s tr a i gh t li nes . Su c h figu r e s
are c a ll e d P o lyg o n s .

D e fin i t i o n II .
—A PO L YGO N is a
p l a ne fig u r e bou nded by
s tr a igh t l i nes .

i ng li n es are c all ed t he SID E S o f t he p o lygo n and

T he b o u n d ,

t he ir su m i s c all e d t he PE RIM E T E R O f t he p o lygo n .

E x i s s — 1 I F g 5 0 whi h fig r s
e rc e . .p l yg s d which
n i . c u e are o on an are

no t p l yg s?
o on

2 H w m n. y sid s d h w m y g l s h
o a ch p l yg F ig 5 b
e an o an an e as e a o on i n .

3 D r w p lyg
. af fi sid s i sid s ight sid s t sid s H w
a o on O ve e s x e e e en e . o

m y gl s h
an an h? e a s e ac

60 . Po ygo ns l r eceive d i ffer ent n am es ac c o r d i ng t o t he n u m

b er t he ir si d es
Of .

At l east th e s tr ai gh t li n e s are r eq u ir e d t o en c l o se c o m pl et el y a
r e

p art O f a pl ane su r fac e t he two si d es O f an angl e are no t su ffic i en t ;

T h er e fo r e a p o l ygo n c ann o t h a e l e ss t h an t hr ee S i d e s v .

D e fin i t i o n —A p lyg n f th id
. i ca l l d a T R IAN G LE o o o r ee s
'

es s e

( B e 5 7)
A tri angl e is u su a lly d en o t e d b y t hr e e l e tt er s st an d i ng at t h e
ve rti c es Of its an g es l . Ins t e ad O f w riti ng t h e w o r d tr i a ngl e, th e
S i gn A i s so m e ti m es e m plo yed T hu s t he tri angl e i n F i g 5 7 i s . .

c all e d t h e tri angl e A B C o AAB C ,

r .

E ver y tri angl e h as S i x PART S t hr e e ,

si d es A B ,
A C B C (F g ,
an d
,
i .

t hr e e angl es A B an d C , , ,
.

E ac h si d e as A B h as t w o a ay a
'

, ,

cen t angl es A an d B an d o n e
, pp o ,
o

s i te an gl e C e ac h an gl e
,
as A i s i ncl u ded b e t we en t wo si d es , , ,

A B an d A C an d i s oppos i t t o t he t hir d si d e B C
,
e ,

E x rc i e s —
e 1 Wsh t g l.
s dj t t
.
t h sid A C F
( g
a t
an e ar e a a cen o e e i . o

th sid B C ? Wh t
e e g l i pp sit t B C ? a an e s o o e o

2 By .
wh t sid s i t h gal B i l ud d ? t h
e g l Cs? W h t sid
e an i e nc e e an e a e s

O pp sit t B ? t C ?
o e o o
76 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 63 .

E xe rc is es .
—1 . Ca n a tri g l h v
an e a e fo r i t s sid s e , 2m , 3
m
,
an d 6m ?
an d m m m m m m m
? an d ? an d
2 1 ,
2 , 3 3 , 5 , 7 ?
2 . If th e p ri m t r
e e e of a tri g l an e is wh t ia s th e gr t st v l u which
ea e a e o ne

sid e c an hv ? a e

3 . D r w frah d , ee -
an
( )a ,
an e qui l t r l ;
a e a ( ),
b an is os l s ;
ce e
( ) c , a s lca ene

tri g l
an e .

4 . T he p ri m t r
e e e O f an e qui l t r l tri g l i
a e a an e s fin d ch sid
ea e .

5 . Ca n y dr w
ou a acc ur t l y with th divid rs
a e e e an e qui l t r l tri gl
a e a an e Of

giv en sid e , s ay

We m ay r egar d a tri angl e as resting o n o ne O f i ts si d es

63 .

as a b as e ; t hi s si de i s t h e n c all e d t h e B AS E O f t h e tri an gl e ; t h e

v e rt ex O f t h e an gl e o pp o s it e t o t h e b as e i s c all ed t he V E RT E X O f

t h e tri angl e an d t h e p erp en d i c u l ar li n e d r awn fr o m th e v e rt e x t o

t h e b as e ( o r b ase pr o l o n ge d ) i s c all e d t h e ALT IT UD E O f t h e tri

an gl e If t h e tri angl e h as a ho ri z o n t al si d e t h i s i s u su ally t ak en

.
,

fo r t h e b ase .

T hu s in t he tri angl e A B C ( g
F i 60 ) w e wo u d
. l na u a t r lly t ak e
0 t he s ide AB fo r t h e b ase ;
t h en C i s t he rt
v e ex, an d C D

i s the a ltit u d e . If A C i s
t ak en as t he b ase B i s t he ,

v e rt ex and B E t h e altit u d e ,
.

If B C i s t ak en as t h e b ase ,

P A i s th e v e rt ex an d A F t h ,
e

F 1 “6 2
altit u d e
5 0° .

N o ti c e t h at t h e t hr e e altit u d es i n t er se c t i n o n e p o i n t .

T h e altit u d e m ay b e o u t si d e t he tri an gl e ; t h i s i s t h e c ase i n

th e tri angl e M N 0 i n w h i c h M N i s t h e b as e an d O F t h e altit u d e
, ,
.

T h e altit u d e m u st fall o u t si d eif t h e tri an gl e h as an o b t u se angl e ,

an d o n e O f t h e S i d e s O f t hi s an gl e i s t ak en as t h e b ase .

In an i so sc el es tri angl e t he si d e n eq u al t o t he o t he r si d es i s
,
u

al wa s t ak en as t h e b ase an d t h e eq u al si d es are u su all y r efe rr ed

y ,

t o as th e s i des O f t he tri angl e .

 64 .
j c HAPrE R Iv .
— T RIANGLE S .

E xe ri— 1 Dra w a tri a ng l e h avi ng al l i ts ang l e s a c ut e an d th e n

c s es . .
,

dra w th e thre e a l titud e s .

2 Dr a w a tri a n g l e h avi n g a n o btus e a n g l e a n d th e n dr a w th e thr e e a l ti

. , .

tud e s H o w m an y O f t h e a ltitud e s l i e o utsid e th e triang l e ?

.

3 Dra w an is o s ce l e s tri a n g l e a n d i t s a l t i tud e

. .

4 O n a giv e n l i n e a s b a s e h o w m a n y is o s c e l e s tri an g l e s ca n b e c o n
. ,
.

stru c t e d ? H o w m any e qui l at e ra l tri ang l e s ?

II .
—A n g l es of a T r i ang l e .

64 . In o r d er to tri angl e A B C
fin d t h e su m O f t he l
an g e s O f a

( F ig . l et u s b ri n g t h e m all t o a c o m m o n v ert e x F o r t hi s .

p u rp o se su pp o se a li ne D E d r awn t hr o u gh t he v ert ex C O f t he tri

,

an gl e p ar all e l t o t h e b as e A B w e t he r e b y m ak e t he angl e s m °
.

an d n T he angl es n an d a ar e e q al b ec a u se t he y are alt e rn at e

. i u

angl es an d t h e an gl es n an d b ar e e q u al fo r t h e sam e

F i g 61 . . F ig . 62 .

H en ce Axi o m
r
e a so n .
,
a b c m n c
( IL) . B ut
m n c or a s tr ai ght an g e l . T he r efo r e ,
a b c

1 80
°

( Axi o m
i s pr o o f ppli es e qu ally well
T h a to an y tri angl e t her efo r e ,
to all

tri angl es ; hen c e

T h e o r em . T he su m of th e a ng l es f
o a tr i a ngl e i s equ a l to

two ri gh t a ngl es , o r

l u s t r a t i o n — T he tr u t h O f t hi s t heo r e m m ay b e sho wn t o
Il .

t h e e ye as fo ll o w s C t o u t o f p a p er a tri angl e A B C ( F g
u ,
i .

a n d d r aw i t s altit u d e C D T h en fo l d o v er t he c o r n er s o n t he
.
78 GE OM E T RY FOR B E GI NNE RS . 65 .

d o tt e d li nes as e d ges . T h is
ill b ri ng t he v erti c es o f th e t hr ee
w
angl es t o t he sa m e p o i n t D an d w e S hall s ee t h at t h e t hr e e an l e s
, g
t o get he r j u st m ak e a str ai ght angl e .

In t he sam e w ay w e m i ght t est o n e tri angl e aft er an o t her fin d ,

i ng i n e ac h c ase t hat t he su m O f t h e angl e s w as 1 8 0 aft e r a ti m e

°

w e sho u l d b e c o m e c o nv i n c ed t hat al l tri angl es w e r e su bj ec t t o t hi s

l aw .

B u t i n t he p r o of g v e n i ab o v e i l c ase
a s ng e is su ffic en i t; fo r a

littl r l ti
e ef e c o n sh o w s h a t t t he sam e r easo n i ng ho l ds go o d fo r all

c as es .

§ 65 . F r o m t he pr e c e d i ng i m p o rt an t t heo r e m seve al r co o r ll a
ri es fo llo w
—
.

Co r o l l ar i es . I . T he su m f
o tw o a ngl es f
o a tr i a ng l e m u s t

a l w ay s be l es s th a n
2 . A tr i a ng l e ca n h a ve o nly o n e r i gh t ,
o r o n e o btu s e, a ng l e .

In t her w o r d s t wo angl es O f a tri angl e m u st b e ac ute ; the

o ,

t h ir d m ay b e e it h er a c u t e ri gh t o r o b t u se If it i s ac u t e t he tri
, ,
.
,

angl e i s c all e d an ACUT E T R IAN GLE ( F i g 63 I ) if i t i s ri ght t h e .

,
.
,

tri angl e i s c all ed a RIGHT T RIANGLE ( F g 63 II ) i f it i s o b t u se i .

,
.
,

t h e tri an gl e i s c all e d an O BT US E T R IAN G LE ( F g 63 i .

,

In a ri gh t tri angl e t h e si d e o pp o s it e t o t he ri gh t angl e i s c all ed

t h e H Y POT E N US E and t he o t h e r si d es are c all ed t he LE GS
,
.

hno w n , th e th i r d a ng l e w ill
3 If tw o a ngl es o f a tr i a ngl e a re

a ngl es f r om
be f o u nd by s u btr a cti ng th e su m o f th e tw o hn ow n
 CHAPT E R IV .
— T RIAN GLE S . 79

4 .
If tw o a ng l es o f o ne tr i a ng l e a re equ a l r es ecti vely
p to t w o
a ng l es f a nother
o tr i a ngl e, then the th i r d a ngl e o f th e o ne is equ a l

to th e th i r d a ngl e o f th e o ther .

5 . [n a ri gh t tr i a ng l e the su m o f the a cu te a ngl es is e ual

q to a

ri ght a ng l e o r

H en c e, i f o ne O f t
t h e ac u e ang es i n a l ri ght tri angl e is kno w n ,

t he o t h er b e fo u n d b y
c an su b tr ac ti ng t h e fir st fr o m

D fi
e n i t i o n — [ f th e su m f
o tw o a ng l es is ea ch is ca l l ed

th e NT of the ther
CO M PLE ME o .

T h e ac u t e angl es O f a ri gh t tri angl e are al ways c o m pl e m en t s o f

eac h o t h er .

E x r i se —1 C
e c tri g l h v
s . ri ght d
. btus gl ?
an a an e a e one an o ne o e an e

2 If . l g f right tri g l i s t k
o ne e O b s wh t i th l titud ?
a an e a e n as a e, a s e a e

3 T w . g l s f tri g l
o an e O a an e a re ,
° ° ’ ”
( ) ( )
° ’
an d d 4 5 32 1 8 an d 62
a 37 50
° ° ”
( b) ( e)
’ ° ’
82 an d 64 4 7 33 and
77 18
° ’ ° ” an d
( c) (f )
° ’ ’
an d 1 8
°
28 1 79
40 0
54 0 59
fin d th e third g l an e in ea ch c s a e .

4 . If cut o ne a e an gl e Of a right tri gl i ( an e s a

) ( b) ( c)
(d ) 27
°
( e) 58
°
12
’
fi d i ch c s
n n ea a e th e o th r cute a e an gl e .

5 . Wh at i s th e co m pl em en t f O 90 ?

66 . If w e su b tr ac t t he ang e l b ( g
F i 64 ).f ro m the re

m ai n d er i s equ a l to a c

B ut h t i s r em ai nd er i s al so equ al t o t he
e xt eri o r an l e
g m w hy 53 ) ,

T h e r e fo r e i n a ,
c
( Axi o m
T h at i s
—A n
,

T h eo r em . ex ter i o r a ng l e o f
i n ter i or a ngl es
a t r i a ng l e i s e
q u al to th e su m o f th e t w o pp
o os i te .

ri E xe c ses .
—1 . F i d th
n e ex e t ri r g l o an e Of a tri g l
an e i f th e O pp sit
o e in t e

ri r g l s
o an e a re 38
°
35
’
an d 69 °

2 . An ex e t ri r o an gl e of a tri g l
an e is an d o n e o f th e O pp sit i t ri r
o e n e o

an gl s i e s 30
°
fin d th e o th r
e .

3 . An t ri r g l f tri g l i
ex e o Wh t ki d f tri g l
an e O a an e s a n O a an e is it ?
4 . Pr v th t th
o e m f th i a t ri r g l s f tri g l i
e su o e s x ex e o an e o a an e s
80 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GI N E N RS . 67 .

II I . S imil ar i ty , E q ui v a l e n c e, an d E q u a l i ty .

67 . We p ar e two tri angl es w it h r esp ec t eit her t o t heir

m ay com

r t o t he ir s i z
p (
sh a e f o m
) o r
( g
m a n i t u d ) e e .

T her e are fo u r c ases E it h er ( a ) t he tri angl es hav e t h e sam e

.
,

sha p e ( )
b t h h v e t he sam e si z e ; o r t r
or ey a , ( )
c h ey g ee i n
a ,

b o t h sh ap e an d si z e o r ( d ) t h ey d i ffe r i n b o t h sh ap e an d si e - z .

F o r exam pl e : i n F i g 65 t he tri angl e s A B C an d P O Q ha

. ve

t he s am e shap e ; AB C an d D E F
h av e t he sam e s z e i A B C an d M N 0
agree in bo h t sha pe an d i
s ze
; D E F
an d P O Q d i ffer i n b o t h sh ap e an d
i
s ze .

If t w otri angl es have the sam e Shape ,

t hey are c all ed SIM ILAR T RIANGLE S ; i f

t hey have th e sam e si z e t hey ar e c all ed ,

E QU IVALE NT T R IAN GLE S ; i f t he agree

Q y
bot h i n sh a p e an d si z e — t hat i s if t hey ,

are bo th s i m il ar an d equ i v al en t — t h ey are c all ed E QUAL T RI

N
A GLE S .

E xe rc is es .
—l . T o whi h C l ss
c a of tri gl s
an e do P 0 Q an d M O N be
l g?
on M ON an d D E F ?
2 . D r w ( fr h d )
a ee -
an tw o tri gl s
an e o f e ac h ki d n .

68 . What has j u st b een said ab o u t tri angl es m ay b e t

ex en d e d

to s p ac e magnit u d es i n gener al .

T w o str ai gh t li n es al w ays h ave t h e sam e shap e w hat ev er b e t h eir

l engt hs so have t wo Cir c l es two c u b es o r two s p her es ho w ev er
, , ,

m u c h t he y d i ffer i n si e z .

Agai n a c u rv e d li n e m ay h av e t he sam e l engt h as a str ai ght

,

li n e a fiel d b o u n d e d b y c u r ve d li nes m ay en c l o se t he sam e ext ent

O f su r fac e as a fie l d b o u n d e d b y str ai gh t li n es ; a c u b i c al v e sse l

m ay ho l d the sam e qu an tit y O f w at er as a v essel shap ed li k e a c yl

 CHAPT E R Iv .
— T RIANGLE S . 81

cyli nd er o r a sp her e In al l t hese c ases the si i s the sam e t he

. ze ,

sh p
a d i ffer e n t
e .

Lastly t w o m agnit u d es w he t h e r li n es su r fac es o so li d s m ay

, , , ,
r ,

have at o n c e t h e s m e si z e and t h e sam e S ha p e

a .

D e fin i t i o n s I T w o m ag n i tu des w h i ch h a ve th e s a me sh a
. .
p e

a r e ca l l ed S IM ILAR M AGN IT UD E S .

II . T wo m ag ni t u des w h i ch h a ve th e sa m e si ze a re ca l l ed

E QUIVALE NT M AGN IT UD E S .

III . T w o m ag n i t u d es w h i ch a
g r ee both i n sh ape a nd in s i ze a re

ca l l ed N IT UD E S
E QUAL M AG .

B e t w e en t wo S i m il ar m agn it u d es w e pl ac e t h e S i gn b e t w ee n
t wo e q u i val en t m agn it d es t he S i gn b e t w ee n t wo eq u al m ag
u

n i t d es b o t h si gns g
u o r i f t h e shap e i s no t t ak e n i n t o ac co u nt
, ,

si m pl y t he S i gn

O f t hese t hr ee k i nd s O f agr e e m ent b et w een sp ac e m agnit u d es

.
,

t h at O f equ alit y i s t h e si m p l est an d o u ght t her efo r e t o b e st u d i ed

,

fir st .

IV .
—E q u al T r i a n g l es .

69 . S i nc e t wo
l tri angl es agr e e b o t h i n S i z e and i n shape
eq u a ,

t hey c an d i ffer fr o m e ac h o t he r o nly i n t heir posi ti n i n sp ace and o ,

m u s t when o n e i s l ai d o n t he o t he r c o i n c i d e i n al l t h eir si x p art s

, ,

i n o t h e r wo r d s t heir t hr ee si d es an d t hr e e angl es m u st b e eq u al
,

e ac h t o e ac h .

Co m p ar e , fo r exam pl e ,
t h e e qu a l tri angl es A B C an d M N 0

O f t he si d es, A B = M N ; A C = M O B C= N O °

.
,

O f t he an gl e s , C : O ; B : N ; A M
I n t wo equ a l tr i a ngl es equ a l s i des a r e oppo si te to equ a l a ngl es ,

a nd equ a l a ngl es a r e opp os i te to equ a l s i des .

In tri angl e s b y
any two c o r r es
p o ndi n
g S i d e s ( angl es) are m e an t
tho se w hi c h are o ppo s it e t o e
q ua l an
gl es
( s i d e s) .
82 GE O M E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS .
7 0 .

7 0 T her e w o u l d b e
. no t h i ng
y t e q u al m o re t o
tri an g l e s sa ab o u

w er e it n o t fo r t h e fac t t hat w h en i n tw o tri angl es a c e rt ai n n u m b er

,

O f t he si x part s are eq u al e a c h t o eac h t h e r e m ai ni n g p art s m t ,

us

al so b e e qu al an d t h e tri an gl es m u st b e e q u al
,
T hi s fac t i s o ne .

o f t h e c o r n e r st o n e s i n t h e sc i e n c e O f G eo m etr y
-
u p o n i t are b ase d

t h e pr o o fs o f m any i m p o rt an t t heo r e m s an d it i s li k ew i se a fac t ,

O f gr e at pr ac ti c al v al u e i n t h e v ari o u s u ses t o w h i c h G e o m e tr c an
y
b e ap pli e d ( S .e e Part VI O f t h e pr e sen t c ha pt e r .
) .

Let u s t her efo r e pr o c e e d t o fin d o n c e fo r al l h o w m any an d , ,

w hat p art s i n t wo tri angl e s m u s t b e e q u al i n o r d e r t o m ak e t he tri

an gl es equ al ; i n o t h er w o r d s h o w m any an d w h at p art s o f a tri ,

angl e m u st b e gi v en i n o r d er t o deter m i n t h e si z e and shap e o f e

t he tri angl e .

1 . If o nl y o ne p art a s i d e o r an angl e i s gi v en w e c an co n
, , ,

str u c t as m any d i ffer e nt t ri angl es as w e p l ease al l havi ng t h i s p art , .

T h er efo r e b y o ne p art t he si z e and sh a

,
p e O f a tri angl e i s n o t
d et erm i ned .

2 . Li k ewi se i f two p art s are gi v en w h et h er t wo si d e s two an gl es

, , , ,

a si d e an d an a dj ac ent angl e o r a si d e an d t h e o pp o sit e angl e it , ,

i s easy t o S h o w t h at an i n d efinit e n u m b er O f tri angl es m ay b e

m ad e all havi ng t hese two p arts an d yet d i fferi ng i n t h eir o t h er
,

p a rt s
( s e e E x e r c i s e s 3 6 b e l o w )-
H e n c e t w o p a rt s ar e
. n o t su fh

c i ent t o d e t er m i ne t h e si z e and sh ap e o f a tri angl e .

3 . I f t h r ee p a rt s are g i v en t h ey m a
y b e , ,

( )
i . T h e t h r e e a n l
g s e

( )
i i . O n e s i d e a n d t w o a n g l e s

( )
i i i T. w o S i d e s a n d t h e i n c l u d e d a n g l e

( )
i v . T w o S i d e s a n d an a n g l e o pp o sit e t o o n e O f t h em

( )
v . T h e t h r e e s i d e s .

T h ese c ase s r e q u ir e e ac h O f t h e m a sp e c i al i nv esti gati o n

, ,
.

E xer c i es s 1 D r w thr
. . tri g l s h vi g c m m sid
a ee an e a n a o on e .

2 D r w thr t ri g l s h vi g c m m
. a ee an e a gl n a o o n an e .

3 D r w t w tri g l s b th h vi g f t w f th ir sid s 4 m m
. a o an e ,
o a n d 7
or o O e e 0 c
an 00 .
84 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS .

l
ang e s Dr aw a li n e A B : a
. At t he p o i nt s A an d B m ak e
.

an gl e s e qu al r esp e c ti v el y t o 60 T h e si d e s O f t h ese
°
an d
’

angl e s w ill m e e t at a p o i n t C an d A B C i s t he tri an gl e r e q u ir e d

, ,
.

Why c anno t t hese Si d es b e p ar all el an d henc e n ever m ee t ? ,

If w e n o w c o ns tru ct
t her tri angl e M N 0 h avi ng t he sam e
ano , ,

t hr e e p art s it w ill b e equ al t o t he t ri angl e A B C

, .

P ofro Pl ac e M N 0 o n A B C so t h at M N fall s o n A B
. M
, .

w ill fall o n A an d N o n B si n c e M N : A B
, , a T he li n e s .

M O and A C w ill c o i n c i d e i n d ir e c ti o n si n c e th e a ngl e s at M an d

.

A are eq u al ( eac h an d t he li n e s N O an d B C w ill al so c o i n

c i d e i n d ir ec ti o n S i n c e t h e angl e s at N an d B are equ al

, ( e ac h

T h er e fo r e 0 m us t c o i n c i d e w it h C an d t he tri angl es w ill c o i n c i d e

,

i n all t h e ir part s Po i n t o u t t h e p art s w hi c h are equ al eac h t o eac h

. .

T he c o n str u c ti o n an d pr o o f w o u l d b e t he sam e fo r o t he r val u e s

o f t h e gi v en S i d e s an d angl es t her efo r e by a si de a n d tw o a ngl es , ,
'

a tr i a ng l i co mpl t ly d ter m i n d ; an d al so
e s e e e e ,

T h e o r em ( 1 . L aw of E q u al ity ) .
—[f i n tw o tr i a ngl es a s i de

a nd t wo a ng l es a r e e u a l ea ch to ea ch , the tr i a ngl es a re equ a l

q .

R em a r k .
—T he m e t ho d
pr o v e t he tw o tri angl es
u se d ab o v e to

e qu al i s c all e d t h e M eth o d of S p rp s i ti o n When it c an b e e m

u e o .

pl o ye d to pr o ve the equ alit y O f tw o m agn it u d es it i s a very easy ,

m e t h o d i f w e o nl y t ak e c ar e t o b ear i n m i n d what p art s i n t h e

,

t w o m agnit u d e s are k n o w n t o b e e qu al .

E x r is
e c 1 D r w t r du d s l (
es . . appr o e ;ce th b l ck
ca e on a e ,
1 2000 on e a

b rd
oa ,
1 ) tri
200 g l sai d f whi
an h i e, o n e d t h dj
e o c t g l s c s an e a a en an e
°
an d
70
 CHAPT E R Iv .
—T R1ANGLE S . 85

2 r w t r du d sc l th ut l i s f tri gu l r fi l d f which
. D a o e ce a e e O ne O a an a e o o ne

sid ie s d th dj c t g l s 8an d 47
e a a en an e 0
°
an
°

N —Alw ys wri t h sc l m pl y d by h i d f h figur

GT E a e t e a e e o e t e S e O t e e .

3 T h s m E
. rcis
e a sid f th fi l d b i g
e xe dj t gl
e, o n e e O e e e n an a ac e n an e

bi ge n d th pp i
an t g l b i g 37
e o os e an e e n
°

4 Dr w . ight tri g l h vi g giv

a a r an e a n en,

( i ) O l g . d t h dj
ne t cut e g l 2 an e a a ce n a e an e

( )
i i O l g . d t h ne pp sit g l
e an e O o e an e

( i i i ) T h hyp t us . e d dj c t g l o en e an an a a en an e

5 Wh t l i m it i th r t th
. a m f th t w giv
s g l s i th pr b l m
e e o e su o e o en an e n e o e

of this s ti i rd r th t th s l uti m y b p ssib l

ec on n o e a e o on a e o e

6 Wh t . th g ia thi gs d t i th pr b l m f this s cti

a re e ven n or a a 1 , n e o e o e on

73 . Pr o b l e m . T o co n s tr u ct a tr i a ngl e h a vi ng g i ven t w o

s i d es a n d th e i n cl u d ed a ng l e .

Le t d b ( F ig 68 ) b e t h e gi v e n si d e s, an d 5 0 t he i n c l u d e d angl e
°
a an . .

M ak e an angl e A t ak e A B a , A C = b, and j o i n B C .

A B C i s t he tri angl e r equ ir e d .

D r aw an o t h e r tri angl e ha i ng v

t he t h r ee gi v e n p art s an d t hen ,

p r o v e b y s u p e rp o s iti o n t h at it

m us t b e e qu al t o A B C .

H en c e , by tw a s i des a nd the
i n cl u ded a ng l e a tr i a ngl e i s co m
F ig 68
pl t l d t m i d an d ,
. .

e e y e er n e ;

T h e o r e m ( II . L aw of E qu al ity ) .
—]f i n tw o tr i a ngl es t w o
'

s i des a n d the i n cl u ded a ngl e a r e e

qu a l ea ch to ea ch , th e tr i a ng l es

a re e u al
q .

E xerc i
r w ( t r du d s l ) tri g l with th sid s
s es . 1 . D a o e ce ca e a an e e e 49
m an d

77
m
d th i c l ud d
, an gl e n e an e

2 R pr s t ( t sc l )
. e p p r d ls
e en th b l ckb rd tri gl
o a e on a e , an a o on e a oa ,
a an e,

t w sid s f wh ch
o i e 4
mO d d th i c l ud d gla re A th 1 0 an
m
l oo , a n e n e an e re e

t w figur s q
o l q i l
e t imil ? A
e ua th y m utu ll y qui gul r
, e u v a en ,
or s ar re e a e an a ?

1 T he s i gul r
n a Of d a ta i s d at u m . T he w rdo is f r om t
t h e L a i n , an d m eans
g i v en .
86 GE OM E T RY F OR BE GI NNE RS .
74 .

3 is s l s tri gl
. In an f th qu l sid s i 3
o ce e an e one o e e a e s 0m
2 , an d th e an gl e

a t th v rt i
e edr w th tri gl
ex s a e an e .

4 Dr w . right tri g l wh s l gs
a a 6 d an e o e e are 1 cm
an Wh at thre e

p rts h r k w ?
a a re e e no n

5 Dr w . i l right tri g l wh s l gs
a an sosce es 6m an e o e e ar e 1 c
eac h Wh t
. a ar e

th thr e p rts h r gi v ?
ee a e e en

6 Wh t i th gr t st v l u whi h th g i v
. a s e gl i ea e a e c e en an e n th e pr b l
o em Of

this s cti h v ?
e o n c an a e

7 Wh t . th d t i th pr b l m f this s
a are e ti ? a a n e o e o ec on

74 . Pr o b l e m . T o co ns tru ct a tr i a ng l e h a vi ng gi ven tw o

s i d es a n d a n a ngl e o
pp os i te to o ne o f them .

T he re are two c as e s ac c o r d i ng as t he g i v en ang e l is o pp o sit e

( i .
) t o t he gr ea t e r ,
or
( i i .
) t o the l ess si d e .

F ig . 69 .

Case Let a an d b ( F ig 6 .
9) b e t h e gi v en si d e s,
an d l et
a > b l
a so l et t h e ang e l o p p o sit e t o a b e M ak e an angl e
CA B an d l ay O ff AC b ; t hi s d et er m i n es t w o c o r n er s,
A an d C,tri angl e T he
Of t he . t hir d c o rn er m u st l i e i n th e li n e
A B an d i ts d i st an c e fr o m C m u st b e e qu al t o a ; t her efo r e it
, ,

m u st al so he i n a Cir c u m fer en c e d esc ri b ed fr o m C as c en tr e w it h

a rad i u s e qu al t o a H en c e i t m u st b e t he i n t er sec ti o n O f t hi s
.

c ir c u m fer en c e w it h t he li n e A B N o w t hi s C ir c u m fer en c e u t s .
c

A B i n tw o po i n t s B and B so t hat w e o b t ai n t w o tri angl es

,
'
, ,

A B C an d A B C O f t he se ho w ev er o nl y A B C has t he t hr ee
'
.
, ,

g i v en p a rt s ; A B C h as it i s t r’
u e t h e gi v en S i d es b u t n o t t he
, , ,

g i v e n an g l e t h e r e fo r e it i s n o t t h e tri an gl e r eq u ir ed
,
.
3
'

CHAP T E R IV .
—T R IAN G LE S . 87

If w e c o ns tr c t u an o t her tri angl e M N ,

0, hav i ng the sam e t hr ee
i art s, it w ill be equ a l t o t h e tri a ngl e A B C.

P r o of . l
P ac e A M N 0 on A A B C, m ak i ng t he eq u a l si d e s
M O an d A C c o nc i ide
l c o i n c i d e i n d ire c ti o n
. M N wi l w it h A B

b ec a s e O M N = C A B
u 7 0 t h e r e fo r e N w ill fa ll i n A B B ut
°
.

N m u s t al so l i e i n a C ir c u m fer enc e hav i ng ( no w ) C fo r c en tr e and ,

r ad i s a ; t her efo re N w ill c o i n c i d e w it h B And ON w ill

u .

c o i n c i d e w it h CB an d t h e tri angl e s w ill c o i n c i d e i nall t h e ir p a rt s

, .

H en c e w e see t hat by tw o s i d s a n d th ng l opp s i t t th e e a e o e o e

g rea t s i d
er a t i a ng l ie co mp l etelyr d e te m i n d
e ; a nsd t h a t r e ,

T h e o r e m ( III . L aw of E q u al i ty ) .
[f in tw o tr i a ngl es

M o s i des a nd th e an
gl e o
pp o s i te to th e g r ea ter s i de a r e e u al
q ea ch

to ea ch , th e tr i a ngl es a re e
q u al .

Case Le t a an d b
( F ig 7 0
) b e t
. h e g iven si d es ,
an d l et
a b a sol l et t h e ang e o
pl a

p o si t e t o a

pr o c ee d i ng as in Case
By

( )
i w
. e o b t ai n tw o tri angl es ,

A B C an d A B C b o t h hav
’
,

i ng t he t hr ee gi en p art s yet v ,

d i ffe ri ng i n s i e an d i n sha p e z .

T h er efo r e by tw si d
,
a nd o es
F 23 7
70 °

th e a ng l e o
pp os i te to the l ess s i de a tr i a ngl e i s no t deter m i ned .

T he re are, ho w ev e r ,
o nly tw o s o lu ti o ns ,
t he tri angl es A B C a nd

AB C '
.

r i s 1 I th tri g l s A B C d A B C ( F g 69) p i t t th
E xe c se . . n e an e an
’
i . o n ou e

e qu l p ts ls th u qu l p rts
a ar a o e ne a a .

2 Wh t r l ti
. aists b tw th g l s B A C d B A C ( F g 69)
e a o n ex e ee n e an e an
’
i .

3 W h .t ki d f tri
a g l sn t h tri
O g l s B CB d
an N O N" ( F ig 69)
e a re e an e
’
an .

4 W h t qu l p rts h v th tri g l s A CB d A C B ( F g 7 )
. a e a a a e e an e an
’
i . 0

5 D r w
. tri g l
a w i th
a t h sid ans 6 m d 9
e
m d th gl pp sit e e 0
c
an 00 ,
an e an e o o e

th gr et r sid ea e e

6 C s truct right tri gl th hyp t us

. on a f which i 8 m
an d l g
e e o en e o s
d
, an o ne e

is Wh t t h thr a giv p rts

a re e ee en a
88 GE O ME T RY F OR BE GIN NE RS .
75 .

Co ns tru c t tri ag l with th sid s 8

.

7 . a n e e e
dm
an d 4
am
, an d th e an g l pp sit
e O o e

gr t r sid
t o th e ea e e

8 Wh . th d t i C s ( i i ) f this s ti su h th t
en a re tri gl
e a a n a e . o ec on c a no an e

i p ssib l ?
s o e

A Wh th l ss sid i sh rt r th th p rp di u l r fr m C t A B
ns .
-
en e e e s o e an e e en c a o o

(F g 7 )
i .ls wh th giv
0 g l i ith r right
a o btus en e en an e s e e or o e .

9 Wh . th l ss sid i just qu l t th p rp di ul
en e e fr m C t A B e s e a o e e en c ar o o ,

wh t ki d f tri g l i bt i d ?
a n O a an e s O a ne

75 . Pro b l em . T o co nstru ct a tr i a ngl e h a vi ng g i ven i ts

th r ee s i des .

Le t a b c ( g7
F i 1 )
. b e t h e gi v e n si d es M ak e A B . a t h en A

an d B are t wo c o r ners o f t he tri angl e , and A B i s o n e s ide . S i nc e

t he t hir d c o rner mu st b e at a

t h e d i st an c e b fr o m A it m u st ,

l i e i n a Cir c u m fer en c e d esc ri b e d

fr o m A as c en tr e w it h t h e ra
d iu s b F o r a li k e r eas o n it
.

m u st al so l i e i n a C ir c u m fer
e n c e d esc ri b ed fr o m B as c en

t re w it h t h e r ad i u s c
1
.

T her e fo r e it m u st b e at t he
i n t er sec ti o n O f t hese Cir c u m
feren c e s N o w t h e se C ir c u m
.

feren c es c u t eac h o t her i n t w o po i nts C and C o n e ab o ve t he

’
, ,

o t h e r b e l o w A B ; S O t hat w e O b t ai n t w o tri angl es A B C and ,

A B C b o t h h av i ng t he t hr ee gi ven si d es
’
.
,
5

T h ese tri angl es ho w ev er are equ al F o r i f we fo l d o ver A B C

’
, ,
.
,

on A B C w ill b e b r o u gh t a bo ve A B an d as it r e m ai ns th e i nt er
,
’
, ,

sec ti o n O f c ir c u m fer en c e s hav i n A an d B fo r c en tr es an d b and c

g ,

fo r r ad ii it will fall o n C an d t he tri angl e s A B C and A B C will

’

, ,

t h en c o i n c i d e 2
.

1 bvi us th t i s l vi g th i s pr b l m
It i s O o a n o n o e en t ir c ircu m f r c s
e e en e are n o t re

q u i r d ; sh t rcs
e r th p i ts f t rs ct
or a n ea e o n o in e e i o n a re s u ffic xent .
2 S E rc i s 5 p g 9
ee xe e ,
a e 2.
 CHAPT E R Iv .
— T RIANGLE S . 89

If w e tr u c t ano t her tri angl e wit h t he sam e t hr ee S i d es it will

c o ns ,

al so b e e q a l t o A B C u F o r w e c an pl ac e i t o n A B C s o t hat .

o n e O f i t s S i d es will c o i n c i d e w it h AB an d t h en i t s t hir d c o r n e r ,

m u st fall o n C fo r t h e sam e r easo n t ha t C fall s o n C w h en A B C

‘
’ ’

i s fo l d e d o v e r o n A B .

F r o m w h at pr e c e d e s we c o n c l u d e t hat by th th e s i d s a t i ,
e r e e r

a ng l i s co mp l t ly d t m i n d ; al so t h at
e e e e er e ,

T h e o r e m ( IV . L aw of E q u al ity ) .
—]f i n tw o tr i a ngl es the
th ree s i des a re equ a l ea ch to ea ch , th e t r i a ng l es a re e u a l
q .

r i ses 1
E xe c sid s . tri gu l r g rd m sur 8 65
. T he d e of a an a a en ea e 0
m
,
m
, an

45 Dr w t sc l
m
. p l f th g rd
a o a e a an o e a en .

2 T h sid s f
. tri gu l r fi l d
e e o d 3
a Dr w t
an a e a re an oo m . a o

s l p l f th fi l d
ca e a an O e e .

3 C stru.t tri g l
on wh s sidc s m a4
m d 6 an e o e e a re 2 0 ,
0 , an 0

4 C stru.t tri gonl wh s sid

c s ma 3 d 6 an e o e e a re 20
0
,
00
m
, an 0

5 Wh i th s l uti
. en f t h pr b l m f this s cti
s e i m p ssib l ? ( S
o on o e o e O e on o e ee

6 stru t
. is s l s tri gl wh s b s i 7
Co n c an o ce e an e o e a e s 0 0m
, an d th e su m of

wh s th r sid s i
o e o e e s

7 C stru t . qui l t r l tri gl

on c sid f which i P
an e a e a an e o ne e o s
“
.

8 C struct . tri g l with th s i d s 3 3

on a d an e e e 00
m
,
00
m
, an Wh t ki n d a

of tri g l i i t ?
a an e s

9 C struct . tri gl with th sid s 5

on a5 d 4 an e e e 2 cm
,
2 cm
,
an 0 0m
. Wh a t ki dn

Of tri g l i i t ?
a an e s

1 0 C struct tri g l with th sid s

. on
m a d an e e e 20 c
,
an Wh a t ki d
n

Of tri g l i i t ?
a an e s

1 1 A t w tri g l s qu l i f th y h v
. re o qu l p ri m t rs
an e e a e a e e a e e e
( Co m p are th e

l st thr
a rcis s )
e e e xe e .

76 . Pr o b l e m . T o ni a he a tr i a ngl e equ a l to a g i ve n t ri a n l e
g .

T a t hr ee p rt s O f t he gi en tri ngl e t h t c o m pl e t e ly d e
ke an y a v a a

t er m i n e a tri angl e n d n str c t w it h t hem a n ew tri a ngl e it w ill

,
a co u

b e e q u al t o t h e g i e n tri n gl e T he b e st p rt s t o t ak e fo t h i p
v a . a r s ur

p o se a e t he t hr ee si d es S ho w ho w t o c o nstru c t t he tri angl e w it h

r .

t he m 75)
90 G E OM E T RY FO R BE GI NN E RS .

77 .

E xerc i se s . 1 . In wh t f ur w ys
a o a c an thr ee p rtsa be Ch s o en with which
to c struct tri g l
on a an e?

2 Dr w tri gl
. a a an e; th en c o n struct ano th r qu l t
e e a o it .

77 . Pr o b l e m . At a g i ven poi nt D
( F ig 7 ) gf
2 c . a g i ven
l i ne D G , to m a he a n a n le
g e u a l to a
q g i v e n a ng l e B A C .

T a ke on the s l AM i d es o f t he g i ve n ang e

Al V and j o i n M N, T h en o nstr u c t ( by . c

t he l ast pr o b l e m ) a tri an gl e D E F e q u al to

t h e tri angl e A M N T h e angl e D c o rr es ,

p o n d i ng t o t h e an gl e A w ill b e e q ual t o it , .

E x r i s 1 Wh t ki d f tri g l i A M l v?
e c se . . a n O a an e s

I it
s c ss y f th s l uti
ne e ar f th pr b l m t
or e o on o e o e o

m k AM N
a e tri g l f this ki d ? a an e o n

2 M k . gl a d th
e an a n m k th q l
e , an en a e an o er e. ua

to i t .

k gl qu l t giv
3 . gl with
Ma e an an e e a o a en an e

th pr tr t r e o ac o .

4 . Ma k g l qu l t giv
e an an e e g l with th ru l r d th squ r
a o a e n an e e e an e a e .

5 . Ma k ( with rul r d c m p ss s )
e e angl f gl f
o a e a n an e O an an e O

78 . Pr o b l em . T h r o ugh a g i v en
p (
o i n t C F ig
7 )
3 to dra w .

a l i n e p a r a l l el to i ven l i n e AB
a g .

T h r o u gh C d r aw any s trai ght li ne C D c u tti ng A B i n D ,

. T h en
d r aw ( b y t h e l as t pr o b l e m ) CP so

t hat the angl e D C P CD B .

C P i s p ar all el t o A B

r i s 1 Dr w l i d th E xe c se . . a a ne, an en

thr ugh p i t dr w th r l i p o a o n a an o e ne ar

ll l t th first a e o e .

2 T h s m r i s usi g ru l r d . e a e e xe c e, n e an

squ r i st d f ru l r d c m p ss s a e n ea O e an o a e .

3 T hr ugh th v rtic s f th
. o gl s f tri gl dr w li s p r ll l t
e e e O e an e O a an e a ne a a e o

th pp sit sid s d pr l g th m u ti l th y m t Wh t ki d f figur

e O o e e , an o on e n e ee . a n o a e

i thus f rm d ?
s o e
92 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 80 .

Co r o l l a ry . In an e
qu i l a ter a l tr i a ngl e al l the a ngl es a r e equ a l ;

th er ef ore
°
ea ch a n l e 1 80
g 3
Why d o es t hi s c o r o llar y fo ll o w fr o m t he t heo r em ?
R e m a r k — A t heo r e m c o n si st s o f t hr ee p art s
.

( )
i T h.e H Y PO T H E S IS ( o r h y p o t h e s e s ) o r t h a t w h i c h i s i
g ve n o r , ,

assu m e d as tr u e a t t h e s t ar t , .

( )
i i T h e .CO N C LU S IO N ( o r c o n c l u si o n s ) o r t hat w hi c h i s t o b e ,
-

p r o v e d .

( )
i i i T h e P R.OO F .

In t h e ab o v e t h eo r em t he hypo t hesi s i s : A C B C ( F ig .

and t h e c o n c l u si o n i s a b T he pr o o f c o nsi s t s n sho w i ng t hat . i

t he tri angl es A C D and B C D are e q u al and h en c e i nfe rri n g t h at ,

a b .

i ses —l I
E xe rc is s l s tri g l th bis ct r f th g l t th
. . n an o ce e an e e e o o e an e a e

v rt i p rp di u l r t th b s
e ex s e d bis cts th b s
en c a o e a e , an e e a e .

H i t —U n sF ig 74 T h tw hyp h s s :A C B C d C D bi t
se e o ot e e a re 2 an sec s
c cl us i s :C D L A B d C D bi t A—B Pr f :sh w
. . . ,

A CB T h tw e o on on a re _ an s ec s oo o
th t A A C D A B C D ; h c m = 9
. .
,

a
N
d AD B D en e .
-
n 0
o
an __ .

2 T h p rp di u l r l t f ll fr m t h v rt
. e e f enis s l s tri gl t
c a e a o e e ex o an o ce e an e o

th b s bis
e ts th b s
a e d l s th g l t th v rt
ec e a e, a n a o e an e a e e ex .

Hi t H r t h hy p th s s
n s -
:A C B C d C D _L A B T h c cl u
e e e o e e a re an e on
si s Pr v by sh wi g th t A A C D
. .
,

on C D bi
a re t AB d C D bi t A CB sec s ,
an sec s . o e o n a
9 AB CD .

3 . l i n e j o i n i ng th e v ert ex o f an is o sc e l e s tri ang l e t o the m iddl e o f th e

T he
b as e i s p erp e ndi c u l ar to th e b as e a nd bis ec ts the an g l e at th e v ert ex ,
.

H i nt —In th i s c as wh at a re th e hyp o th es e s ? t h e c o n cl us i o ns ? Pro v by

s e e

sh o wi ng ( by IV Law o f E qu al ity ) th at A A C D 2 A B C D
.

. .

4 . Wh at
c diti s d s th l i C D ( F ig 74 ) fu l fil ?
th r ee on on oe e ne .

5 Pr v ( with t h
. i d f th th r m f this s ti
o e
) th t e a o e eo e O ec on a th e tri g l s
an e

AB C d A B C ( F ig 7 an p 88) qu l ’
. 1, . a re e a .

H i t —B y dr w i g C C w
n bt i tw i s sc l s ri gl s A C C
a n ’ e o a n o o e e t an e ,
’ an d B C C ’
.

6 F i d th b s gl s f i s s l s tri g l i f th gl v rt
°

. n e a e an e o an o ce e an e e an e at th e e ex

° °
is (i ) . 27 ( i i ) 75
.
( i i i .
) 1 24
°

7 . F i d n th e an gl e at th e v rte ex if o ne o f th e b s
a e an gl s i
e s
(i )
. 15
°

(i i )
°
48
°
.
(iii ) . 83
8 . In an is s l s ri ght tri gl
o ce e an e fin d t h e b s a e an gl s e .
 CH P T EA R iv .
— T RIAN GLE S . 93

9 . Can y o u d vis
fi di g th h ight fe e a bj ct ( tr t w r
w ay of n n e e O an O e e e, o e ,

t ) by
e c . s f is s l s ight tri g l ?
m ean o an o ce e r an e

10 S h w th t i
. is sc l s tri g l th t ri r g l s m d by pr l g
o a n an o e e an e e ex e o an e a e o on

i g th b s
n qu l d th t th t ri r g l s t th v rt
e a e a re e a ,
an ls a e ex e o an e a e e e x a re a o

e qu l a

1 1 F i d t h thr
. g l s f is sc l s tri g l if th t i
n e ee an gl t e O an o e e an e e ex er o r a n e a

t h v rt
°
e i 46
e ex s 1

1 2 F i d th thr
. g l s f i s sc l s tri g l i f th t ri r g l t
n e ee an e o an o e e an e e ex e o an e a

th b s i
°
e a e s 1 20

13 S h w th t th
. t ri r g l s f
o a qui l t r l tri g l
e ex e ll qu lo an e O an e a e a an e are a e a ,

an d fi d th v l un f f th m
e a e o o ne O e .

14 C struct . is sc l s tri gl h vi g giv

on an o e e an e a n e n,

( ) T h b s d
a dj c t g l ; e a e an an a a en an e

b s pp sit g l
.

( )
b T h d t h e ; a e an e O o e an e

( ) T h sid d
c g l t t h b s
e e an an a n e a e a e

( d ) T h sid d th gl t th v rte e an e an e a e e ex
.

81 . tr an sp o se the hy p o t hesi s and t he c o nc l u si o n

Let u s no w

o f th e t h e o r e m i n 80 ; i n o t h e r w o r d s l e t u s s pp o se t ha t i n a ,
u

tri angl e A B C ( F g 75 ) t he angle s A and B a e eq u al an d i . r ,

i nqu ir e i f t he si d es O p p o sit e t o t hese angl es m u st al so b e equ al .

Let CD b i sec t t h e angl e C .

T hen t h e tri angl es A C D and

B C D are m t u ll y e q u i angu l ar u a

h a l so ha e t h e si d e
( y
w h T e
y v

C D c o m m o n t h e r e fo r e t h ey ar e ,

eq al ( I Law O f E q alit y )
u . an d u ,

A C: B C . H en c e,
T h e o r em .
—[f in a tr i a ngl e
tw o a ngl es are e u al , th e o s i te
q o pp
s i d es a r e a l so e u a l , a n d th e tr i a ngl e i s i sos cel es
q
—]f
.

Co r o l l a ry . th e th r ee a ng l es o f a tr i a ngl e a r e equ a l , the

tr i a ngl e i s equ i l a ter a l .

Why d o es t h i s r ll ar y fo ll o w fr o m t he t heo r em ?
co o

Rem a rk . If w e tr an sp o se t h e hyp o t he si s an d th e l i
c o nc u s o n
94 GE O M E T RY FO R B E G I NN E RS . 82 .

Of a theo rem w e . t i
t he o r em c all ed the CONVE RS E O f t h e
O b a n a n ew

o ri gi nal t h e o r e m T he t h e o r e m o f t hi s se c ti o n fo r e xam p l e i s t h e
.
, ,

c o nv e r se o f t h e t h eo r e m O f t h e l as t se ti o n c .

T h e c o n v e r se O f a tr u e t h e o r e m i s n o t n e c essaril y t r u e T ak e .
,

fo r i ns t an c e t h e t h eo r e m tw v ti l a ngl
,
a e al w
y, q aol ; t h er
e ca es r a s e u

c o nv e r se t w o e u a l n l es a r e a l w a s ver ti ca l a n l es i s n o t tr u e
q
, g y a
g ,
.

E x i s s —1 I
e rc e is sc l s tri gl th bis ct rs f th b s g l s
. n an o e e an e e e o o e a e an e

f rm w ith th b s
o th r is sc l s tri g l
e a e ano e o e e an e .

2 Pr v th c v rs th r m ( m l y i f i
. o e e on etri gl th bis ct rs f
e eo e na e ,
n a an e e e o o

th b s
e g l s f rm w ith th b s
a e an e ois s l s tri g l th th tri g l i
e a e an o ce e an e, en e an e s

al s is s l s)
o o ce e .

82 We w ill n o w
. c o m pa e r in a tri angl e tw o u n eq u a l si d es an d

t he o pp o s it e an gl es .

Let A B C ( F ig 7 6) b e a
.n so s c e es i l
tri angl e h avi ng A B A C
an d AB C A CB P o o ng A C t o
. r l any p o i n t D an d j o i n B D ,
.

T hen A B D i s a tri angl e h a i ng A D v

> AB N O W c o m p ar e t h e o ppo site

.

angl es Sin c e A B D
. AB C
C B D t h er e fo r e A B D
,
AB C .

An d si nc e A D B = A C B CB D
t her efo r e A D B A CB ,

an d h e nc e A B C T h er efo r e A B D .

AD B H er e it i s q it e c l ear t hat
. u

th e t wo c o n d iti o n s A D A B an d , ,

AB D A D B m u s t al w ays b e fu l ,

fill e d t o ge t h er ; h en c e ,

T h eo r em I . Of t w o a ng l es o f a tr i a ngl e the grea ter i s o

pp o

s i te to the g r ea ter s i de .

T h e o r e m II .
( Co nv e rs e Of T h eo r em Of t w o s i des f
o a

tr i a ngl e th e g r ea ter i s o
pp o si te to th e g r ea ter a ngl e

—]
.

Co r o l l a r y . n a ri gh t tr i a ngl e the hyp oth ei i u se i s the g r ea test

si de.
96 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS .
84 .

84 . Let A B C an d AB D ( g 7 8 ) b e two i sosc el es tri an

F i .

gl es hav i ng a c o m m o n b ase A B .

J o in CD . T he tri angl es A C D and

B CD l ( IV Law o f E qu al i
are e q u a .

ty) Let t h e t ri angl e A C D be

.

fo l d ed o v e r C D u n til i t c o i nc i d es
w it h t h e tri angl e C B D t he n A
w ill fall o n B and al l t h e l i n es and ,

an gl es w h i c h fall u p o n e ac h o t her

will b e equ al H e nc e w e have ( i ) .

,
.

a b an d c =d; ( ii .
) AE =BE ;
( i i i .
) m n, and the r efo r e CD _ L
AB .

T h eo rem . t wo i soscel es tr i a ngl es h a ve a c o m mo n base,

the l i ne d r a w n th r o ugh th ei r ver ti ces
( i .
) bi sects the a ngl es at th e
ver ti ces ; ii
( ) . bi sects th e ba se iii
( ) . i s perpen di cu l a r to th e ba se .

E xe rc i se s r v this th r m wh ( i
.
—1 . P o e eo e , en as n

F g 7 9 ) th
i . v rti s f th tw is s l s tri gl s
e e ce o e o o ce e an e

a re b th th s m s i d f th b s
o on e a e e o e a e .

2 If y u m b r f is s l s tri gl s h v
. an n m e O o ce e an e a e a co

m b s th l i p ssi g thr ugh th v rti s f tw

on a e, e ne a n o e e ce o o

f t h tri
O gl s wi ll p ss thr ugh th v rti s f l l
e an e a o e e ce O a

th tri gl s
e an e .

°
If ( F ig 7 9) C A E
. 64 an d D AE fin d
al l th e o th r
e an gl s i e n th e figur e.

85 Pr o b l e m . T o bi sect a g i ven a ngl e B A C ( F ig .

—T
.

An a ly s i s . h e t heo r em Of 84 su gges s a t mo de l i
o f so v ng

t hi s pr ob l em If w e c o nstru c t an i so sc el es tri angl e havi ng the

.

g i v e n an gl e B A C fo r t h e an gl e a t t h e v ert ex and t hen u po n i ts ,

b ase c o n st ru c t any o t he r i so sc el es tri angl e t he li ne whi c h j o i ns ,

t he v e rti c es of the two tri an l e s m u st b y 8 4 b e t he b i se c t o r

g ,

requ ir ed .
 CHAP TE R IV .
— T RIANG LE S . 97

Co nstru cti o n .
— Wit h A as c en tr e d e sc ri b e an a rc c utti ng t he
s i d es o f i ven angl e i n M and N Wit h
t he g .

M an d N a s c e n tr es and e q u al r ad ii d esc ri b e , ,

a r c s i n t e r s e c ti n
g at a p o i nt D J o i n A D °
.

it i s th e b i sec t o r r eq ir ed u .

E xe rc i se s .
—l . P r v dir t l y th t
o e, ec , a A A /V
ID
2 A AN D ( F zg . d h anth t e n ce a B A D
CA D .

2 .cu t gl k
d th
Ma bis ct i t
e an a e an e, an en e .

3 btus gl
. kd th
Ma bis ct i t
e an o e an e , an en e .

4 tri g l
. Dr w
d th bis ct th thr
a a an e, an en e e ee

g l s I h w m y p i ts d th bis t rs
an e . n o an o n o e ec o

m t th r ?
ee o ne an o e

5 Divid . gl i t f ur d l s i t ight qu l p rts

e an an e n o o , an a o n o e , e a a .

6 M k with ru l r
. d m p ss s
a e, gl f gl e an co a e ,
an a n e o a n an e of

86 . Pr o b l e m . T o bi s cc t a g i v e n s t r a ig t l i ne A B
h ( g
F i .

A n a ly s i s .
—If we c o ns tr c t p o n A B
u u as a b ase an y two i so s
l tri angl es
c e es ,
the li ne j o i n i ng t he ir
v erti c es m u s t ,
by 84 b i se c t /
I
l

"
s

AB .
s

Co n — Wit h
t
a

s tr u cti o n . A an d B as
A E B
c en tr es and equ al r ad ii d esc ri b e ar cs ,
l “
é i
i nt er se c ti ng ab o e A B i n C an d b e v ,

J o in C D : 7 '
l o w A B in D i t b i se c t s .

A B in E .

E xe rc is es .
-
1 . B is ct
e a l ine , first fre e h d th
an , en with ru l r e an d co m

p a ss s
e .

2 is ct th thr sid s f tri gl

. B e d th j i th p i ts f bi
e ee e o a an e , an en o n e o n o
'

s ec - i

t i t th v ti s f th pp s i t gl s I h w m y p i ts d th j i
on o e er ce o e o o e an e . n o an o n o e o n ~

i g li
n ( ll d t
nes h m d i f t h tri
ca g l ) i ters t ? e e a ns o e an e n e ec

3 Divid . li i t f ur d l s i t ight qu l p rts

e a ne n o o , an a o n o e , e a a .

4 C ny by m s f this pr b l m d iv i d l i i t i qu l p rts ?
a o u, e an o o e , e a ne n o s x e a a

5 B is t li
. m r th twi ec l g s th gr t st p i g f th
a ne o e an ce as on a e ea e o en n o e,

c m p ss s ?
o a e
98 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 87 .

87 . F rom 84 it app ear s t hat ev ery p o i n t i n the p erp end i cu

l ar e r e c t e d at t h e m i dd l e o f a li n e i s e qu all
y
r

d i st an t fr o m t h e e n d s o f t h e li n e M o r eo v e r .
,

e er p o i n t n t i n t hi s p e rp e n d i c u l ar i s u n
v
y o

e q all y d i st an t fr o m t h e en d s o f t h e li n e
u .

F o r l et D ( F ig 8 2 ) b e s c h a p o i n t C E . u ,

b ei ng t h e p e rp e n d i c u l ar S i nc e A D A C .

B
CD z B C + CD, an d si n c e al so B C+
CD B D ( w hy P ),
t h er e fo r e A D BD .

H en c e ,

T h eo r em . E very p oi n t e
q u i d i s ta n t f r o m t h e e n ds c f a s tr a i gh t
l i ne i s i n th e p erpe n d i c u l a r w h i ch bi sec ts th e l i ne .

88 . Pro b l em . To er ect a p p ef e n cl i c u l a r at a g i ven

p o i nt
C ( g 83 )
F i . o f a g i v e n l i n e AB .

A n a ly s i s . p o i nt s M and IV equ ally d is

If w e fin d i n A B t w o , ,

t ant fro m C and t h en find any o t her p o i nt D eq i d i st an t fr o m M

, u

an d N it i s evi d ent fr o m 8 7 t hat ,

t h e li n e p assi ng t hr o u gh C and D

w ill b e t he p e rp e n d i c u l ar r e q u ir e d .

C ns t u ti n Wit h t he c entr e o r c o .

C d e sc ri b e an arc c u tti n g A B i n M
an d ZV Wit h M and N as c en tr es .

B
an d e u al r a d ii d es c ri b e ar c s i n t e r
q ,

s e c t i n g at a p o i n t D Join C D . .

N t o e I pr c t i c th i s c
n s truct i i usu lly ff ct d by m s f t h rul r
a e on on s a e e e ea n o e e
d h squ r (
.

an t e a e se e

E x rc i s s
e 1 I th
e . b v stru ti wh t i th l st v lu whi h
. n e a o e co n c on a s e ea a e c

the e qu l l i s M D d M D
a ne hv ? an . c an a e

2 E r t p rp di u l r t th
. ec a e d f en l i with ut pr l gi g th li
c a a e en o a ne o o on n e ne .

C t ti
on s r u c L t A C ( F ig 8 4 ) b th l i
on .
-
e C struct A C . b s e e ne . on on as a e

an qui l t r l tri g l A B C ( h w i this d

e a e a an e d pr l g AB t D o s one an o on o ,

m ki g B D
a n AB C D i th p rp dic l r r quir d s e e en u a e e

—
. .

P f
r oo S i c A A B C n ei qui l t r l A B C th r f r
s i eA a e a ,
e e o e, n

B CD B C
, D B D C : 6 N w A B CD i is s l s 0
0
o s o ce e
 100 GE OM E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS .

or .

li ne s l et fall p rp e n d i c u l r s m e e ti ng t h
e a t he r l i ne i n C and D t hen
e o

A B A C IIB D 5 7 Co r o ll ary) J o i n , .

l i B C T h e tri angl es A B C and

.

B C D are eq u al 5 6 and I Law o f .

E qu alit y ) T h e r e fo r e A C . B D
t hat i s a ny tw o p o i nt s o f o ne li n e
,

are e u all d i t t fr m t h t h r
q y s a n o e o e

li n e henc e the li nes are eve ry

whe re e qu a lly d i st an t fro m eac h o t he r .

91 . Let the pr ob l e m b e pr o p o s e d :t o fi nd a po i n t at a g i ven

d i s ta n ce f r o m a g i ven p o i nt .

It i s i d ent t hat any po i nt i n t he c ir c u m fe r enc e o f a c ir c l e de

ev ,

sc ri b e d wit h t he gi v en p o i n t as c e n tr e a n d t h e gi v e n d i st anc e as

rad i u s w ill s ati sfy t he r eq u ir e d c o n d iti o n and w ill t he r efo re b e a

, , , ,

so l u ti o n o f t he pr o b l e m It a p p e ars t hen that t her e are an i nd e

.
, ,

finit e n u mb e r o f so l u ti o ns t o t he pr o b l e m ; henc e t h e pr o b l em i s
t er m ed i n d ete m i n a te r .

T h e r eq u ir e d po i nt i s li m it ed i n po siti o n t o a c ert ai n l i ne ; t hi s
li ne i s c all ed the l o cu s o f t he p o i nt .

D e fin i t i o n . T h e l i ne ( or l i nes ) i n w h i ch a poi n t m u s t be i n ,

th e LOCUS 1
o r der to sa ti s fy a g i ven co n di ti o n , is ca l l ed o f the poi n t .

Agai n , l et i t b e pr o po sed to find a

p o i nt equ i d i s ta n t f rom M o

g i ven p o i n ts .

It fo llo ws fr o m 8 7 that t he r eq u ir ed po i nt m ay b e anyw her e

i n t he p er pend i c u l ar wh i c h b i se c t s t he str ai gh t li ne j o i ni ng t he
g i
v e n p o i n t s T h e p
. r o b l e m t h e r e fo r e i s i n d,e t e r m i n a t e a n d t h e . ,

l o c u s o f t he p o i nt r e qu ir ed i s t he ab o ve m e nti o ned p erp end i c u l ar -

.

G en er all y s p eak i ng when a p o i n t has t o sa ti sfy o nl y o n e geo m et

,

ri c al c o n d iti o n t h e pr o b l e m i s i n d e t er m i na t e a n d t he so l u t i o n c o n
, ,

s i sts in fin d i ng t he l o c u s o f th e r eq u ir e d po i nt .

1 Pl ur l l
a o ci .
 CHAP TE R IV .
-
T RIANGLE S . 101 3
9
a
»

E xe rc ises —1 . . In th e ca e s s b v sid r d th p i ts w r supp s d

a o e con e e , e o n e e o e

to b e c o n ne fi dt o o ne pl an e wh t w u l d th l i b i f this r stri ti w r
a o e oc e e c on e e

r em o v d? e

An s first c s th surf c f s ph r wi th th g i v p i t c r d
In t h e a e, e a e o a e e e en o n as en t e a n
th g v ds c r d i us ; i h s c d c s t h pl p rp d i cul r h
.

e i en i t a n e as a n t e e on a e, e an e e en a to t e
l i wh i c h j i s th g v p i ts d b i s c i g i
ne o n e i en o n ,
an e t n t .

2 F i d th l us f
. n p i t t giv d i st c fr m giv str ight l i
e oc o a o n a a en an e o a en a ne .

3 F i d th l cus f
. n p i t t giv dist c fr m g iv circu m f r c
e o o a o n a a en an e o a en e en e .

4 F i d th l cus f
. n p i t t giv dist c fr m g i v p l surf
e o o a o n a a en an e o a en an e a ce .

5 F i d t h l cus f
. n p i t q uidist t fr m tw giv p r ll l l i s
e o o a o n e an o o en a a e ne .

6 Fi d t h l us f
. n p i t quidist t fr m t w giv i t rs ct i g l i
e oc o a o n e an o o en n e e n ne s .

Hi t T h l cus c
n s -s i s s f h b i s ct rs f h gl s m d by h li s
e o on t o t e e o o t e an e a e t e ne
pr v thi s l t P b y p i t i th r f h b s c rs P M
.
.

T o o e e e an d Pl o np on e e o t e i e to an er en

fr m P t t h tw l i s 0 h p i t wh r h l i s m t ; th sh w
, ,

di l
c u ars o o e o ne t e o n e e t e ne ee en o
h t h r r h t : W h y i i th l h ugh
,

t a A P O M Q A P O N d f P M PN an t e e o e t a s t at, a t o

th r f gl s t b b i s ct d h l cus w ill c s ist f ly t w str ght l s P

.
,

e e a re ou r a n e o e e e ,
t e o on o on o ai i ne

When a po i nt has t o b e fo u nd w hi c h sa ti sfies tw o c o nd i

92 .

t i o ns t he pr ob l e m ( i f p o ssi b l e at all ) ge n e rally h as o ne o r tw o

,
,

so l u ti o ns i n o t he r w o r d s t he pr o b l e m i s d eter m i n a te , .

S u c h p rob l e m s are so l v e d b y c o nst ru c ti ng t he l o c i o f p o i n t s

w hi c h sa t isfy eac h c o n d iti o n se par a t e l y t h e n t he p o i n t o r p o i n t s , ,

w here t h e l o c i i n t er se c t b ei ng c o mm o n t o b o t h l o c i w ill sa ti sfy

, ,

bo t h c o n d iti o ns and w ill b e t he so l u ti o n o f t h e pr o b l e m

,
.

F o r e xam pl e : fi n d a
p o i n t w h i ch sha l l be a t gi ven d i s ta n ces

rom
f t w o gi ven p oi n ts .

T he r eq ir ed p o i nt m u s t b e i n a c ir c u m fer enc e h avi ng the first

u

g i ev n p o i n t fo r c e n tr e an d t h e fir s t g i v e n d i s t a n c e fo r r a d i u s an d
it m u st also b e in a c ir c u m fer enc e havi ng th e sec o nd g i en p o i n t v

fo r c en tr e an d t he sec o n d giv en d i st anc e fo r r ad i u s hen c e it m st u

b e at t he i n t e rsec ti o n o f t he se t w o c ir c u m fe r en c es 1
.

S i n c e i n gen e r al t hese c ir u m fe r en c es i n t e r se c t i n t wo p o i n t s
, ,
c ,

t he r e w ill b e i n gener al two so l u ti o ns o f t he pr o bl em When will .

t her e b e o nly o n e so lu ti o n ? When w ill t he r e b e no so l u ti o n at all ?

In t he fo ll o w i n g exer c is e s aft er ha i ng gi e n t he so l u ti o n s t a t e ,
v v ,

u n d e r w h t c o n d iti o n s pr l i p i l
a
( i f ny
) t h e o b e m i s m o ss ba e .

1T his r s ea o n i n
g has b ee n a lrea dy emplo ye d i n 75 .
 G E OM E T RY F O R B E GI NN E RS .
93 .

r i s s 1 F i d p i t i gi v str i ght l i
E xe c e . . n t g i v d i st c
a o n n a en a ne a a en an e

fr m
o giv str ight l i
a en a ne .

2 Fi d p i t i
. n giv str ight l i t qu l dist c s fr m t w th r
a o n n a en a ne a e a an e o o o e

str i ght l i s
a ne .

3 C struct
. onis s l s tri g l h v i g g i v b s
an o ce e d ch f i t an e a n a en a e, an ea o s

sid s qu l t thr ti m s th b s
e e a o ee e e a e .

4 F i d p i t t giv
. n a dist c fr m giv p i t d t th s am
o n a a en an e o a en o n , an a e e

d ist fr m
an c e giv str ight l i
o a en a ne .

5 C stru t tri g l h vi g giv

. on c ath b s than m f th
e th r sid s
a n en e a e, e su o e o e e ,

an d f th
o ne O g l s t th b s e an e a e a e .

6 C stru t tri g l h vi g giv

. on c a th b s th di ff r
an e f th ath r n en e a e, e e en ce o e o e

sid s de , f th
an gl s t th b s
o ne o e an e a e a e .

7 F i d p i t whi h sh ll b
. n a quid st t fr m thr giv p i ts
o n c a e e i an o ee en o n .

8 F i d p i t which sh ll b
. n a
q i d i t t f m thr
o n giv i t rs cti ga e e u s an ~
ro ee en n e e n

str i ght l i s (
a 91 E
ne rcis s eeS h w th t th r , f ur s l uti
xe s e o a e e a re o o on ,

an d struct th f ur p i ts H w i th s l uti m difi d i f tw f th

co n e o o n . o s e o on o e o o e

g iv li
en s p r l
ne l l ?a re a a e

§ 93 . T he c o mp e e l t so u l ti o n of a
p r o b l e m c o ns s s it of t hr ee
p a rt s
( i ) . T he ANALY S IS , i n wh i c h w e pl a i n h o w a c o rr e c t c o n s tr u e ex

t i o n c an b e b ase d u p o n k n o w n ge o m e tri c al tr u t hs .

( )
i i T . h e C O N S T R U CT IO N i n w h i c h g u i d e d b y t,
h e a n a l y si s w e , ,

m ak e t h e r equ ir e d li nes angl es et c w it h t he h elp o f t he r u l er, ,

.
,

and t h e c o m p asses .

( i i i ) T h e D IS C U S S IO N i n w h i c h w e c o n s i d
,
e r ( )
a w h e t h e r t h er e

m ay b e m o r e t h an o n e so l u ti o n ; ( b ) w h e t her t he d at a m ay h ave
su c h v al u es t h a t n o so l u ti o n i s p o ssi b l e ( c ) w he t h e r t h e so l u ti o n

has any o t he r p e cu li ariti es fo r p arti c u l ar v al u es o f t h e d a t a .

T he an al ysi s o f a pr o b l em t hat c an b e so l v ed b y t h e m e t h o d o f
l o c i has alr eady b een gi v en 9 2) i n al l o t he r c ases a t heo r e m

( o r t h e o r e m s ) m u s t fir s t b e fo u nd o n w h i c h a c o rr ec t c o n str u c ti o n

c an b e b ase d In t h i s sear c h n o t h i n g b t e xp e ri e n c e a n d i nge n u

. u

i ty w ill en su r e su c c e ss b u t t h er e i s o n e gen er al ru l e wh i c h w ill b e

fo u nd v ery u sefu l 5 n am ely
1 04 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GINNE RS .
94 .

VI . Ap p l i c a t i on s .

94 . i
If I w sh t o fin d t h e d i st anc e fr o m A t o B ( F ig 8 8 ) it .

i s pl ai n t ha t t h e i n t e r e n i ng p o nd w ill pr ev en t m e fr o m u si n g a
v

c hai n o r o t h e r d ir e c t m e an s o f m easu r em e n t .

In nu m er o s i n st anc es d ir e c t m e asu r em ent w o u l d b e v e r y

u

tr o u b l eso m e o r q u it e i m p o ssi bl e O n t he gr o u nd O b st ac l es su c h
.
,

a s h o u ses w at e r swa m p s are o ft e n m e t w

, , ,
it h if w e w an t t o m eas
u re t he d i st an c e fr o m t he eart h t o t h e m o o n o n l o n e e n d o f t h
y e ,

li ne to b e m easu r ed i s ac c essi b l e whil e i n the c as e o f the d i st an c e

b e t w een the su n an d a pl ane t t h e li n e i s w ho ll y i n ac c essi b l e
,
.

H er e G eo m e t ry c o m es t o o ur ai d b y gi vi ng u s m e t ho d s o f i n di
r ect m easu r e m e n t i n w hi c h fo r exam pl e b y m easuri ng o ne li n e
, ,

w e are ab l e t o l e ar n t h e l engt h O f ano t h e r .

H o w t hi s c an b e d o n e b y t he hel p o f t he l aws o f equ al tri angl es ,

w e are no w pr e p ar e d t o u n d er st an d .

Al l c ases o f t he i nd ir ec t m easu r em ent o f a li ne m ay b e r ed u c ed

t o fo u r ,

( )
i. B o t h e n d s o f t h e li n e a re ac c essi b l e

n l y o n e e n d i s ac c essi b l e 5
( )
i i . O

( )
i i i B o
. t h e nd s ar e i n ac c e ss i b l e

( )
i v . T h e li ne i s w h o ll y i n a c c essi b l e .

95 . Pr o b l e m . T o mea s u r e a l i ne the ends f

o w h i ch o nly

a r e a ccess i bl e .

Met h od I .
-
Let A B ( g
F i 8 8 ).b e t h e li ne to b e m easu r ed .

Cho o se a p o i nt C fr o m w hi c h A an d B are b o t h v i si b l e . M easu r e

A C, B C, an d t he ang e l A CB .

Pro l o ng A C t o D , m ak i ng C D C A, an d pr o l o ng B C to E ,

m ak i ng C E CB . A D E C N
A AB C T he r e
fo r e D E AB, and i ts l engt h ( whi c h c an b e m easu r e d d ir ec tl y )
is the d i st anc e i
req u red .
 9 ]
6 C HAPT E R Iv .
— T R IAN GLE S . 105

Meth od II . M e asu r e A C B C, ,
an d A CB ,
as b efo r e . T hen
c o ns tr u c t on p ap er an an g e l
a c b A CB ; c ho o s e a s u it a
bl e l
sc a e O f r ed u c ti o n and l ay ,

o ff o n t he p a p e r t he r e d u c e d

l e ngt hs a c and b o f the li nes c

A C an d B C J o i n b :i ts . a

l engt h gi es t the d u ced sca l e

v ,
o re ,

t he d i st an c e A B r eq u ir e d .

F o r e xam pl e i f A C
B C
. and t h e sc al e o f

red u c ti o n i s I 0 0 0 t h en
"m
5 c 16 and b c 20, If n o w w e a

find t hat a b t he n A B x24 x 5 00 0 1 2 00 m etr es .

Rem a r k — T he fir s t m e t ho d i s pr efe r ab l e b ec au s e any err o r

.
,

m ad e i n m eas ri ng b i s m ltipli e d 5 0 0 0 ti m es i n t he r e su lt
u a u .

H o w c an the l engt h O f t he p o n d ( F g 88 ) b e fo u nd ? i .

96 . P r o b l em . T o m ea su r e a l i ne o ne en d o n ly o f w h i ch i s
a cces s i bl e .

Met h od I . Le t A B ( F ig 8 9
) b e.t h e li ne to b e m easu r e d, B
t he en d wh i c h i s ac c ess ib l e .

At a p o i n t C i n A B pro ,

l o nge d pl ac e a si gn l ( a
,
a

p o l e o r flag ) T hen pl ac e .

a si gn al at a c o nve n i e n t
.

p o i nt D and m easu r e t he
,

d i st anc e s B D an d C D .

Pr o l o ng C D t o E m ak i ng ,

DE D C and pr o l o n g ,

B D t o F m ak i ng D F ,

DB . Pl ac e si gnal s at E
an d F . T he n pr o c e e d i n
th e d ire c ti o n E F u n t i l a
1 06 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS .
97 .

p o i nt G i s reac hed w hi c h fall s i n the l in e A D . M easu r e F G

i t s l engt h i s e q u al t o t he d i st n c e A B r e q u ir e d a .

P r o of A D E F ?J—D B C ( I I
. Law E q u a y)
of T he lit . r efo r e
‘

angl e D E F D C B ; he n c e E G uA C ( s 5 7 , Re m a k ) r . In
t he tri angl es D A B a nd D F G , D B D F, A D B F D G
( y ),
w h P an d AB D D F G ( w hy ? ) 5 t he r efo r e A D AB 5
A DE G (I . lit y ) and F G A B
Law Of E q ua ,
.

Meth od II ( y
B a
. n i so s c e l e s tri a n l
g ) e C h o o s e a c o n e n i e n t . v

d ir e cti o n B H fo r r u nni ng a str ai gh t li ne fr o m B m eas u r e t he ,

angl e A B H and find i n B H a i n t H t w h i h t h e an l e A H B

, po a c g
shall b e e q u al t o AB H ) T he n B H = A B .

What will b e the val u e o f A H B i f A B H

Re m a rk In b o t h m et h o d s t hr ee t hi ngs h a e to b e m e asu r e d
. v

d ir ec tl y i n M e t ho d I t hr ee li nes 5 i n M e t ho d .
, o n e li ne an d t w o

angl e s . B u t i f t he m eans o f m easu ri ng a n angl e are at han d

, ,

M e t ho d II is pr e fer ab l e bec au se i t i s e asi er to m e asu r e an angl e

.
,

t han a l ine .

97 . Pro b l em . T o m ea su r e a l i ne w h en bo th en ds o f it ar e

i n a ccessi bl e .

Le t A B ( g 9 )
F i 0 b e t h e n e,
an d l e
. t u s su o se h a a p a t li pp t t r
o f t he li t
n e b e w e en A and B i s ac c e ss b e , as S ho w n i n t he F gure i l i .

Met h o d I — At a po n C i n A B e ec a e e nd c u a C D
. i t r t p rp i l r
an d t ak e D E CD .

At E al so e r e c t a p erpendi c
u l ar F G ; t h e n F G w ill b e

p a r a ll e l t o A B ( y )
w h ?
F i n d i n F G t he p o i n t F
w hi c h fall s i n t he li n e B D ,

and t h e p o i n t G w h i c h fall s i n

t he l i ne AD . N ow A A C D
N A E D G an d A
fi g 90 . ,
B CD A E D F
108 GE OME T RY FO R BE GINN E RS .

RE VIE W OF C H APT E R IV .

Q UE S T IO N S .

De fi e pl n fig ur
n a a p yg ; i t p r i m t
e l e a o on s e e er

D fi e t i
ne a gl r d an pl i h w i t i m d
e, a n ex a n o s na e .

Wh t i p t h a s x v ry tri g l ?
ar s as e e an e

D isti guish b tw n t i e d i t i
ee n ex er or a n
gl s n er or a n e .

T h e sum f y t w sid s f
o an tri gl i gr t r th th third sid
o e o a an e s ea e an e e .

D fi e q i l
ne e u t l i l
a er a d ,
l tri g l s
sosce es, a n sca e n e an e .

D fi e th ne t rm s b e e t d l ti t d Wh will th l titud l i
a se, v er ex , a n a u e . en e a e e

o utsid th tri g l ? e e an e

T h e m f th
su g l s f tri g l i qu l t
o e an e o a H w an this
e s e a o o c an

truth b i l lustr t d ? e a e

Why tri g l h v l y
c an a an right
e a e onbtus gl ? o ne o r o ne o e an e

D fi e t
n e a cu e, r igh t d bt tri g l s
,
an o u se an e .

If t w g l s f tri gl
o an e o k w h w
a an th third b f u n
e a re no d? n o can e e o

In a right tri g l wh t i th m f th ut g l s ?
an e a s e su o e ac e an e

Wh t i th mpl m t f
a s e co gl ?
e en o a n an e

A n ex et ri r g l f tri g l th m f th pp sit i t ri r g l s
o an e o a an e e su o e O o e n e o an e .

D fi e nei mil s
q i l t d
a r , e u v a en
q l m g itud s ,
d angiv ex m p l
ua s f a n e ,
an e e a e o

e ac h ki d n .

I t w tri g l s wh t
n o an e p d i a
g sid es (
are co r r es g l s ) ? on n o r an e

Wh t i th l st u m b r f p rts whi h d t rm i th si
a s e ea n e o a d sh p c e e ne e ze an a e

o f atri ngl ? O f th s h w m y t l st m ust b i d

a e e e o an a ea e s es

I wh t
n s s d thr p rts f i l t d t rm i th tri gl ?
a ca e o ee a a o e e ne e an e

Wh e n are tw tri g l s m t l ly q i g l
o an e u ua e u an u ar ? .

C stru t
on tri g l h vi g giv n
c a an e, a n e ,

( )
i . sid a d t w e an g l s 5 o an e

( )
i i . t w sid s o d t h i e l udan d g l ; e nc e an e

( )
i i i t w . sid s o d t h e g l pp
an sit t th gre an t r s i d
e o ; o e o e ea e e

( )
i v t h
. thr sid
e s ee e .

S t t th f ur l ws f qu l tri g l s
a e e o a o e a an e .

M k a tri gl qu l t giv tri gl

e a an e e a o a en an e .

M k g l q u l t giv gl
”

a e an an e e a o a e n an e.

Dr w l i
a p r ll l t g iv l i
a ne a a e o a en ne .

Wh t i p bl m ? Wh t
a s a ro e xi l i y l i d
a h w
a re d i t i ng i sh d
au ar n es , an o s u e

fr m th s i th
o o er o stru t in ?e c n c on
 CHAPT E R lV .
— RE VIE W . 109

In s sc l s tri g l th g l s pp sit t t he equ l sid s

an i o e e an qu l e e an e o o e o a e a re e a .

C r ll ry
o o a .

If t w g l s f tri g l
o an qu l th tri g l i is s l s C r ll ry
e o a an e ar e e a e an e s o ce e . o o a .

Wh t i tha s f th r m ? G iv
e co n v er se o m pl a eo e e a n e xa e .

In tri g l th gr t r f t w g l s i pp sit t th gr t r id
a an e e ea e o o an e s O o e o e ea e S e,

an d c v rs l y C r ll ry
on e e . o o a .

T h p rp e di u l r i th sh rt st li fr m p i t t str ight li
e en c a s e o e ne o a o n o a a ne .

C r ll ry
o o a .

Ob l iqu li s qu lly d ist t fr m th f t

e ne f th p rp dicu l r
e a an o e oo o e e en a are

e
q ua L
O f tw o b l iqu l i s u qu ll y dist t fr m th f t f th p p di
O e ne ne a an o e oo o e er en cu

la r, t h m r r m t i t h gr
e o tr
e e o e s e ea e .

If t w is s l s tri g l s h v
o o ce e mm b s th l i j i i g th ir
an e a e a co on a e e ne o n n e

v rtic s ( i ) bis ts th g l t th v rti s ( i i ) bis ts th b s ( i i i )

e e . ec e an e a e e ce , . ec e a e, .

i p rp di ul r t th b s
s e en c a o e a e.

B is t ec giv a gl e n an e .

B is t ec giv str ight l i

a en a ne .

E v y p i t quidist t fr m th
er o n e ds f str ight l i i i th p p
an o e en o a a ne s n e er en o

di l c u arbis cti g th l i e n e ne .

E r t ec p rp dicu l r t giv p i t f gi v l i
a e en a a a en o n O a en ne .

L t f ll
e p rp dicu l r fr m giv p i t t giv l i
a a e en a o a en o n o a en ne .

T w p r ll l l i s
o a a v rywh r qu ll y dist t fr m h th r
e ne a re e e e e e a an o e ac o e .

G iv e an e xampl f i d t mi t pr b l m e O an n e er na e o e .

D fi e th l
ne f p i t d i ll ustr t th d fi iti
e o cu s o a o n , an a e e e n on .

G iv e mp l
a n e xa f d t mi t pr b l m e o a e er na e o e .

H w o pr b l m s s l v d by th m th d f l i ?
a re o e o e e e o O oc

Wh t a t h thr
a re p rts f th m p l t s l uti f pr bl m ?
e ee a o e co e e o on o a o e

Wh t g r l ru l i ft us fu l i s l vi ng pr b l m s
a en e a e s o en e n o o e ?

Wh t f ur c s s m y
a o ur i t h i dir ct m s r m t f l i ?
a e a o cc n e n e ea u e en o a ne

M surea l i the a ds l y f whi h

ne cc ssib l
e en on o c a re a e e .

M surea li e a d l y f wh i ch i cc ssib l
ne o n e en on o s a e e .

M surea li e aith r d f which i cc ssib l

ne n e e en o s a e e .

M surea l i whi h i wh ll y i c ssib l

e a ne c s o na ce e .

E X E RC IS E S .

1 . In is sc l s tri g l
an o e e an e th e t ri r
ex e o an gl s e at th e b s a e a re e qu l a .

2 . I is s l s tri g l
n an o ce e an e th e bis t r ec o o f an ex e t ri r g l o an e at th e v rte ex is
p r ll l t th b s
a a e o e a e.
 1 10 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS .

3 . In anis s l s tri gl th bis t rs f th b s g l s (pr l g d til

o ce e an e e ec o o e a e an e o on e un
th y m t th sid s )
e ee e qu l e a re e a .

4 . I wh t
n s s w b l k wi g
a ca e a re g l f tri g l t fi d th
e a e, no n o n e an e o a an e, o n e
o th r tw gl s ?
e o an e

5 . If i n aright tri gl th ut g l s an
3 e d th hyp t
e ac us e an e are 0
°
an e o en e IS
e qu l t twi th s m ll r l g
a o ce e a e e .

6 . St ta e an d pr v th v rs f th pr di g th r m
o e e co n e e o e ec e n eo e .

7 . D ivid is s l s tri g l i t t w qu l right tri gl s

e an o ce e an e n o o e a an e .

8 . M k a e an a ngl qu l t thr ti m s giv

e e gl
a o ee e a en a n e.

9 . M k a e an a ngl f lse o gl f a o an a n e o

10 . I wh t tw w ys
n a o gl f 5 b
a stru t d ?
c a n an a n e o 22
°
e co n c e

11 . N m v ri us
a e a g l s b tw
o an d 80 whi h e b e stru t d by
ee n 0
°
an 1
°
c c an e co n c e

m ea ns f th th r m s d pr b l m s l r dy giv
o e eo e an o e a ea en .

12 . A str ight r i l w y p ss s withi t w m i l s f

a a a t w A pl c i d
a e n o e o a o n . a e s e

s rib d f ur m i l s fr m th t w d
c e as o m i l fr m th r i l w y H w
e o e o n an o ne e o e a a . o

m y pl
an s s tis fy th c diti s ?
ac e a e on on

13 . Pl ac e a li f giv ne o l gth b t w th sid s en f en gl t b e ee n e e o an an e so as o e

p r ll l t giv l i
a a e o a en ne .

14 . T hr ugh o giv p i t b tw tw li s t p r ll l dr w l i whi h

a en o n e ee n o ne no a a e a a ne c

sh l l b bis t d t th t p i t
a e ec e a a o n .

15 . T hr li s m t i
ee ne p i t ; dr w l i su h th t th p rts f i t i t r
ee n a o n a a ne c a e a o n e

ce
pt d by th thr
e li s sh l l b qu l
e ee ne a e e a .

16 . Wh t i m i i m p l i d i th l st l i
a ax o s f th pr f f th th r m i
e n e87 ? a ne o e oo o e eo e n

17 . T h p rp
e e di u l rs r t d t th m iddl p i ts f th sid s f tri g l
en c a e ec e a e e o n o e e o a an e

m t i
ee p i t
n o ne o n

H i t —E r ct t w
.

n s. f h p rp d i cu l rs ; h w ( by II L w f E qu l i ty ) th t
e o o t e e en a S o a o a a
t h i r i t rs c t i qu i di st t fr m th thr c r rs f th tr gl h
.

e n e i e on s e an o e ee o ne o e i an e, t en
m k a f 80 E
e u se o rc i s ,
xe e 2 .

18 . T h bis t rs f th thr
e ec o o gl s f tri gl m t i
e p i t
e e an e o a an e ee n o ne o n .

Hi t n s D r w tw b i s ct rs ; sh w by 9 1 E
-
a o rc i s 6 th t th ir i t rs c i
e o o xe e a e n e e t on
qu i d i st t fr m th s i d s f th tri gl d ( by I II L w f E qu l i y )
.
, ,

i s e an o e e o e an e, an a O a t
th t h l i j i i g t h i t rs cti with th th i rd c r r b i s cts th gl
. ,

a t e ne o n n e n e e on e o ne e e an e

at th t c r a r o ne .

19 . T ris t ec giv str ight li

a en a ne .

20 . Il lustr t by a e m p l th
an exa pp l i ti f th ru l i 9 3 e e a ca on o e e n .

21 . Ch s tw st ti s th gr u d d fi d th ir dist
oo e o a on on by m s f
e o n ,
an n e a n ce e an o

95 ; (a ) , 96 ; (in ) , 97 ; 98 .

22. Can h ight f

yo u fin d t h e bj t ( tr hur h spir t ) by
e o an o ec a ee , a c c -
e, e c .

m s f truths st b l ish d i this h pt r ? H w ?

e an o e a e n c a e o

23 . H w m y
o d wh t p rts
an suffi i t t d t rm i right tri gl ?
an a a a re c en o e e ne a an e an

i s l s tri gl
so c e e quil t r l tri gl
an is s l s right tri gl
e an e a e a an e an o ce e an e
112 GE O M E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS . IOI.

11 .
—D i ff er e n t K i n ds of Qu a d r i l a t er a l s .

1 01 . Wit h r esp e c t t o t he p o s iti o n o f i

t he s d es t h e e r are t hree
k i nd s of q u ad ril a t er al s .

A q u adril at e r al whi c h h as no s i d es p ar all el is l

c al e d a T RAPE ZIUM

( e 93 )
F .
I . .

A q u ad ril at er al w h i c h h as on ly t wo s i d es p arall e l is c a edll . a

TRAPE ZOID ( F i g 93 IL) ,

.

A q u ad ril a t e r al w hi c h h as i ts o pp o sit e s i d es p ar all e l IS ca ll ed a

PARALLE LOGRAM ( F ig 93 .
,

E xe c i se s r 1 Dr w ( fr -
h d ) tr p iu m tr p id
. a ee -
an a a ez , a a ez o ,
and a prla a

l el o g ram .

2 . D r w tr p
a a a ez o id h vi g tw r ght
a n o i an gl se .

1 02 . Let A B C D ( F i g 94
)
. b e r ll l r
a p a a e o g am Dr awth e .

i l
d ago n a B D lt r t e angl e s m
T he a e n a .

an d n a e e q u al and li k ew i se t h e a lt e r
r ,

n at e angl es p an d q T h er e fo r e

A A B D g A C B D ( I Law O f E q u al .

i t y) , an d AB CD , and AD B C .

Al so the angl e A e qu al s t h e ang e l C 5 a nd ,

i
s nc e m n an d p q t h e r e fo re m ,
n p q5 t hat i s, t h e
l
a ng es at B an d D are equ al H enc e . .
!

T h eo r em I .
—E very p l
a r a l l e og r a m i s d i vi ded by a di ago na l
i n to M o equ a l tr i a ngl es .
 CHAPT E R v .
— QUAD R ILAT E RALS . 1 13

T h e o r e m II . T h e opp os i te s i des of a p a ra l l el o r a m a r e e
g q l
u a .

T h e o r e m III . T h e opp os i te a ngl es o f a p a r a l l el o

g r a m a re

equ a l

Co r o l l a r i e s . F ro m T heo rem II . it fo ll o w s t hat ,

1 . P a r a l l el s betw een p a r a l l el s qu a l
a re e .

2 . Perpen di cu l a r s betw een p a r a l l el s a r e equ a l 5 7 , Co r o l

P a r e every w h er e equ a l ly
3 a.ra ll el s d i s ta n t( s ee

E xerc ise s .
—1 . If t wo a dj ace n t sid s e Of a p ar ll e l o gr a m
a a re e qu l wh t
a , a

fo ll o w s as th r sid s ?
to th e o e e

2 . Wh t r l ti a ists b tw
e a o n ex e een two a dj
ac e n t an gl s e of a p r l l l gr
a a e o am ?
Why ?
3 . Ifgl f p r l l l gr m i right g l wh t m ust th th rs
o ne an e o a a a e o a s a an e, a e o e

b ? Ill ustr t with figur

e a e a e .

4 If . g l f p r ll l gr m i ut wh t
o n e an e o b i f rr d f th
a a a e o a s ac e, a c an e n e e o e

oth r g l s ? Ill ustr t with figur

e an e a e a e .

5 O . gl f p r ll l gr m i ( i )
ne an e o ( i i ) 54a (i ii )
a a 1 16 e o a s .
°
. 12
° ’

fi d th th r g l s
n e o e an e .

6 Pr v th. v rs f T h r m II
o e e co n e e o eo e .

§ 103 . T he s i d es
ll el o gr am m ay b e eit her equ al o r
of a p ara

u n e u al and t h e a n l e s m a b e it h r ri h t b li t h r e
q , g y e e g o r o q u e 5 s o e

are i n al l fo u r k i nd s o f parall el o gr am s : t he o bl i qu e u nequ a l si ded -

p ar ll l r
a e o g am o r RH OM BOID ( F i g 95 , . t he o bl i que e
qua l s i ded
-

p ar allel ogr am or RHOM B US ( g 95 ,

F i . th e ri ght u n equ a l s i d ed-
1 14 GE OM E T RY F O R B E GI NN E RS . 1 04 .

para e o gram orll l RE CI AN GLE

‘

( g
F i .
95 , an d t he ri ght equ a l

si ded pa a r ll el ogram or S q uar e ( g 95 ,

F i .

i ses 1 Giv
E xe rc m p l s f p r l l l gr m s ( sur f
. . f t bl r f
e exa e o a a e o a ac e o a a e, oo

of h us
a o d st t t h ki d i
e, h s an a e e n n e ac ca e.

2 D r w ( fr
. h d ) p r ll l gr m f h ki d
a ee -
an a a a e o a o e ac n .

3 O . g l f rh mbus i
ne an fi d th e o th gl s
a o s n e o e r an e .

4 O .sid f rh
ne m bus i 4 ; fi d i t p ri m
m e o ar o s 2 n s e ete .

5 T h sid s f
. r ct gu l r p rk 4
e e o d a H w m y tre
e an a a a re oo
m
an o an es
m ust b t O t i i t p ri m t r i f th y
e se u t st
n d m p rt ?
s e e e e ar e o an Io a a

§ 1 04 . In t h e p arall el cg r am A B C D ( F ig d r aw t he .

d i ago nal s A D and B C ; ho w m any

tri angl es are t hu s fo r m e d ? A A 0 B
2 C OD ( y )5
w h ? t he r e fo r e t he
Si d e s o pp o sit e t o th e e q u al an l es
g
are e q u al 5 t ha t i s A O , DO an d

B O : C 0 ; h en c e,
T h eo r e m . T h e tw o di ag o na l s
f
o a
p a r a ll el og r a m mu tu a l ly bi sect ea ch o th er .

is s —1 Fi d th
E xe rc e g l s whi h th di g l s f squ r m k
. . n e an e c e a o na o a a e a e

with th sid s f th squ r

e e o e a e .

2 I . squ r th di g l s
n a qu l d p rp di u l r t
a e e h th ra o na are e a an e en c a o e ac o e .

3 I r t g l th di g l s
n a e c anqu l d i l i d t e h th r
e a ona a re e a an nc ne o e ac o e

H i t —D r w th d i g
. .

n ls d m k a f 73 e a o na ,
an a e u se o .

4 I . rh m bus th di g l s
n a p rp di u l r t
o h th r A e a o na are e en c a o eac o e . re

th y qu l u qu l ?
e e a or ne a

5 I . rh m b id th di g l s
n a i li d t
o h th r A th y
o e a o na ar e nc ne o eac o e . re e

e qu l u qu l ?
a or ne a

6 Wh t ki d f p r ll l gr m s
. a divid d by th di ag l s i t i
n O a a e o a a re e e o na n o s o sce

l
es tri gl s ? I t ri ght tri g l s ?
an e n o an e

§ 1 05 it her si d e o f a p ar all el o gr am m ay b e r egar d ed as the

. E
ba se ; t he n a p erp en d i c ul ar l e t fall t o t h e b as e fr o m any p o i nt i n the -

o pp o sit e si d e i s t h e a l ti tu d e o f t he p ar all el o r am
g .
1 16 G E O ME T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS .

4 . Co n stru t squ r h vi g giv i t di g

c a a e, a n en s a o na l .

5 . Co n stru t squ r
c a d upa e, anh sid o n e ac e an e quil t r l tri g l
a e a an e .

6 . Co n stru t c qui l t r l tri g l

an e d up
a e a an e, an o n eac h f i t sid s squ r
o s e a a e .

1 07 . Pr o b l e m . T o c o n s tr u ct a r ecta n
g l e, h a vi n
g gi ven tw o
f
aa a cen t s i des , a a n d b ( g
F i .

Co nstr u c ti o n a nd
pro o f s i m ilar t o t ho se o f t he l ast s ec t o n i .

Co ns tr u c t t her r e c t angl e w it h
ano

t he sam e s i d es an d p r o v e t hat t he
,

t wo r ec t angl es are eq u al .

H enc e, a r ecta ngl e i s deter m i ned if

w e hno w tzo o des l
'

a ay a cent s i a so ,

T h e o r em . T wo recta ngl es a re

equ a l if they h a ve t wo a dj a cent s i des

equ a l ea ch to ea ch .

stru t r t gl with th sid s

E xe rc i ses . 1 . Co n
6 c a e c an e e e 40
m and
c
0 0m .
( If
on ppr r du d s l )
a e ,
u se a e ce ca e .

2 M k p l f r ct gu l r fi l d wh s sid s m sur 64 m
. a e a an o a e an a e o e e ea e 0 an d 3 60W
3 H w m y r t gl s
. ob stru t d up
an giv li
e c an e c an e co n c e on a en ne as t h e

di g l ?
a o na

1 08 . Pr o b l em . T o co ns tr u ct a p a r a l l el ogr a m, h a vi ng gi ven
tw 0
'

a ay a cen t s i d es a n d th e i n cl u d ed a ng l e .

Co n s tr u cti o n and ( g ) b e t he gi v en i d es °
. Let a b F i . 1 00 s , 7 0

a t he i nc l u d e d angl e M ak e an angl e .

A t hen pr oce ed as i n t he
l ast sec ti o n A B C D i s t he requ ir e d
.

p ar all el o gr am .

P oof si m il ar t o t h at i n 1 06
r .

Co nstr u c t a se c o n d par all el o gr am

w it h t h e sam e gi v e n p art s and pr o v e
‘

t hat it i s equ al t o the fir st .

T h er efo r e t w s i d es ,
n d th e i n o a

cl u ded a ngl e co m l etely deter m i ne

p a

p a r a ll el og r a m an d, fu rt he r ,
 R RILAT E RALS
°

10
9 ] CHAPT E v .
-

QUAD . 1 17

T h eo r e m .
—T w o
p a r a l l el og r a m s a r e equ a l if tw o s i d es a nd

u al
the i n cl u d ed a ngl e o f o ne a re e
q res p ecti vely to tw o s i d es a nd

th e i n cl u d ed a ng l e f
o th e o th er .

E x r is e c 1
es . struct p r l l l gr m th tw sid s b i g 44
. Co n a a a e o a , e o e e n “
an d

66 0m
,
an d th i c l ud d
e n gl e an e 1

2 . C struct
on r ct g l h vi g giv a e an e, a n en

( ) A aid d di g l ;
S e an a a o na

( )
b A sid d t h pp sit e ang l f th di g
e o l s ; o e an e o e a o na

( ) A di
c g l d t h a g l bonatw t han di g l s e an e e ee n e a o na .

3 . C struct
on rh m bus h vi g g v a o ,
a n i en

( ) A aid d S g l 5 e an an an e

( b) A s i d d di g l ; e an a a o na

( ) T hc di g l s 5 e a o na

( )
d A g l dn ant h di g l thr
e an ugh i t v rt e a o na o s e e x.

4 . C stru t
on rh m bus wh s g l s sh ll h v th r ti 3
c a o o e an e a a e e a o I .

1 09 . Pr o b l em . T o co ns tr u ct a tr ap ez o i d , h a vi ng g i ven
th r ee s i d es
( t w o bei ng th e p a r a l l el s i d es ) a nd o ne a n le
g .

Co ns tr u cti o n . Let a, b, c
( g
F i . a

gi ven i des °
1 01
) b e t he s ,
68 the

g i v en a n
gl e .

M ak e an angl e A 68 5 ak e A B t
°

a, AD b; t rh o u gh D d aw a r
li ne p arall el to AB ,
an d on it t ak e
D C= c .
J o in B C . A B C D is
t he tr ap e o i d r equ ir ed
z .

E x rc i e 1 H w m y
ses . d wh t . o an an a

p rts d t rm i
a e e tr p id ? ne a a ezo
F ig 1 01
2 C stru t tr p id with th sid s
.

. on c a a ez o e e

60 0m
7 , 80 0 0m
d,
t h g l
0m
b
, tw
an t h first t we s i dan s qu l et 75 e ee n e o e e a o
°

3 C stru t tr p
. on id h vi g giv
c a a ez o , a n en

( ) T h t w a p r l l l sid s d th l titud 5
e o a a e e an e a e

( b) T h t w sid s t p r ll l d t h l t i tud 5
e o e no a a e an e a e

( ) T h t w c p r ll l s i d s
e d f
o t h th
a a r sid se
; e an o ne o e o e e

( )
d O f t h p r ll l s i
ne o d s d t h t w e id s a a t p r ll le e an e o S e no a a e .
1 18 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GINNE RS . I IO .

1 1 0 Pr o b l e m
. . T o co ns tr u ct a tr apez i u m , h a vi ng g i ven
th ree s i d es a nd th e tw o a ngl es i n cl u ded by th es e s i des .

Co n str u cti o n . If a, b, an d c are t he g i ven si d es 60 and 7 5 ,

° °

i l ud ed angl es d raw a li n e A B
t he n c , b 5 t hr o u gh A and B d r aw
li ne s mak i ng w it h B B the angl es 60
, ,
°
an d 7
5 r e s p °
ec ti v e l y 5 l ay
O ff o n t h ese li nes t h e l en t h s A D an d B C c an d j o i n the
g a , ,

p o i nt s t hu s fo u nd .

D r aw a figu r e t o ill ustr at e t hi s c o nstr u c ti o n .

E xerc ise s . 1 . Co n stru t c a tr p iu with

a ez m th e sid s e 90 70
0m
,

a nd th e an g l s 67 de
°
an

2 . Co n struct tr p iu m h vi g giv
a a ez , a n en

( ) T hra g l s d th tw sid s b tw
ee an e an e o e e ee n th e first an d third
gl s ; an e

( b) F ur id s d o gl ;
S e an o n e an e

( ) F cur sid s d di g l
o e an a a o na .

11 1 . Pr o b l em . T o c o n s tr u c t a q u a d r i l a ter a l equ a l to a

i en q u a d r i l a ter a l A B C D
g v ( gF i .

A n a ly s i s If w e d r aw t he d i ago n al B D , w e d i v i d e t h e gi ven
.

q u ad ril a t e r al i n t o t w o tri a ngl e s If n o w w e c o ns tr u c t 7 6 ) t w o .

n ew tri angl es equ a l r e sp e c ti v el y t o t hese an d i m i l ly pl a ced it i s ,

s ar ,

e vi d en t t ha t t h ey w ill fo r m t ak en t o ,

g e t h e r a n e w q u ad ril at e r al e q u al t o
,

t h e gi v en q u ad ril a t e r al ( Axi o m

Co n s tr u cti o n — T ak e E F AB 5
r o m E and F as c en tr es wit h the f ,

r ad ii A D and B D r esp ec ti v ely d e ,

s c ri b e ar e s i n t e r s ec ti ng at a p o i n t H 5

t hen fr o m F and H as c entr es w it h ,

B C and D C r es p ec ti vel y as r ad ii d e sc ri b e ar c s i nt e r sec ti ng at a ,

p o i n t G Las.tl y j o i n E H H G an,
d G F , ,
.

E xe i ses
rc 1 D r w tr p iu m
. . d th a stru t th r qu l t i t
a a ez ,
an en c o n c an o e e a o .

2 Wh
. tw qu dri l t r l s qu l t
en are o h th r ? a a e a e a o e ac o e
120 GE OM E T RY FOR BE GIN E RS N .

Pro of .
—M a ke u se o f t he o r e m
t he in 112 .

E xe r i se —Divid
c . e a str ight l i i t 3
a ne n o , 6, 7, 9 , 10 e qu l p rts
a a .

114 . Pr o b l e m . T o di vi de a s tr a i ght l i ne A B ( g
F i . 1 05 )
i n to t w o p a r ts w h i ch sh a l l h a ve a g i ven r a ti o
( s ay
3
Co nstr u cti o n .
—
Dr aw t hr o u gh A any li ne A C, an d l ay O ff o n

it 3 l p art s J o i n the
4 7 equ a .

l ast p o i nt C to B and d raw t hr o ugh ,

D t he t hir d p o i n t O f d iv i s o n fr o m
, I

A a li ne D E p ar all el to B C ; i t
,

i nt er sec t s A B i n E T hen .
,

Pr oof . Li nes d r aw n t hr o u gh t he
o t he r p o i nt s O f d i v i si o n o f A C ,
and p ar allel t o B C, w o u l d ( by
11 2) d i v i d e A E i nt o t hr ee equ al p art s ,
and E B i nto fo u r
e q u al p art s .

E xe rc is ivid l i i th r ti 4 :
es . 1 7 . D e a ne n e a o .

2 . C stru t
on r ct g l h vi g giv th t th m f tw
c a e an e, a n en a e su o o a dj ac e n t d s
Si e

is an d th ir r ti :3 e a o 2 .

3 . C stru t
on rh m bus i whi h th m f th di g l s
c a o n c e su o e a o na sh lla be
an d o n e o f th m sh ll b twi the th r a e ce e o e .

4 . T h p ri m t r f
e r t gu l r g rd i
e e e d th o a e c an a a en s an e l o n ge r sid e i s
t o th e sh rt r 5 :
o 7 Me k p l f
ast h g rd d fi d th
. a e a an o e a en, an n e l e n gths o f i t s

sid s e .

5 . D ivid
i t thr p arts whi h sh l l b t
e a li
h th r ne : n o ee c a e o e ac o e as 2

H t L y ff in th
. u il i ry li 3 5 =
a qu ol p rt s on e a x a ne 2 IO e a a .

6 C stru t tri g l wh s sid s sh l l b t

. on h th r th u m b rs
c a an e o e e a e o e ac o e as e n e

3 4 5
, I this pr b l m d t r m i
, . S t t? o e e e n a e o r no

7 C stru t
. is s l s tri gl wh s b s sh ll b t
on c an f th qu l o ce e an e o e a e a e o o ne o e e a

sid s e as

8 Divid . li i t f ur p rts whi h sh l l b t

e a h th r th m
ne n o o a c a e o eac o e as e nu

b rse 3 4 6 I, , , .
 CHAPT E R V .
—RE VIE W . 121

RE VIE W O F C HAPT E R V

S YN O PS IS .

A qua dr i l a ter a l i s ur sid d p l yg a fo -

e o on .

T h e sum f it g l s qu l s o s an e e a

T h r e e a rethr c l ss s f qu dri l t r l s ee a e o a a e a

( i ) T h t p i m ( p r l l l si d s ) ;
. e ra ez u no a a e e

( i i ) T h t p i d ( t w p r ll l sid s ) ;
. e ra ez o o a a e e

( )
i i i T h p l l l.
g m ( b th p irs f sid s p r ll l )
e ara e o ra o a o e a a e .

4 . T h r e e a ref u ki ds f p r ll l gr m s o r n o a a e o a

( i ) T h h m b i d ( dj c t sid s u qu l
. e r o g l s b l iqu )
o a a en e ne a ,
an e o e

( i i ) T h h m h ( s i d s l l qu l ) ;
. e r o us e a e a

(iii ) T h t g l
.
( g l s l l right
e r ec a n g l s ); e an e a an e

( ) T h q
i v .
( sid s qu l e s d g l s right gl s)
ua re e e a ,
an an e an e .

Ad g ia l divid s p r ll l gr m i t t w qu l tri g l
o na e a a a e o a n o o e a an es

H c th pp sit sid s d l s th pp sit g l s f p l l l '

en e, e o o e e an a o e o o e an e o a ara e o

gr ma qu l a re e a .

T h t w di g
e l s f p r ll l gr m m utu ll y bis ct
o a o na oh th r da a a e o a a e e ac o e ,
an

are e qu l t ch th r i th r ct g la o ea d t h squ r
o p rp dic l
e n e e an e an e a e, e en u ar

to e ac h th r i th rh m bus d th squ r
o e n e o an e a e .

8 . T w squ r s
o qu l i f th y h v sid qu l ; tw r t g l s i f th ir
a e a re e a e a e a e e a o e c an e , e

a dj t si d s
ace n r sp ctiv l y qu l ; y tw p r ll l gr m s i f th y
e a re e e e e a an o a a e o a , e

h v tw sid s d th i l ud d g l qu l ch t ch
a e o e an e nc e an e e a ea o ea .

E quidist t p r ll l l i s t qu l p rts fr m y l i th t i t rs cts

an a a e ne cu e a a o an ne a n e e

No 9 . e na b l s us t divid
e li i t o e a ne n o e qu l p rts
a a , or i t p rts which
n o a

sh ll b
a
‘

e t
o e ac h th r i gi v r ti s
o e n en a o .

E X E RC IS E S .

D ivid e a qu dri l t r l i t p r ll l gr m d tri gl

a a e a n o a a a e o a an a an e .

D ivid e a p r ll l gr m i t tw qu l tri gl s
a a e o a n o o e a an e .

D ivid e a p r ll l gr m i t tw qu l p r ll l gr m s
a a e o a n o o e a a a e o a .

D ivid e a squ r i t f ur qu l is sc l s tri g l s

a e n o o e a o e e an e .

D ivid e a rh m bus i t f ur qu l right tri g l s

o n o o e a an e .

D ivid e a tr p id i which th
a ezo p r ll l sid s
n qu l e no n -
a a e e a re e a a
p ar

al l el o g ra m dan is s l s tri gl
an o ce e an e .
 22 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS .

7 . D ivid right tri gl i t tw is s l s tri gl s

e a an e n o o o ce e an e .

8 . T h dj c t g l s f p r ll l gr m supp l m t ry
e a a en an e o a a a e o a a re e en a .

9 . I rh m b id
n a ogl i ofi d th th r g l s
o n e an e s n e o e an e .

10 . If t w pp sit sid s f qu dri l t r l

o o o e qu l d p r ll
e o a a a e a a re e a an a a e l , th e figur e

is p r ll l gr m ( Dr w di g l U
a a a e o a 56 57
. a a a o na . se , ,

11 . T h m idd l p i ts f th f ur sid s f
e e p r ll l gr m
o n o e o e o a a a e o a a re the c o ne r rs
o f w p r ll l gr m
a ne If th first p r ll l gr m i
a a e o r a . e a a e o a s a e ct g l han e t e

s d i rh mbus ; i f th first i rh m bus th s

ec o n s a o di e s a o e e co n s a r t gl ec a n e

i f th first ie squ r th s d i squ r

s a a e e ec o n s a a e .

12 . T h bis t rs f th
e g l s f p r ll l gr m l s r t
ec o o e an e o a a a e o a en c o e a ec a n gl e .
( E x

e rc i se 8 an d

13 . P rv
o e v rs f 1 02 T h r m III
th e co n e e o ,
eo e .

14 . T h thr e p rp di u l rs l t f l l fr m th r rs f tri gl m t i
ee e en c a e a o e c o ne o a an e ee n

o ne p i t o n

E wa —T hr ugh h c r rs f t h tr i g l dr w l i s p r ll l t
.

o t e o ne h o pp e an e a ne a a e o t e o o
s i t s i d s d pr l g h m ill th y i t rs ct f r m i g w tr gl
n

e e an o on t e t e n e e o n a ne i an e
T h sh w ( by m s f 61 02 T h r m A i m I d 5 6 C r l
, , .

en o ea n o eo e x o . an o o

l ry ) th t t h thr lt i tud s f th g i v tri g l p rp d i cu l r t h

, , ,

a a e ee a e o e en an e a re e en a o t e
m i dd l p i ts f t h
e o n w t o gl d m k e ne fE rc i s 7 p g
ri a n e , an a e u se o xe e I ,
a e n o .

15 . C stru t
on r ct g l h vi g giv
c a e an e, sid d th p ri m t r
a n en o n e e an e e e e .

16 . C stru t
on rh m bus whi h sh ll h v i t btus gl s twi
c a o c l rg a a e s o e an e ce as a e as

th s whi h
o e c ut are ac e .

17 . C stru t
on rh m b id h vi g giv
c a o o ,
a n en

( ) T a w u qu lo sid sne d t h ai l ud d g l e ; an e nc e an e

( )h T w u qu lo sid s ne d dia g l e an a a ona

( ) Oe sid ne d t h t w d i
e an g ls e o a o na .

18 . Pl ac e a li f giv l gth b tw tw giv p r l l l li s th t i t

ne o en en e ee n o en a a e ne so a

sh ll p ss thr ugh giv p i t ( T hr diff r t p siti s f th

a a o a en o n . ee e en o on o e

p i t)
o n .

19 . Pl ace a squ r withi giv squ r a e n a th t r r f i t sh l l b at

en a e so a o n e c o ne o a e

a giv p i t i sid f th giv squ r

en o n n a e o e en a e.

20 . In a squ r stru t
a e co n qui l t r l tri g l h vi g
c an e r r mm a e a an e a n o ne c o ne co on

with r r f th squ r
a c o ne o d th e th rs i th sid s f th sq :
a e , an e o e n e e o e u a re

21 . H w m y
o and wh t p rts ( sid s
an a gl s) a r quir d t d t rm i e o r an e ar e e e o e e ne a

squ r a e r t gl P rh m bus
a e c an e p r ll l gr m P tr p id
a o a a a e o a a a ez o a

tr p iu m ?
a ez

22 . D i vid l i i t 3 1 p rts
e a ne n o
2
"
a .

23 . C struct
on r t g l wh s p ri m t r sh ll b
a e c an e
m
o d th r ti
e f th
e e e a e 1 ,
an e a o o e

b s d l titud 3 :
a e an a 7 W h t
e t h l . gths f i t sid s ? a are e en o s e
124 G E OM E T RY F O R B E G IN N E RS . U 6 .

T he tri angl e and th e q u ad ril at er al are p o l ygo ns ; b u t s t hey ,

a

hav e b ee n a lr ead y s t u d i e d w e shall no w appl y t h e t er m c h i e fl y t o ,

t ho se figu r es w hi c h have m o r e t han fo u r si d es A p o l ygo n o f fi e . v

si d es i s c all ed a PE NT AGO N o f si x s i d e s a H E XAGO N o f s ev e n s i d e s , ,

a H E PT AGO N o f e i ght s i d es an O CT AGO N o f n i n e s i d e s a N O N AGO N

, , ,

o f t en s i d e s a DE CAGO N o f t w e l ve si d es a DO D E CAGO N o f t w en t , y ,

si d es a n ICOS AGO N .

Whi c h o f t h ese p o l ygo ns are r e pr esen t ed i n F g 1 06 i .

E v er y p o l ygo n h as as m any angl es as si d e s ; e ac h si d e h as tw o

adj ac en t an gl es eac h angl e i s fo r m e d b y t w o i n t e r se c ti n
g si d es .

A li n e j o i ni ng t wo c o r n er s n o t i n t he sam e si d e i s c all e d a DIAG

O NAL .

B y d r aw i ng as m any d i ago nal s as p o ssi b l e fr o m o n e c o r ne r o f a

p o l ygo n w e d i vi d e t he p o l ygo n i n t o tri angl es and E xer c i se 1 b el ow , ,

l ead s t o the fo ll o wi ng gen er al l aw

T he n n m her o f di ago n a l s w h i ch ea n he d r a w n f r o m o n e co r ner

of a p o lyg o n is T H RE E l ess th a n th e n a m her o f s i des ; a nd th e n u m

WO l ess tha n
’ ’ ’
her o f tr i a ngl es i n to w h i ch th e p olyg on is a i o i a ea is T

the n n m her f
o s i des .

rc i ses 1 Dr w p l yg s f 3 4 5 6 7 8 sid s d fr m
E xe . . a r r o on o , , , , , e , an o a c o ne

o f ch l l th di g l s p ssib l ; th pr p r thr v rti l l u m s i

ea a e a o na o e en e a e ee e ca co n ,
n

th first w
e riti g th u m b r f sid s f th s v r l p lyg s i th s c d
n e n e o e o e e e a o on ,
n e e on

th e n u m b r f di g l s i th third th u m b r f tri gl s Wh t g r l
e o a o na ,
n e e n e o an e . a en e a

co n c l usi s f ll w fr m th r su l ts
on o o o e e ?

2 H w m y di g
. o ls b dr w fr m
an r r f p lyg
a o na f c an e a n o o ne co n e o a o on o

60 sid s ed h w m y tri g l s wi ll b f r m d ?
, an o an an e e o e

3 Divid . ct g i t thr qu dri l t r l s d tri g l

e an o a on n o ee a a e a an a an e .

4 If y . cut ff tri g l fr m h g with di g l wh t ki d f

ou o a an e o a exa on a a ona ,
a n o

p lyg i l ft ?
o on s e

5 H w m y di g
. o ls i ll anb dr w i qu dri l t r l ? p t
a o na n a c an e a n n a a a e a a en a

g ?
on h g ? d g ?
a exa on a ec a on

11 6 . T he l
an g e s o f a p o l ygo n m ay b e ac u t e ri ght o b t u se or , , ,

even c o nv ex . In t h e l ast case t hey are u su all y t e r m ed reent a n t

,
r
 CHAPT E R VI .
—POLYGONS . 125

an g es l . In F i g . 1 07 , A is a p o lygo n havi ng o n e ree ntran t ang e,l

an d B a p o lygo n havi ng tw o r eentr ant angl es .

B u t w ha t e e r b e t he val u es o f the angl es t he ir su m i n any p o ly

v ,

o n alw a s b ear s a si mpl e r e l ati o n t o t he n u m b e r o f si d e s If a

g y .

p o lygo n c o u l d b e d i vi d e d i n t o as m any tri angl es as it has si d es ,

t hen t he su m o f all i ts angl es w o u l d ev i d entl y b e eq u al t o t w i c e as

m any ri ght angl es as t h er e are s i d es B u t si nc e b y t h e
l ast sec ti o n i t app ear s t hat t he nu m b e r o f t hese tri angl es i s tw l ess o

t han the nu m b er o f si d es it fo ll o ws t hat t he su m o f al l the angl es

,

w ill b e tw i c e as m any ri ght an gl e s as t her e are s i d es l ess t wo .

H e nc e ,
T h e o r em .
—T h e su m f
o th e a ng l es f
o a p olyg o n is equ a l to
t w i ce as m a ny ri ght a ngl es a s th er e a r e s i a es
’
l ess t w o .

T hu s th e h exago n ( F ig . 1 08 ) c o ns s sit of 6 2 4 tr i angl es ;

an d t h e su m o f i ts an g e s l 4 x 2 8 ri ght
an l
g es
In gen e r al ,
if n b e t he nu m b e r o f si d es ( n
be i ng an
y nu m b e r) ,
t he fo ll o w i ng e qu ati o n
or R
F O M ULA e nab l es us t o fin d t h e su m of

t he a n g es l
Su m ersh e ang l es ( i n degr ees) 18 0( n

E xe rc i 1 Wh t p l yg
ses . c . th v t t gl s ?
a o on a nn o a e r e e n r an an e

2 . F i d thn m f th g l s f p l yg s f 3 4 5 6 8
e su o e an sid s e o o on o , , , , , I o , 1 2 , 20 e .

3 . F i d by divisi
n i t tri g l s th m f th gl s f th p lyg A
on n o an e e su o e an e o e o on

( g
F i . Al s fi d th m by mo s f F rm u l [ ]
n e su ean o o a I .
1 26 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NNE RS . 1 1 7 .

4 . F i d
n i n th e s am e tw o w ys
a th e su m of th e an gl s e of th e p lyg o on B

( g
F i .

5 . sid s
O f h o w fe w
y m k p lyg with r tr t g l ?
e c an ou a e a o on o ne een an an e

w i th tw é t t g l s ?
o re n ra n an e

6 M k
. h g with m y r tr t g l s p ssib l
a e a e xa on as an een an an e as o e .

7 M k
. h g h vi g l y right g l s th ir m u l tipl s
a e a e xa on a n on an e or e e .

8 Dr w p l yg
. su h th t
a af i t di g
o l s sh ll l i wh ll y utsid
on c a o ne o s a o na a e o o e

th p lyg
e o on .

11 7 . Pr o b l e m . T o m a he a
p o lyg o n equ a l to a g i ve n p oly

g o n A B CD E F ( F ig .

A n a ly s i s . D i v i d e t h e gi ve n po l ygo n i nt o tri angl es b y d r aw i n g

d i ago n al s fr o m o n e c o r n er
tr u c t a se ri e s o f t hen c o ns

n ew tri angl es e q u al resp e c

t i vel y t o t h o se o f t h e gi ve n

o
p yg l o n a n d i m i l a l y ,
s r

l a ce/l I t i s e i d en t t ha t
p . v

t hese t ak en t o ge t her w ill

fo r m a n ew p o l ygo n e qu al t o t h e giv en p o l ygo n ( Axi o m
Dr aw t he figu r es an d gi ve t he c o nstr u c ti o n i n fu ll .

E x r i s
e c se1 C stru t p t g . . qu l t giv p t g
on c a en a on e a o a en en a on .

2 C stru t
. on t g qu l t giv ct g
c an o c a on e a o a en o a on .

3 Wh. tw p lyg s qu l t
en are h th r ?
o o on e a o e ac o e

II . R eg u l ar P ol y g on s .

1 18 . D e fin i t i o n s .
—A p olyg o n w h i ch h a s q e u al s i cl es is
ter m ea E QUILAT
’
E RAL ( F g 1 1 0 A ) a i .
, p olygo n w hi ch h a s equ a l

E QUIANGULAR ( F i g 1 1 0 B) w h i ch
’
olyg o n
i s ter m ea p
’
a ngl es .
,
a na a

ha s equ a l s i a es a na equ a l a ngl es

’ ’
( F ig . 1 1 0, C ) i s ter m ea RE
’
GULA R .

S i n c e t he l
ang es o f a r egu l ar p o lygo n are equ a l ,
e ac h ang e l is
equ a l t o th e su m o f all th e a ngl es a i vi cl ecl
’
hy th ei r n u m her ; o r, in
other w or ds ,
’
a i vi a ea
’ ’
hy the n u m her o f s i d es of the polygo n .

If we l et n d eno t e the nu mb er o f s i d es ,
the su m o f the ang es l
 1 28 GE OM E T R Y FOR BE GINN E RS . 1 19

sam e t wo t ri angl es are l

t herefore 0 0 0A
a so e q u al 73 ) .

Al so 0 CB , OA B 5 o ne o f t he eq u al angl es o f t he po l ygo n ;
t he r e fo r e 0 C b i sec t s t he a n l e B CD In li k e m anner we
g .

ro ve t hat OD : 0A an d b i se c t s t he an l e CD E
p g , et c .

( i i .
) T he d i st an c es fr o m 0 t o th e l s i d es o f t h e p o ygo n are t he

p e rp e n d i c u l ar s l et fall fr o m 0 t o t he si d es 83 C o r o ll ar y) T a k e ,
.

any t wo o f t hese p e r p en d i c u l ar s 0 6 an d O H ; t h ey are equ al ,

b ec au se A O G B 0H B In li k e m ann er w e Can
sh o w t hat O H 0] O K et c i n o t her wo r d s t hese perp en
, .
,

d i c u l ars are al l e qu al .

D e fin i t i o n s T h i s r ema ha hl e po i nt 0 i n a reg u l a r p olyg o n

. r

i s c l l eo i ts CE NT R E ; the d i sta n ce f o m the cen tr e to a co n er i s

’
a r r

ca l l ea th e G R E AT E R RAD IUS the d i s ta n c f ro m th e centr e to a si d e

’
e

Mass RAD IUS h r a cl i i is

’
the l e hetw een t wo ca l l eo
’
is ca l l ea ; t e an
g
the ANGLE ’
AT T HE CE NT RE .

Co r o l l a r i e s . I . E very r eg u l a r p olygo n ca n he d i vi ded i nto as

m a ny ( h ?)
’
equ a l i sos cel es tr i a ngl es as i t h as s i aes o w

2 . E very r eg u l a r p o lyg o n ca n he d i v i d ed i n to t w i ce as m a ny
equ a l r i ght tr i a ngl es as i t has s i cl es
( ho w P) .

T h e g rea ter r a di i o f r eg u l a r p o lyg o n a re a l l equ a l , th e l ess

3 . a

the a ng l es a t th e cen t r e a r e equ a l

’ ’
ra a i i a r e equ a l , a n a .

00 ’
hy the num
’ ’
T he a ngl e a t the ce n tre is equ a l to 3 a i vi o ea
4 .

her f s i a es o th er wor ds , to the l a s t ter m f 118

’
o in o .
 CHAPT E R VI .
— Y N PO L GO S . 1 29

ise s —l Pr v th pr di g th r m f th c s f t i gl
E xe rc . . o e e ece n eo e or e a e o a r an e .

Dr w a figur d giv th pr f i fu ll ( C m p r this rcis with E

a e an e e oo n . o a e e xe e xer

c is s 7 d 8
e an ,

2 S h w th t v ry r gul r p l yg
. o a i mp s d f
e e eumb r f a o on s co o e o an ev en n e o

e qu l right tri g l s
a an e .

3 Pr v th t i
. o r gul r p l yg
e a r dius i f pr l g ed divid s th p ly
n a e a o on a a ,
o on , e e o

g on i t t w qu
n o l p rt s o e a a .

4 Pr v th t th
. o g l b tw tw l ss d i qu l t th gl b
e a e an e e e en o e ra ii s e a o e an e e

t w t w gr t r r dii Wh t v l u h th g l b tw
ee n o ea e a . gr t r r dius a a e as e an e e ee n a ea e a

an d l ss r dius ?
a e a

5 i d th gl t th
.
F n tr i
e an qui l t r l tri g l ? squ r ?
e a e cen e n an e a e a an e a a e a

p tg ? h g
en a on a tg e xad g on? an o c a on ? a ec a on ?

6 If th . g l t th tr i
e an h w m e a sid s h th p lyg
e ce n d e s 10
0
,
o an y e as e o o n , an

wh t i th v l u f ch g l ?
a s e a e o ea an e

7 If . g l t th c tr i giv h w
an an e a
y fi d e g l f t
enh e s e n, o c an ou n an an e o e

p l yg
o on ?

8 If . g l f th p l yg i giv h w
a n an e o
y fi d e g l t t
o h on s en , o c an ou n an an e a e

c en tr ? e

N —F h s k f r f r c th Ch i f d t r s p ct i g th gl s f
OT E or t e a e o e e en e, e e a a e e n e an e o
r gu l r p lyg s c ll ct d i h f ll wi g t bl
e a o on a re o e e n t e o o n a e

1 20 . Pro b l e m . T o co n s tr u ct a r eg u l a r l
p yg o no h a vi ng

g i v e n th e n u m her o f s i des .

Co nst r u ct i o n . Co nstru c t
t a p o i n t as m any angl es as the ab o u

p o l ygo n h s i d es e c h angl e eq al t o t h e angl e at t h e en tr e ( ho w

a s ,
a u c

i s t h i s n gl e fo n d ?)
a l y o ff e q al l engt hs o n t he si des o f t hese
u a u

an gl es an d jo i n t h e po in t s thus d e t e r mi n ed
,
,
.
 13 0 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS .
121 .

i ses 1 I th b v pr bl m d t rm i t i
E xe rc '

. . s e a o e o e e e na e or n d et er m i n a t e ?
2 C struct ( i )
. qui l t r l tri g l ; ( i i ) squ r
on . an e a e a an e . a a e .

3 C struct . r gu l r h g
on
J i t h l t r t a e a e xa on . o n e a e na e c o ne r rs by str ight a

li s neWh t figur d th s l i s c l s ? Why ?

. a e o e e ne en o e

4 Pr v th t t h gr t r r dius f
. o e r gul r h g i a e ea e a o a e a exa on s e qu l t a o a sid e of

th h ge e xa on .

5 C stru t . r gul r ct g
on
J i t h l
c t r t a e a o a on . o n e a e na e r rs by str ight
c o ne a

l i s Wh t figur d th s l i s c l s ? Why ?
ne . a e o e e ne en o e

6 C stru t r gu l r
. on g c a e a n o na on .

7 C y d vis
. th r w y t c stru t r gu l r p
an ou e e an o e a o on c a e a o l yg o n ?

121 . Pr o b l e m . T o f i n d the cen tr e o f a

gi ven r eg u l a r
p y ol

g o n .

An a ly si s .
—T w o m e ho d s t o f so v n
g l i t hi s pr o b l em are su
gges ed t
by 1 18 ; w h at are t hey ?
A t hir d m e t ho d i s b ase d t ( see F i gs 1 1 1 and 1 1 2 ) on t he fac .
~

t hat i f t he p o l ygo n h as an ven n u m b e r o f s i d es a li n e t hr o h o n e

, g e , u

c o r n e r an d t he c e n tr e s e s t hr o u h t h e o pp o sit e c o r n e r w h il
p as g e

i f it has an o dd n u mb er o f si d e s t hi s li n e p asse s t hr o u gh t he ,

m i ddl e o f t he o ppo sit e s i d e H en c e st at e ru l es fo r p r o c ee d i ng i n .

,

eac h c ase .

i se s —l F i d th
E xe rc tr f ( i )
. qui l t r l tri gl ; ( )
. n e c en e o . an e a e a an e i i . a

squ r ( i i i ) r gu l r p t g
a e ( i ) r gul r h
. a g e a en a on v . a e a e xa on .

2 D ivid . qu i l t r l tri g l i t 3 qu l p rts

e an e a e a an e n o e a a .

3 D ivid
.
.
squ r i t 4 qu l p
e rts C ya d this i m r th
a e n o e a a . an ou o n o e an

o ne w ay ?

4 . D ivid
r gu l r h g i t 6 qu l p rts ls i t
e a e aqu l p rts exa on n o e a a a o n o 12 e a a .

5 . D ivid
r gu l r t g i t 4 8 6 qu l p rts
e a e a oc a on n o , ,
1 e a a .

N OT —T h c s ruct i
E t f r gu l r p lyg
e s w ill b c s i d r d furth r
on t on, e c o e a o on e on e e e
in th e ch pt r t h Ci rcl
a e on e e.

1 22 . Ap p l i c at i on s p av em ent s o f l arge v esti .

—T h t e s o ne

b u l es gall eri es e t c an d t he p att er n s u se d i n q u ilti ng a e ill ustr a

, ,
.
, ,
r

ti o ns o f t h e prac ti cal e m pl o ym en t o f r egu l ar po l ygo ns .

N o t e v e r y r egu l ar p o l ygo n c an b e e m pl o ye d fo r t h ese p u rp o se s ,

o n l y t ho se c an b e s e d w h o s e s i d e s t o u c h at al l p o i n t s
u fo r i f t h i s ,
 32 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS . 12
3 .

T he ang e l of a r egu l ar d ec ago n i s T wo d e c ago n s

pl ac e d w it h o ne si d e c o mm o n
w o u l d l eav e an an l e o f 60 °

g 3 2

fill e d S i nc e
°
X 1 44 7 2 t o b e .

n o r egu l a r p o l o n h l
yg a s a n an g e

of fo ll o w s t hat w e c ann o t

p a v e o r q u ilt w it h r egu l ar d e c a
go ns e it h e r al o ne o r c o m b i n ed ,

w it h o t h e r r egul ar p o l ygo ns .

7 T h e r e g u l a r d o d e c ago n m ay.

b e c o m b i ne d w it h t h e e q u il a t er a l
tri angl e ; fo r t he angl e o f t he d o
d ec ago n i s t wi c e 1 5 0 i s an d t h e r e r e m ai n s
°
wh i c h
i s j u st equ al t o t h e angl e o f t he e q u il a t e r a l tri angl e ( F g i .

8 T h u s far w e have spo k e n o nl y o f r egu

.

l ar p o l ygo ns It i s o b v i o u s t h at s uit b l e c o m
. a

b i nat i o n s m ay al so b e m ad e w it h p o lygo ns
w h i c h are n o t r egu l ar F g 1 1 9 gi v e s a n . i .

e xam pl e .What i s the nam e o f t he p o lygo n ?

E x c i se
er S h w th t
. squ r h g
o a a d a e, a e xa o n , an a

d d g wi ll fi ll up th sp
o eca on b ut p i t ; d
e ace a o a o n an

m k
a e a p tt r f th s p l yg s
a e n o e e o on .

Symm e tm c a l
‘

III . F i g u r es .

1 23 . If t he p o l ygo n A B C D i s m ad e t o r e o l e b o u t A D v v a

t hr o u gh ha f l a r e o l u ti o n t he figu r e A E F D t h er e by o b t i ne d i s
v , ,
a ,

s ai d t o b e S YM M E T RICAI w it h r e s p e t . c

to A B C D an d A D i s c all e d t he
,

LIN E O F S vM M E T Rv .

T w o symm e tri c al pl an e figu r es are

al ways eq u al b u t t h eir equ al p art s ,

( s i d es n d angl es ) fo ll o w i n o pp o sit e
a

o r d e r w it h r efe r enc e t o the li n e o f

sy m m e try .
 1 23
] CHAPT E R VL —PO LYGO NS . 13 3

r o m w hat pr e c ed es i t
F is obv o us i t hat i n t wo sym m et ri c al pl ane
figu r es ,

metmca l ly s i tu a ted s i des a r e equ a l

'

I . T w o sy m -
.

T w o sy m m etmca l ly s i tu a ted a ngl es a r e equ a l

'

II .
-
.

III . T h e l i n e j o i n i ng t w o sy mm etr i ca l ly s i tu a ted -

p oi n ts i s per
f sy m metry a n d hi sected hy i t
p en d i cu l a r to the l i ne o
(f or ex a m l e,
p
th e l i nes B E ,
M l v CF , ,
etc .
,
F ig .

B y m ea n s of III w e . c an eas ily c o nst u c t r

p o n o ne si d e o f a u

p o lygo n ,
as a li ne o f sy m m e try ,
a sy m m e tri c al p o l ygo n E x pl ai n .

ho w .

If w e r d A B C D F E as o n e po l ygo n t hen A D i s a li n e
r ega ,

o f symm e try d i vi d i n g i t i n t o t wo sy m m e tri c l p o l ygo n s a .

A li ne m ay d i i d e a figu r e i nt o p art s w h i c h a e e q al an d yet

v r u

n o t sy m m e t ri c al T hi s i s t he c as e fo r e xa m pl e w it h t h e d i g n l
.
, ,
a o a

o f t h e p ar all e l o r a m A B C D i i e s t h e fig r e
g ( g
F i It d d . v u

i n t o t wo e qu al t ri an gl e s b u t t hese tri angl e s e n o t so pl ac e d wit h

,
ar

r esp ec t t o t he d i ago nal t hat t hey wo u l d c o i nc i d e if fo l d ed o e r t he

,
v

d i ago n al as an e dge .

A fig r e m ay ha e m o r e t h an o n e li ne o f sy m m e tr y
u v T hu s i n .
,

F g 1 2 0 b e si d es A D t h e li n e MN i s l s o
i .
, li ne o f sym m e try
,
a a .

E x i s —1 P i t t i F ig
e rc se . sy m m tric ll y s i tu t d l i s d
. o n ou n . 120 e a -
a e ne an

an gl s e .
t

2 Dr w
. p r ll l gr m d up
a a a a sid e o struct sy m m tri l
a , an on o ne e con a e ca

p r ll l gr m
a a e o a .

3 C stru t up
. on sid f h g c sym m tri c l h g
o n o ne e o a e xa on a e a e xa on .

4 C struct t w sy m m tric l figur s with

. on el t
o t gl s e a e re n ra n an e .

5 Dr w l i
. f sy m m try i
a a is sc l s tri g l
ne o e n an o e e an e .

6 D r w l l th l i s f sy m m try i
. a a qu i l t r l tri g l
e ne o e n an e a e a an e .

7 D r w l l t h li s f sy m m try i
. a a squ r
e ne o e n a a e .

8 D r w l l th li s f sy m m try i
. a a r t gl
e ne o e n a ec a n e .

9 M k
. tr p id such th t y
a e a dr w i i t l i f sym m t y
a ez o a o u c an a n a ne o e r .

10 G i v i st c s f figur s which p l c d t g th r with

. e n an e o sid c m m e ,
a e o e e a e o o n,

w i ll m k sy m m tric l figur Wh t i th l i f sym m try

a e a e a e . a s e ne o e ?

1 1 D r w l l t h li s f sy m m try i
. a a r gu l r h g
e ne H wm y
o e n a e a e xa on . o an a re

th r ?
e e
13 4 G E OM E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS .

RE VIE W O F C H APT E R VI .

S YNO PS IS .

A polyg on i spl figur b u d d by str i ght l i s

a an e e o n e a ne .

P l yg
o s r iv di ff r t m s cc rd i g t th u m b r f th ir sid s
on ece e e en na e a o n o e n e o e e ,

T h m f th
e su g l s f p l yg o 8 X th u m b r f sid s l ss
e an e o a o on 1 0
0
e n e o e e

t wo .

T wo p lyg s o qu l i f th y
on b divid d i t th s m u m b r
a re e a , e c an e e n o e a e n e

o f tri g l s si m i l r
an h t ch d si m i l rl y p l c d
e ,
a e ac o ea , an a a e .

A p l yg o i q il t on l i f i t sid s
s e u qu l ; q i g l if i t gl s
a er a ,
s e a re e a e u an u ar, s an e

are e qu l ; g l i f b th sid s d g l s
a re u ar , qu l o e an an e a re e a .

E ch a g l f r gul r p lyg m ay b f u d by div i di g 36 by th

an e o a e a o on e o n n 0
0
e

n u m b r f sid s d th subtr ct i g th qu ti t fr m 8
e o e , an en a n e o en o 1 0
0

I n ev ry r gu l r p l yg th r i p i t c ll d th
e e a o t qu ll y d i
on e e s a o n a e e ce n r e, e a s

t t fr m i t r rs d l s fr m i t sid s
an o s c o ne an a o o s e .

T h g e t di f
r ea er r a r gu l r p l yg i th dist c fr m th c e tr
us o a e a o on s e an e o e n e

t o r r th l
a co ne di th dist c fr m th c tr t sid th
e ess r a us e an e o e en e o a e e

an
gl t th e a t th g l i c l ud d b tw tw gr t r r dii
e cen r e e an e n e e ee n o ea e a .

P vi g
a d qui l ti g fur ish
n an mpl s f th pr ti l
n f r gu l r
n e xa e o e ac ca u se o e a

p l yg s
o on .

T w pl o figur san e
y m m t i l i f ither f th m wh
a re r vs l v d e r ca ,
e e o e ,
en e o e

a b ut o rt i l ia ce is thr ugh h l f r v luti

a n n e as an axb m d o a a e o o n , c an e a e

t f l l up
o a d i id w ith th th r T h li i ll d th l i f
o n an c o nc e e o e . e ne s ca e e ne o

sy m m etry .

T hr figur s i which s v r l l i s f sy mm t y m
e e are e n e e a ne o e r ay be dr wa n, e a c h
d i vidi g th figur i t tw sym m tri l figur s
n e e n o o e ca e .

E X E RC IS E S .

Ma k h e a exa g h vi g f ur right gl s
on a n o an e .

M k a e an o c a t g h vi g l y right gl s th ir m ultipl s
on a n on an e or e e .

M k thr a e ee p l yg s with é t t g l s
o on re n ra n an e .

D ivid h e a e xag i t th r figur s i s v r l d iff t w ys

on n o o e e n e e a e re n a .

F i d thn e su m f th g l s f p l yg with 4 sid s

o e an e o a o on 2 e .

Fi d nh e ac an g l f r gu l r i g
e o a e a c o sa on .

E ight gl an es f d cgo a q l d ch f t h th r t w
e a o n a re e ua ,
an ea o e o e o

o ne o f th e f rm r ; fi d l l t h
o e gl s n a e an e .
 13 6 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GINN E RS . 1 24 .

CHAPT E R VII .

ARE A S .

CO NT N E T S . I
. Units of A r (M 4
ea II T h Ar
12 , . e eas o f Po l yg s ( N 6
on 12

III P . r ct i c l E
a a xe rc i s s d Appl i c t i s
e an
36 a on 1 IV T h r m f
. eo e o

P yth g r s a 4 o a 1 2, V T r s f rm ti f Figur s
. an o a on o e 1 44 V I Pa r
.

t it i f Figur s
on o e 15 1

I .
—Un 1 ts
‘

of A r ea .

124 . S u r fac es,

li k e li nes are m easu r ed by c ho o smg a unit , ,

an d t hen find i ng ho w o ft e n t h i s u nit i s c o nt ai ned i n t he s u r fac e

wh i c h w e w i sh t o m easu r e .

T he u nit c ho sen fo r t h i s p u r po se m u st b e a m agn it u d e o f t he

sam e k i n d as t ha t wh i c h i s t o b e m easu r ed ; i n o t her w o r d s it ,

m u st b e a su r face T he m o st c o nv en i ent u n it s t o e m pl o y are

.

s qu a r es w h ose s i des a r e equ a l to the u n i ts f

o l eng th .

Ch i ef E li
ng sh u n it s the SQUAR E INCH ( sq . t he SQUAR E FO OT
( sq . t he SQUAR E YA R D ( sq . an d th e S QUAR E M ILE .

3 0
; sq .
y d s . 1 SQUAR E RO D, an d 1 60 sq . r o ds 1 ACR E .

T he m e tri c it s ( w it h ir r i ti nd rel a ti ve l )
1 a
un t he ab b ev a o ns va u e s

are as fo ll o ws

S QUARE K ILO M E T E R (q )
k m squ r a e me t rs
e .

S QUARE HE CT O M E T E R ( qh m )

S QUARE DE K AM E T E
( q dk m ) R 100

S QUARE M E T E R ( qm )
S QUARE D E CIM E T E R ( qd m ) .

S QUARE CE NT IM E T E R ( q c m )
S QUARE M ILLIM E T E R ( qm m )

1 F r m d by p fi i g q h first l t r
o e re x n t e et e o f th e La i n t w rd o qu a d r a ( a squ r a e ) to

c rr sp d i g li r bbr vi t i s
,
,

th e o e on n nea a e a on .
5 12 CHAPT E R V II . A E AS R . 13 7

T he s qu a e r d ek a m e t e r i s u su a ll y ca ll ed an AR ( ) a ,
an d t he

sq u a e r he c t o m e t e r a HE CT A R (h ) a . T he y are em pl o yed c h ef i ly
i n m easu ri ng l an d .

N OT E . 1
ha
a cr s ;
e I
f! “n
sq . ft q m : 15 5 sq . in .
,
v rye ne a rly .

1 25 . t ab l e o f m e tri c nit s bo e g e n it will b

In t h e u a v lv ,
e

o b se v e d r t ha t e c h u nit i s o t i m e s gr e at r t han t he nit n xt

a Io .
e u e

fo llo w i ng . T he r e so n o f t hi s li es i n t h e f c t t h t o f t he c o rr e
a a a ,

sp o n d i n g li n e r u nit s o n e i s I O ti m e gr ea t e r t han t he o t he r ( s
a ,
s ee

p a
ge

S u p p o s e t ha t A B ( F ig . 1 21 ) re pr e

se n s t a l e ngt h of o ne m e t er . C0 11
s tr c t u p o n A B t he squ a e A B C D ;
u r

t he n t hi s sq re will r e pr e se n t n e ua o

sq u r e m e t e r
a Di i d e A B nd A C
. v a

e ac h i n t o t e n e q a l p rt s n d t h r o ghu a ,
a u

a l l t h e p o i n t s o f d i i i o n d r aw li n es v s

p ar ll l t o t he dj c n t si d e s T he
a e a a e .

p ar lle l s t hr o gh t he p o i n t s o f d i i si o n
a u v

o f A B d i i d e t h e sq vre i n t o O eq l ua I ua

r e t n g l ars
c a ea c h
u o
m
l n g nd
,
I
‘1
o a I
dm

w id e ; th o t h er se t o f p ar all e l s b d ivi d es e c h r e t ngl e i n t o

i

e su a c a

1 0 eq l sq res e a h q l t o o n sq r e d ec i m e t e r ; t h r e
ua ua ,
c e ua e ua e

fo r e o n e sq r e m e t e r m u s t c o n t ai n e xac tl y 0 x O
,
ua 0 sq re 1 I 1 0 ua

d e c i m e t ers .

T h s am e r e aso n i n g w ill sho w t ha t o n e sq r e d i m t e r

e 0 ua ec e 1

x 0 1 00 q r e c n ti m e t e r e t c ; a nd if t h e r ti
1 s ua e f t he t w o s, . a o o

li ne r n it s w er e any o t he r n m b e r b t 0 it m y b e sho w n i n
a u u u 1 ,
a

t h e s m e w y t h t t he r ti o o f t h e
a a o rr e s p o n d i ng
a n it s o f s r f
a e c u u ac

w o l d b e fo n d b y m ltipl yi ng t h t n m b e r b y it se l f ; i n o t h er
u u u a u

wo rd by q s, i ng it s uar .

T he ra t o i o
f tw o u n i ts f
o fsu i a ce is alw a
ys the s
q u a re f
o the
r a ti o of th e co r r es
p o n di n
g f
u ni ts o l ength .
1 38 G E OM E T RY Fo R B E GI NN E RS . 1 26 .

E xe rc i s es —l
r ti f squ r f t t squ r i h ?
. Wh at i s th e a o o a a e oo o a a e nc a

squ r f t t squ r y rd ? squ r m i l t squ r f t ?

a e oo o a a e a a a e e o a a e oo

2 H w m y squ r f t th r i cr '

. o an a e ee are e e n o ne a e

3 H w m y . rs oth r i squ r m i l
an ac e a re e e n o ne a e e

4 Wh t i th r ti
. f a t squ r m t r
s t h t r?
e a o o an ar o a a e e e ? an ar o a ec a a

squ r ti m t r t h t r ? squ r h ct m t r t h t r ?
a e c en e e o a ec a a a e e o e e o a ec a

5 R du t
. squ r m t rs th f ll wi g :4
e ce o a e e e e o o n qk m '

6 . Re du ce t o h e c t a rs t h e fo l l wi g :63
o n qk m
; 6
5 , 4 75
‘1d m
;
‘1m m
4, 000 ,
000

7 . S ubtr ct a I a
r “
f om I , a nd giv e th e sw r i squ r m t rs
an e n a e e e .

8 . H o w m an y h us l ts o e -
o , e ac h ti i g
co n a n n th r i fi l d whi h
2 3
, a re e e n a
'
e c

co n a n ti s8 11 3 ?
9 . b ught 3 f l d t $ p h t r d s ld i t f
A m an o
ha o an a J 200 er ec a ,
an o or
p er
ar . Did h g i l s e d h w mu h ?
a n or o e , an o c

10 Which i th gr t r f rm
. h t 5 s r s ? e ea e a , 200 e c ar s o r 00 ac e

11 D ivid 6 i t 64 qu l l ts h w m y squ r m t rs i
. e
ha n o e a o o an a e e e n e ac hl ot ?

1 2 Wh t i th d i ff r
. b tw 3 q
a sm t d 3 m te e e nc e e ee n s uare e er s an e er s s u a r e
q ?

II .
—A r eas of P o l y g on s .

1 26 . D e fin i t i o n . T he n u m her o f ti m es a u ni t o f f
s u r a ce

is co n ta i n ed in an
y s u r a ce, f f ol l ow ed hy th e na m e o f th e u n i t, is
ca l l ed th e AR E A o f the su r a ce f .

N OT E —H c u i ts en e n of surf c a e are o f en t c ll d a e u n i ts o
f a rea , a s at th e b gi
e n
nin g th i s ch pt r
of a e .

In o r d e r t o find th e ar ea o f a su r fac e it m i gh t at fir st t ho u ght ,

see m n e c e ssar y t o ap pl y a u n it o f ar ea t o t h e su r fa c e o v e r an d

o v e r agai n as m an y ti m es a s p o ssi b l e j st as w e m e asu r e a li n e ,

u

n a —
d ir e c tly b y u si g a y r d sti c k o r a m e t e r r l e B u t t hi s m e t h o d -
u .

w o u l d b e v er y t e d i o u s and i n m an y c ase s ( fo r i nst an c e a p o n d

, , ,

swa m p fo r est e t c ) u tt erl y i m pr ac ti c ab l e

, ,
. .

F o rt u n a t el y h o w ev er G e o m e tr y s ppli e s u s w it h i n d ir ec t m et h
, ,
u

o d s o f m easu r e m en t w h i c h e a ppli c ab l e t o al l s r fac e s It t e ac hes ar u .

t ha t t he val u e o f ar eas d e p end s upo n the l engths o f c er tai n li nes

wh en ce i t fo ll o ws that ar eas c an b e fo und by p erfo r m i ng c ert ai n
1 40 GE OME T RY F O R B E GI N E N RS . 1 28 .

“
t he r
s qu a e o f AB , rit e AB T hese expr essi o ns d o
an d we w
2

no t m e an t h at t h e l i n A B i s m ltipli e d b y it s e l f b u t t ha t t he
e u ,

n u mh f
er l ion ea r u n i ts i n t h e li n e i s m ltipli e d b y it s e l f t h eur e s lt ,
u

be i ng t he n u m he f u ni t f a r ea i n t h e squ ar e c o n str u c t e d u p o n
r o s o

A B as a s i d e .

128 . T h e RE N
CT A GLE . A r ec t angl e i nt o
c an b e d e c o m p o se d
u n it s o f ar ea i n t h e sa m e w a as a sq u ar e t h e o nl d i ffe r e nc e b e i ng
y y ,

t hat t he nu mb er o f u n it s o f l engt h i n
i ts a dj ac en t s i d e s i s no t t h e sam e .

T hu s t h e r ec t angl e A B C D ( F ig
,
.

t h e s i d e s o f w h i c h are A B

AC 4
m
c o n ta i n s 7 x 4 ,
2 8 s q u ar e

m e t er s .

T he si d e A B i s t he b ase o f t he r ec t
angl e an d t he si d e A C i s t h e altit u d e
, 1 04 ) so t h at th e n u m her
f
o u ni ts o f a r ea in a r ec ta n l e
g i s f o u n d hy m u l tiply i ng th e n u m her

f
o l i nea r u n i ts i n the ha se hy th e n u mher of l i nea r u ni ts i n th e

O r, m o r e b ri e fl y :T h e a rea f
o a r ecta ngl e is e u al
q to the p ro

d u ct f
o i ts ha se hy i ts a l t i tu d e.

If t he a ear and b ase are kn o wn ,

ho w c an t he a ltit u d e be
fo u n d ? If t he area an d a ltit u d e are k no wn ,
ho w c an t h e b ase

b e fo u nd ?
R em a r k — In p ra ti c ce w e m ust b e pr ess b o t h r
c a efu l to ex

b ase an d altit u d e i n t e r m s o f t he s a m e li near u n it ; t he ar ea w ill

t hen b e expr essed i n t er ms o f t h e cor espo ndi ng u nit o f ar ea r .

F o r e xam pl e t h e b ase o f a r e c t angl e t he altit u d e

m
80 c

find t h e a r ea H e r e w e m u st n o t m u ltipl y 1 b y 8 0 b u t i f we
. 2 ,

c ho o se t h e m e t er as t h e li n ear u n it w e m u st m u ltipl 2 by
y 1 ,

b ec au se Answer sq u ar e m e t e r s
,
.

If w e t ak e t h e c enti m et er as t he li near u n it wha t w ill th e ,

answer be ?
 1 CHAPT E R VII .
-
ARE As . 14 1

§ 1 29 . T he PA ALLE R RIt i s e asy t o tr an sfo rm a p ar al

LOG AM .

l el o gra m i n t o an e qu i val en t r ec t angl e .

In t he p ar all e l o gr am A B C D ( F g 1 23 ) e r ec t p erp en d i c l ar s i . u

at t h e p o i nt s A an d B o f t he b as e ;

t hey c u t o ne o f t he m t he o p p o sit e
,

s i d e t he o t he r t h e o pp o sit e s i d e ro
, p
l o nge d i n t he p o i nt s F and E and
,
i

t he figu r e AB E F i s a r e c t an gl e h a i ng v

t he sam e b ase an d altit u d e as t he A

p ar all el o gr am .

T he ri ght tri an gl es A C E an d B D E a e e q u al ( w hy ?) h enc e r

,

w h i c h ev e r o f t h ese tri an gl es w e add t o t h e q u ad ril t er al A B C F a ,

w e shall o b t ai n t he sa m e ar ea If w e a dd A A C E w e o b t ai n t h e.
,

rec t angl e A B E F an d i f w e a d d A B F D w e o b t ai n t h e p ar al ,

l el o gram A B C D : t her efo r e t he par all el o gram A B C D i s equ al ,

t o t he rec t an gl e A B E F
—A p
.

T h e o r em . a r a l l el og r a m i s equ i v a l en t to a r ec ta n
gl e h a vi ng

the s a me ha se a n d a l ti tu de
—hs r s r t
.

N OT E T i t a n fo m a i o n m ay b e s il y sh w t h y by cu ti g fr m
ea o n o t e e e t n o
st tr
i ff pa p er th e a p e z o i A C E E ( F i g d d h r i gh ri gl A E C d th
an t e t t an e an en
pl c g tr gl p s t s sh w i th figur
.
,

a in the i an e i n t h e tw o o i i o n o n n e e .

Co r o l l a r i e s . 1 . B y c o m b i n i n g t h i s t h e o r e m w it h 1 28 we ,

se e t hat th e a r ea f
o a
p a r a l l el og r a m i s equ a l to th e p r od u c t o
f i ts
ha se hy i ts a l ti tu de .

2 All p a r a l l el og r a ms h a vi ng equ a l ha ses

. a nd

equ a l a l ti tu des a r e equ i v a l en t .

Is t he c o nv e s e o f r Co r o ll ary 2 tru e ? D r aw
a d i agram t o ill u str t e a .

Co n str u t s e er al e q u i val en t p r all el o gr m s

c v a a

d i fferi ng i n sh ap e .

R em a rk In a r h m hn
. t h e d i ago n al s o s
P

b i se c t e ac h o t he r at ri gh t ngl e s a

Co n str c t b o t t he r h o m b us A B C D ( F ig
u a u .

1 2 4 ) a r e c t angl e P QM J V b y d r aw i ng t hro u gh ,
t he r r
co ne s o f t he
142 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GI NNE RS . 1 30.

r ho mb u s li n es p ar all e l t o i ts d i ago nal s It i s easy t o sho w t hat t hi s .

r ec t angl e i s c o m p o se d o f ei gh t eq al i ght tri angl es o f w hi c h t he u

'

r ,

r ho m b u s o n t ai ns fo r ( ho w
c u N o w si n c e t he b ase an d altit d e ,
u

o f t h e r e c t a n gl e are e q ua l t o t h e tw o d i ago n al s o f t h e r h o m b u s i t s ,

a r ea i s e u al t o t h e pr o d c t o f t hese d i
q go n a l s
u H e n c e th a .
,
e a r ea

f
o th e r ho m hu s is e qu a l to h a lf the p r o d u c t of i ts d i ago n a l s .

§ 130 . T he T RIANGLE A tri angl e A B C ( F ig 1 25 ) m ay b e

. .

r egar d ed as h al f a p ar all e l o gr am h a i n g an e qu al b ase an d e q al v u

altit u d e We have o nly t o d r aw t hr o gh t wo c o r ner s B u ,

and C o f t he tri angl e li n es p arall e l t o t h e o p

,

p o si t e s i d e s t h e n s i nc e A A B C :
3 A B D C , ,

an d A B D C = A B CE t her efo r e A A B C ,

x CE T ha t i s .
,

T he a r ea o f a tr i a ngl e i s q e ual to h a lf the

p r o d u ct o f i ts ha s e hy i ts a l ti t u d e .

Co r o l l a ry .
— Al l tr i a ngl es h a vi ng equ a l

ha ses a n d equ a l a l ti tu des a r e equ i va l en t

— fi d g
.

N OT E r r gl th r u l l y th b s by
In n i n t h e a e a o f a t i a n e w e m a y e i e m t i p e a e th e
l t tud h by u l t pl y h l b s by h l i ud
,

a i e , a n d t e n d i v rd e 2 o r w e m ay m i a f th e a e t e a t t e, o r

u lt ply h l l t tud by bs pl bs
,

t h e a e F o r e xa m if the m and
w e m ay m i a f t he a i e e 4 . a e i 1 ,

l ti tud r X8 4 X 5 6 squ r m t rs
th e a e 8 m
th e a ea _ 1 -
a e e e .
,
2 2 2

13 1 . T he T RAPE ZOID . A tr ap ez o i d A B C D (F i g 1 2 0) i s .

d iv i d ed b y t he d i ago nal B C i n t o two tri angl es A B C and ,

B C D , who se b ases, A B an d CD , ar e t he

p a r ll el si d es o f the trap e o i d and

a z ,
w h o se

c o mm o n altit u d e C E i s t he altit u d e of t he

trape o i d z .

S i nc e A A B C = x CE ,

an d A B CD n
-
D x CE ;
t he efo r re ,
t he trap ez o id A B CD 1
2 ( A B + C D ) CE .

t of
’

equ a l to h ah th e r o d u ct
T ha i s, th e a r ea o f a tr apez o i d i s p
the su m o f the p a r a l l el s i des hy th e a l ti tu de.
14 4 GE OM E T RY F O R B E GI NNE RS . 1 34 .

p o lygo n ( as a l
fie d , fa m ,r et c .
) b y d iVIsl o n i n t o ri ght tri angl es and
tr ap e o i d s as sho wn i n F g
z ,
i .

1 29 . J o i n th e t wo m o st d i s
t ant c o rn er s o f t he p o lygo n
b y a s tr a i gh t li n e an d l e t fall
,

fr o m t h e o t her o r n er s p e r
'
c

e n d i ul s t o t h i s li n e t ak en
p c ar

as a c om m on b ase . T he
p o lygo n i s t h s d i i d e d i nt o
u v

ri ght tri angl es and tr p e o i d s a z ,

t h e ar eas o f w h i c h are t hen

c o m p u t ed se p ar a t el y an d ,

t heir su m is o b v10u sl y e qu a l t o t he ar e a o f t h e p o l go n
y .

Fo r exam pl e :l et ( F g i . 1 29 ) B h Cc Dd
Ff = Gg = 6 . 2
m
; E h a sol l et A h
hh he : 4 . 2
m
; cg : 4 6 ; gf = 3
.
m m
; f d = dB
m
5 8
.

T he w o rk o f co m p u a t ti o n m ay b e a rr anged as fo ll o w s
 CHAPT E R V II .
— ARE As . 14 5

N OT E I — In t h e pre c e d i ng t ab l e
pl c f d ivi d i g ch pr duct by w first in a e o n ea o 2, e
d d h pr ducts d h d i vi d h r by
.
,

a t e o an t en e t ei s u m 2
I c s h i t ri r p lyg i i cc ss ibl F ig 3 i llustr s
.
,

N OT E 2 n a e t e n e o o f the o on s na e e, 1 0 ate
i g t h d i fficu l y s ruct r ct gl wh i ch sh ll c m pl ly
. .

o ne w y f m a o Cee t n e t on t a e an e a o et e
cl s t h p lyg d fr m l l h c r rs f h p l yg wh i ch
.

en o e e o o n , an ,
oi h a t e o ne o t e o on a re no t n t e

sid s e r t gl l t f ll p rp d i cul rs t th s i d s f th r ct gl I th is
of th e e c an e, e a e en a o e e o e e an e n
u m b r f right t ri gl s d r p i ds f rm d th r s f wh i ch
.

w y a a n e o an e an t a e zo a re o e e a ea o c an

b f u d i t h usu l w y ; vi d t h t i f h m f h i r r s i sub
,

e o n n d i i e a a an t s e en t a t e su o t e a ea s
t r ct d fr m h
a e r f h r ct gl th r m i d r wi ll b qu l t t h r f h
o t e a ea o t e e an e, e e a n e e e a o e a ea o t e

p lyg
o on .

1 35 . It w ill
l r i n w hat way G eo m e try su ppli es u s
no w be C ea

w it h i n d ir e t m e t h o d s o f find i n g ar e as
c In t h e fir s t pl a c e it t e a he s .
,
c

t hat t he ar e a o f a r ec t ngl e ( t he sq ar e i s si m ply a r e t ngl e w it h

a u c a

e q u al s i d e s ) d e p en d s e n tir e l y o n t h e l ng th o f i t s t w o s i d e s an d e s ,

c an t h e r efo r e b e fo u n d a s so o n as t h e l engt hs o f t h es e s i d e s e ar

k no wn it t h en sh o w s t ha t any p r all el o gr am c an b e tr n sfo r m e d a a

i n t o an e qu i l en t r e c t angl e t hat tri n gl e i s hal f p r all el o gr m

va ,
a a a a a

o f t h e s m e b s e an d altit d e an d t h t a tr a p e o i d
a a o n si s t s o f t w o
u ,
a z c

tri ngl es o f e q l ltit d e l stly it sho ws t hat ny p o lygo n w h t

a ua a u a ,
a a

so ev e r m a b e d e c o m p o s e d i n t o tri n gl es an d tr p e o i d s a a z
y .

R e m a rk In so m e c ase s t h e r l e fo fin d i ng n ar e m y b e
. u r a a a

v e r y b ri e fl y e xpr e ss e d b y a fo r m l a i n w h i c h l e tt e r s a e se d t u r u o

r e pr e sen t t he l es o f t he v ari o u s qu an titi es

va u .

Let S d en o t e i n al l c se s t h e ar ea t he s i d e o f asqu r e nd
,
a a a ,
a a

h t h e a dj a en t s i d es o f a r ec t an gl e a an d h t h e b se a nd altit u d e
c ,
a
14 6 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GIN N E RS . 1
36 .

of a p r ll el o gr am o r tri angl e
a a ,
a an d c p ar all e l si d es h t he
t he ,

altit u d e o f a tr a p ez o i d p a n d t he e ri m e t e r n d l r d i us o f
,
r
p a e s s a

a r egu l ar p o l ygo n T he n .
,

F th squ r or e a e, SF 2
3 , [3 ]
F th r t gl or e ec a n e, S a X b,
F th p r l l l gr m
or e a a e o a , S a X h,
F th tri gl or e an e, S 4a X h,
F th tr p id or e a ez o , S 7 (a c) X h ,
F th r gul r p l yg
or e e a o o n, S 3p X r,

III —P r a c t i c a l E x er c i s e s an d Ap p l i c a ti o n s .

N OT Es l vi g m st f th
-
In o rc i s s i t i w ll t o dr w ( fr h d ) figur
n o o e e xe e s e a ee -
an a e

pr s t i g rl y p ss i b l th t u sh p f th p lyg
.
,

re e en n as nea as o e e r e a e o e o on .

SQUAR E
2
1 36 . T HE ( S a
) .

In squ r giv
a a e, en ,

1 T h sid
.
m
3 ; fi d th
e e r 2 n e a ea .

2 T h sid
. 35 e; fi d teh r m n e a ea .

3 T h sid
. e fi d th e r n e a ea .

4 T h sid
. e fi d the r n e a ea .

5 T h sid
. e fi d th
e r n e a ea .

6 T h sid
. e fi d th
e r n e a e a.

7 T h
. r : e a eafi d th sid n e e.

8 T h. r e a ea fi d th sid n e e .

T h r e a ea fi d th sid n e e.

10 T h r 54 7 6 ; fi d th sid i m t rs
a
. e a ea . n e e n e e .

11 T h. r e a ea fi d th sid i m t rs n e e n e e .

12 T h. r e a ea fi d th sid i d k m n e e n e a e e t rs .

13 O . sid f squ r g rd m sur s

ne e o a a e a en ea e fin d i ts r
a ea .

1 4 A squ r p rk
. t i s 64 r s H w m
a e a con a n ac e . o an y tr s ee ,
203 i"s
a p rta ,
c an

be se t t r u d it ?
ou a o n

1 5 A squ r p rk
. ti s
a e a H w m y trco n a n o an ee s ,
zom a p rt
a , c an be se t

ou t r u d it
a o n

1 6 T h thr
. di m si s f r m
e ee h qu
en on o a oo a re e a c e a l to Wh at wi l l i t
co st t p p r i t w ll s i f th pric i
o a e s a
p squ r
, e e s er a e me t r? e

1 7 F i d th st f 1 p s f g l ss h 4 8 squ r gl ss
n co o 000 an e o a e ac 0 m a e, i f th e a
. e ,
.

is w rth
o p squ r m t r er a e e e .
14 8 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 1 3 7.

45 . u h l rg r i
H ow m t gl i f th l
c gth i d ubl d i f th br dth
a e s a re o an e e en s o e e ea

i d ub l d ? i f b th
s o e d ub l d ? o a re o e

4 6 T h sid s f . r t gl
e e
4
m
d 60 ; fi d th sid
o m a f
e c an squ r e are 2 an n e e o a a e

e quiv l t t th r ct g l
a en o e e an e .

4 7 If th sid . f squ r e fi d th sid s f

e o a quiv l t r t g l
a e 12
m
,
n e e o an e a en e c an e .

I th r
s
y thi
e e ang p u l i r b ut this n rcis ec a a o e xe e

48 A squ r . d r ct g l h v th m p ri m t r 6
a e an a e d th r ct an e a e e sa e e e e , 0
m
,
an e e

an g l i twi e s l g i t i wid c e as F i d th ir r s
on as s e . n e a ea .

49 C stru t . r ct g l 6 l g 4 m wid ; th
on c a e th r 5 m 5
an e 1 dm on ,
d e en an o e ,
I d
,
‘1m

wid ; th e th r 4 6 m wid ; d
en an o e ,u ti l y r ch squ r
1 am
,
d
e an so o n, n ou ea a a e .

T h c m p r p rim t rs d r s Which h th gr t st r
en o a e e e e an a ea . as e ea e a ea

5 0 A h i
. 8 m l c g i m
a n d t c l 0s r t g l
on sid b i gs
5
m a e o en o e a e c an e, o n e e e n 2 .

H w m uch m r
o r w u l d i t c l s i f th figur w r squ r
o e a ea o en o e e e e e a a e

51 A d B
. h g fi l ds f qu ll y g d s i l A fi l d i r t gul r
an e xc an e e o e a oo o .
’
s e s e c an a

i sh p
n 4 ti ma s l g wid
e, e d with asp ri t r
m on
m
; B fi ld i
as e, an a e e e I OOO
’
s e s

in th sh p f squ r th p ri m t r b i g
e a e o a Whi h h th b st f
a e, e e e e e n c as e e o

th b rg i
e a a n

5 2 Fr m . r t gu l r fi ld 5 8 by 4
o a
m e c an
m pi 6 squ r i s l d
m a e 2 2 0 a ec e 0 a e s o .

H w m u h i l ft ?
o c s e

F i d th n u m b r f l i r m t rs f rp ti g r quir d f fl rs f th
e n e o n ea e e o ca e n e e or oo o e

f ll wi g di m
o o nsi s en on

5 3 F l r 8 by .
m oo rp t
,
m wid ca e , I e .

l r m by rp t 8 wid 0 cm
54 F . 9 5 oo ,
. ca e , e .

55 F l r .
m by oo ,
rp t 12 wid ca e ,
l . z w e .

56 F l r . 4 by 6
oo 8 m
,; rp 2 t
f t
3
i wid l ft ca e ,
0 n
e .

F i d th n st f c rp ti g r m s th ir di m si s d th wi dth d pri
e co o a e n oo , e en on an e an ce

o f rp ti g b i g f ll ws
ca e n e n as o o

57 F l r . by 5 ; rp t 9 wid t
6
oo m
, p m
. t r ca e ,
0 cm e, a er e e .

58 Fl r . by 5 ; c rp t 4 wid t $ p m t r
oo m
,
m a e ,
1 . e, a 2 er e e .

59 F l r . 8 m by oo c rp t 6 wid t
, p m t r a e , 0c
m
e, a er e e .

60 F l r 8 3 1 by c rp t g wid t y rd
‘

oo 1 s yd e, a er a
.
p a e

61 H w m u h il —
.
, ,

. o l th wi ll i t t k t l i th i sid f b
c o c o 6m by a e o ne e n e o a ox 2 .
1
1 2 .
m

by 8 0 .
m

62 H w m y ti l s 8 squ r w i ll c v r fl r 3 6 by
. o an e
fl? in a e o e a oo
ft zo

63 Wh t wi ll i t
. st t p i t th fl r d w lls f r m 8 l g 6
a co
m
o
m
a n e oo an a o a oo on ,

wid 3m high t
e, c t p squ r c ti m t r ?
,
a one en er a e en e e

64 F i d th c st f g l i g
. n wi d ws
e o h 6f 6 by 3
o t az n 12 n o ,
e ac
t in fl a

p ersqu r f t ? a e oo

65 A r m i .
m l g 6 wid
oo d 3 6 high T h r
s 10 on f ur wi d ws,
m
e, an .
m . e e a re o n o ,
 1 38
] CHAPT E R VII .
-
R
A E AS . 14 9

each by tw d rs ch 3 by d th b s b rd i 9
o oo ,
ea
m
an e a e -
oa s 0

high R quir d ( i ) t h c t f p l st ri g i t w ll s
. e e . d c ili g t e
p os o a e n s a an e n , a e

squ r m t r ; ( i i ) t h c st f p p ri g i t w ll s with p p r 8
a e e e . e wid d o o a e n s a a e 0 cm
e an

1 0m i r ll t n a r ll p t
o ,
a d with gi l t b rd r t th i l i g
a o u o n, a n a o e n ex e ce n

th t c sts
a p
o m t r er e e .

66 A m . h r ct gu l r g rd 68 l g d 4 wid H m k s
an as a e an a a en
m on an 2m e . e a e

r u d i t p th 3 4 wid Wh t r i l ft f th r purp s s
a o n a a .
m
e . a a ea s e or o e o e

67 A fi ld . i 6 m by e H w m uch f i t
s oo r wi ll b t k by o o s a ea e a en a

r d
oa w i d p ssi g thr ugh th m idd l
zo m e a d p r ll l t th l
n g r sid o e e an a a e o e on e e

68 T hr ugh th m idd l
. o f r t gu l r g rd 8 by e tw p ths e o a e c an a a en 1 0m o a

t i gh t
r gl s t an h th r d p r ll l t th sid s
e o e ac m d och 4 e an a a e o e e a re a e, ea 1 .
m

wid F i d th r ( i ) f th p ths ; ( i i ) f wh t r m i s
e . n e a ea . o e a . o a e a n .

69 A m irr
. r i 8 by d t
o h w d s 2fr m .i 4
m wid F i d th
m an e oo en a e s
c
e . n e

r f th g l ss d l s f th fr m
a ea o e a an a o o e a e .

70 A t b l . 3 by ai v r
e 2 d with
. c l th m which v r l ps 31 2m. ll s co e e o , o e a cm
on a

sid s H w m u h c l th i
e . o d d? c o s nee e

7 1 T h bridg . v r th E l b t Dr sd i 4 l g d 3 w i d
e e o e e e a e en s oo m on an 10 .
m
e .

H w m y st
o s 8 by 5
an o ne r quir d t v r th r dw y th f t
1 cm
1 cm
are e e o co e e oa a , e oo

p ths h vi g t g th r width f 4 5 ?
a a n o e e a o 2 .
m

7 2 H w m y shi g l s 8 w i d l id 6 t th w th r wi ll c v r th
. o an n e
in e, a
in o e ea e , o e e

r f f h us th ridg b i g 5 l g th s l t sid f th r f
oo o a o e, e ed e n 2
ft
on , e an e o e oo an

th b tt m c urs
e o o h sid b i g d ub l
o e o n e ac e e n o e

(13 8 li q )
u e P
.A R A LL ET HE
L OG R AM ( S : a x h ) ob .

I p r ll l gr m giv
n a a a e o a ,
e n,

73 B s .
7 l titud
a e fi d th
2 cm
r ,
a e 22 cm
n e a ea .

74 B s . l titud
a e fi d th r a e n e a ea .

75 B s . 64 m l
a etitud 8 m
; fi d th
0 r i h t
m
,
a e 1 0 m
n e a ea n ec ars .

7 6 Ar . 84 b s ea
5 ; fi d t h l t ia
tud,
a e 10 m n e a e .

7 7 Ar l titud 5 ; fi d th b s
ea 1 113
a e 12 m n e a e
. ,
.

78 H w f . p rt th sid s f rh m b id t i i g 2 W i f
o ar a a ar e f e e o a o o co n a n n 10 “
,
o ne o

th s s i d s 5
e e e 1 m?

79 P ri m t r f
. eh mb : 6 dist
e e o p rt f tw p r ll l sid s
a r o us
m
,
an c e a a o o a a e e

fi d th r n e a ea .

80 F i d th. r f h m bus wh s di g l s
n e a ea o 6 d a r o o e a ona are 1
m
an l z w
.

81 T h .r f rh m bus 4 e a ea o di g l : ; fi d th th r
a o 2 o q m
,
o ne a o na 10
m
n e o e .

8 2 F i d th r f rh m bus i f th m f th di g l s
n e a ea o d th i
a o e su o e a o na z o m an e r

r ti
a o 15
15 0 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 13 9 .

83 stru t rh m b id d th fi d i t r
. Co n c a o o , an en n s a ea .

84 C stru t
. rh m bus d th fi d i t r
on c a o ,
an en n s a ea .

8 5 C stru t . on rh m bus d squ r b th h vi g th s m p rim t r

c a o an a a e, o a n e a e e e e .

Which h th gr t r r ? Pr v y ur sw r
as e ea e a ea o e o an e .

8 6 A rh m bu. d o ct g l h v qu l p ri m t rs A sid f th
s an a re an e a e e a e e e . e o e

rh m bus 5
o : m d sid f t h r ct gl :
,
an a F i d th p ri m t r
e o d e e an e n e e e e an

th t w
e s i f t h l titud f t h rh m bus
o ar e a ,
e a e o e o

139 T H E T R IAN G LE ( S : 3 a x h ) . .

I tri g l giv
n a an e, e n,

87 B s .
5 a el titud 4 ; 0m , a
fi d t h r e 0
m
n e a ea .

88 B s . a e l titud fi d th ra e n e a ea .

89 B s .
4 a e l titud 2 .
kmfi d th,
a r i h t e n e a ea n e c ars .

9 0 Ar : . b s 5 ; fi d th l titud
ea a e
1m n e a e .

9 1 Ar . 4 eal titud fi d th b s
o am , a e n e a e .

I right tri g l giv

n a an e, e n,

9 2 T h l gs 4
. e d 5 6 ; fi d th r
e
m an‘

.
m
n e a ea .

9 3 T h l gs 3 4
. e d 5 ; fi d th
e r i m
an 2
m
n e a ea n ars .

94 T h . r 5 e a ea l g 5 ; fi d1 th 3
th
,
r l g
o ne e 0 m n e o e e .

9 5 S m f th l gs
. u o th ir r tie e fi d th r e a o n e a ea .

9 6 S m f t h l gs
. u o
7 d e i 6 tiem s t h th r ; fi d0 thm
r ,
an o ne s e e o e n e a ea .

9 7 C stru t tri g l
. on d th
c fi d it
a r an e, an en n s a ea .

9 8 If th b s
. f tri g l
e a e o wh t m ust b i t ltitud i rd r th t
a an e a e s a e n o e a

it r m y b th s m
s a ea a th t f r t g l wh s sid s 4
e e a e as d 5 ? a o a ec an e o e e a re 0 m an 2 m

99 C m p .
( tho t i fi
ar e d t h r ti f ) th a r s f
s, squ r n d f t i e a o o e a ea o a a e , an o a r

an gl wh s b s i
e o e sid f th squ r d v rt i i th pp sit sid
a e s o ne e o e a e an e ex s n e o o e e .

D s i t m tt r w h
oe i th
a e pp sit sid th v rt i
er e n Wh y t e o o e e e e ex s no

1 00 F i d th sid. n f squ r quiv l t t tri gl with th b s 90

e e o a a e e a en o a an e e a e “

an d th l titud e a e zo
m
.

1 01 T h b s . f e tri g l 6 l ti t d 4 F i d th b s f t i
=a e o : a
m an e
m
, a u e . n e a e o a r

an g l with th s m l titud d twi

e e a e l rg ; 3 ti m s l rg ; 4 ti m s
a e an c e as a e e as a e e

as l rg a tims l rg
e 10 e as a e .

102 T w tri g l s h v th s m b s
. o an e d th ir ltitud s
a e d e a e a e, l z
w
, an e a e are an

2 m
4 F i d th r ti
. n f th ir r s e a o o e a ea .

103 T w tri g l s. o h 5 high d th ir b s s

an e a re m d
e ac 1 m
,
an e a e are z o an

F i d th b s
n f e tri g l quiv l t t th ir m
a e o a an e e a en o e su .

1 04 F r m . tri g l with b s
o a
5 and l titud e : tri gl with a e 1 m
,
an a e a an e

th b s
e a e6 i t ff by m
l i dr w fr m th v rt x Wh t p rt f th
s cu o a ne a n o e e e . a a o e

wh l tri g l i th tri gl t ff
o e an e s e an e cu o
15 2 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 14 1 .

1 41 . Po Lv G0N s ( i f r egu l ar ,
S : 3p x r ) .

T he l e ss r dius
r gu l r p l yg h
a r fi xd r ti ( f u d by T rig
o f a e a o on as a e a o o n o

no m t y) t th l gth f
e r o sid e en o o ne e .

I gu l r tri gl n a re : s i d X 88 7 a an e, r o ne e 0 2 . .

I r gu l r qu dri l t r ln a sid X 5
e a a a e a ,
r o ne e 0 . 000 .

I r gu l r p t g n a : sid X 688
e a en a o n, r o ne e 0 . 2 .

I r gu l r h g n a sid X
e a e xa o n, r o ne e

I r gu l r ct g n a sid X
e a o a o n, r o ne e

I r gu l r d c g n a : si d X
e a e a o n, r o ne e

I r gu l r d d g n a : sid X
e a o eca on, r o ne e

1 22 O . sid f r gu l r tri g l
ne e o ; fi d th a r e a an e 20 0m
n e a ea .

123 O . sid f squ r 4 ; fi d th r

ne e o a a e 0 0m n e a ea .

1 24 O . sid nef r gu l r p t g 5
e o
m
; fi d th a r e a en a on 00 n e a ea .

1 25 T h p ri m t r f r gu l r h
. e e g : 3 ; fi d th r
e e o a e a e xa on
m n e a ea .

1 26 T h p ri m t r f r gu l r ct g
. e e : 6 ; fi d th
e e ro a e a o a on l m n e a ea .

127 T h p ri m t r f r gu l r d c g
. e e : e e fi d th or a e a e a on n e a ea .

128 O . sid f r gu l d d c g n 6 ; fi d th r
ne e o a e ar o e a o 03 1 n e a ea .

1 29 T h . r f r gu l r h g =6h th l ss r dius
e a ea o a e fi d a exa on 8
,
e e a n o ne

sid d th p ri m t r
e an e e e e .

130 T h . r f r gu l r t g
e a ea o 6o sid 5 ; fi d th l s
a e a oc a on l ‘l m
, one e
111
n e e s

ra dius .

13 1 C stru t r gu l r p t g
. on d th
c afi d it er a en a o n, a n en n s a ea .

13 2 C stru t r gu l r h
. on g d th
c fi d it
a r
e a e xa o n, an en n s a ea .

13 3 F i d th s i d
. n f squ r quiv l t t r gu l r h g
e e o sid
a a e e a en o a e a exa on o ne e

o f which 4
m
.

13 4 F i d th
. tir surf c f h g l pris m ( p g 4 F g
n e en e a e o a e xa ona s ee a e ,
i . 2,

i f th l titud
e a ed s i d f th b s 4
1 . 2 m
, an o ne e o e a e 0cm

1 3 5 R quir d t h t t l r
. e f th h
e g s i F ig 5 i f sid f h
e o a a ea o e e xa on n . 11 ,
a e o eac

h g : 36
e xa on
cm
.

136 C m put th t t l r
. o v r d by th figur s i F ig 0 i f sid f
e e o a a ea c o e e e e n . 1 1 ,
a e o

eac h figur 4 e 1 .
m
.

13 7 C m put th t t l r
. o v r d by th figur s i F g 7 i f sid
e e o a a ea c o e e e e n i . 11 ,
a e

o f e ac h figur e 2 m
.

13 8 T h fl r f
. e hur h i 3 by 5
oo d i p v d with r gu l r h
o a c c s 0m 1 m
,
an s a e e a ex

a g l st
o na l t r t l y whit
o ne »
, d b l ck
a s i d f ch st
e na e bi g e an a , a e o ea one e n

H w m y st
o an s f h ki d w r r quir d tw p
o ne o t b i g dd d t
e ac n e e e e ,
o er c e n e n a e o

fil l th r rs
e c o ne
5 CHAPT E R VIL —AR E AS . 15 3

13 9 g rd i th f r m f irr gul r h g
. A a en n b divid d i t th
e o o an e a exa o n c an e e n o e

f ll wi g tri g l s
o o n an e

F irst tri g l b s l titud an e a e a e

S c d tri gl b s l t i tud
e on an e a e a e

T hird tri gl bs l titud an e a e a e

F urth tr i g l :b s l titud
o an e a e a e

H w m y
o d s th g rd
an ars ti ? oe e a en co n a n

1 40 C struct t w
. qu l h pt g s th fi d th r f th first h pt
on o e a e a on en n e a ea o e e a

gon by f th m th ds i ll ustr t d i F ig
o ne o 8e d th
e r f th s c d
o a e n . 12 ,
an e a ea o e e on

by th m th d i ll ustr t d i F ig 9 If th r su l ts d t gr wh t i th
e e o a e n . 12 . e e o no a ee, a s e

r s
ea o n

IV . T h e or em of P y th a g or a s .

1 42 . tr uc t a ri ght tri angl e ( F ig

If w e c o ns havi ng fo r i t s .

l egs t hr ee and fo u r u n it s o f l engt h we shall find t hat t he hyp o te ,

n se w ill c o n ta i n e xa c tl
u fi e o f t he e
y v s

u nit s o f l en t h If w e t hen o ns tr u c t
g . c

sq u ar e s u p o n t he t hr e e si d e s o f t hi s

tri angl e and d i vi d e t hese sq uar es i n t o

,

sq uar e u n it s as sh o wn i n t he fi r e
, g u ,

it w ill b e evi d en t t hat the squ ar e c o n

s tr u c t ed u p o n t h e h p o t e nu se i s j s t
y u

e q u al t o t he su m o f t he sq uare s c o n

s tr u c t e d u p o n t he t wo l e s f t h e
g ; o r ,

fo r m er sq ar e c o n t ai ns 5 squ ar e u n it s
u 2 ,

a n d t h e l a tt e r s
q ar e s 1 6 and 9 o f u

t he se u nit s r esp e ti v e l y
,
c .

T hi s i s a si m pl e e xam pl e o f a v e ry u sefu l t heo r em c all e d fr o m ,

t he n a m e o f t he d i sc o v e r e r t h e T he o r e m o f Pyt hago r s l a

—l
.
,

T h e o rem . n every r ig h t tr i a ng l e th e s qu a r e o f th e hyp o te

n u se is equ a l to th e su m o f th e s qu a r es o f th e t w o l egs .

S eve ral d i ffe r en t pr o o fs o f t hi s t heo r em hav e b een d evi se d , t wo

o f w h i c h w e sh all gi ve .

Pyth g r s b r
1 a t S m s b ut 5 7 B
o a w
o n a a o a o 0 C a s o ne o f t h e mo st r e no w d
ne ph i
d t ch rs f ti qu i ty
.
,

l ph
o so e rs a n ea e o an .
1 54 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 1 4 2.

P r o of —Up o n p o t enu se A C ( F i g 1 3 2 ) o f a ri ght

t he hy .

tri angl e A B C c o nstr uc t t he squ ar e A C D E fr o m D an d E

l et fall u p o n A B pr o l o nge d th e p er
e n di c u l ars D E an d E G al s o l et fall
p
u p on D E t he p erp end i c l ar s C H an d u

E K F r o m t hi o nstr c ti o n it fo l
. s c u ,

l o w s t hat t he ri ght tri angl e s A B C ,

AB C CD E an d D E X w h i c h t ak e n
, , ,

i n o r d e r w e w ill c all l II III IV .

,
.
,
.
,
.
,

are e q u al ( w hy ?) al so t h a t B C H F ,

i s e qu al t o t he sq u ar e u p o n B C a nd ,

E G F K t o t he sq u ar e u p o n AB ( w hy
N o w t h e squ ar e A C D E t h e figu r e

A CH K E t h e tri angl es III an d IV t ak e fr o m the squ ar e

. .

t h ese tri angl es and pl ac e t he m i n t he p o siti o ns o f the tri angl es

,

I a nd t hen it i s c l ear t ha t t he
.

sq u ar e w ill b e tr an sfo me d i n t o t h e r

fig r e G B CH K E wh i c h i s c o m p o s e d
u ,

o f t h e sq u a r e s B C H F a n d E GE X
o f t h e t w o l egs H en c e t h e sq u ar e o f .

t he hypo t e nu se A C D E m u s t hav e
t he sam e a r ea as t h e su m o f t he

s q u ar e s o f t h e l e s
g .

N E — T h i s pr f b r d i l y sh w
OT oo c an e ea o n
i m t r i l f rm by dr w i g F g 3
n a a e a o a n i 1 2 on

c rdb rd cu tti g t th tri gl s I II III

.

a oa n ou e an e

d th ch gi g t h pl c s f t w
. . .
, , , ,

d IV an an en an n e a e o o

f h m j ust p l i d
.
,

o t e as ex a ne .

P r o of (
1
P r o of
’
E u cl i d s

Up o n t he s i d es of t he ri ght tri angl e AB C ( F ig . 13 3

) c o ns tr u c t
1ucl d
E r k g m t r w h l i v d b ut 3
i w as a G ee eo H c ll ct d th sc t
e e o e a o 00 B C e o e e e a

g r c l k wl dg h is i g i t f m us t r t i s k w E ucl i d s
. .

eo m et i a
’

t e re d no e e t en ex t n n o a a o ea e no n as
l s
E e m ent b k st ll i
a oo but u su i t d f b g i rs i t i d m ir bl f
i n u se , as n e or e nn e as s a a e or
rg r l g c sh w i g h w f w i m s t h sc i c f G m try b
,

i o o f o i , a n d fo r o n on o e ax o e en e o eo e c an e
m d t d p d
a e o e en .
156 cro nmav Fo R m om mies . 14 3 .

11 . How l g on m ust a l a dd er b e to r ch th
ea e to p of a w ll 6 high a
m
, i f th e
fo o t o f th e b tt m f th w ll ?
l add e r i s
‘

f r om th e o o o e a

12 A l dd r 3 l g l
. a s g i st th t p f w ll i t f t b i g 5
e 1 m
on ea n a a n e o o a a , s oo e n
m

fr m t h b tt m f th w ll
o e o H w high i t h w ll
o o e a . o s e a ?

1 3 T h s l t h ight f
. e r f: an i t v rti l h ight :
e F i d th
o a oo s e ca e n e

width f th bui l di go e n .

14 A tri g l with th sid s 3 4 5 i ri ght tri gl Wh t ki d f

.

. an e e e , , , s a an e . a n o a

tri g l i
an e with th sid es 6 8 ? with th sid s 9
s o ne
5 G iv
e th r , ,
10 e e ,
1 2, 1 e o e

i st
n c s
an e .

15 If th p ri m t r f
. right t i gl = 96
e e d t h sid s
e e t och a r an e
m
, an e e are o ea

as
5 fi d t h sid s ( p g 5 E r is
,
n e e see a e 0, xe c e

16 If th l gs f
. right tri g l a
e e d th hyp t us
o a an e re as an e o en e

fi d t h l gs
n e e

17 A . r p 4
m l g i ti d by
o e d t th t p f
1 m ston d by th s e o ne en o e o o a a , an e

o th r d t ri g t h d k 9 fr m th f t f th m st H w high i
e en o ma n on e ec o e oo o e a . o s

t h m st ?
e a

1 8 T h l g st sid
. ef m ond w i th sh p f right tri g l c
e e o t a ea o n e a e o a an e an n o

b m sur d dir tly by r s

e ea e f sw m p ec C m put i t l ,
gth if th th r ea o n o a a . o e s en , e o e

sid s e 8 6ar e d 6 0 .
m
an 1 0m .

1 9 H w m y m t rs f w ll must b b ui l t t f
. o an e i g rd i th
e e o a e o e nc n a a en n e

sh p f right tri g l th l gs b i g m d 35 ?
a e o a an e, e e e n 1 zo an
m

20 A g rd . h t h sh p a f right tri gl T h hyp t nus : 3

en as e a e o a an e . e o e e 1 0m ,

o ne l g : 87 5e F i d ( i ) th . r f th g rd ; ( i i ) t h dist
m
. n fr m . e a ea o e a en . e an c e o

th ight g l t th hyp t us
e r an e o e o en e .

21 A . b ll fir d i t th i t
c ann o n -
g l f 4 5 with th h ri
a , e n o e a r a an an e o
0
e o z o n,

p ss s v r 34 5 i
a e o e S d H w high i i t t th d f th s
m n o ne d? e co n . o s a e en o e ec o n

22 T w tr v ll rs st rt t g th r fr m th s m p l
. o a e e d tr v l a ch 4 o e e o e a e a ce an a e ,
ea

m il s e h ur
an d orth th th r d
, o ne st Wh wi ll th y b 6 m i l s
u e no , e o e ue ea . en e e 0 e

a p rt H w f p rt wi ll th y b ft r h h tr v l l d 8 m i l s
a o ar a a e e a e e ac as a e e 0 e

23 F i d th
. r f is sc l s tri g l i f
n e a ea o f th qu l sid s : an
m
o e e an e, o ne o e e a e 10

an d th b s e 8 ( a e o
m
s ee

24 I . is s l s tri gl th b s
n an 84
o ce e th p ri m t r : Fi d
an e, e a e 1 .
m
,
e e e e n

th r
e a ea .

25 Pr v th t i
. o is s l s right tri g l th l t t d i q u l t h l f
e a n an o ce e an e e a I u e s e a o a

o f th b s e a e .

26 T h . r f is s l s ri ght tri gl 84 ; fi d th b s
e a ea o an o ce e an e qm n e a e .

27 T h ltitud f is s l s ght t i gl
e a e ; fi d th sid
o anf o ce e rl r an e z z m n e e o an

e quiv l t squ r a en a e .

28 I . rdi ry r f th tw sid s
n an o nap rt t th b tt m d th oo e o e are l z
w
a a a e o o , an e

ve rti l h ight i 4 5m F i d th l gth f th r ft rs

ca e s . . n e en o e a e .
$ 143 ] CHAP T E R VIL — ARE AS . 157

29 . T he sid e o f an e qui l t r l a e a t ri an gl e z zo m
; fin d th e a l titud e an d th e

r
a ea ( see
30 . If l titud e o f a n e qui l t r l tri
th e a a e a g 5 fi d
an sid le : 1
m
, n o ne e .

H i nt .
—T h e a l t i tude ne s i d a n d h l f th ,
o e, a b s f rm ight tri g l
e a e, o a r an e .

31 . If a o ne sid e o f an e
qil at e r a l tri g l pr v th t th
an l t i tud
e, o e a e a e
% a \/3
an d t h e a e a r i t a
2
v3 .

32 . A g rd a en i n th e sh p a e o f an e quil t r l tri g l
a e a an e co n a n ti s fin d
the sid e .

33 . F i d n th e sid e of a squ r a e e quiv l t t a en o an e qui l t r l tri g l wh s

a e a an e o e

sid e 8 6m .

34 . A squ r a e con a n ti s F i d n th e sid e of th e e qu i v l t qui l t r l

a en e a e a

tri g l
an e .

35 . T hesid f squ r F i d i t di g
e o l
a a e 6m . n s a o na .

36 . Wh t i th sid f squ r i f th di g l : 8
a s e e o a a e e a o na
m
?
37 . T h di g l f r t gl
e a o na sid o a e c an e o ne e 0 .
3
m
. F i d th
n e o th r e

sid e .

38 . T he di g
bus 4 d a o na ls
F i d i t p ri m t rof a rh om a re
m
an n s e e e .

39 H w f . p rt th pp sit c r rs f fl r
o ar a a by a re e O o e o ne o a oo 12 m

40 Wh t m ust b th l st thick ss f
. a l g fr m which e r ct gu l r e ea ne o a o o a e an a

bea m 4
m by 4 2 b c
bt i d 0 cm
c an e o a ne

4 1 H w m uch i th di g
. o l f squ r i cr s d i f th sid i d ub l d ?
s e a ona o a a e n ea e e e s o e

tr b l d qu drup l d
e e a e

42 H w m uch i th sid
. of squ r i r s d i f th di g l i d ub l d ?
s e e o a a e nc e a e e a o na s o e

tr b l d ? i r s d t f l d ?
e e n c ea e en o

4 3 F i d th l ss r dius f r gu l r h
. n g i f th p ri m t r :
e e a o a e a e xa on e e e e 1 zo m

44 C mp t th sid
. f squ r
o quiv l t t th m f th squ r s wh s
u e e e o a a e e a en o e su o e a e o e

sid s e d 6
a re 12
In
an 1 m .

squ r quiv l t t th m f t w giv squ r s

:
45 C t. t on s r u c a a e e a en o e su o o en a e .

4 6 T h sid . f squ r e C struct squ r tw i c

e o a l rg F i d a e 20 0m on a a e e as a e . n

th l
e gth f i t sid ( i ) by m sur m t ; ( i i ) by c m put ti
en o s e, . ea e en . o a on .

4 7 C struct. squ r qu i v l t t th m f th squ r s wh s s i d s

on a a e e a en o e su o e a e o e e

0m
0cm
a re 30 , 5
48 . T he sid e of a squ r 6 C struct
a e squ r thr t i m s l rg
1 cm
. on a a e ee e as a e .

49 . Co n struct a squ r quiv l t t th di ff r c f t w g i v squ r s

a e e a en o e e en e o o en a e

( app l y 74)
50 . stru t r ct g l such th t
Co n c a e an e a th e squ r up a e on i ts di g a o na l sh ll b a e

fiv e tim s th squ r up
e sid e a e o n o ne e .
 G E OME T RY FOR B E GINN E RS .

V . T r a n s f or m a t i on of F i g ur es .

1 44 . D e fin i t i o n . T o T RANS FO RM a fig u r e i s to c ha nge i ts
sh a p e w i th ou t ch a ngi ng i ts s i ze in o ther w o r ds, to ch a nge i t to an

e
q u i v a en tl fig ur e .

Wh at i ns t anc e o f t hi s k i n d o f Change was gi ven i n 129 ?

T h er e are t wo w ays o f e ffec ti ng t h e se c han ge s
1 .B y c o mpu ta ti o n Co m p u t e su c h p art s o f t he n ew figu r e as
.

are n ec e ssar t o d e t erm m e It w e c an t h e n c o ns tr u c t it i f w e w i sh

y ,

E xam pl es o f t h i s m e t ho d o c c u r a m o ng th e E xer c i se s
‘

t o d o so .

i n Part s III an d IV o f t he pr esen t c hapt e r ( see Par t III E xer

. . .
,

c i ses 1 8 4 6 4 7 1 0 0 1 3 3 and Part IV

, , ,
E xe r c i ses 2 7 3 3
, ,
.
, , ,

2 .B y d ir ec t co nstr u cti o n T hi s w as t he m e t h o d e m pl o ye d i n
.

129 an d a few mo r e u sefu l exam pl es w ill n o w b e add ed

, .

1 45 . Pr o b l e m . T o tr a nsf or m a tr i a ngl e A B C (F ig . 1 34 )
D i n to an i s os cel es tr i a ngl e
—T h
.

A n a ly si n e ve rti c es of al l tri angl es

i l t t o A B C an d h av i ng A B as a
e q u va en ,

b ase m u st l i e i n t he li n e C D IIA B
,

O f t h e se tri angl es t ha t w hi c h has i t s v e rt ex E

,

e q u i d i s t an t fr o m A an d B w ill b e i so sc e l es .

H en c e gi ve t h e c o n stru c ti o n r equ ir ed .

E x r i ses — e c 1 C stru t . tri g l d th

. on c a an e, an en

tr s f rm i t i
an o n o an t is s l s tri g l
o ce e an e .

2 T r sf
. an o rm a giv tri g l i t
en an gh t tri
e gl
n o a rl an e .

3 T r sf
. an o rm a giv tri g l i t
en an th r h vi g th gl
e n o an o e a n e an e

4 T r sf
. an o rm a giv p r ll l gr m i t r t g l
en a a e o a n o a e c an e .

5 T r sf
. an o rm a giv p r ll l gr m i t
en a a e o th r h vi g th g l
a n o an o e a n e an e

1 46 . Pr o b l e m . T o tr a nsf o r m a tr i a ngl e A B C (F i g . 13 5 )
i n to a no th er h a vi ng a i v n ha se h
g e

—If
.

An a ly si s . on AB pr o l o nge d we t ak e A D h and j o i n ,

C D , A A C D w ill have t h e gi ve n b ase h b u t w ill b e t o o l arge by ,

1 60 G E OM E T R Y FO R B E GI NN E RS . 14 9 .

t hr o u gh D , th e m i d d l e of A C, draw E F II A B . R ec tangl e
AB E F A AB C .

Pr oof . S ho w t h at e ac h i s h al f of t he re c ang e t HG l AB .

E xe rc i ses —1 . . T r s f rm
an o a tri g l i t
an e n o a p r ll l gr m with
a a e o a th e an

gl e
2 stru t r t gl with
. Co n c sid s
a e c an e th e e 6d m an d 8 1m
,
and th
tr s f rm
en an o

it i t ( )
i
n o tri g.l ; ( )
ia i right triang l e . a an e ; (iii ) . an is s l s tri g l ;
o ce e an e

( )
i
v . qui lant r l e tri g l a e a an e .

149 . Pr o b l e m . T o f or m
tr a ns a recta ngl e A B CD ( F ig .

13 8 ) i n to a s
q u a re .

Co ns tr u cti o n . M ak e B E B C,
an d ab o u t 0, t he m i d d l e
p o i nt o f B E ,

d esc ri b e an arc c u tti n g D A pr o l o nged

in F j o.i n F B an d t h e s q u ar e c o n ,

s tr u c t ed u p o n F B w ill b e e q u al i n ar ea

t o t h e r ec t angl e A B C D .

P oof r E B F i s a ri ght t ri angl e

. .

F o r t h e tri angl e s 0 E F and O B E are

i so sc e l es ( w hy ?) h en c e E F 0 FE 0 ,

an d 0 F B OB E B y ad d i
t io n E F O, 0F B E FB F E O
OB E . But E FB FE O + 0B F
1 80
°
64 )t he refo r e E FB
S i nc e E ri gh t tri angl e i t
B F is a ,
fo ll o ws fr o m 1 4 2 ,
Co r o ll ary 3 ,
2
t h at F B t h e ar e a o f t h e rec t angl e A B C D .

E xe r c i se —1 C stru t
s . r t g l with th sid s 9
. on c a e c an e e e
dm an d and

tr s f rm i t i t
an o squ r M sur th sid f th squ r
n o a a e . ea e e e o e a e . Wh at i s i ts
l gth Wh t ught i t l gth t b ?
en ? a o s en o e

2 C stru t
. on tri gl with th sid s
c a 6
anm d e e e
9
, an an d tr s f rm i t
an o

i t squ r
n o a a e .

3 T r sf m
. an giv p r l l l gr m i t squ r
or a en a a e o a n o a a e.

Pr o b l e m . T o tr a nsfo r m a ny p olygo n A B CD E ( g
F i .

13 9) i nto a tr i a ngl e .
 CHAPT E R vn .
—ARE As . 1 61

Co ns tr u cti o n . Dr aw a d i ago nal A D . T hro u gh E d raw a li ne

par all el t o A D an d m ee ti n g
A B pr o l o nge d i n F j n
o i .

DE . T h e n i s t he q u a d ri
l a t er al B C D E e q u va ent i l
t o t h e p en tago n A B CD E .

Re p e at t hi s
r ti o n c o n st u c

b y d r aw i ng t he d i ago nal
B D a par all e l t hr o u gh C
, ,

an d t hen o m i n D C t h i
j g s

re d u c e s t he q u ad r i l a t eral

t o t he e qu i v al en t t ri angl e E
"

B CD E GD .

P oo rf Left fo r t he l earner wi t h
.
,
t h e ai d o f F ig . 13
9 an d t he
anal ys i s o f 1 46 .

Co r o l l a ry .
— H enc e ,
a ny l
p g
y o
o n m ay he tr a nsfor med i n to a

squ a r e . t t hr e e s t e p s ?
B y w ha
T hi s su ppli e s an o t h er w ay o f fin d i ng t he ar ea o f a p o l ygo nal fiel d .

Co n str u c t ( t o sc al e ) t h e p o l ygo n o n pap er tr ansfo r m i t i nt o a ,

squ ar e an d m u ltipl o n e si d e o f t h i s sq u ar e b y it sel f

, y .

E xe rc i sesr s f rm h g i t t i gl
. 1 . T an o a exa on n o a r an e .

2 T r s f rm p t g
. ani t squ r
o a en a on n o a a e .

3 C stru t thr
. qu l t g s F i d th r f th first d s
on c ee e d a oc a on . n e a ea o e an eco n

by tw f th m th ds giv i 1 34 d th r f th third by tr s f rm
o o e e o en n ,
an e a ea o e an o

ati i t squ r
on n o a a e .

VI .
—P a r t i t i o n of F i g u r es .

151 .i s elli n
In b u y ng an d g l an d i t o ft en b e c o m e s n ec e ssar
y
t o ru n li i i i t r o u gh est at es fo r est s fiel d s etc d i vi d i ng
n es o f d v s o n h , , ,
.
,

t hem i nt o sm all er p art s i n so m e assi gne d way .

T hi s i s d o n e e it h er ( i ) b y co mp u ta ti n ( arit hm ti c al p artiti o n ) o e

o r ( i i ) b y co n tr u cti n ( ge o m e tri c al p artiti o n )

. s o .

T h e fir st m e t h o d wh en pr ac ti c ab l e i s gen er ally ad o p t ed
, Let , .

u s exam i ne so m e c as es .
1 62 G E OM E T RY F OR BE GI NN E RS . 1 52 .

1 52 . T RIAN GE E S . Case 1 .
—A li ne CD ( F ig .
4 0 ) j o n ng
1 i i
the ve rt ex o f a tri angl e A B C t o th e m i dd l e p o int o f t he b ase A B

d i v i d e s t h e tri an gl e i n t o t wo e qu al p art s
1 3 0 Co r o ll ar y )
, .

Agai n i f A E , 3; A B and E B 1
,

A B t hen A A CE
, g A A B C a n d ,

A E CB A AB C An d ,
A A CE z A E CB In gen
e a r l ,

A l i n e j o i ni ng the ver tex of a tr i a ngl e t o the ho se di vi des hoth

th e tri a ngl e a nd i ts ha se i n to p a r ts w hi ch h a ve th e sa m e r a ti o .

What ra ti o h av e t he tri angl es AB C and A B C ? t he tri angl es

E CB an d AB C?
Case 2 .
—Li ne o f d i v i si o n D E ( F ig . 1 41 ) p asses t hr o u gh t wo

s i d es o f t he tri angl e .

Let A D 4 A B ,
an d AE fiA C ; t h en

AAD C 4 A A B C ( Cas e an d A AD E
g
, A A D C ( C ase t h e r e fo r e A A D E

}
a
3 A A B C = A
g AB C .

Agai n , if C E 3 C A d C F : § C B
l

,
a n l
,
4

t h en ( by the sam e r easo ni ng) A C E F g

x 9 A A B C : gA A B C ; t hat i s, A C E P
A AB C : 2 :
7 . In g en e a , r l
T he r a ti o o f th e tr i a ngl e cu t o f to th e en ti r e tr i a ngl e i s equ a l to
th e r o d u ct of th e i
r a t os het w een th e p a r ts f th e s i des th a t m eet
p o

at th e co m m o n ver tex .

Case 3 .
,
e n it
H en c e i f
d fi e p art s ay,
a fo u rt h o f a tri o ne -

angl e i s t o b e c u t o ff b y a li n e fr o m s i d e t o si d e, t hi s c an b e d o n e

i n vari o u s ways, b ec au se t h e fr ac ti o n 4 m ay b e o b t ai n ed as t he
pro du c t o f va ri o u s p air s of fac t o r s fo r exam p e, l 5 an d
3 3
,
and g ,

an d an d 1 0 , e t c
3
g g g
,
.

If, ho w ev er , t h e li ne of d i v i si o n h as t o
p ass t hro u gh gi ven
'

p o i nt in o ne s i de ,
t hen i ts p o siti o n i s d e t erm i ned .
1 64 G E OM ETRY FO R B E GI NN E RS .

Case 5 . Li n e of l l S l O Il E E ( E g
z . j o i ns t wo adj ac en t
s i d es . Let A E 1
2 AB ,
AE = -
A C,
t hen 1 52, Case 2
) A AE E = s x
A AB C A
g AB C 1
1 0 t he who e l
p ar all e l o gr am .

We w ill n o w gi ve tw o o r t hre e
1 54 .

c ases i n w h i c h t h e p artiti o n i s e ffe c t e d

b y d ir e c t c o n s tr u c ti o n T h e pr o o fs o f t h e c o n str u c ti o ns are l e ft
.

t o t he i nge nu it y o f t h e l ear n e r .

Pro b l em I . T o d i vi de a tr i a ng l e A B C (E zg . 1 4 6) f ro m a

p o i nt D in o n e s i de i n to t w o equ a l
p a r ts

—T i
.

C o ns tr u cti o n .
_o n C D , b i se c t A B i n E ,
d r aw E E II C D ,
j o in D E . DE i s t he li ne of d i vi s i o n r equ ir ed .

Pr o b l e m II . T o d i vi d e a tr i a ng l e AB C ( F ig . 1 47 ) f r om a

p oi nt D in o ne s i de i n to th r ee equ a l p a r ts .

Co ns tr u cti o n —J i o n CD , sec A B in Etri t a nd E ,

d r aw E G
an d E H b o t h ll C D j o i n D G ,
an d DE ,
t h e se l as t are t he li nes
o f d i v i s i o n r e q u ir e d .

P r o b l e m II I . T o d i vi de a tr ap ez o i d A B CD 48 ) f ro m
( g
F i . 1

a
p oi nt E in o ne o f the p a r a l l el s i des i nto
tw o equ a l a r ts
p .

Co ns tr u cti o n . B i sec t the par all el s i d es

in E an d G, m ak e G H E E and
j oin E -
H :it i s t he line of d i visi o n re

q u ir e d .
 CHAP TE R VII .
~ —AR E AS . 1 65

Will t hi s co nstru c ti o n d i v i d e a p arall el o gr am i n t o t wo eq u a l

p art s ? Se e 15 3 , Case 4 .

Ho w i s t hi s pr o b l em to b e so v e d , l i f theli ne o f d i i si o n v i s to
s artt fro m a g i v en p o i n t in o ne o f t he p arall el si d es ?

r c t i l E xerc ise
155 . P a ca s.

ivid
1 . D e a tri gl i t fi qu l p rts
an e n o ve e a a .

D ivid
2 . e a tri gl i t tw p rts h vi g th r ti
an e n o o a a n e a o

3 D ivid . e a tri g l i t thr p rts which sh ll b

an e n o ee a a e to e ac h th r
o e as th e
nu m b rs 3 5 e 1, , .

4 T hr ugh . r r o o ne co ne of a tri g l dr w l i
an e a a ne c utti g
n o ff a p rt qu
a e al

t ? th
o 7 tir t i g l
e en e r an e .

5 H w . tri gl o c an a an e co n a n n ti i g I z o qm be divid d i t p rte n o a s co n a n n ti i g

m m
oa an d q ?
3q ’ 4 , 7 0

r m t i gu l r fi l d w rth $
6 . F o a t ff
r an pi w rth $ 4 a e o 1 200 c u o a ece o 00 .

7 T hr ugh . tri gu l r m d w dit h ru s fr m

o a an rt p i t
a ea o , a c n o o n e c o rn e o a o n

i th
n pp sit sid
e o fr m
o ed 6 7d fr m th e, th r F i d th o o ne en , 2 o e o e . n e

r ti f th tw p rts f th m d w t ch th r
a o o e o a o e ea o o ea o e .

8 A pi . f w d l d i th sh p f tri g l st $ 600 but i w

ece o oo an n e a e o a an e co 0, s no

w rth 5 p
o t m r th
0 er t first It i r qu i r d t
c en o l i fr m
e an a . s e e o ru n a ne o o ne

r r t th pp sit sid whi h i

c o ne o e o f t l g utti g ff p rti
o e e, c s 1 200 ee on , c n o a o on

w rth $ 8
o 1 00 .

9 A fi ld h . th sh p f i s s l s right tri g l th qu l sid s

e as e a e o an o ce e an e, e e a e

bi g h4
e n l g T hr ugh th v rt
e ac oo m f th right
on g l dr w l i
. o e e ex o e an e a a ne

c utti g ff p rt which sh ll c t i h t r
n o a a a on a n I ec a .

T hr ugh tw sid s f
o tri g l dr w l i cutti g ff
o e o a an e a a ne n o ,

10 f t h tri g l
. o 1 1 g f th tri g l
e an e . . o e an e .

1 2 } f th tri g l
. s o 13 é f t h tri g l
e an e . .
f o e an e .

Wh t r ti d s th p rti
a a t ff b
o r t th wh l tri g l if th l i f
oe e o on cu o ea o e o e an e, e ne o

divi si cuts on ,

14 1 fr m . sid d 1 fr m th th r
7; o o ne e an 2 o e o e

1 5 g fr m . sid d fr m th th r
o o ne e an o e o e

1 6 5 fr m . s i d d $ fr m th th r
o o ne e an
5 o e o e
i

1 7 T h l gs f. ight tri g l
e e 4 d o F
a ri d t h r f th an e are 2
cm
an n e a ea o e

p rt t ff by l i whi h p ss s thr ugh p i ts i th l gs dist t p

a cu o a ne c a e o o n n e e an ,
re s ec

ti ly 6
ve d,
m fr m t h
0m
v rt f th ight g l Wh t i th r ti f
an 1 0c o e e ex o e r an e . a s e a o o

it r t th t f th tir tri g l
s a ea o a o e en e an e
1 66 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS . 1
55 .

18hr ugh th m idd l p i t i

. T o s i d f tri g l dr w li dividi g
e e o n n o ne e o a an e a a ne n

i t i t p rts whi h sh ll h v th r ti 3 5
n o a c a a e e a o .

19 T hr ugh t h m idd l p i t f
. o sid f tri g l dr w l i s dividi g
e e o n o o ne e o a an e a ne n

th tri
e g l i t p rts whi h sh ll b t
an e n o h th ra :3 c a e o eac o e as 1 2 .

20 A B . d C buy ,
tri gu l r fi l d A B C ( F g
, an A p ys $ ;a an a e i . a 200

B $5 ; C $3 T h y wish t divid i t m g ,
00 ,
00 . e o e a on

th m s l v s by l i s st rti g t p i t D wh r e e e , ne a n a a o n , e e

th r i v l u b l spri g ; A t t k th upp r p rt e e s a a a e n o a e e e a ,

B th m idd l d C th l w r S h w h w th e e, an e o e . o o e

l i s f divisi sh u l d b if A D : DC ne o on o e ru n

r :
ivi d tw sid s f tri g l 21 hi t fi
. D e o e o a an e , eac n o ve

qu l p rts d j i i rd r th p i ts f divisi e a a , an o n n o e e o n o on .

T h fi d t h r ti f ch f th s m ll r tri g l s
en n e a o o ea o e a e an e

thus f rm d t th tir tri g l o e o e en e an e .

22 Wh t p rt f
. p r ll l gr m i th tri g l t ff by l i dr w
a a o a a a e o a s e an e cu o a ne a n

fr mo r r t th m i dd l f sid
o ne co ne o e e o a e

23 C t ff. f u p r ll l gr m by l i dr w thr ugh

o o a a a e o c r r a a ne a n o o ne o ne .

24 F r m p r ll l gr m
. o a t i i g6
a a t
e o tri g l c t i i g
a con a n n 00 01m
cu a an e on a n n 2

25 Divid . r t g l wh s sid s e a 36
e c an d e by l i s dr w fr m
o e e a re
m an
ne a n o

r r i t thr p rts whi h sh ll b t

o n e c o ne , n o ee a th r : 3: 4 c a e o o n e an o e as 2 .

26 D ivid. p r ll l gr m i t s v qu l p rts
e a a a e o a n o e en e a a .

27 D ivi d
. p r ll l gr m i t tw p rts h vi g th r ti 3 :
e a a a e o a
5 n o o a a n e a o .

28 Wh t p rt f
. p r ll l g m li s b tw
a a o a f
a a sid d f th e o ra e e e en o o ne e an o e

o pp sit sid
o e e

29 A r . t gu l r fi l d
e c ani 5 o m by a A tr ie i th l sg r sid o
5 ee s n e on e e, 1 0m

fr mo r r D r w l i b gi i g t th tr whi h sh ll t fr m
one co ne . a a n e, e nn n a e ee , c a cu o

th fi l d
e h ct r dj i i g th 5 p rt f th l g r sid
e I e a ,
a o n n e 1 0m a o e on e e .

30 A li . j i i g t w dj ne t sid s f p r ll l gr m cuts ff tri gl

o n n o a ac en e o a a a e o a o a an e

wh s sid s
o e i de
g f th
a re rr sp di
an g sid s f t h p
o r ll l gr m e co e on n e o e a a e o a .

Wh t p rt f th l tt r i th tri g l
a a o e a e s e an e

3 1 D ivid
. tr p id i t fi qu l p rts
e a a ez o n o ve e a a .

32 I . tr p id A B CD th p r ll l sid s A B 5 CD 35 ;
n a a ezo e a a e e a re 2
m
,
m

th ir dist
e p ta n ce D ivid
a th artr p z id iz otm t w . qu l p rts by e e a ez o n o o e a a a

l i b gi i g t p i t E i A B such th t A E
ne e nn n a a o n n ,
a 2 10 m .

33 I . qu dri l t r l A B CD th di g l B C
n a a a e a th l titud s f th , e a o na e a e o e

tri gl s A B C d B C D
an e
m
an d 3 D ivid th qu dri l t r l by
are zo an
m
0 . e e a a e a a

li thr ugh B i t tw qu l p rts

ne o n o o e a a .
168 0E OM E 1RY FOR B E Gi NNE Rs.
'

' ‘
-

A li thr ugh
ne c r r f tri g l divid s th t i g l
o _ o ne d th o ne o a an e e e r an e an e

o pp sit sid i t p rts h vi g t h s m r ti

o e e n o a a n e a e a o .

If l i i dr w b tw
a ne tw sid s f t i gl cutti g ff fr ti l
s a n e een o e o a r an e n o ac o na

p rts f th sid s th pr duct f th s fr ct i s g i v th fr cti l p rt

a o e e ,
e o o e e a on e e a o na a

which th tri g l t ff i f th wh l tri gl

e an e cu o s o e o e an e .

N os21 d 22
. b l us t divid p r l l l gr m s d p l yg s i
an ena e o e a a e o a an o on n

v ri us w ys
a o a .

E X E RC IS E S .

1 . Co m put th r s i squ r m t rs ( giv b l w i

e e a ea n a e e e as en e o ,
n th e l a st co l um n
to t h right )
e f th f ll wi g r gu l r p l yg
o s sid e o o n e a o on ,
one e of th e p l yg
o on

in eac h e b i g supp s d t b m t r
c as e n o e o e 1 e e

2 . S am e exe c r is e, o n e sid
ch p l yg b i g t k m t rs
e o f ea o on e n a en a s 2 e e .

Hi t n F th
.
( 3 s i d s ) h l ss r d i us : X
or e first c s a e d th r e ,
t e e a 2 an e a ea

4 ti m s th r f u d b v f
3 X X X 8 87 2 2 o 2
_
2 qm
.

73 1 . e e a ea o n a o e or
2
th s m p l yg
e wh h s i d i
a e o on en t e e s I f“ .

3 . S m a rcis
e e xe sid of h p l yg b i g t k
e, o n e 3em t rs e ac o on e n a e n as e e .

Hi t — I t h first c s s d s r X X s
3 3 3 X 8 87 0 2
( i ) t h i me
.

n . n 3 e a e 9 e ,
e a ea
_
t
2

th r e a ea f t h s m p lyg i f th s i d i
o ; e a e o on e e s 1m

Fr m t ho b v r is s d riv g r l ru l f fi di g th r f
e a o e e xe c e e e a en e a e or n n e a ea o a

r gu l r p l yg wh s sid
e a o t i s y u m b r ( ) f l i r u its
on o e e c on a n an n e a o nea n .

T w fi l ds f qu l v l u p
o e o u it f r h v th sh p
e a a e f squ r er n o a ea a e e a e, o n e o a a e,

th th r f r gul r h g
e o e o a If e sid f ch fi l d 36
a e xa d th on . a e o ea e 1
m
,
an e

first fi ld i w rth e wh t i th s
s o d fi l d w rth P Wh t i t h a s e eco n e o a s e

va l u p squ r m t r p h t r
e er a e e e er ec a

6 . G v r m t l ds
o e n usu ll y divid d i t tr cts t w h ip 6 m i l s
en an a re a e n o a or o ns s e

squ r ; th s
a e subd i vid d i t 36 t i
e e are d ch s ct i i t h lf e n o sec o n s, a n ea e on n o a

u a r ter - sect i o n s, an d
secti ons, a r t er sect i on s, ha l f Q g u a r ter
qu a r ter sec
-
u
q
-
 CHAPT E R vn . RE VIE W . 169

t i on s . F i d
n t he a ear in ac e rs of a t w ship
o n an d o f ea ch of i ts sub
divisi s on .

7 . A qu rt r s ct a f ed with i r i l d f
-
e i on th p sts b i g ft
is en c e a s x -
a e e n ce , e o e n 12

a p rt T h r i l s c st
a .
p th us d th p sts
e a
p oth u er o an . e o er o

s d F i d t h st f t h f
an . n e co o e en c e .

8 . O f t w ki ds f p p
o r qu l i qu
n l ity th first
o i 4
m by
3 a d e , e a n a , e s 2c 0 0m
,
an

co sts quir t h s d 6 by 4
i a
m d sts e quir e ec o n s 0 cm
0 0
, an co a e .

Which ki d i th ch p r n s e ea e

9 . A m buys r ct gu l r g rd 4 by 8
an a H surr u ds t h g
e an a a en 1 0m 0
111
, e o n e ar

d en by w ll 8 thick d withi th w ll by w l k
m a a 0 . wid d ,
an n e a a a e an

thr ugh th m idd l f th g rd h m k s p ths p r ll l t th sid s

o e e o e a en e a e a a a e o e e ,

ea ch s wid H w m uch l d r m i s f th r us s
1 .
m
e . o an e a n or o e e

10 . A pi c f l
e d i 6 squ r A th r pi c f th s m si h th
e o an s 1 0m a e . no e e e o e a e ze as e

sh p f r ct g l f ur ti m s l g i t i wid F i d th diff r
a e o a e an e o e as on as s e . n e e en ce

b tw th ir p ri m t rs
e een e e e e .

11 . T h p ri m t r f
e right tri g l
e e e th hyp t o us : 5 F i d th
a an e e o en e z 2
m
. n e

l gs d th r
e an e a ea .

12 . T h p eri m t r f
e i s s l s tri g l
e e th b s
o F i d th
an o ce e an e e a e n e

r
a ea .

I n an is s l s right tri g l o ce e an e,

13 . T h hyp t
e us 8 ; fi d th o en e
m n e ar ea.
m
14 . O ne l e g 3 2 ; fin d th e are a .

15 . T h e are a 3oo q m
; fin d th e sid s e .

In an e qui l t r l tri g l
a e a an e,

16 . O ne sid fi d th e r n e a ea .

17 . T h l titud
e a 6 ; fi d th r e
m n e a ea .

18 . T h re a ea fi d th s i d d th l titud n e e an e a e.

19 . O nesid f squ r 4 ; fi d th d i g
e o a l a e 2 1 m
n e a o na .

20 . T h di ge l f squ r a 6 ; fi d
o na sid o a a e 1 00
n o ne e .

21 . In a rh m bus di g l o sid 5 ; fi d th r f th rh m bus

, a a ona o ne e
m
n e a ea o e o .

22 . F i d th
n g l s f th rh m bus i th l st rcis ( p g
e an e o E e o n e a e xe e se e a e 1 1 0, xe r o

c is e

23 . A squ r d rh m bus h v th s m sid 4 H w m uch s m ll r i

a e an a o a e e a e e,
m
. o a e s

t h l tt r i f i t
e a ut gl e if it cut g ls ac e an e s a e an e

24 . A r t gul r fi l d
e c an m l g ti s a F i d th dist
e c p rt f z oo on co n a n n e an e a a o

tw pp sit c r rs
o o o e o ne .

25 . T h dg f ub 4 Fi d th dist
e e
m
e o a c fr m r r i th upp re . n e an ce o a c o ne n e e

f
a ce t th di g oll y pp sit c r r i th l w r f c
e a o na -
o o e o ne n e o e a e.

26 . Wh t m th d f m k ing right gl wi th
a e o rd i sugg st d by F g
o a a an e a co s e e i .

13 1
170 GE OM E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS .

stru t th f ll wi g figur s
Co n c e o o n e

A tri g l i f t h
an r e, th l titud
e a ea e a e 2

A qui l t r l tri g l i f th r
n e a e a
4 an e, e a ea 00 ‘1c m

A squ r i f th di g
a e, l: e a o na

A r t g l i f th
ec a n r e,
3 d sid
e a ea oo q cm , a n o ne e 2 cm
4
A rh m bus i f th
o r 4 W d di
e a eag l : m Z O ”
an o ne a o na 0 c
,
3 ,

C stru t
on squ r c a a e,

T hr ti m s l rg
ee e giv squ r
as a e as a en a e .

T w d
o an qu rt r ti m s l rg
one -
a giv squ r
e e as a e as a en a e .

E qu l t h l f th di ff r c
a o a f t w giv e squ r s e en e O o en a e .

E quiv l t t giv quil t r l tri g l

a en o a en e a e a an e .

E quiv l t t giv r gul r t g

a en o a en e a oc a on .

G iv en a squ r with th sid a e m put th sid f e e co e e e O

A quiv l t qui l t r l tri g l

n e a en e a e a an e .

A quiv l t r gu l r p t g
n e a en e a en a on .

A quiv l t r gu l r h g
n e a en e a e xa on .

A quiv l t r gul r d c g
n e a en e a e a on .

T r s f r m giv tri g l
an o a en an e;

I t n o a right tri gl an e .

I t n o an is s l s tri g lo ce e an e .

I t n o an is sc l s right tri g l
o e e an e .

I t n o an e qui l t r l tri ng l a e a a e .

I t n o a r ct g l with g i v sid
e an e a en e.

I t n o a squ r a e .

T r s f rm
an squ r
o a a e,

I t n o a p r ll l gr m with giv
a a e o gl a a e n an e.

I t n o a r ct g l with giv sid

e an e a en e .

I t n o a rh m bus with giv sid

o a en e .

T r s f rm
an giv h g i t squ r
o a en exa on n o a a e .

Wh t p rt f tri g l
a a o t ff by
a l i which bis ts tw f th e sid s ?
an e IS c u O a ne ec o o e

D ivid tri g l i t thr qu l p rts by l i s m ti g t giv p i t

e a an e n o ee e a a ne ee n a a en o n

withi th tri g l
n e li t p ss thr ugh
an e, o n e c r r ne o a o o ne o ne .

F i d th p i t withi th tri g l fr m whi h l i s dr w t th c r rs

n e o n n e an e o c ne a n o e o ne

wi ll divid th tri g l i t thr qu l p rts

e e an e n o ee e a a .

Divid p r ll l gr m by l i s thr gh
e a a a e o r r i t thr qu l p rts
a ne ou a co ne n o ee e a a .

D ivid p r l l l gr m by li s thr ugh p i t i

e a a a e o a sid i t thr ne o a o n n o ne e n o ee

e qu l p rts
a a .

D ivid r gu l r h g by l i s thr gh
e a e a exa r r i t i qu l p rts
on ne ou o n e co ne n o s x e a a .

D ivid irr gu l r h g by l i thr ugh

e an e a r r i t tw qu l
e xa on a ne o o ne c o ne n o o e a

p rts
a .
1 72 GE O M E T RY F O R B E GINN E RS .
l§ 1
57 ,

Let A, B , C, D b e fo u r m agnit u d es ( t hat i s, t hi n gs t h at c an

any

b e m easu r e d ) , A an d B ho w ev e r b e i ng ali k e i n k i n d, an d C an d D
a sol b e i ng a li k e in k i nd an d l et a an d l) r e pr esen t t he nu m e ri cal
l
va u e s O f r esp ec ti vely i n t er m s o f a o m m o n u nit c an d
A an d B c ,

d t he nu m eri c al val u es O f C a nd D r esp e c ti ve l y i n t er m s o f a c o m

mo n u nit ; t hen i f a é c d w e say t ha t A B
,
z C an d D are i n , , , ,

p r po ti o n o r are p
o r
p o ti n a l O f t h e fo ro
u r t m rh c an d d
o s . er s a, , ,

w hi c h e xpr ess t h e pr o p o rti o n an d d a re c all e d t h e ex t me h ,

a re s,

an d c t h e m ea ns If 5 c h i s c all ed t h e m ea n pr opor ti o n a l
.
,

b e t we en a an d d .

15 7 . A pr o p o rti o n
pr esse d as j u st expl ai n ed b y t he nu m
,
ex , ,

b ers w hi c h are t he n u m eri c al al es o f t he m agnit u d e s fo r m i ng t he v u

r
p p o o rti o n i s su bj e c t t o c ert ai n l aw s a m o ng w h i c h t h e fo ll o w i ng
, ,

are u sefu l fo r o u r p u rp o se s

If w e w rit e t h e pr o p o rti o n a h : c :
I .
d i n t h e fo r m r

2 ,

ti o n — 1
an d t h en d i v i d e th e e qu a ti o n I I b y the equ a
2 we

O b ai nt ( Axi o m V .
)
h d
or 5 : a z d c .

a c

Law I . T h e tr uth f
o a p p ro o r ti o n is n ot a fi ected i f th e ter m s

f
o ea ch r a ti o a r e tr a nsp o s ed .

d C
2 If w e m u t l iply b oth s i d es of t he equ a o n ti
2 d
.

Ob a n t i ( Axi o m af e t r c an c e lli ng c o mm o n fac t o r s,

d :
h c a . If w e m u ltiply
g
f by
d f ,
we Ob a nt i
a c h d .

Law II .
—7 h e tr u th o f a
p p ro or ti o n is n ot a fi c ted , if th e ex

tr em es a re tr a n sp os ed , or if the m ea n s a re tr a nsp os ed .

2
If we m u ltiply bo th i
s d es of t he e qu a ti on 5 b y the
3 .

; 7
 CHAPT E R Vi m — S IM ILAR F IGU E S R . 173

pr o d c t u h x d, w e t i
O b a n , af e t r c an c e lli ng c o mm on fac t o rs ,
a x d
h x c .

Law III In or ti o n th e r o d u ct o f the ex tremes is

. ever
y p p ro
p
equ a l to the p r o d u ct o f the m ea n s .

If i npro p o rti o n t he t wo m eans and o ne extr em e are given

a ,

ho w an t he o t h e r extr e m e b e fo n d ?
c u

If i n pr o p o rti o n t he two extr e m es and o ne m ean are gi ven

a ,

h o w c an t he o t h er m ean b e fo u n d ?

E ri
xe c s es .
-
l . V ri fy
e th e a b v l ws with
o e a th e l e ngths of th e li sne in

2V ri fy th b v l ws i th c s f th pr p rti 3 :
. e e a 9 :
o
5 :5
e a n e a e o e o o on 1 .

3 I . pr p rti th first third d f urth t rm s

n a o o
5
o n, ; fi d e , ,
an o e are 1 2 , 2 ,
2 00 n

th s c
e d t rm
e on e .

4 F i d f urth pr p rti
. n al t th l gths 4 5
o d o o o na o e en 2
m
,
o
m
,
an

5 F i d l gth whi h sh ll b t 6
. n a :
5 6
en c a e o 0
m
as .

6 Wh t r l ti
. ists b tw th sid f squ r d th sid s f th
a e a o n ex e e en e e o a a e an e e O e

equ i v l t r ct g l
a en e an e

7 Fi d th m
. n pr p rti l b tw 9 d 6
e e an
— o o o na e e en
m
an 1 m
.

8 S h w th t t h m
. o pr p rti l b twa d hi qu l t V h
e e an o o o na e e en a an s e a o a .

158 . Le t B and Q d en o t e t h e r
a e as O f t w o s q u a e s, r tw o p ar

al l el o gra m s, o r tri angl es a and h the si d e s O f the sq ar e s o r

tw o u ,

t h e b ases o f t h e p ar all e l o gr a m s o r t h e tri n gl e s h an d h t h e alti a

t d e o f t he p ar all e l o gr am s o r O f the tri angl es t hen fo r

u s ,

T wo sq u a e s, r P: 4
2
,
=
Q 5 3 2
h en c e f £ .

2
Q 5

g 2i 2
(
T wo p rall el o gr am s
a ,
P: a x h, Q = 5 X p
.

)
h en c e

k 5 k
j j g ;i Z
a 6
T wo tri angl es , , Q 5 h enc e

O r, i n w o r d s ,
T wo to ea c h o th er a s th e u a res of th ei r s i des
s
q u a r es a r e
{q .

S t a t e i n w o r d s t he r es lt s fo r p arall el o gr am s an d
u fo r tri angl es .
1 74 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GINN E RS . 1
5 8 .

In t he c ases O f p ar all el o gr am s and tri ngl es a ,

if ( ) I h z h, an d

( ) 2 a h, t he pr ec ed i ng equ ati o ns b ec o m e ,

"
’
Q 5
T hat i s,

( ) I T w o p a r a ll el ogr a m s o r t w o tr i a ngl es , w i th e
q l
u a a l ti tu d es
,

a re to ea ch o th er a s th ei r b a ses .

o p a r a ll el ogr a ms o r tw o tr i a ngl es , w i th
( ) 2 T w e
q ual ha ses , a re

to ea ch o th er a s th ei r a l ti tu d es .

E xe c ses ri . right tri g l

l . T he 4
m
d l gse I th r Of a an e a re 2 an n an o e

tri g l th b s
an e, 4 e th a el titud 2 C m p r th
m
, r s f th t i
e a e o a e e a ea o e r

an g l s ( th t i fi d th r ti f th r s )
e a s, n e a o O e a ea .

2 T . h b s s fe t w tria eg l s f quO l l titud 5

o m d 3 C man e o e a a e are 2 an 0m . o

p r th r s
a e e a ea .

3 r s tri g l s qu l l titud m
wh t
th r:
I.f t h f t w e a ea f o 6 o d an e o e a a e a re 1 0q an z oo q m , a

i th r ti
s e f th ir b s s
a o O If t h b s
e f a e 3
m fi d th t f t h
? e a e o o ne 2 ,
n a o e o e

4 If th b s s f t w tri g l s f qu l l titud
. e a e O
5 d g
o fi d an e O e a a e a re 1
m
’
an 1 m
, n

th b s
e f
a e o tri g l with th s m l titud d qu l i r t th ir m
a an e e a e a e an e a n a ea o e su .

5 T h . r s f t w tri gl s with qu l b s s
e a ea o 4 80
o d 3 m an e e a a e a re 1m an oo ,

C m p r th ir l titud s
o a e e If t h a l titud f th l rg r e . fi d th t f th e a e o e a e n a o e

s m ll r d l s th b s f ith r
a e ,
an a o e a e O e e .

6 T w tri g l s h v
. o qu l b s s d th l titud f
an e a e i t tim s
e a a e ,
an e a e o o ne s en e

th t f th th
a o C m p r th ir r s
e o er . o a e e a ea .

7 If t w tri g l s h v
. o qu l r s c om p r th ir l titud s wh th
an e a e e a a ea ,
a e e a e en e

b s f
a e O tri g l i (i ) twic ( i i ) f ur ti m s ( i i i )
o ne an e s h l f ( i ) thr
. e, . o e ,
one -
a ,
v . ee
.

fi fths th t f th th r
,
a o e o e .

8 T h . l titud s f t w quiv l t tri g l s

e a e o
5 d C
o e m p r a en an e a re 1
°
an o a e

th ir b s s
e a e .

9 S lv E
. r is s 6 7 d 8 substituti g p r l l l gr m s f
o e xe c e , ,
t i an ,
n a a e o a or
“
r

an gl s e .

10 C m p r
. o tri g l with p r ll l gr m f th s m b s d l titud
a e a an e a a a e o a o e a e a e an a e .

1 1 A tri g l
. d p r ll l gr m h v qu l r s C m p r ( i ) th ir
an e an a a a e o a a e e a a ea . o a e e

b s s i f th y h v qu l l t i tud s ; ( i i ) th ir l titud s i f th y h v qu l b s s
a e e a e e a a e . e a e e a e e a a e .

1 2 C m p r th
. o r s f rh m bus d th r t g l wh s sid s
a e e a ea O a o an e e c an e o e e a re

bis ct d by th r rs f th rh m bus ( F g
e e e co ne O e o se e i .

13 A squ r
. d rh m bus h v qu l p ri m t rs C mp r th ir r s
a e an a o a e e a e e e . o a e e a ea

i f th l titud
e a f th rh m bus i t w thirds i t sid
e o e o s o- s e.
176 G E OM E T RY F O R B E GI NNE RS . I
59 .

and the pa rt s o f D E w ill b e equ a l to t ho se of KL 1 02, Co r o l

l ary I ) ; t her efo r e , DE :
KL H enc e, A D z AK = AE
AL DE t hat i s to say the si d es o pp o sit e e qual angl e s
KL ,

i n t he tri angl es are p r o p o rti o nal .

T h e si d es o pp o sit e e q u al angl es are t erm ed cor r es o n di n o r

p g
ho m o l og si d e s ous .

We sho u l d Ob t ai n li k e r esu lt s if the angl e A had any o t h er v l e a u ,

o r i f t h e p ar all e l s B C D E e tc had any o t h e r d ir e c ti o n an d al so

, , .
, ,

what ev e r b e t h e l engt h o r n u m b er O f t he equ al part s A B B D e tc , ,

.

T her efo r e ,

T h eo rem I . T wo s i mi l a r tr i a ng l es a re m u tu a l ly equ i a ng u l a r ,

a nd h a ve th ei r h o m o l og o u s s i des
p p ro or ti o n a l .

Co r o l l a r y .
— By tr an s
p o s n g i 15 7 , Law II ) th e m ean s . Of

t he p r o p o r t i o n AD z AK = AE z A L, we t i
Ob a n AD z AE
AK AL . T hi s s ho w s t ha t ,
in s i mi l a r tr i a ngl es the s i des w h i ch
h ave th e s a m e r a ti o
i
co n ta n equ a l a ngl es .

T wo o t her t h eo r e m s al so fo ll o w fr o m th e p r e c e d i n g i nvesti ga
ti o n
T h e o r em II .
—]f a l i n e i s d r a w n th r o ugh tw o s i des o f a tr i
a ngl e,
p a r a ll el to th e th i r d s i de, a s m a l l er tr i a ngl e i s f o r m ed w h i ch
is si m i l a r to th e gi ven tr i a ngl e
—
.

T h e o r e m I II A l i ne dr a w n th r o ugh t w o
. s i d es o f a tr i a ngl e,

p a r a ll el to th e th i r d s i d e, d i vi d es th ose tw o s i d es
p p ro o r ti o n a l l
y .

rc i s e s
E xe T h . v rs f T h r m III i l s tru S t t i t d
e con e e o eo e . s a o e . a e , an

i ll ustr t i t by m s f u m b rs
a e e an O n e .

2 T h thr
. sid s f tri g l
e ee 84 e d o T hr ugh
a p i t
an e a re
m
, an l oo m
. o a o n

i th first sid
n e 8 fr m th i t rs ti
e, 2
m f th e first o d s d sid s l i
e n e ec on O an ec o n e , a ne

i dr w p r ll l t th third id
s a n a a e F i d wh r i t wi ll
o e t th s c d sid S e . n e e cu e e on e .

Fi d l
n ,
th r ti b tw
a so , e th tri
a g l t ff d th tir tri g l
o e e en e an e cu o an e en e an e

3 If th sid s f
. e tri g l e 6 4O d 3
m
a d l i i
an dr w e a re 1
m
,
2
m
,
an 2 ,
an a ne s a n

fr m th first sid t th s
o e d sid e ti g p i ts dist t 5 d
o e ec o n e, c o n ne c n o n an
m an

r sp ctiv l y fr m th i t rs ti
e e e ,
o f th first a d s e d s i d s wi ll this l i
n e ec on o e n ec o n e ,
ne

b p r ll l t th third sid ?
e a a e o e e

4 Dr w t w si m i l r tri g l s Al s tw q l tri g l s C
. a o a t w tri
an gl s
e . o, o e ua an e . an o an e

be e
q u l witha ut b i g si m il r ? C
o th y b si m i l r w i th ut b i g qu l ?
e n a an e e a o e n e a
 CHAPT E R VIII —S IM ILAR . F IGU E S . R 17 7

1 60p ear s fr o m t h e l ast s e c ti o n t hat the si milarit y O f

. It ap

tw o tri an gl e s i n o l e s si x c o n d iti o ns : t he e qu alit y O f t hr ee pair s

v v

Of ngl e s an d t h e e u alit y O f t h e r ti o s b e t w e en t hr e e ir f
a
q p a s o a

si d e s What si x c o n d iti o n s d o es t he equ ali ty O f two tri angl es

.

i nvo l ve ?
We ha e se en 7 2— v7 5 ) t ha t i n ge ne r al fr o m t h e e q u alit y O f , ,

t hr e e p art s i n t wo tri angl e s w e c an c o nc l ud e t hat the tri angl es are ,

e qu a l i n al l r e s p ec t s We sh ll no w pr o c e e d t o sho w t hat i f t wo . a

tri angl es fu l fil c ert i n o nd iti o ns o t O f t he si x ab o ve menti o n ed a c u

as b e l o ngi n g t o s i m il r tri n gl e s t he n t hese t ri ngl es m u s t fulfil a a , a

t h e re m ai ni ng c o nd iti o n s n d h e nc e m ust b e si mil ar to eac h O t her

’

,
a .

1 61 . In the tri angl es AB C and DE E ( F ig . 15 2 ) l et t he

an g e l A D, B E ,
an d t her efo r e
C:E M ak e C G E D, . an d d r aw

G H IIA B T h e n A G H C E . ADE E

( I Law
. E qu a y) Bu t A A B C
Of lit .

A GH C 1 59 , T heo e m IL ) r .

T he r e fo e r A AB C ~ ADE E .

H enc e ,

T h e o r em (I . L aw of S im i l ar
ity ) T w o tr i a ng l es a re s i m i l a r if they a re mu tu a l ly equ i a ng u l a r .

E xe rc i
h w th t tw tri g l s
ses . si m i l r i f tw ngl s f
1 . S o a o an e ar e a o a e o o ne
“

are equ l r sp tiv l y t tw g l s f th th r

a e ec e o o an e O e o e .

2 Wh t c d i t i
. su ffic s t m k t w i s s l s tr gl s i m i l r ? t w
a . on on e o a e o o ce e i an es a o

right tri g l s an e ?

3 \Vh y . t w qu i l t r l tr i gl s l w
a re ys si m i l ? o e a e a an e a a . ar

t thr s i m i l r tri g l s ch h v i g th g l 6 0 Q
4 Cb t d 8
'

. n s ru c ee a an e ,
ea a n e an es 0 an 0

5 C struct up giv l i A B tri g l s i m i l r t giv en tri g l

on on a en ne a an e a o a an e

6. T tri wo an gl s si m i l r i f th ir s i d s t k t w by tw
e a re a p r ll l e e ,
a en o o , are a a e .

7 T w tri . o an gl s e si m i l r i f th i r s i d s t k t w by tw
a re a
p p e e , a en o o , are er en

di l
c u art ch o ea oth r P i t t th h m l g us sid s
e . o n ou e o o o o e .

Hi t —
R n s e vo lv f h
e o ne o ri gl s b ut c r r hr ugh
t e t th it sid
an e a o a o ne t o en s es

b c m p r ll l p c iv ly t h i d s f h th r tri gl S E rc i 6
.

e o e a a e re s e t e o t e s e o t e o e an e. ee xe se .
1 78 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS . 1 62 .

1 62 . tri angl es A B C an d D E E ( F i g
In t h e l et A C .

DE = B C: E E an d l et al so th e angl e C = E
, M ak e C G .

DE and d r aw G H lI A B ; t h en A C :
,
GC =
T h eo r em III ) S i n c e t he fir st t hr e e t er m s o f t hi s pr o p o rti o n a e
. r

t h e sam e a s t he fir st t hr ee o f t he pr o p o rti o n assu m ed at t h est art ,

t h e fo u rt h t er m s m u st al so b e e q u al t he r e fo re C H E E T hen .

A GH C g A D E E ( II L aw O f E
q u a lit y). B u t A AB C .
m

A G H C ( w hy t her e fo r e A A B C A D E E ; and henc e ,

T h e o r em ( II L a w
. of S i m i l ari ty ) . T w o tr i a ngl es a re

s i m il a r if th ey h a ve an an l
ge e
qu a l , a nd th e si des w h i ch i n cl u de
the a ngl e or ti o n a l .
p p ro

1 63 . In t h e tri angl es AB C an d DE E ( g
F i . l et A C
°
DE = B C:
E E ,
A C > B C, D E > E E ,
an d B E .
-

M ak e
CG DE ,
an d d r aw G H IIA B ; t h en A C G C = B C zH C : .

T h i s pr o p o rti o n a n d t h e pr o p o rti o n assu m ed at fir s t h ave t h e fir st

t hr ee t er m s equ al t h er efo r e t heir fo u rt h t er m s m u st b e eq al o r

,
u ,

CH : E E Wh en c e A G H C g D E E ( III Law O f E qu alit y)

.
, . .

B ut A A B C A G H C t he r efo r e A A B C ADE E,
H en c e .
,

T h e o r e m ( I II L a w . of S im i l ari ty ) . T w o tr i a ng l es ar e

s i m i l a r if t w o s i des of on e a re
p p
ro o r ti o n a l to t w o s i des f
o the o th er ,

a nd the a ngl es o pp os i te th e g r ea ter s i des a r e equ a l .

1 64 . In th e tri angl es A B C and DE E ( F ig . l et

AC :
DE B C E :E ,

an d

M ak e C G DE ,
an d d r aw G H ll A B t hen,

AC GC AB G 17 .

In t he fir st
. an d t hir d
t hese pr o p o rti o ns t he first t hr ee t e r m s
of ,

are e q u al t h e r e fo r e t he fo u rt h t er m s m u st al so b e e q u al ; t hat i s
, ,

CH E E F o t he sam e r e aso n it fo ll o w s fr o m t he sec o n d and

. r

fo u rt h pr o po rti o n s t hat G H DE H en c e A G H C ADE E N

,
.
1 80 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 1 67 .

1 66 . In the ri gh t tri angl e A B C ri gh t angl e d at C ( F ig 1 5 4 ) , .

d r aw C D L A B it d i i d es A B i nt o two
_ v

p ar t s o r seg m en ts T h e sm al l e r ri g h t .

tri angl es A C D and B C D are each

e q u i angu l ar w it h r es p ec t t o t he tri an l e
g
A B C ( why t her efo r e t hey are equ i
angu l ar w it h re s p e c t to e ac h o t h er .

H e nc e ( I Law O f S i m il arit y) .
,

A AB C A A C D ; t h er efo r e A B : A C = AC : AD
'

N
.

A AB C N
A B C D ; t her e fo r e A B : B C=B C: BD .

A A CD N
A B C D ; t her efo r e A D : CD : CD : B D .

T h e o r em s .
p p[f i n i s d raw n
a ri gh t t r i a ngl e a er en di cu l a r

r o m the ver tex of th e r i gh t a ngl e to the hyp o ten u s e :

f
I E i ther l eg i s a m ea n p r opor ti o n a l heew een the hypo ten u se a n d
.

the a dj a cen t s eg men t .

II . The p p
er en d i cu l a r is a m ea n pr opor ti o na l hetween the i nt o
se
g m en ts o f th e hypo ten u se .

E xe rc is es. -
Inright tri g l l t
a d hd an e e a an en o e t th e l gs th hyp t
e , c e o e

:
n us h th
e, e a l titud with hyp t us f b s p
e o en e or a e, an d
q th e s gm ts f th
e en o e

h yp t us
o en e . F i d th
n th r qu titi s i f
e o e an e , ,

1 ° a 4 5 °
m
’ 12 3 6°
m
3 ' a 9 - 6m
, E :
m 1 2 0m , m
2 h 4 p 6
'

I -S . c
5 33 .

1 67 . Let ( E i g . 1 55 ) A AB C N A D E E ,
an d d raw t h e alti
t u d es CG an d E H co rr esp o nd i ng to

two ho m o o go u s l s i d es AB an d DE
tak e n as b ases .

B y hyp o t h esi s, A B D E AC
DE T h e ri gh t tri angl es A C G an d
.

0 1 7 11 are s i m il ar ( why P) ,
t her e
fo r e A C :
DE : CG zE H . H en c e
AB :
DE = CG :
E H T ha i s, t
T h eo r e m . In t w o si m i l a r t r i a ngl es, an
y ti e/o h o m ol o ou s
g si des

t a hen as hases ar e to ea ch o th er a s the cor r es on di ng a l ti tu des

p .
 1 68 ] CHAPT E R V IE — S IM ILAR F IGURE S . 18 1

1 68 Q . Let P and d eno t e t h e r

a eas, a an d h t h e b as e s ,
h and

h t he c o rresp o nd i ng altit u d e s O f t wo si m il ar tri an gl es .

P a x h a h
T heu ( § x
Q hxh b k

But
Z2
h
If fo r t he fac tor rs t ti o n w e titu t e l
.

In t he fi equ a su b s i ts e
q ua
h
t h e eq u a ti o n b ec o m e s,
2
B a a a
>
<
z
Q t 5 o
S i nc e a an d 6 m ay b e an
y t w o h o m o o go u s s l i d es t ak en as b as es ,

the r e fo r e ,

T h eo r e m . S i mi l a r tr i a ng l es a re to ea ch o th er a s the s qu a r es

of th ei r h o m o l og o u s s i des .

E xe r c i s es . —1
h m l g us s i d s f
. If th e tri g l
o o oh fifth o e o o ne an e a re eac one-

th s o f sim i l r tri g l c m p r th r s f th tri gl s

e o a a an e, o a e e a ea O e an e .

2 T h . r s f t
e w si i l r tri g l s
m
a ea o o
4 d 96
m
a fi d th an e a re 00 ‘1m
an 12
‘1
n e

r ti f tw h m l g us sid s
a o o o o o o o e .

3 T w tri gu l r g rd s
. o an i m i l r i sh p Wh t i th asi st w y
a a en a re S a n a e . a s e e e a

( )
i . t m p o co th ir r s ?
are( i i ) t e m p t b
a eath th ir r s ? . o co u e o e a ea

4 A fi ld h
. th sh p f
e as qui l t r l tri gl Fr m
e a e O r rI
an e a e a an e . o o ne c o ne

w i sh t t ff s i m i l r tri g l qu l i r t
o cu O a a si t th f th wh l ;
an e e a n a ea o o n e- x een o e o e

h w m ust t h l i
o f divisi e b ne O on e ru n

Dr w t i g l th c stru t sim i l r tri g l qu l i r t

a a r an e en on c a a an e e a n a ea o

5 4 ti m s th t f th first tri g l
. e a O e an e .

6 tim s th t f th firs t tri g l

. 2 e a O e an e .

7 3 th t f th first tri g l
. a O e an e .

8 .th t f th first tri g l

9
3 a O e an e .

9 C . y pr v th th r m f this s cti by m th d sugg st d by

an ou o e e eo e O e on a e o e e

152 C s , ? a e 2

H i t —L t l i
n s . cut ge a yne th r fr c i fr m
1
”
h f tw id
o r an f o e a t o n, o eac o o s es o

a tri gl an
; d e 1 5 9 E
an rc is
u se d T h r m II
,
xe e 1
,
an eo e
18 2 G E OM E T RY F O R B E GI NNE RS .

I tl l
'
—P r o b l em s an d Ap p l i c a ti on s .

1 69 . P r o b l em .
— T fin d o the f o u r th
p p ro o r ti o na l to th ree
g i ven l i n es a, h, c
( F ig .

Co nstr u cti o n . M ak e any an

g e l 0; on i ts s i d es t ak e OA a,

OB z h, O C = c ; j
Oi n A C,
an d d r aw B D MA C . OD
i s t he fo u rt h pr o p o rti o n al re

q u ir ed
—Apply
.

P r o of . 1 59 ,
T heo r em III .

E xe rc i se s . G iv e th e co n

structi on fo r th e fo ll o wi g c s s
n a e

1 . b < a, an d c > a .

2 . h< a , an d c z a .

3 . h< a , an d c z h .

4 . 6 .

5 . 7 .

1 7 0 Pr o b l e m
. . m ea n p r opo r ti on a l to t w o g i ven
l i nes a a nd h ( F ig .

1 69 fu rn i shes o ne so u l ti o n ( see E xer c i ses 3 and T he

m o r e c o m m o n so l u ti o n i s as fo l
l ow s
Co nstru cti o n D r aw a str ai gh t
.

li ne an d t ak e A B a B C h At
, ,
.

B er ec t a p erp en d i c u l ar B i sec t A C .

i n O an d w it h a r ad i u s e qu al t o O A
,

d esc ri b e an arc c u tti ng th e p erpen

C d i c u l ar i n D . B D i s t h e m e an pro
p o rti o n al r e qu ir ed .

P r o of — Pr o v e ,
as in 1 4 9 t h at A D C
, 9 0
°
t hen app ly
1 66 .
18 4 GE OM E T RY FO R BE GI N E N RS .
1 7 2 .

T h r o u gh N and Q draw a li ne c u tti ng M O at O Lastly d r aw li n s .

, e

t hr o u gh 0 an d t he p o i nt s o f d i i si o n o f P Q T hese li ne s will v -
.

d i v i d e M N i nt o five e q u al p art s .

P of
ro . Appl y 1 65 .

E xe r i s s
c e .1 Dr w l i . d divid i t i t
a a ight qu l p rt s
n e an e n o e e a a .

2 D ivid t h l i e AB (F g 6 ) i t t
e ne qu l p rts
i 1 0 n o en e a a

—H r t h p rts
. .
.

S l ti
o u on e e e h rt h t i f bt i d i h w y b v d
a are so S o t a O a ne n t e a a o e e
scri b d h y w u l d b i d is i ct I h i s c s p
.

e t e o e n t n n t
d hus :
a e ro
E r ct t A d B p rp d i cu l rs l y ff
.

c ee t e a an e en a a o
up ch t qu l p rts d thr ugh h p m
on ea en e a a an o t e
,

o ts
f divis i dr w l s p r ll l t A B If w w
,

o on a i ne a a e o no e
dr w h d i g l A D h th d is t c s fr m h
.

a t e a o na t en e an e o t e
p i t s m rk d B D w i ll b
,

o n
3 4 t t th l i a e I, 2, , ,
e c .
,
o e ne e

qu l t 1 1 e
U t f th l i
a AB o T h 3 ,
2
13 33 T
3 4 e c o e ne e
pr f i l ft h l r r
, , ,
~
.
, .

oo s e t o t e ea n e .

3 Wh ( i m ki g m ps p l s t ) m y
. en n a n a , an , e c . an

li s h v t b v ry m uch r du d i l gth i t
ne a e o e e e ce n en ,

b c m s ft v i t t m p l y sc l s f
e o e O en co n en e n o e o a e O

qu l p rts k w m g surv y rs
e a P Aa ,
no n a on e o as L T

S A E p l i h w su h
T IN G s l ( sh w
C LE S . x a n o c a ca e o n

i Fg ti i g
n th us d p rts d i
i . co n a n n o ne o an a ,

i d d d i m ll y i v stru t d d us d
e ec a , s co n c e an e .

S l ti —D r w str ight l i o u d k on it a a a ne , a n ta e on
t qu l p r s A B : B C : CD
en e ch f h s
a a t e tc 1 ea o t e e
l gths r pr s t i g hu dr d u i s f l g h
, , .
,

en e e en n o ne n e n t o en t

( m t rs ) D i v i d A B i t e e qu l p r s ch e n o ten e a a t ea
p rt r pr s i g h r f r u i s f l gth L st
.
,

a e e e nt n t e e o e t en n t o en a
r pr s t s i gl u its f l gth d r w b v
.

ly t o e e en n e n o en a a o e
qu i d i st t li s p r ll l t A B r ct p rp di cul rs t h p ts A B C
, ,

AB t en e an ne a a e o ,
e e e en a a t e oin , , ,

1 Onl y p rt
a a of cl
t h e s a e c an b e sh w o n i n th e figur e.
 CHAPT E R v an — S IM ILAR F IGU E S R . 185

etc t r h vi g subd i vi d d F O i t
a n d , af e a qu l p n j i th p i ts f d i vi s i e n o te n e a a rt s , o n e o n O on
o f F 0 w i th th s f A B by l i s dr w b l i qu l
o e o h w i h figur ne a n o e y as S o n n t e e
T h p rp d i cu l r O B d v i d d i t qu l p r s b y h p r ll l s i m
, .

e e en a i e n o te n e a a t t e a a e s nu
b r d fr m b g i i g 0 ; h i f l ws ( E rc i s ) h t h d
,

e e o L to 10 , e nn n at t en t o lo see xe e 2 t a t e is
t c fr m
an e h fi s
o bl i qu l i m sur d
1 to t eh p r ll l :
r t u it f l gth
O e ne ea e on t e a a e 1 n o en

h dis c fr m h s c d bl q u li : d h dis c ,

t e tan e o 1 to ;t e e on o i e ne 1 1 u n 1ts , e t c an t e ta n e
fr m h first b l qu l i um s h d s c h s c d bli qu l
.

o 2 to t e o i e ne 2 t t e i ta n e t o t e e on O e i ne
u is d s i m l rl y f h r p i ts f d vi s i f O B
,

12 n t ; e tc . h an i a or t e ot e o n o i on o

T h p i t m rk d O i r f h sc l ; hu dr ds r d ff t t h right
.
,

e o n h a e s t e ze o o t e a e n e are ea O o e

ten s h l f d u its h v r i c l l i
to t e e t, an n on t e e t a ne
,

Fr m h i s t i i i sy th t l gth f 348 m t rs m sur d

.

o pl t ex a na on t s ea t o se e a a en o e e ea e on
t h gr u d i r p r s
e o n t d up h sc l b h l i m
s e e en e l s th t h l g th p q on t e a e y t e ne n a o a t e en
c rr sp ds d st c f 6 m t rs h l gt h 8 3 m t rs
,

o e on to a i an e O 21 e e ,
t e en rs to 1 e e ,
e tc .

4 C struct with t h
. on id f th s l i F g 6,
tri g l wh s sid s
e a O e ca e n i . 1 1, a an e o e e

m m m
a re 1 3 l 60 , a n d 2 5
2
7 , .

5 . D a r w tri g l a an e , an d d t rm i
e e ne the l gths
en of i ts sid s by m e ean s of th e
s l
ca e i n F ig . 1 61 .

6 . Co n stru t s c a cal e o f o n e hu dr d p rts divid d d i m l l y

n e a , e ec a .

173 r e m en t O f the d i stanc e o f an i nac c essib l e

. T he m e as u
o bj e c t i s o n e O f t h e m o st i n t e r es ti ng p pli ti o ns O f t he laws O f a ca

G eo m e tr y It gi e s s a go o d i d e a O f t h e n t u r e O f t ho se m et ho d s
. v u a

w h i c h h a e e n ab l e d astr o n o m e r s t o m e asu r e t h e d i st an c e fr o m t he
v

e art h t o t h e m o o n t o t h e su n a n d e e n t o s o m e O f t he fixe d s t ar s
, ,
v .

We ha e alr e ady seen v 95 — 98 ) ho w d i st an c e s m ay b e m e as

u re d i n d ir e c tl y b y m e ans O f equ a l tri an gl es N o w it i s c l ear t hat .
,

if e q al t ri angl es re e m pl o ye d t h e gr ea t e r t h e d i st anc e t o b e
u a ,

m e as r e d t h e l ar ge r t he tri a ngl e w h i c h m s t b e c o nstr u c t e d ; so

u u

t hat w hen t he d i st anc e i s c o nsi d er b l e the c o nstr u c ti o n O f the

,
a ,

tri angle b ec o m e s er y i nc o n en i en t and i n m any c ases ( fo r i n

v v ,

st an c e t h e d i s t a n e fr o m t h e e art h t o t h e m o o n ) u tt e rl y i m p o s
,
c

sib l e In s c h c as e s Ot he r m e t ho d s m u st b e fo n d ; an d t h e se
. u u

m e t ho d s are su pp l i e d b y t h e l aw s o f i m i l tri angl es s ar .

In fac t t he se c o n d m e t ho d gi en fo r so l vi n g t h e pr o b l e m s o f
,
v

95 an d 98 i s b as e d u p o n t he pr o p e rti e s o f si m il ar tri angl es .

In 95 M e t ho d IL w e o nstr u c t o n p ap e r t o a r e d c e d sc al e a
, ,
c u

f c
a i
-
m i
s l o f t h e c t u aleli n e s o n t h e gr o u n d W h
a t i s t h i s f a c s i m i l e . a -

b u t a sm all tri an gl e s i m il r t o t h e m c h l ar g e r o n e w hi c h o n t i n s a u c a

th e di st an c e so u gh t ? In o t he r wo r d s t h e tri angl es A B C and a h c ,

18 6 GE OM E T RY FOR B E GI NNE RS . 1 74 .

(F ig 88 ) . are s i m il ar ; henc e a c a h :AC AB , a pr o p o rti o n whi ch ,

by m ak i ng ( 5) 6
cm
;ah AC 8o o m
‘

as O n
p age 10 a c 1
,

24 x 8 00
b e c o m es 16 24 8 00 A B ; wh enc e A B
1 6
Re pr esen ti ng li nes t o sc al e o n pap er all angl es r em ai ni ng u m ,

c h ange d al way s gi v es a fi u r e si m il ar t o t h at fo r m ed b t h
, g y e u nre

d u c ed li ne s and i s t er m e d PLAT T IN G T O SCALE

, .

S o m e exam pl es w ill no w b e gi en o f t h e i nd ir e c t m easu r e m ent v

o f d i s t anc es b m e ans O f si m il ar tri an l es

y g .

174 . Pr o b l e m . T o m ea s u r e
th e d i s ta n ce f
o tw o p oi n ts A, X , se a
p
r a ted hy a r i ver .

At t he p o i n t A ( g
F i . su p

p r t ( w it h a sur
o s e d ac c ess i bl e ,
e ec

v eyo r s c r o ss o r o t he r m eans li
)
’
a ne

L A X an d m easu r e i t s l e ngt h t o
_
,

any
p o i n t B S u pp o se fo r e xam .
,

p l e t h a t A B 1 2 0 ; t a
,k e B C
m

an d at C e r ec t a se c o n d
m
10 e
, p r

p e n d i c u l ar CD , m ee ti ng t he li n e B X at D M e asu r e C D ; l et i t s .

l engt h b e T h en it fo ll o ws t h at i n a l l r i gh t tr i a ngl es s i m il a r ,

to B C D — th a t i s to s ay , in all ri gh t tr i a ngl es h a vi ng an a cu te

a ng l e equ a l to DB C —th e r a ti o o f th e l egs m u s t he 1 8 :

Am o n g t hese s i m il ar ri ght tri angl es i s the tri angl e A B X t her e
fo r e , A X :
AB w henc e ,

E xe rc i ses —l I
. .
g n E i qu. l1t s l y
62 , B C i s m a
l f d e e a o 10 m o e or con

ve n i e n ce o f c m put ti
o a If B C
on: 5
m .wh t w u l d D C b f u d t b 1 ,
a o e o n o e

2 . If A i s on th dg f th riv r
e e y e fi d Ab
o this m th d ?
e e , c an ou n e o

Wh at c h ang e in t h p siti
e f th tri g l B CD i
o on O ss ry ? Giv th
e an e s n ece a e e

co n stru ti c on fo r this s ca e .

3 . How c an A X b f u d by m e s f tw qu l right tri g l s

o n ean o o e a an e

4 . Ho w c an A X b f u d by m e s f is s l s right tri g l
o n e an O an o ce e an e

1 In T rig o no m try 8 :
e , 33 i c ll d th T AN N f h
1 10, o r , gl D B C
s a e e GE T o t e an e .
18 8 GE OME T R Y F o R B E GI NN E RS .
E§ 1 76 .

E xe rc i se s . 1 .
‘

Wh at i s th e a dv t g an a e i n Ca s e 2 Of ma ki g n B 0: 10
m

r th r th
a e th r u m b r P
an a n y o e n e

2 . E x p l i h w With th i d
a n o , e i stru m t f m suri g gl s th
a o f an n en or ea n an e , e

d i st an c e X Y in F ig . 1
63 m y b f
a u d by p l tti
e g si moi l r tri
n g l p p r a n a a an e on a e .

By this m th d h w e o o m y l i s m ust b m sur d

an ne th gr u d ? H w
e ea e on e o n o

m y by th
an th r m e o e e th d ?
o

3 Giv .
( g 3)
F i 6 A X : 6 0
enA Y : A x A. X A y1: AY 0
m
,
1
33 ,
1
33 ,

x y : 8 m X A
21 1Y = . F i d X Y ( i ) by
, dir ct pr p rti ; ( i i ) by n . a e o o on .

p l tti g si m i l r tri gl t s l
a n a ppr H w a rl y d th r su l ts an e o ca e on a e . o n ea o e e

agr P Why d th y t ct l y gr P
ee o e no e xa a ee

4 F ig 65 i ll ustr t s
. th r m th d f m suri g i c ssib l l i
1 a e a no e e o O ea n an na ce e ne

X Y — m th d by whi h
.

, a ly li A B h t b m sur d
e o th c on o ne ne as o e ea e on e

gr u d
o C n y p l i th m th d ?
. an ou ex a n e e o

176 . Pr o b l e m . T o m ea s u re th e ver ti ca l h eigh t f

o an oh

j ect
( a tow er , tr ee, ch u r ch s -

p i r e, etc .
)
1 st Meth o d . B y m eans o f a sh ad o w .

S uppo se t hat we w ish t o find t he h ei gh t A X o f a tr ee ( E g i .

1 66) wh i c h c ast s t he shad o w A B o n t h e gr o u n d F i x a s t aff ver

‘

ti c ally i n the gr o u nd n ear t he tr ee an d m easu r e i ts hei gh t m n , .

M easu r e al so t he l engt hs O f t h e sh ad o ws n o c as t b y the s t aff and

, , ,

A B c ast b y t he tr ee N o w t h e ray O f li gh t X B i s p ar all el t o t h e

.

ra
y m o : wh e n c e it fo ll o w s t hat A B X an d m n o ar e s i m il ar tri an
 CHAPT E R VIII — S1M ILAR
. R
FIGU E S . 18 9

gl e s ( w hy P) . In o t he r r
w o d s, th e sh a do w s ea s t at the sa me

hy d if er en t o hj et ts a r e p r op o r ti o n a l
f

to th e h eigh ts of th e o h j eets .

T he r efo r e no AB m n AX .

If n o AB mn
t he n ,

A X,
w h en c e AX :
NO 11 3 —Wr s hus :
e if g
m ay a ls o ea o n t o cm
f sh d w c rr s p d 7 f h gh h
.

on to 1 1 cm t, t en
o a o o e o ei

1 0m o f sh d w c rr s p ds f on to 1 1 7 1 cm o

:
a o o 3 e .

3 6
.

h ight ; th r f r 49
e f sh d w w i ll
e e o e 2 0c m o a o co r

r s p nd
e o X 4 9 :3 3 7
to 2 0 2 2 cm

2d Met h o d Wit h t he ai d o f an
.

i nstr u m en t fo r m eas ri ng ngl es u a .

Le t fo r e xa m pl e t h e h e i gh t o f
, ,

t he t w e r ( F ig 1 67 ) b e r e q u ir e d
o . Pl a c e t he i n str u m en t at a p o i nt .

B so m e d i st an c e fr o m t h e fo o t o f t he t o w er an d m easu r e t h e
, ,

an gl e a h X o r ngl of,
l va ti n as it i s t e r m ed
a e M e su r e A B
e e o , . a ,

t h e d i s t an c e fr o m t h e i nstr u m e nt t o t he fo o t o f t he t o w e r T hen .

c o nstr c t o n p a p e r a ri ght tri an gl e s i m il a r t o

u h X and t he si d e a ,

o f t hi s tri angl e h o m o l o go u s t o X w ill gi v e t the t l mpl y d a o s a e e o e

t h e he i gh t X t o w h i c h w e must add A
a ,
i n o r d e r t o o b t ain t he a,

e n tir e h ei gh t .

3d Meth od . When the b ase o f the o bj ec t i s in ac c essi b l e ,

c h o o se
19 0 GE OME T RY FO R B E G INN E RS . 1 77 .

a c o nv e n e n i t pl ac e nea r t he o b ec
j t ,
an d m e as ur e a ha se li ne A B
( F ig . r e t he angl es at t he b ase B and B A X
T he n m easu , ,

an d a l so t he angl e o f e l ev a ti o n o f t he o b j ec t X A 0 an d o n s tr u c t , c

o n p a p e r a tri angl e s i m il ar t o X B A T h i s w ill gi e t s / t he . v o ea e

l engt h A X T hen k no w i ng A X and the ac u t e angl e X A 0 c o n

.
, ,

str u c t o n p ap er t h e ri ght tri angl e 0 A X wh i c h w ill g i v e t o s c al e ,

th e he i gh t OX r e qu ir e d .

H e r e t he u nk no wn h e i ght 0X d e p en d s o n t h e c o ns tr u ti o n o f c

t wo si m il ar tri angl es t he fir st si m il ar t o t he tri angl e A B X t he

, ,

se c o nd t o t he ri gh t tri an gl e 0 A X If t h e sc al e o f r e d c ti o n i n . u

b o t h c ases i s 1 to t h e n u m b er o f m illi m e t e r s c o n t a i n ed i n
mm

t he li n e o n p a p e r w h i c h r e pr esen t s 0 X w ill b e t h e sa m e as t he
nu m b e r o f m e t e r s i n O X .

E x cis s
er 1 A m um t
e . sts sh d w f 44 t th s m ti m th t
.
m
on en ca a a o o a e a e e a

a ro d high sts hh d w f ca fi d t h h ight f th m

a s o o um t n e e o e on en .

2 I th
. n d M th d why i th c
e 2 e stru ti
o f
,
tri g l pp
s e on c on o a an e on a er
"

a v id d by p l ci g th i stru m t th t th
o e a n e g l f l v ti sh ll b
n en so a e an e o e e a on a e

e qu l t 4 5 ?
a o
0

3 Wh t i stru m ts
. a n r quir d i th 3d M th d P
en are e e n e e o

4 F i d th h ight f th bui l di g ( F g 68 ) i f A B
. n e e o
5 e g l B n z . 1 2 0m , an e

2
5
°
g l X A
anB e d g l X A O :4 3 an an e 1
0
0
’

IV . S imil ar P ol y g on s .

17 7 . T wo p o l ygo ns are sa id to be S IM ILA R if t hey hav e the

s am e sh a pe .

In o r d er t o se e w h at are t he pr o p erti es o f si m il ar p o l ygo ns ,

d i v i d e t h e p o l ygo n A B C D E ( F ig 1 69 ) i n t o tri angl es b y d r aw i ng .

t h e d i ago n l s A C A D ; t h en b e gi n at any p o i n t M o f A B an d
a , ,

mak e a n ew p o lygo n b y dr awi ng M N ll B C N O IIC D O P ll D E , , .

T h e n e w p o l ygo n A M N 0 B i s sm all e r t h an t he o ri gi nal p o l ygo n ,

b t has t h e s m e shap e an d i s t he r efo r e s i m il ar t o it

u a ,
.

B y t h e sam e pr o c ess w e c an m ak e a p o l ygo n A QR S T l arger

,

t han t h e p o l ygo n A B C D E a n d si m il ar t o i t ,
.
 92 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 1 7 8 .

178 i m il ar po l ygo ns t he si d es o f o ne o f w hi c h ae
. If t wo s ,
r

d o ub l e t ho se o f t h e o t h er are d i v i d e d i n t o tri angl es b y d r aw i n g , ,

d i ago n al s fr o m t h e v e rti c e s o f tw o e q u al an gl e s t h e n e a c h tri angl e ,

i n t he fir s t p o l ygo n i s ( b y 1 64 ) fo r ti m es as gr e at as t he o rr e u c

sp o n d i n g tri an gl e o n t h e se c o n d po l ygo n ; h en c e t h e s u m o f all

h
t e tri an gl e s i n t h e fi r s t p o l ygo n — i n o t h e r w o r d s t he a r e a o f t he ,

fir s t p o l ygo n i s fo u r ti m e s a s gr e a t as t h e s m o f al l t h e tri an gl es u ,

o r t h e ar e a o f t h e s e o nd po l ygo n
, H e n c e t he ar e as o f the t w o
c .

p o l ygo ns a e t o e ac h o t her as 4 : B t t hi s i s the rati o o f the

r 1 . u

sq u ar e s o f a ny t wo ho m o l o go u s s i d e s A li k e r es l t w o u l d fo ll o w . u

i f t h e si d es h ad any o t her r ati o t han 2 I H en c e .

,

T h eo r em .
-
S i mi l a r p ol
yg o n s a re to ea c h o th er as the s qu a r es
f th ei r h o m ol og o u s i
’
o s a es .

T h erefo r e , i f w e hav e l ygo nal figu r e o n t he gr o u nd and a

p o ,

c o ns tr u c t a si m il ar fig r e o n p a p e r w it h i t s si d e s r e d u c e d t o u

i To,
l e t c o‘
f t,
h e ir l e n g t h s t he ar e a o f t h e figu r e o n t h e p a p e r w ill ,

b e g 13 fi m
1 e t
,
c t h e a
,
r e a o f
l
t h e l ar e r an d s i m i l ar figu r e o n
g
,
.
,

the gr o u nd .

E xe c i s s — 1 C m p r th
r e . r s f tw sim i l r p l yg s with th ir
. o a e e a ea o o a o on e

p ri
e m t rs ( 1
e e7 7 C r ll ry
se e ,
o o a

2 Pr v th t th
. o r s f r gu l r p l yg s f th s m u m b r f sid s
e a e a ea o e a o on o e a e n e o e

a re t h th r ( i ) th squ r s f th ir sid s ; ( i i ) th squ r s f

o e ac o e ,
. as e a e o e e . as e a e o

th ir p ri m t rs
e e e e .

3 If i t w h.
g l p rks sid f
n o e xa i f ur ti m s
ona sid f th a a e o o ne s o e a e o e

o th r h w m uch l rg r i
e ,
o p rk th th th r ? F i d l s th r ti
a e s o ne a an e o e n , a o, e a o

o f th ir p r m t rse e i e e .

Pr o b l e m T o co ns tr u ct a o lyg o n s i m i l a r to i
5 179 . .
p a g ven

T h er e are v a ri o us m e t ho d s o f so lvi ng t hi s pr o b l em .

1st Meth od .
—When o n e si d e F G o f the r equ ir e d p o lygo n is

g iven .

S ol u t o n i . B y m e an s of 1 7 7 , T heo r em I . Di vi d e t he g i ve n
o l go n A B CD E ( g
F i 1 7 0 ) i n t o tri an gl e s by d i ago nal s ; th n e
p y .
 CHAP T E R VIII —
S IM ILAR
. R
F IGU E S . 19 3

c o ns tr u c t u p o n the gi en l engt h F G v ,
h o m o l o go u s t o A B ,
a ser es i
o f tri angl es s i m il ar t o t ho se o f t h e i v en p o lygo n r esp ec ti vely and
g ,

s i m il arl y pl a c e d T he p o l y .

go n F G H K L is t he

p o lygo n r e q u ir ed .

G i ve t he c o nstr u c ti o n i n
f ll
u .

2d Met h o d O n e si d e
.

F G b e i ng gi e n as b e fo r e
v , .

S l ti
o u no — O u o ne si d e
.

A B o f t he gi v en p o l ygo n
A B C D E ( F g 1 7 1) t ak e i .
F ig 7 . 1 0 .

A M : F G c o n stru c t th e
,

p o lygo n A M N O P A B C D E ( ho w i s t hi s d o ne P) and t hen

'V

c o n str u c t ( b y 11 7 ) u p o n t he si d e F G t he po lygo n F G H K L
N
t he p o l ygo n A M N 0 B . .

G i ve th e c o nstr u c ti o n i n fu ll .

F ig . 1 71 .

3 d Meth o d .
—Wh l o go u s si d es o f t he two p o lygo ns
en t h e ho m o

are t o b e t o e a c h o t h e r i n a gi v e n r ati o

—
.

S o l u ti o n Cho o se any p o i n t 0 e it he r w it hi n o r w it h o u t t h e
.
,

g i v en p o l ygo n
( s ee F ig 1 7 2 and a n
s d .j o i n it t o al l t h e c o r

n e r s b y str a i gh t li n e s D i v i d e o ne o f t he se li n es at a p o i n t M so
“
.
,

t h at C M : GA t h e gi v en r a ti o an d t h en d r aw M N ll A B N F , ,

ll B C, etc
,
.M N P QB i s t h e r e q u ir e d po l ygo n
19 4 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 1 79 .

In F i g : 1 7 ,
2 :
GM 0A :3 ; i n F g 1 73 C M :
GA 1 i . . :
3 5 .

G ive t he c o n str u c t i o n an d pr o o f fo b o t h c ase s r .

F ig . 1 72 .

E xe rc i se s . 1 . G iv en a h g ; c stru t sim i l r but l rg r h g

e xa on on c a a a e exa on .

2. iv G tg ;
e n an o c a on co n stru t si m i l r but s m ll r ct g
c a a a e o a on .

3 Up . thon l gths e en 20
c m d 3an
m
h m l g us sid s c stru t tw
0 0
as o o o o e on c o

sim i l r p t g s
a en a on .

4 Dr w p l yg
. a ad th o stru t th r wh s sid s sh l l b
o n, an en c o n c an o e o e e a e,

( )
i . h l f th s f
o ne t h first
-
p
a l yg o e o
; e o on

( i i ) t w thirds
. th s fo t h -
first p l yg o e o e o on

( )
i i i twic th s . f th first p e l yg o e o e o on

( )
i thrv d. h l f ti m
e e ans th s e f t h
o ne first -
p l yg
a e o o e o on .

5 Dr w p lyg
. a ad th o stru t si m i l r p l yg
o n , an en co n c a a o o n,

( )
i .
i th l rg
o ne n n t h first
-
as a e as e

( )
i i i tw .
ty fi f th
n ne l rg enth first -
s as a e as e

( )
i i i f ur ti m s l rg o th first ; e as a e as e

( )
i twiv l
. rg t h first
c e as a e as e .

6 C stru t t w si m i l r p t g s which sh ll b t
. on c o a ch th r 4 :
en a 9 on a e o ea o e as .

7 C stru t t w si m i l r r gu l r p t g s
. on c o a h vi g thr ti m s th
e a en a on ,
o ne a n ee e e

p ri m t r f th th r Wh t i th r ti f th ir r s ?
e e e o e o e . a s e a o o e a ea

8 C.
stru
on t t w r gul r h
c g s o b eut t h s
a m p i t e xa tr m ki g
on a o e a e o n a s c en e, a n

th l ss r dius f
e e a % ti m
o s tho net f t h th r
1 e a O e o e .

9 C struct t w r gu l r ct g s m ki g th l ss r dius f
. on o e a o a on ,
a n e e a o o ne

o f th th r Wh t i th r ti f th i p ri m t rs P f th ir r s ?
e o e . a s e a o o e r e e e o e a ea
196 G E OM E T RY FOR B E GI N E N RS .

( )
1 eac h l eg i s a m ean pr p rti
o o o na l b tw
e een th e hyp t us o en e an d th e
dj c t s g m t ;
a a en e en

( )
2 t h p rp di u l r i m pr p rti l b tw th s gm ts f
e e en c a s a e an o o o na e e en e e en o

th hyp t us
e o en e .

T h h m l g us sid s f si m i l r tri g l s
e o o o o t h th r ( ) th
e o a an e a re o eac o e I as e

co rr sp di g l titud s ( ) th p ri m t rs
e on n a e ,
2 as e e e e .

S i m i l r tri g l s
a t ch th r th squ r s f th ir h m l g us
an e a re o ea o e as e a e o e o o o o

sid se .

P bl m
ro e T fi d th f urth pr p rti
. o l t thr giv l i s
n e o o o o na o ee en ne .

P bl m
ro e T fi d th m. pr p rti l b tw t w giv l i s
o n e e an o o o na e e en o en ne .

P bl m
ro e T r du l rg giv nl i s i giv r ti
o e ce o r en a e e ne n a en a o

P bl m —T
. .

ro e divid giv l i i t qu l p rts ( T w W ys )

O e a en ne n o e a a o a

P bl m —T
. . .

ro e m sur th dist
. ofr m ssib l t
ea ie ssi e an c e o an a c ce e o an n ac c e

bl p i t
e o n

P bl m —T
.

ro e m sur th dist o b tw tw i ea ssib l p i ts

e e an c e e ee n o n ac c e e o n .

(T w o s s) ca e .

P bl m — T
ro e m sur th h ight f
. o bj t ( T hr m th ds )
ea e e e o an O ec . ee e o .

S i mil p l yg s p l yg s th t h v th s m sh p
ar o on a re o on a a e e a e a e .

S i m i l r p l yg
a s m p s d f th s m
o on u mb r f si m i l r tri g l s
a re c o o e o e a e n e O a an e

sim i l rl y p l d
a ac e .

S i m i l r p l yg s
a m utu ll y qui gu l r
o on d h v th ir h m l g us
are a e an a , an a e e o o o o

si d s pr p rti l
e o o o na .

R gu l r p l yg
e a s f th s m u m b r f sid s
o on si m i l r
o e a e n e o e are a .

T h p ri m t rs
e e f si m i l r p l yg
e e s t h th r
o y tw h m a o on are o e ac o e as an o o o

l g
o o ussid s e .

S i m i l r p l yg s
a t o h th r th squ r s f th ir h m l g us
on a re o e ac o e as e a e o e o o o o

sid se .

P bl m — T
ro e stru t p l yg si m i l r t giv p l yg
. o co n c( T hr ea o on a o a en o on . e

m th ds )
e o .

E X E RC IS E S .

l . A squ r d r h m bus h v equ l r s :fi d th r t i f th i r

a e an a o a e a a ea n e a o o e

p rim t rs i f th l titud f th rh m bus i

e e e ,
f t h th t
e a f th e o e o s o ne -
o ru a o e

squ r a e .

Wh t si gl
a diti wi ll m k tw right tri g l s s i m i l r ? l s tw
n e co n on a e o an e a a o o

is sc l s tri g l s P
o e e an e

G iv tri g l tw f wh s gl
en a
55
an d e, nstru to s i m i
o o e an es a re
°
an co c a

l
ar tri g l f urth
an l rg e o ne -
o as a e .
 CHAPT E R VIII —R E VIE . W . 19 7

G iv en ri ght tri gl
a ut g l f whi h an e,t i t an ac e an e o c c o n s ri c a

si m i l r tri g l f ur ti m s l rg
a an e o e as a e .

C struct
on is s l s tri g l with th g l t th v rt :
an o ce e d an e e an e a e e ex an

o ne sid e T h c struct si m i l r tri g l i th l rg

en on a a an e o ne n n -
as a e .

C on struct tri g l si m i l r t tri g l wh s sid s

a an e t ch th r a o a an e o e e are o ea o e as

th e n u m b rs 7 8 e , ,
II .

If a tri g l i t b m d thr ti m s l rg
an e s o giv tri g l but
e a e ee e as a e as a en an e,

si m i l r t i t wh t v l u s m ust i t g l s h v i t sid s
a o ,
a a e s an e a e P s e
?

Pr v th t p r ll l s divid
o e a l l l i s th t i t rs t th m i t pr p rti
a a e l e a ne a n e ec e n o o o o na

p rts
a

H a —T h i s i
.

an t s i f 1 1 2 C mp r ls th i s th r m w ith h
s an e x e n on o . o a e a o eo e t e

th r m f 1 6 5
eo e o .

9 . T h sid s f
e right tri g l
e o
m
a 8 m m
d 3 5 ; fi d ( i ) th g
an e are 2 1 ,
2 ,
an n . e se

m en ts f th hyp t us m d by p rp dicul r l t f ll fr m th
o e o en e a e a e en a e a o e

v rt f th right g l ( i i ) th l gth f this p rp d i cu l r

e ex o e an e, . e en o e en a .

Pr v th t th bis ct r f
o e a g l f tri g l divid s th pp sit sid
e e o o an an e o a an e e e o o e e

i t p rts th t h v th s m r ti
n o a a th a dj c t sid s
e e a e a o as e a a en e .

Hi t n s If A B C i h tr i gl B D th b i s ct r pr l g A B t ill i t i m
s t e an e, e e o o on s et
by p r ll l h b s c r thr ugh C A A B D A A C E
.
,

at E a a a e to td e i e to o N an
A CB E i s sc l s
.
,

s i o e e .

T h thr
e m di s f tri g l m t i
ee e an p i t (A m i i li
o a an e ee n o ne o n . ea a n
’
s a ne

dr w fr m v rt
a n d b i s ct i g t h
o a epp sit sid )
ex an e n e o o e e .

Hi t n s L AB Cb -
h triet gl D r w w f h m d i s A D d B E e t e an e a t o o t e e an an
m ti g t p i t 0 d h dr w D F IIA C m i g B B i F S h w
. .

ee n a a o n an t en a ee t n n o
th t A B P O A A O E wh c sh w th t A 0 :O D : Dr w
, .

a N en
; e o a 2 I a
h ird m d i C G cut i g A D i P d sh w i l ik m r th t
.

th e t e an t n n an o n e anne a
th r f r P m ust c i c i d with O
, ,

A P P D ll 2 I ; e e o e o n e
T h p i t 0 i c ll d h i ty f h tri gl
.

e o n t f g s a e t e cen r e o r av o t e an e.

C st uct
on right tri g l h vi g giv
r a an e a n en ,

( i ) T h hyp t us 7
. e d th r ti 3 : f th l gs
o en e 0 0m , an e a o 2 o e e .

( )
i i T h . l titud 4 e ad t h r ti 3 : 5 f t h l gs
e
m
00 , an e a o o e e .

C struct
on t h di g l f r ct g l
on e qu l r ct g l
a ona o a e an e an e a e an e .

Wh t i th r ti f th r
a s e f afi l d t th t f i t p l
o o ppr e a ea o a e o a O s an o n a e ,

( i ) i f th sc l f r ducti i
. e t th m t
a e O P e on s [ cm
o e e er

( i i ) i f th sc l f r ducti i
. e t th m t r P
a e O e on s 1 mm o e e e

Wishi g t fi d th dist c fr m p i t A
n o n th
e m i l dt an e o a o n on e a n an o
'

an

is l d B I r t t A l i A C L A B m sur up i t l gth A C
an ,
e ec a a ne _
, ea e on a en

goo
m
,
d l s m sur t h
an a g l A CB which I fi d t b
o ea Fr m
e e an e , n o e o

th s d t fi d th dist c A B
e e a a n e an e .

I F g 63 l t A X : 54
n i . 1 , A Y: e d th g l A 57 3 2m , an e an e
°
0
’

fi d th dist
n e XY anc e .
1 98 GE O M E T RY F O R B E GINN E RS .

A v rti
e c al r od 5 m l g thr ws up
on o h ri t l pl
on a o sh d w 5 7
zo n a an e a a o .
m

l g At th s m tim on . t wr e a e e a o e

thr ws sh d w 3 l g H w o a a o 1 0 “
on . o

high i th t w r P s e o e

18 E p l i h w t fi d th h i gh t A B
. x a n o o n e e

( F ig 7 4 ) by m s f th right
. 1 e an o e

tri gl s AB C d A B D an e an .

19 E p l i . h w with ut m suri g
x a n o ,
o ea n

y g l s ant h dist c
an X Y ( F g e ,
e an e i .

75 ) b 1 f u d by m s f
c an e o n e an o

bs rv ti s o d em sur m a tson an ea e en

p r f rm d ethis sid f th
o e on e o e

w tr a e .

T he sid s f p t g
e o a en a o n are 1 2
m
,
zo 5
m
,
d 11
m th,
p ri m
1 t
m r , an 22 m e e e e

of a sim il r p t g i
a en a on s 1 6 “
fi d i t sid s
n s e .

F ig .

Co n stru t c a p l yg
o on si m i l ra to a giv en p l yg
o o n , an d h vi g
a n t o i t th e

r ti
a o 4 :
9 .

stru t r t g l sim il r t
Co n c a ec an e a o o ne giv r t glen ec an e an d e qu l t
a o an o th er

giv r t gl
en e c an e .
200 GE OM E T R Y FOR B E GIN E N RS . 1 80 .

T w o radi i fo m r at t he c en tr e two an g es l 47 , No te b u t,
l
u n e ss o t her wi se st a t ed t he c n ca ve angl e ,
o

( l ess t han i s al w ays t o b e u n d er ~

st o o d T o ev e r y s uc h an gl e t h er e c
. e orr

d s a d e fin it e arc a d efin it e c h o r d a
s
p n e , ,

A d efin it e se c t o r an d a d efinit e segm en t , .

Po i n t o u t t ho se w h i c h c o rr e sp o n d t o t he
angl e A O B
( g
F i .

F r o m w ha t pr ec e d es se er al pr o p erti es v

o f t h e c ir c l e fo ll o w a s c o r o ll ari es o r by
F ig . 1 76 .
,

t he m e t h o d o f su p e rp o siti o n .

Co r o l l a r i e s . I . A ci r cl e h a s o n ly o ne cen tr e .

2 . All r a di i o f a ci r cl e a r e equ a l .

3 . A di a meter i s tw i ce a r a di u s o f th e s a me ci r cl e .

4 . Al l di a meters of a ci r cl e a r e equ a l
( y )
w h P

5 . An a rc ca n be pl a ced o n a n equ a l a rc o f the s a me ci r cl e

( or

so a s to co i n ci de w i th i t
a n equ a l ci r cl e ) .

6 . Ci r cl es a r e equ a l w h ose r a di i or w h ose d i a m eters a r e equ a l .

E xe rc i ses l Dr w figur f y ur w
.
-
. a a d i ll ustr t th d fi iti
e o o o s n, a n a e e e n on

o f this s ti ec on .

2 O f wh t i
. ir u m f r
a s a c th l
c us P e en ce e oc

3 .W h t dat r m i s
e e ( )
i th p
ne siti ( )
i
.
i t h em g itud
o f
o n, cir l ? . e a n e, o a c e

4 W .
h t thr
a di ff r ee t p siti s
e en p i ot h v on r g rds
c an ath circ l o n a e as e a e e

5 G .
iv en ir l a cd th dist
c e , an f p ie t fr m th c
an c e tr ; oh w a o n o e en e o can

y out l l wh
e th r t
e h p ei t w i ll eb i
o n sid i utsid e
t h n ir u me,
f r P
n, o r o e e c c e e n ce

6 Dr w
. a ir l h vi g gi v i t di m t r
a c c e, a n en s a e e .

7 .I n a
g iv ir l m
en c k h
c e rd qu a l t e a c g iv l o e a o a en i ne .

8 M k. a f w s t rs di ff ri g i m g itud
e a e ec o e n n a n e .

9 .M k a tw e s t rs odi ff r i g
ec o i m g itud e but n h vi n g t h sa
m n gl t
e, a n e a e an e a

th e c en tr e .

10 Wh .
t a ( gr aret r l ss )
ea e rr sp ords t e v co gle
t t
on
h o a co n c a e an e a e

c en tr ? t str i ght gl P t
e o a a an v e gl P Wh t s g t
o a co n m i
e x an h fe a e en n e ac o

th s s s P
e e ca e

11 M .
k a f w e as gm e ts ( gr e t r den l ss ) d m
ea e t h an rr sp de g an na e e co e on in

ar sc d an g l s t th
an e tr
a e c en e .
 CHAPT E R IX .
— T HE CI CLE R . 201

12 . g l t th c tr
If the wh t i th c r sp di g ? th
an e a e en e 15 a s e o re on n are e

co rr sp di g s g m t P
e on n e en

13 If t h . g l t th tr i e wh t i th rr sp di g
an e a ? e c en e s a s e co e on n arc

sect r P s gm t P
o e en

1 4 D ivid ( fr
. h d) s t r i t tw qu l p rts A th p rts ls
e e e- an a ec o n o o e a a . re e a a o

s t rs P
ec o

1 5 D ivi d ( fr
. h d ) s gm t i t tw qu l p rts A th p rts ls
e ee - an a e en n o o e a a . re e a a o

s gm ts P
e en

1 6 If y . subtr t s gm t fr m th c rr sp di g s t r wh t figur i
ou ac a e en o e o e on n ec o , a e s ,

l ft P
e

1 7 Pr v th t di m t r i t h l g st ch rd i
. o e a Circ l ( U
a a e e s e on e o n a e . se

1 81 . T h eo r em .
-
l n th e sa me ci r cl e, or equ a l ci r cl es , to

equ a l a ng l es at the cen tr e ond equ a l ch o r ds , s ect o r s ,

co r r es p a r cs ,

a n d seg m en ts .

Dr a w it ab l e figur e st at e hypo t hesi s and c o n c l u si o ns ( as

a su ,

c o nc i s e l y as p o ss i b l e i n t er m s o f t he l e tt e r s m ar k e d o n t h e figu r e ) ,

and pr o v e b y su p e rp o siti o n .

Rem a rk T her e are alt o ge t he r fo u r c o n ver se t heo r e m s S t at e

.
-
.

t hem and pr o ve t hem ( by su p erp o siti o n)

,
.

H e n c e it a pp ear s t hat t h e e q u alit y o f an y o n e p air o f th e fiv e

e l e m e n t s m e n ti o n e d i n t h e t h eo r e m i m li es t he e u alit o f al l t he
p q y
o t h e r p air s .

C o ro l l a r i e s . I . [f the an
gl e at th e cen tr e is a s tr a igh t a ngl e

the co r r es p o n di n
g a rc is a se m i ci r cu m er en ce,
-

f a nd the

co r r es o n di ng s ect o r is
p a se
g m en t equ a l to a s e m i ci r cl e .

2 . S i nc e the s i d es Of a s trai ght an g e l fo m r a d i am e t er , every

d i a meter bi sects a ci r cl e a n d a l s o i ts ci r cu m e ren ce f .

3 . [f the an
gl e at the cen tr e is a ri gh t a ng l e, th e co r r es p o n d i ng

a rc i s h a lf f
o a sem i ci r c u m er en ce,
-

f a nd the co r r es p o n di ng s ecto r

i s h a lf f
o a se m i ci r cl e .

4 . T w o d i a m eter s a t ri gh t a ngl es to ea ch o th er di vi de a ci r cl e

a nd a l so i ts ci r cu m er en ce f i n to f o u r eq u a l p a r ts .

D e fin i t i o n . O n e f o u r th -

f
o a ci r cl e is ca l l e d a QUAD ANT R .

T he c o rres p o nd i ng ar c i s the a rc o f a q u a d r a nt .
202 GE OM E T RY F O R B E GI NN E RS . 182 .

i ses —1 If th gl t th
E xe rc . tr i . wh t i th ? th e an e a e c en e s a s e ar e e

c h rd ? th s t r ? th s g m t ?
o e ec o e e en

2 H w m y d gr s
. o th r i an f qu dr t P
e ee are e e n a n ar c O a a an

3 Wh t i t h r ti
. a f qu dr t d h l f t th wh l Cir l P
s e a o o a a an an a a o e o e c e

4 I . giv ir l m k ( i )
n a qu l t giv
en c c e
(i i ) s t r a e . an a re e a o a en a rc , . a ec o

e qu l t g v s t r ( i i i ) s g m t qu l t giv s gm t
a o a i en ec o , . a e en e a o a en e en .

5 M k
. af e a n a rc o

6 M k
. aqu l t twi
e a n a rc egiv a o ce a e n a rc .

7 M k
. a
q u l t fi ti m
e a n a re es giv a o ve e a e n arc .

8 M k
. s t r qu l t twi
a e a g iv s ct r
ec o e a o ce a en e o .

9 C . y m k
an s gm t qu l t twi
ou giv s gm t ?
a e a e en e a o ce a en e en

18 2 .
77 ) If F
gl
( gies A O JI I
. 1M O /V N O P P O B t he an ,
I
, , ,

C O Q QO P P O D are e q u al t hen t he
, , , ,

c o rr espo n d i ng ar c s an d sec t o r s are al so

eq u al And it i s o bv i o u s ( b y
si m pl e c o m p ari so n as i n 3 7 ) t hat t he ,

fo ll o w i ng r ati o s h o l d tr u e
Angl es A O B : COD : 4 : 3;
Ar c s A B CD 4 3
S ec t o r s A O B : COD 4 : 3 .

T hi s r easo ni ng m ay b e appli e d t o any

angl es w h i c h hav e a c o m m o n m easu r e an d i n h i gh er w o r k s o n , ,

G e o m e t ry i s e x t en,
d e d t o i n c o m m en su r a b l e a r c s w it h t h e sam e

r esu lt Henc e ,

—l n
.

T h eo rem . th e s a me ci r cl e, o r equ a l ci r cl es , tw o a r cs , o r

tw o s ectors, ha ve th e sa me r a ti o a s th e cor r es p o n d i ng a ngl es a t th e

cen tr e

—
.

A h a s the s a me r a ti o to th e en ti re ci r cl e
C o r o l l a ry . s ecto r

th a t th e co r r es p o ndi ng a rc h a s to th e en ti r e ci r cu m er en ce f .

E x r i s e s —l
e c . . M a k e tw o a c r s whi h sh l l c a b e to e ac h th r o e i n th e r ti
a o

2 :
5 .

2 . Wh at ratio s h av e th e fo ll o wi g s t rs t
n ec o o th e tir ir l
en e c c e P

(i ) .
s t r
A ec o of (ii i) . A s t r f ec o o

(i i ) . A s t r ec o o f ( )
i v . A s ct r f e o o
204 GE OME T R Y FOR B E GINN E RS . 1 8 4.

E xe rc ses i —1 B is t gi
. . ec a v e n a rc .

2 . B is t
ec giv s t r a en ec o .

3 . B is t
ec giv s g m ta en e en .

4 . F i d th
n tr f giv e c en e o a en c ir lc e .

5 F i d th
n tr f giv e c en e o a en c ir l usi g
c e, n on ly o ne c h rd
o an d o ne
p er
n di cu l ar
p e .

6 . Fi d th
n tr e c en e of a c ir l whi h sh l l p ss thr ugh thr giv p i ts
c e c a a o ee en o n .

7 . G iv urv h
en a c e, o w c an y s rt i wh th r i t i th
o u a ce f irc l
a n e e s e a rc o a c e

o r not P
8 . i d th l us f th
F n tr s f l l th ir l s whi h p ss thr ugh tw
e oc o e cen e o a e c c e c a o o

giv p i ts
en o n .

9 Dr w
. ir l whi h sh l l p ss thr ugh tw giv p i ts d wh s
a a c c e c a a o o en o n , an o e

c en tr sh l l b i giv l i
e a ( I wh t s i th r
e n a s luti P I wh t
en ne . n a ca e s e e no o on n a

ca es i th pr b l m i d t rm i t P)
s e o e n e e na e

10 Dr w . ir l with giv r dius d p ssi g thr ugh tw giv p i ts

a a c c e a en a an a n o o en o n .

( T w s
o luti s
o I wh t
ons l y. P I wh t
n s s l uti
a P)
ca e on one n a ca e n o o on

11 F i d th l us f th m idd l p i ts f syst m f p r ll l ch rds

. n e oc O e e o n o a e o a a e o .

1 2 T hr ugh
. gi v p i t withi
o ir l dr w h rd whi h i bis t d
a en o n n a c c e a a c o c s ec e

a t this p i t o n .

18 4 . Let the rad u s i OA ( F ig . 1 7 9) rem a n i fixed , an d c o n

rad i us t u r ns ab o u t O
c ei v e t h at a se c o nd

as a c en tr e s t arti ng fr o m th e p o s iti o n ,

O A an d c o m i ng su c c essi ely i n t o t h e p o ,
v

s i t i o ns O B O C O D etc T h e gr eat er , , ,
.

A t h e angl e at t h e c en tr e A O B A O C A O D , , , ,

et c t h e gr eat er t he c o rr e sp o nd i ng c ho r d
.
,

A B A C A D et c Li k ew i se the gr ea t er , , ,
.

t he c ho r d t he n ear er i t a p p r o ac h es t he

c en tr e 0 ; and fin all y wh en t h e m o v i ng
F g 79 z . 1 .
,

r ad i u s arri ves at the po siti o n O B the ,

c ho r d p asses t hr ou gh t h e c en tr e and b ec o m es a d i am e t er In ,
.

t hi s w ay w e m ay arriv e at th e fo ll ow i ng c on c lu si o ns
T h e o r em s . I . T h e g rea ter th e a ngl e a t th e cen tr e, the g rea ter
b ei ng s u p os ed l ess tha n
the co r r es o ndi ng
p ch o r d ( the a ngle p
 CHAPT E R 1x .
—H T E R
CI CL E . 205

N OT E —T he ch rd d s t h w v r i cr s
o oe no o e e n ea e i n th e s am er ti ath ogl as e an e
c tr ch rd f i st c f w i c gl gr t r but t twi c
, ,

at th e en e T he o or n an e, o t e an an e is ea e no e
gr t ch rd f h gl i ts lf
.
, ,

as ea ,
a s th e o o t e an e e .

II . T h e d i a m eter i s the l o nge s t f a ci r cl e

ch o r d o .

III E qu a l ch o r ds a re equ a l ly
. di s ta n t f r o m the centr e .

IV Of t w o u n equ a l ch o r ds , the g r ea ter i s

. n ea r er to th e cen tr e,

a n d co n ver s el
y .

E xe rc i se —Dr w thr ugh . a o a g iv en p i t withi

o n n a c irc l e th e l o n g est c h rd ;
o

th e sh rt st h rd
o e c o .

11 .
—I n s c ri b e d Ang l es .

18 5 . D e fin i t i o n .
—A n a ngl e B A C ( F ig 1 8 0) w hose ver tex .

i s i n the c i r c u m er en ce f o f a ci r cl e, a n d w h ose s i d es a r e ch or ds , i s

ca ll ed a n IN S CRIE E D AN GLE ;

T o ry insc rib e d angl e c o rresp o nd s a

eve d efinit e arc and a d efi
n it e c ho r d T he i n sc ri b e d an gl e i s O ft en
.

sa i d t o
”
t nd p n
“
i t s ar c
s a u o .

By an a ngl e i n cr i bed in a se
g men t

(D E ) FM i n sc ri b ed
is u nd e s o o d rt an

a n gl e o se si d es p as s t hr o u gh
( D E F ) w h
t h e e n d s o f t h e arc o f t h e s e gm en t .

E x r i se e c 1 Dr w f w i s rib d
s . gl s . a a e n c e an e ,

an d p i t t th
o n rr sp di g cs d h rds
ou e co e on n ar an c o .

2 I s rib s v r l
. n c g l s i th s m g e e e a an e n e a e se

m t en .

18 6 . T h e o r em .
—A n i nscr i bed a ngl e is equ a l to o ne -
h a lf f
o

t he a ng l e a t th e cen tr e w h i ch h a s the sa me a r c .

Proo f .
—T h e c en tre of the c ir c l e m ay l i e ( i ) . in o ne o f t he s d es i
of t he ang e l (F g
) i .i d es o f t h e a n gl e or ( i i . b e t ween t h e s

( g
F i . or
( i i i ) w it h o u t t h e s i d e s o f t h e an gl e
( F ig S o .

t he r e a e t hr e e ases b u t the sec o nd and t hir d are c l o sely c o n

r c ,

n e c t e d wi t h t h e fir st .

Case Dr aw t he r ad i u s O C and u se 66 and 80 , .

206 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 186 .

( Dr aw t he d i am e t e r A D , ppl y t he pr o o f fo r Case
J
ase a

(i .
) t wi ce ,
an d add the r esu lt s .

Case —Dr aw t he d i am e t e r A D , a pply t he pr o o f fo r Case

( i .
) t w i ce ,
an d su b tr ac t th e r esu lt s .

Co r ol l a r i e s . I . I ns cr i bed a ngl es w h i ch s ta n d u
p on the sa m e

a r c a r e equ a l .
3

Pro of T hey are t h e ha v es o f t he sam e ang e at t h e c en re

.
-
l l t .

2 Al l a ngl es i n s cr i bed i n the sa m e seg m en t a r e equ a l

. .

Pr oof —
T hey are nsc b ed an g es s an d n g u o n t he sam e arc
. i ri l t i p
n am e ly ,
t he arc fo u nd b y su b trac ti ng t he arc of t he segm e n t fr o m
h
t e w ho e ir l c cu m fe en c e r .

Up o n wh at are d o es t h e an g e l DE F ( F ig . i n sc rib ed in
th e se g m e nt DE E 111 , t
s an d ?

3 . An a ngl e i nscr i bed i n a sem i ci r cl e is a ri gh t a ngl e .

P r oof — T he angl e at the c en tr e hav i ng t h e s am e are is e qu a l

t o tw o ri ght angl es .

4 . -
T he su m o f th e an
g l es i ns cr i bed , o ne in a g rea ter , the o th er

in a l ess , se
g m en t, i s
q e u al to tw o ri gh t a ng l es . Why ?
I ll strat eu i r
b y d ag am s h ese fo u t r co o r ll ari es .

E xe rc i ses . 1 . Wh a t i s th e v lua e o f an i s rib d

n c e an gl st di g up
e an n o n an

a rc O f

2 . Wh at v lu
a e h as an an gl i s rib d i
e n c e n a s g m t wh s
e en o e arc is e qu l t
a o

°
13
5
3 . Is th e gl i s rib d i gr t r s g m t gr t er or l es th
an e n c e n a ea e e en ea s an

Wh at i s i ts v l u i s rib d i l ss s gm t ?
a e n c e n a e e en
208 GE OM E T R Y FOR B E GINNE RS . 1 89 .

P C PB ; : o r, m u ltip lyi ng t o ge t h e r t he ex tr e m es an d the m ean s,

PA
T h eo r e m . If ch o r ds are dr aw n
thr o ugh an
y p oi nt w i th i n a ci r cl e, the

p r o d u ct o f th e t w o p a r ts i n to w hi ch the
F cho r d i s d i vi ded b y t he p o i n t i s th e s a me

f or a l l the ch o r ds .

Co r o l l a r y . Am o n g t he c h o r d s whi c h
may b e d r awn t h r o u gh P i s the d i am e t er
E PF t her efo r e ,
the co n s ta n t v a l u e o f
the a bo ve -
m en ti o ned p r o d u ct, f or a g i v en

p osi ti o n o f P , i s the p r o d u c t o f the tw o p a r ts o f the di a m eter d r a w n

th r o ugh P .

E xe rc i s e s. 1 . P r v
usi g this C r ll ry d 1 8 3
o e 187, T h r eo em I .
,
n o o a an .

2 If th r dius f
. irc l
e 4 afi d t h pr duct f th p rts O
o a c f y e 2 cm
,
n e o o e a an

ch rd dr w thr ugh p i t m fr m th
o a n o tr a o n Io c o e c en e .

3 Pr v th t th
. gl A P C ( F ig 8 b tw t w i t rs ti g ch rds
o e a e an e . 1 e ee n o n e ec n o

AB d CD i m sur d by h l f t h
an ,
s A E C i c l ud d b tw
ea e i t sid s a e a rc n e e een s e

h l f th
a D F B i l ud d b twe
e a rc i t sid s pr duc dnc (U e66 d e en s e o e . se an

III .
—S e c an t s an d T a n g en t s .

D e fin i t i o n I .
- ~
A s tr a igh t f l i ne o i n defin i te l eng th
1 8 6) w h i ch cu ts th e ci r cu mf er e n ce of a ci r cl e i n tw o

p o i n ts is ca l l ed a SE CA TN .

If w e i t he se c an t A B t o t u rn
c o n c e ve

ab o u t t h e p o i n t A t o w ar d s t h e r i gh t t h e , ,

o t her p o i nt of i n t er sec ti o n B will ap

pr o ac h n ear er and n ear er t o A an d w ill ,

finall y c o i nc i d e w it h A At t hi s i n st an t .
,

t he sec an t t ak e s t h e p o siti o n C D an d ,

h as o nl y o ne p o i n t A i n c o mm o n w it h
t he c ir c u m fe r e n c e .
 19 0 .
j CHAPT E R Ix .
—T HE CIRCLE . 209

D e fin i t i o n II .
—A l i ne w h i ch to u ches a ci r cu m er en ce f in o ne

p oi n t w i th ou t c u tti ng it is ca l l ed a T A GEN NT .

Su c h a li ne
ly sai d t o t is u su al o u ch t he c ir c l e ; and t he p o i nt
w h e r e it t o u c h es t h e c ir c l e i s c all e d t he p oi nt o f co n ta ct .

E xe r c is e s .
—1
wh t r l ti d s s t st d t ch rd P
. In a e a on oe a e c an an o a o

2 . C str ight l i
an a t circ l i m r th tw p i ts P
a n e ou a e n o e an o o n

3 . Wh t thr diff r t p siti s m y str ight l i h v with r sp ct t

a ee e en o on a a a ne a e e e o

a c irc l e P

190 Let B C ( F i g
. . 1 87 ) t o u c h t he c ir c le at t he p o int A . J o in
A t o the c en tr e O, an d a so l j o i n any o t h er
p o int of B C, as D, to O . T hen O D >
OA ( w hy P) . T hat i s, O A i s sh o rt er
t han any o t he r li ne w hi c h c an b e d r awn
fr o m O t o t he li n e B C ; t he r e fo r e
OA L B C . an d B C _L O A .

T h e o r em .
—A ta ngen t to a ci r cl e is
e n d i cu l a r to the r a di u s d r a w n to the
p p er

p f
oi n t o co n ta ct .

i s 1 F i d th l us f th c tr s f circ l s which t uch gi v

E xe rc se . . n e oc o e en e O e o a en

li i
ne gi v p i t
n a en o n .

2 F i d th l cus f th
. tr s f ir l s whi h h v giv r dius d
n e o o e c en e o c c e c a e a en a an

t uch giv l i
o
(T w l i s S
a en ne . o ne . ee

3 T h r dius p rp di ul r t
. e t g t bis ts v ry h rd p r ll l t
a e en c a o a an en ec e e c o a a e o

th t g t
e an en .

19 1 . Pr o b l e m .
—T h r o ugh a g i ve n p o i n t to d r a w a ta ngen t
to a g i v e n ci r cl e .

T he re
t hr ee c ases ; fo r t he gi en p o in t m ay l i e ( i )
are v ,
. w h it i n ,

( )
i i i n
.
( )
i i i w it h o
, u t t h e C r c.m fe r en c e ,
i u .

Case ( i ) c nn o t b e so l e d . Why ? a v .

Case 1 90 su ppli es t he m e an s o f so l u ti o n . H ow ?
G ive the c o nst r u c ti o n .
210 GE OME T RY FO R BE GINN E RS .
E§ 1 91

Cons tr u cti o n .
—L et A ( F ig . 8 8 ) b e t h e gi v en
1

p o in t , O the c en tr e o f t h e
gi v e n

c ir c l e i A O, pon A O
.
j o n an d u

as a d i am e t e r d e sc ri b e a c ir c l e

cu tti ng t he gi ven Cir l e i n B an d c

C A B an d A C a r e b o t h t an
.

gen t s t o t h e g i v e n c ir c l e .

P f roo 1 8 6 Co r o ll ry 3 ,
a ,

and 1 90 .

Co r o l l a ry . T he ta ng en ts
AB a nd A C ( F ig 1 88 ) a r e equ a l . .

Pr o of .
-
S ho w that the tri angl es A B O an d A CO are e u a
q l .

E xe rc is es . 1 . D r w t g t thr ugh g i v
a a an en o a en p i t o n i n th e c i rc u m fe rJ

e nce o f a c irc l e .

2 . D r w t g ts thr ugh
a an en o a giv en p i t with ut
o n o th e c ir u m f r c
c e en e of a

c ir l
c e .

3 . If t g ts
an en a re dr wa n fr om a p i t with ut
o n o a c irc l e, li which
th e ne

j i s th
o n e p i t t th
o n o e c en tr e of th e c irc l bis ts th
e ec e an gl e ma d by th t
e e an

g tsen .

4 . If th e an gl e be tw ee n tw o t g ts dr w thr ugh p i t with ut

an en a n o a o n o a

c ir l i right g l fi d th
c e s a an e, n e an g l t the tr f rm d by r dii dr w t
a e c en e o e a a n o

th p i ts f c
e t ct
o n o on a .

5 Dr w . ir l with giv r dius th t sh l l t u h gi v li

a a c c e g v
a en a a a o c a en n e In a i en

p i t (T w s lut i s )
o n . o o on .

6 Dr w . i r l witha giv r dius th t sh ll t u h gi v li

a c c e d p ss
a en a a a o c a en ne a n a

thr ugh g i v p i t ( t w
o a en s luti
o n rdi g th dist c fr m o , o ne , o r no o o n , ac c o n as e an e o

th giv
e p i t t th giv l i i
en o n o th di m t r f th
e irc l ) en ne s or e a e e o e c e .

7 D scrib. Circ l th t p ss s thr ugh giv p i t d t u h s giv

e e a e a a e o a en o n an o c e a en

li i giv p i t ( Wh r c
ne n a en t th first p i t b P)
o n . e e ann o e o n e

8 T giv ir l dr w t g t whi h
. o a en c c e a a an en c ,

( ) i p r ll l ta g i v s li a a e o a en ne .

( b) i p rp dicul r t s giv li e en a o a en ne .

( ) m k s givc gl with
a giv
e li a en an e a en ne .

9 D s rib
. ir l th t t u h s tw g i v i t rs ti g li s d
e c e a c c e a o c e o en n e ec n ne , an ,

( ) wh s tr
a i i giv l i
o e c en e s n a en ne .

( b) whi h t u h s f th l i
c s i giv p i to c e o ne o e ne n a en o n .

( ) whi h h c g i v r dius c as a en a .
21 2 GE OME T R Y FO R B E GIN E N RS . 1
93 .

1 93 . T he r el ative p o siti o n o f tw o Cir c l es d ep end s u po n t he

p o siti o n s o f t h eir c en tres and t he l engt hs
o f t h e ir r a d ii .

D e fin i t i o n s . I . T wo ci r cl es th a t

h a ve th e s a me centr e
( F ig . 1 9 0 ) a re sa i d

to be CO CE N NT RIC .

II T he p l a n e figu r e ly i ng betw een thei r

.

ci r cu mf er en ces i s ca l l ed a RI G N .

III . T wo ci r cl es th a t h a ve d if eren t cen

F ig . 1 90 .

tr es a r e sa i d to be E C CE NT RIC .

IV . T he l i n e j o i ni ng th ei r cen tr es is ca l l ed the LIN E O F CE NT RE S .

1 94 . Let ( F ig . 1 9 1
) O an d P b e t he c ent es o f r tw o e c c en tri c
C ir c l es w it h t h e r ad ii an d a n rd l et "r esp ec tivel
u s pr o c ee d t o
, y 7 ,

e xam i n e t he d i ffe r e n t p o siti on s w h i c h t hese C ir c l es w ill h av e as t h e ,

d i st an c e o f t h e ir c en tr es OP : c i s su pp o se d c o n tinu all y t o In
c r ease . T her e are fiv e d i ffer en t c ases .

If th e d i s t an c e o f t h e c en tr es
’
Case ( i ) ( F g . c < r
i . r .

i s l e ss t h an t he d i ffe r en c e o f t he r ad u th e s m a l l er ci r cl e l i es w h ol ly ,

w i th i n th e l a rger .

Case ( i i ) .
( F ig . c r 7
4
. If th e d i st anc e of t he c en

tres i s e qu a l to the d i ffe r en c e of t he r ad ii ,

th e ci r cl es to u ch , o r a re

ta ngen t, i n ter n a l ly .
 1 94 ] CHAPT E R IX .
— HE T CIRCLE . 213

Case li i i ) .
( F ig . c > r r
’
an d r r
’
. If t he d i st anc e
of t he tr e s i s gr ea t e r t han the d i ffer enc e
c en ,
bu t l ess t han t h e su m

of t he r adii th ci cl i n t ct i n tw p i n t
,
e r es er se o o s .

Cas e (i v ) ( F ig
. . c r r
'
. If t he d i st an c e o f the c en

tr es is e qu a l to t h e su m of t he r ad ii ,
th e ci r cl es to u ch , or a re

ta ngen t, ex ter na lly .

Case ( v ) .
( g
F i . c > r + r
’
. If t h e d i st an ce of t he c en

tr es r t r t
fl

i s g ea e ha n t h e su m of th e ra d i i , th e ci r cl es l i e w h ol ly
o u ts i d e ea ch o ther .

E xe rc s e s i .
—1 . Ca n yo u gi v e a r s ea o n why tw o circ l s ce a nn o t m ee t in
mo r the p i tsan tw o o n P
2 Wh t di ff r t p siti s
. a tw c ir l s h v r l t i v l y t
e en ch th r ?o on c an o c e a e e a e o ea o e

3 L t . d " b t h r d i i f tw
e r an i l th dist
7 c f th ir c tr s
e e a o
'

o c r c es, c e an e o e en e .

Wh t r l t i v p siti s h v th circ l s f th f l l w m g v l u s f
a e a e o on d P a e e e or e o o a e o r, r
’
,
an c

( ) a c : 8 .
(f ) r : 6, c : 8 .

( b) r : 7, r :4
’
,
c 2 .
(g r : 1 0, r
’: 3, c :
7 .

c: ( h) : 5, :
’
( ) 2, IO r
5 IO
‘

c . r , c .

c: 6 .
( )
i r : I 2, 7 , c : 9 .

: 9, : 5, c: 4 : 9 : 2, :
’
( ) e r r
’ .
( )
h r ,
r c

4 .scri b with th d 3 5
De d e, tw circ l s wh i ch sh ll t uch
e ra n cm
an o e a o

e ach th r ( i ) i t r ll y ( i i ) t r ll y
o e . n e na , . ex e na .

5 I . giv circ l m k t w circ l s such th t th y sh ll b th t uch th

n a en e a e o e a e a o o e

gi v c irc l i t r ll y, d l s t uch ch th r t r ll y
en e n e na an a o o ea o e ex e na .

6 Wi th thr
. giv r d ii m d p d scrib thr
ee cir l s wh i ch sh ll
en a , , n , an , e e ee c e a

m utu ll y t uch
a th r t r ll y
o o n e an o e ex e n a .

Hi t Fi t c
n st u t tri gl h v i g th s i d s m
. rs on m p r d cp a an e a n e e n, ,
an n .
214 GE OM E T RY FOR B E GI NNE RS .

TC —I n s cr i b ed an d Ci r c u m s c r i b e d F i g ur es .

19 5 D e fin i t i o n s I A ci r cl e i s sa i d to be IN S CRIB E D i n
’

. . . a

p olyg o n w h en i ts f
ci r cu m er en ce to u ches all th e s i d es o f th e p o lyg o n

a nd th e py ol g o n is sa i d to be CI CUM S C R RIB E D a bo u t th e ci r cl e
( F ig .

II. A ci r cl e i s sai d to be CI CUM S C R R IB E D a bo u t a

p o lyg o n w h en
i ts ci r cu m er en ce f p a ss es th r o ug h all the cor n er s f th e p o lyg o n
o

a nd th e po lyg o n i s sai d N R
to be I S C IB E D i n th e ci r c l e ( F ig .

In F ig . 1 9 6,
t h e s i d es of

t he p o lygo n are t angen t s

t o th e C ir c l e ; i n F ig 1 9 7 .
,

t hey are Cho r d s o f the Cir

cl e .

N OT tr E In ea t i n t i g h s sub
sh ll rs su s p ly
.

je c t w e a fi t pp o e t h e o
F ig - 1 99 g on gv to b e i en an d th e i e C rcl
scr b d c rcu scr b
,

In i e or i m i ed

1 96 an d t h en su pp s o e th e c i rc l e to b gv
e p
i en a n d t h e o o n to b e lyg
in scrib d e o r c i rc u m s ri b e d é (N 202

196 . Pro b l em . T o i nscri be a ci r cl e in a g i ven tr i a ng l e

A B C ( F ig .

Co ns tr u cti o n . B i se c t t he ang es l A an d B, an d fr o m the

i n t er
sec ti o n 0 o f t h e b i se c t o r s d r w a

OD J AB . 0 i s t he c en tr e o f
.

t h e r e qu i r ed c ir c l e O D t he ra ,

d i ns .

P r oof D r aw O E
. L AC _ ,

O E L B C an d j o i n O C S ho w
_ ,
.

t hat A A O D 9:A A O E and ,

A B OD g A B O F , when c e
OD OE O F ; t her e fo r e ,
ir c l e
t he c w it h O as c e n tr e an d

OD as r ad i u s t o u c hes t he s i d es o f t h e tri angl e i n D , E ,

an d F .
21 6 GE OM E T RY F O R B E GIN NE RS . 2 00 .

Co r o l l a r y lf i n d r i l a ter a l th e su m
f
a
qu a tw o ppos i te
-
. o o

a ng l es a ci r cl e ca n be ci r cu ms cr i bed a bo u t the qu a dri

l a ter a l .

i e s 1 H w i th
E xe rc s tr f th ir u m s rib d ir l f u d P
. . o s e c en e o e c c c e c c e o n

2 Ab ut wh t tw ki ds f qu dri l t r l s
. o ir l l w ys b ir u m
a o n o a a e a c an a c c e a a e c c ~

s ib d P
cr e

3 D r w r t gl
. d ir u m s rib
a b ut i t ir l
a e c an e , an c c c e a o a c c e .

200 T h e o r e m . .
—A ci r cl e ca n a l w ay s be i nscr i bed i n a

r eg u l a r
p olygo n .

P ro of .
—
U se 119 . What i s t he r ad iu s o f the C ir c l e ,
and what
p o nt i i s i ts c en tr e ?
r i s s 1 S h w h w t fi d th
E xe c e . tr f th i s rib d ir l
. o o o n e c en e o e n c e c c e.

2 I s rib . irc l i r gu l r h g
n c e a c e n a e a e xa on .

3 Withi . squ r d scrib f ur circ l s t u hi g h th r d l s

n a a e e e o e o c n e ac o e , an a o th e
sid s f th squ r Wh t i th m m r dius f th ir l s P
e o e a e . a s e co on a o e c c e

201 . T h eo re m .
-
A ci r cl e ca n a l w ay s be ci r cu mscri bed a bou t

a reg u l a r olyg o n
p .

P r o of .
—U e s 119 . Wha t i s the rad i u s o f t he c ir c l e ,
an d what

p o n i t i s i ts c en tr e ?
E xe rc i ses 1 . . S h w h w t fi d th
o tr f th ir u m s rib d ir l
o o n e c en e o e c c c e c c e .

2 . Cir u m s rib
c c e a cir l b ut r gu l r h g
c e a o a e a e xa on .

3 . Cir u m s rib
c c e a c ir l b ut r gu l r ct g
c e a o a e a o a on .

202 . In o r d er to i nsc ri b e r egu lar p o l ygo ns i n Cir cl es o r t o ,

c ir c u m sc rib e t hem ab o u t c ir c l es it i s n ec e ssar

y t o d i i d e the c ir
,
v

c u m fere n c e of the c ir c l e i n t o as m any e q u al p art s as t her e are

s i d es i n t he p o l ygo n .

Pr o b l em . T o di vi de w i th ru l er a nd co m a s ses p the ci r cu m er f
en ce o f a ci r cl e i n to equ a l p a r ts .

T h is pr o b l e m c an b e so l ved o nly i n the fo ll o w i ng c ases

Case 1 . T wo , fo u r , e i t i t
gh ,
s x een, t h irt y two -

,
et c .
,
e qu a l p art s .
 CHAPT E R 1x .
—T HE R
CI CLE . 21 7

S o l u ti o n .
—A d i
t r b i sec t s the c ir c u m fer en c e 18 1 Co r o l
am e e ,

l ary t w o d i am e t e r s p erp e n d i c u l ar t o eac h o t he r d i v i d e it i n t o

fo u r e qu al p rt s 18 1 Co r o ll ar y
a r e p eat ed b i se c ti o n o f t he
,

a r c s w ill d i i d e it i nt o e i gh t si xt e en t hirt y two e t c e qu al p art s

v , ,
-

,
.
, .

D r w a c ir c l e an d d i i d e t he c ir c u m fer en c e i n t o tw o e qu al part s
a ,
v

fo r e q l p rt s e i gh t e q u l p art s
u ua a a .

Case 2 T hr ee si x t w e l e t w en t y fo u r fo rt y e i gh t et c e qu al
.
, ,
v ,
-

,
-

,
.
,

p art s .

S ol ti n —If w e c o n st ru c t i n a
u o .

c ir l e ) il t r l tri
c
( g
F i 2 0 0 an .e q a e a u

a n gl e O A B ha i ng eac h si d e e q al
,
v u

t o t h e r ad i s it i s c l e ar t ha t s i n c e
u , ,

AOB t he arc AB g t he

c ir r
c u m fe en c e T h e r e fo r e t he r.
,
a

d i s appli ed s a c ho r d si x ti m es
i

u a

t o t h e c ir c m fe r e n c e w ill d i i d e i t
u v

i n t o si x eq l p art s ua .

T he alt e r n a t e p o i n t s o f d iv i si o n F g , i . 2 00 .

a s A C E ,
d i i d e th e C ir m fer e n c e
, ,
v cu

i n t o t hr ee e qu l p art s ( Axi o m IL) a .

Ho w n t he C ir c m fe r e n c e b e d i i d ed i n t o t w e l e e q u al p art ?
ca u v v s

i n t o t wen t y fo r ? i n t o fo r ty e i gh t ?
-
u -

Di ide v ir m fer e nc e i n t o si x e q l p art s t w el e eq al p art s

a C cu ua v u .

Case 3 F i e t e n t w e n t y fo rt y
.
-
v , , , ,

e i gh t
y etc ,
e q l p a
.r t,
S ua .

S l ti n ( F g
o u o B i se c t A 0
i .

i n C an d w it h C as c en tr e an d a
, ,

r ad i s e qu l t o C D d e s ri b e an a c
u a ,
c r

c tti n g O B i n E
u OE ppli ed as a a

c h o r d t e n ti m es t o t h e ir m fer en e c cu c

w ill d i i d e it i n t o t e n e q
v l p rt s and ua a ,

DE ppli e d as
a h o r d fi e ti m e s a C v

w ill d iv i d e it i n t o fiv e e q al p rt s u a .
218 GE OM E T RY F O R B E GI NN E RS . 203 .

T he pr o o f t ha t t h i s so l u ti o n i s c o rr e c t c ann o t b e gi ven he r e .

H o w w ill t h e d i v i s i o n i n t o t e n e q u al p art s e n ab l e us, w it ho u t t he

u se o f DE ,
to m ak e t he d i v i si o n
i n t o five e qu al p art s ?
H o w c an a C ir c u m fer en c e b e d i v i d e d i n t o t wen t y e qu al p art s ?
r

D i v i d e a c ir c u m fe r en c e i n t o fi e a n d i n t o t en e qu l p art s v ,
a .

R e m a r k — Wit h t h e aid o f a pr o tr ac t o r ( se e F g 4 6) a c i ,
. i . r~

c m feren c e m ay b e d i i d e d w it h s u ffi i e n t e xac t n e s s fo r al l pr ac ti c al
u v c

p rp o se s i n t o any n m b e r o f e q al p art s Su pp o se fo r i nst anc e t hat

u u u .
~ , ,

t he n u m b er o f e qu a l p art s i s 2 5 t hen the angl e at t he c en tr e c o r

3 60
r esp o n d i ng t o e ac h p art 14
°
24
I
Co n str u c t w it h t he pro
2
5
trac t o r pl ac e d so t hat i t s c en tr e sh ll c o i n c i d e w it h the c en tr e o f
,
a

t h e C ir c l e an angl e o f 4 2 4 t h e a c o f the gi e n c ir l e c o n
° ’
1 r v c
,

t a i n e d b e t w e e n t he s i d e s o f t h i s angl e w ill b e 213 t h e e n tir e Cir

c u m fere n c e .

N OT E —An an e of 1 gl
( a m o n o t e ) an n o b e o n t te
°
g h rs c t c s ruc d w h rul r
i t th e e
and c p ss s
om a e qu s
T he e ti o n m a y e e o ho w is a h r ccur :
o a to it e f pr tr c r s l gr du
a
d t d gr s ll ws :d v d w h ru l r c p ss s
.

ate in o e ee ? O n e w a y i s a s fo o i i e it e an d om a e the
t r c rcu r c
en i e i m fe e n e i n t o s i x e qu l r s
a p a t , a n d t e n i n o fiv e e a h a t t qu l p r s
T h e d if
r c b tw th s p rs c rcu r c s
.

fe en e e e e n t w o O f e e a t
(3 z th e i m fe en e .
h
T o
th e e m i r

c rcu r c
i m fe e n e s ct w c
Bi e t i e in e io n ea of t e e succ ss
fte e n ch h s fi
a ; t i p rts h s d v d s
i i e
s c rcu r c s ty qu l p r s ll y ch h s s ty p r s
.

the em i i -
m fe e n e i nt o i x e a a t ; fin a ea of t e e ix a t is
r s c d by r p t d tr l s g cl s g l ttl c p ss s ll r ght
,

t i e te e ea e ia o peni n or o in a i e th e om a e ti th e i
p g b d s p r c th d gr du g c rcl
,

o enin i s o t ai n e B u t th e m o t e fe t m e o of a at i n a i e i n to
d gr s subd v s s d gr by s c ly—dj us d scr w
.

e ee and i i i o n o f a e ee i s m ea n o f n i e a te e m o ti o n -

in m a ch s d th s
i n e m a e fo r i ex e po e pr ss pur s .

i s
E xe rc se F i d l l th
.
—1 g l s b tw
. n d 36 a whi h e an e e e en 0
°
an 0
°
c c an be
co n struct d by C s
e a e I .

2 F i d l l th
. n gl s whi h
a b e an stru t d by C s
e c c an e co n c e a e 2 .

3 F i d l l th
. n g l s whi h
a b ce an struct d by C s 3
e c c an e on e a e .

4 Wh t
. gl a b tri s ct d with ru l r
an e c an d m p ss s P T ris t i t
e e e e an co a e ec .

5 D ivid with th pr tr t r
. e ircu m f r c i t s v
e oi fi ft ac o a c e en e n o e en, n n e, e en

e qu l p rts
a a .

203 . Pr o b l e m . T o i ns cr i be i n a
g i ven ci r cl e a r eg u l a r

p l on
( g
F i
—Di
yo
g .

Co nstr u c ti o n v i de the c ir c u m fer enc e i n t o as m any e qu a l

220 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GIN N E RS . 20
5 .

P r o of —S h ow t hat t h e q u a d ri l a t
e ral s A B C 0, CD E 0, etc are e u a l
.
, q
( b y t h e m e t h o d o f p erp o siti o n )
su .

E xe r i c se s .
-
Cir u m s rib
c b ut giv
c e a o a en
rl
ci c e,

1 . quil t r l tri gl
An e a e a an e .

2 . A r gu l r h
e g a e xa on .

3 . A r gu l r h pt g
e a e a on .

4 . A r gu l r
e ga no na on .

5 . A gu l r d c g
re a e a on .

6 . A gu l r d d
re ag o e ca on .

205 . R egu l a r p o lygo n s are m o st eas ily c o nstru c t e d b y empl o y

i ng c ir c l es .

Pr o b l e m . T o co ns t ru ct a re ul a r
g p ol
yg ,
o n l zcw i ng g i ven zl ze ‘

n u m oer o
f s i des , a n d l l ze l en zb A
g
‘
B
( g
F i . 2 05
) of o n e s i el e .

S ol u ti o n — Fi nd th e c en tr e 0 of

l t he p o ygo n an d ab o t 0 u ,

w it h a r ad i u s 0 A d esc ri b e a c i ,
r

cl e t he n a pply A B t o t he c ir m cu

fe r e n c e as m any ti m es a s t he r e a e r

s i d es i n t he p o l o n
yg .

Rem ark E v e ry r egu l ar p o l y

.

g o n i s c o m p o se d o f a s e ri e s o f e q u a l
ri ght tri angl es 1 1 9 Co r o ll ary ,

T he s i d es o f o n e o f t hese tri angl e s ,

A ( F ig . a re t h e g r ea t e r r ad i u s t h e l e ss r ad i u s an d , ,

t he hal f si d e o f th e p o lygo n
-
It fo ll o w fr o m
. 1 4 2 t ha t t h e se
s, ,

si d es c anno t h av e an y v al u es wh i c h w e m a c h o o se t o gi e t h em v
y ,
2 2 2
b u t are so r el a t ed t hat A 7 5 75 55 2 T he fo ll o wi ng t ab l e .

g i v e s t h e v al u e s ( n ea r e n o u g h f o r m o s t p u rp o ses
) o f t h e l ess

rad i u s an d t h e si d e t h e gr ea t e r r ad i u s i n ea c h c ase b e i ng t k en
,
a

eq u al t o 1 0 0 .
 20
5 CHAPT E R 1x .
-
T HE CI CLE R . 221

i ses Up
E xe rc li .
-
l g stru t
on a n e 20 cm
on co n c ,

l A r gu l r p t g
. e a 3 A r gu l r
en a ontg . . e a oc a on .

2 A r gu l r h
. eg a 4 A r gu l r d
exa on g
. . e a eca o n.

C stru ton r gu l r p l yg h vi g giv

c a e a o o n, a n e n,

5 P ri m t r
. e u mb r f sid s 8
e e n e o e .

6 G r t r r di u
. ea e l ss r dius 3
a s e a 0 0m

7 G r t r r dius
. ea e sid a 6 o ne e 2 cm
.

8 L ss r dius
. e a sid 39 2 o ne e 0m
.

9 G r t r r dius
. ea e sid a o ne e .

10 O . sid ne gl e 35 o n e an e 1
°

1 1 Gr t r r dius
. 45
ea e g l t th c tr
a 0m
,
an e a e en e

12 L ss r dius
. e 3 ag l t th tr 4 m
20 , a n e a e c en e 0
0

13 S i . r g l r p l yg i m p s d f s ri s f qu l right tri gl s
nc e a e u a o on s co o e o a e e o e a an e ,

an y t w p rts whi h d t rm i
o a f th s tri
c gl s wi ll d t rm i th tir
e e ne o ne o e e an e e e ne e en e

p l yg
o Wh t
on . th i p rts fa are f th s tri gl s Wh t tw p rts
e s x a o o ne o e e an e a o a

c an a l w ys b f u d i f th u m b r f sid s i k w
a e o n H w e n e o e s no n o

14 G iv . l l th c s s f tw p rts th t d t rm i
e a e a e r gu l r p l yg
o o a a e e ne a e a o on .

1 5 T h r dius f circ l
. e a m F i d t h sid
o a f th i s rib d q il t
e Ioc . n e e o e n c e e u a e

ral tri gl an ls sid f th i s rib d r gul r d g

e a o a e o e n c e e a ec a on .

16 T h p i m t r f
. e
q er
4 e e F i d th r dii f th i s rib d
o a s u are z o cm . n e a o e n c e

an d f th circu m scri b d irc l s

o e e c e .

17 I . r gul r h g th l i whi h j i s th m idd l p i ts f tw

n a e a e xa on e ne c o n e e o n o o

opp sit sid s i m l g R q uir d th p ri m t r f th h g

o e e s 2 on . e e e e e e o e e xa on .

1 8 A squ r wh s p ri m t r : 4
. a e, i ch o g d i t r gu l r ct g
e e e e 0 0m
, s an e n o a e a o a on

by utti g is s l s ri ght tri g l s fr m i t

c n o ce e r rs F i d th sid s f an f e o s c o ne . n e e o o ne o
’

Ih e s e t ri ang l e s .
 222 GE OM E T RY F o R B E GI NNE RS .

19 s d f m rb l s l b i t h sh p f regu l r t g = 4 z
. One i e o a a e a n e a e o a a oc a on cn
g
F i d th r dius f t h i scrib d cir l
n e a o e n e c e .

20 I .ir l wh s r dius 5 m r gu l r h g
n a c c e
d r gul o e a l c
, a e a e xa on an a e ar
d d g
o e ca i s rib d F i d th di ff r
on
f th ir p ri m t rs
a re n c e . n e e e nc e o e e e e .

206 Pr o b l e m — H a 7/i ng gi ven t/ze s i cl e A B

( g
F i 2 00 o
) f
. .
. an
i nscr i oea ’
r eg u l a r olyg o n , eof
p to co n s t r u c t tl ze si d an i nscr i oea ’
re u
g
l a r po lyg o n l i a r/i ng tw i ce a s m a n
y
s i d es , a n d to c o nz u te i ts l en t/
p g z .

Co n s tru c ti o n B se c t he arc . i t
A B in D , an d j o in A D . AD
i s t he s ide of t he p o lygo n re

q u ir e d .

Co mpu ta ti o n . If A B an d

AO are k no wn ,
t hen i n t he ri ght
tri angl e A O C we c an com put e

t he v al ue o f CC h o w P
( ) S u b .

tr ac t C 0 fr o m D 0 and w e o h ,
F ig 2 06
. .

t ai n CD l astly i n the ri gh t tri ,

ang e l A C D , i n wh i c h A C and C D are k n o wn c o m p u t e A D ,

( ho w

i ses —l I
E xe rc . . n a c ir l wh s r dius m r gu l r h g
c e o e a I a e a exa on is in
s rib d F i d th sid
c e . n e e an d th p r m t r f th r gu l r i scrib d d d
e e i e e o e e a n e o eca g on .

S l tio u —I th i s c s
on n a e, AB 0 : m ; A C : 0 5m ; 21 0
2
—21?
—
. .

8660 2 54 m
; CD D O C 0= 1 o 8 660 2 4 = 0 1 3 39 7 4 6m AD
0 .
5 . .
;

VAF + 6
7
2
: T he p ri m t r
e e e of th e d o
dcg
e a on 12 X o . 1 6
s 7 3 8 1 8 m 6 2 1 1 65 8 m
. .

2 i d th r f th tri gl A D B (F g
. F n e a ea o e an e i .

3 If th r dius f th circ l
. e .
m put th sid
a d th p ri m t r
o e e 1m, co e e e an e e e e of

th i s rib d r gu l r p l yg
e n c e f tw ty f ur sid s
e a o on o en -
o e .

T h r dius f
e ir l
a Fi d o a c c e n ,

4 T h p ri m t r
. d th
e r f th i s rib d squ r
e e e an e a ea o e n c e a e .

5 T h p ri m t r
. e d th r f th i s rib d r gu l r t g
e e e an e a ea o e n c e e a oc a on.
224 GE O M E T RY F OR B E GI N E N RS . 20 8 .

VIZ —L en g th of a Ci r c u m f er en c e .

208 . In r d er t o find t he l engt h o f a c ir c u m fer enc e w e m ak e

o
,

use of tw o ge n e r al tr u t h s w h i c
,
h are su ffic i e n tl y o b v i o u s fr o m w h at

p r ec e d e s .

I . Tb e per i meter of a n i nscr i oea r eg ul a r p o lyg o n i s a l w ay s l ess

’
,

za t of a ci r cu mscr i oea r e u l a r
a n d t/ M
’

g o l
p yg o n i s a l w a s
y g r ea ter a n ,

the l engt/z of tb c ci rcu mf er en ce .

II Tl i e g r ea ter tb c n u m oer of s i d es tii e nea r er the per i m eter i n

.
,

ei t/zer ca se a pp r o a c/
zes to tl ze l eng t/i f
o tl ze ci r cu mfer en ce .

If t he r ad i us of t he c ir c l e 1 ,
t he p eri m e t er o f t he i nsc rib ed
r egu l ar hexago n 6 202 Case ,
an d t h a t o f t he c ir c m u

sc rib e d r egu l ar h exago n 207 ) 5 t h er efo r e t h e l en gt h ,

o f t he c ir c u m fe r en c e i s m o r e t han 6 ,
b u t l e ss t han ti m es
t h e l e ngt h o f the r ad i u s .

If n o w w e i n sc ri b e an d c ir cum sc ri b e r egu l ar p o l ygo ns o f t w el ve

si d es t w en t y fo u r si d e s fo rt y e i gh t si d es e t c
,
-

,
-
a nd c o m p u t e t o th e
,
.
,

s i xt h d ec i m al pl ac e t he v al u es o f t h e ir p e ri m e t er s w e shall o b t ai n ,

th e fo ll o wi ng r esu lt s
 CHAPT E R 1x .
— T HE CI CLE R . 225

S i nc e t he l engt h o f the c ir c u m fer enc e al ways li es b et ween the

p eri m et ers o f the i nsc ri b ed and c ir c u m sc ri bed p o lygo ns havi ng the
sam e n u m b er o f si d es an d t he p eri m e t e rs o f t hese p o l ygo n s h av i n
, g
3 0 7 2 s i d es ag r ee i n v al u e i n t h e fi r s t fi v e d e i m a l pl ac es t h er e fo r e c
,

th e n u mb e r e xpr esse s t he l engt h o f t he c ir c u m fe r en c e

c or rec tl t o fi v e d ec i m al pl ac es t h a t i s t he l e n t h o f t h e c ir c u m
g
y ,

fer e nc e i s ti m es the l engt h o f t he r ad i u s o r ti m es ,

t he l engt h o f t h e d i am e t er .

T he nu m b e r wh i c h e xpr esses the r ati o o f the c ir c umfe r en c e o f

a c ir c l e t o i t s d i a m e t e r i s o ft e n d en o t ed fo r t he sak e o f c o u v e , ,

n i en c e b y t he G r e ek l e tt er :
,
1 t hat i s : v er
7
y n ea rl y ,
7 .

F o r m o s t pr ac ti c al p rp o se s w e m ay tak e : 3 ; u 2 3 o r d ec i
7
7
, ,

m all y : ,
7 When great er ac c u r ac y i s r eq u ir ed m o r e d ec i mal ,

p l ac es m us t b e u se d If m o r e t h a n fi v .e d e c i m al s are d esir ed ,

t h ey m ay b e o b t ai ned b y co n ti nu i ng t h e ab o v e pr o c e ss o r mu c h ,

mo r e e as il y b y m eans o f o t her m e t ho d s k no wn t o m at hem a ti c i ans .

B u t w hat ev e r m e t ho d b e u se d t he e xac t v al u e o f t he r ati o o f t he ,

c ir c u m fe r e nc e o f a c ir c l e t o t he d i am e t er c an n o t b e fo u n d T he .

fart he r t he c o m p u t ati o n i s c arri ed t he near er w e appr o xi m a t e t o ,

the tr u e al u e b u t t he seri e s o f d ec i m al s w hi c h w e o b t ai n n ev er
v ,

c o m e s t o an e nd T hi s am o u nt s t o sayi ng t ha t t he c ir c u m fe r en c e
.

o f a c ir c l e and i t s d i am e t e r are t wo i n c o m m en su r ab l e li n es

N —T h pr b l m f fi d i g h r t i b tw
GT E e o e o t h c i rcu m f r
n n c f c ircl
t e a o e ee n e e en e o a e
an d i di m t r
ts a rc i s d th m i ds f g m rs i v ry rly t i m s I
e e e xe e e n oci t eo et e n e ea e . n a n an en

B r h m
a i w rk nc ll d A
o y A
,
é o y t
a h e v l u i ss
een i g d 39 7
er ,
Arch i
e a e s a ne as
2

5 12 0
m d s h gr t st g m t r f
e e t e ea e t i qu ity ( d i d
eo e e ous i g th m th d f
an e 2 12 n e e o o
i scri b d d c i rcu m scri b d p lyg s up p lyg s f 96 s i d s f u d h t
,

n e an e o on to o on o e o n t a

v l u l y b tw L ud lph f C l g wi th pr d ig i us l b r , ,

th e a e a d e een an o o o o ne , o o a o ,

c rri d th c m put ti
a e e o p lyg s f a o n to s i d s wh ch g i v s h v l u
o on o e ,
i e t e a e

c rr ct 35 d ci m l pl c s M t i us f u d i t t b £ 5 wh i ch i c rr ct t i
'

o et o e a a e . e o n o e ,
s o e o s x
3 11
d c i m l pl c s A d Pr f ss r Ri ch t r f E lb i g G rm y h c mput d th
e a a e n o e o e o n e an as o e e
v l u f t 5 d ci m l pl c s !
.
, ,

a e o 77 o 00 e a a e

B t h r i
u t pr ct i c l dv t g i bt i i g m r th th first fi
e e s no a a a an a ei n o a n n o e an e ve o r s x

p l c s ; th v l u r th tru h th t th rr r m d c m p u g .

a e e a i e 71 s so n ea e t a e e o a e in o ti n

1
( pr o no u c d lik
n e e p) i s th e first l tt r e e of a G r k w rd m
ee o ea ni ng c i r c u m er en ce. f
226 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 209 .

th e c i cr u mf r f c ircl with d i m t r f
e en ce o mi l i c
a e a a e e o o ne e s on s id r b ly l ss th
e a e an
o ne i ch n A cc rd i g ly h i s pr b l m wh i ch
o g g d t h tt
n t o e en a e e a en ti f g m t rs
on o eo e e
d ply wh th ir m th ds f ppr i m t i w r l ss p f ct h w su k
.
, ,

so ee en e e o o a ox a on e e e er e as no n
to th r k f th s us l ss qu s s v r wh i ch ly p rs
e an o o e e e e ti o n o e on e on s ig r t f g
,

no a n o eo
me tri c l sc ia c wi lli g w st th i r t i m
e n e are n to a e e e.

209 Let d d eno t e rs

i c h expr ess i n
’
. r , a , an c t h e nu m b e wh ,

t er m s o f the sam e u nit the l engt hs , o f t h e r ad i u s t h e d i a m e t e r an d

, ,

t he Cir c u m fer en c e r esp ec ti vely o f a c ir c l e ; t h en fr o m what

, , p re,

c e d es,
C z wd z
21r r .

Read t h i s fo r mu l a i n w o r d s . If i s g ve n , h o w
r i c an c b e fo u nd ?
If c i s gi ven , ho w c an r an d cl be fo u n d ?
F o r exam pl e, i f r : t hen cl : an d c = 8 x
20
Co nv er sel y, i f c zo
m
,
t hen cl 6 36 .
m
,
a nd r :
14
3 -

It i s o b v o u s, i fr o m F o r m u l a t hat if e it he r r o r a b e d o u b l ed ’
,

tr eb l ed , q u ad ru p l
e d ,
et c .
,
c w ill b e d o u b l e d tr eb l e d q u ad r u pl e d ; , ,

et c . in o t he r w o r d s ,

Tfie ci r cu m er en ces o f f t wo ci r cl es ca cti o tl zer a s t/zei r

’
a re to r a a zz,

or a s thei r d i a m eters .

21 0 An . arcm ay b e m easu r ed i n d egr ees, m i nu t es, an d sec

o nds ( angu a l r m easu r e ) , o r i t s l e ngt h m ay b e exp r esse d ( li k e t hat
o f an y li ne ) i n m e t er s fee t o r o t h er li near , ,
un it s .

It fo ll o w s fr o m 18 1 t ha t , , ,

L eng t/i f
o a n a rc w /i ol e ci r cu m er en ce f cor r es o ndi ng a ng l e
p at

ti l e cen tre

B y m e an s of t hi s pr o p o rti o n su c h q u e s ti o ns as t he fo ll o wm g m ay
be so v ed l
1 . In a c ir cl e w ho se r ad i u s fin d t he l engt h o f an arc

of

T he c ir c u m fe r en c e 10 x Le ngt h o f arc o f 45
°
228 GE OM E T RY FOR B E GINN E RS . 21 1.

26 r umf r
. f wh l
On the ci 36 t th d th dist
c b tw n e en c e o a ee are ee , an e anc e e ee

th tr s f tw t th 8
e c en m F i d th di m t r f th wh l
e o o ee I m
. n e a e e o e ee .

27 T h r di i
. f thr tri e ir l s a d 3mo F i d th i r ee co n c en c c c e a re I , 2 , an . n e

cir u m f r s
c e en ce .

28 T h d i m t rs f tw
. tri ir l s
e a I m
d
e e m F i d th o o c o n ce n c c c e are ze an 20 0 . n e

di m t r f ir l wh s ir u m f r
a e e o l i s h l f w y b tw
a c c e th th r o e c c e en ce e a -
a e ee n e o e

tw o .

29 . di m t rs f tw
T he a e e tri ir u m f r s o 8mo d c o ncen c c c e e n ce are c
an

F i d thn ir u m f re c c l yi g m idw y b tw
e e n ce th m n a e ee n e .

30 I f th
. di m t rs e f t h a ds f s
e em th l g o
3
m d 5
e en wh t i o a oo o are ‘1
an
am
, a s

th di m t r f
e a s ti m idw y b tw th ds P
e e o a ec on a e ee n e en

3 1 F i d th . nt ri r d i t i r ir u m f r s f ir u l r t k th
e ex e o an n er o c c e en c e o a c c a an , e

ex e t ri r di m t r b i g 8m d th thi k ss f th sid 3 m
o a e e e n 1 0 . an e c ne o e e c

3 2 A . ir u l r r c s rvc ir i adug 9 6 m i
e e di m t ro
7
m d p It i th
s . n a e e , . 2 ee . s en

l i d with st s 8 m l g
ne o ne m wid
2 8c
high F i d th um b r f st s
on , 1 20 e,
cm
. n e n e o o ne

r quir d ll wi g
e e ,
a o utsid m sur m t b tw th st s f m rt r
n l cm
, o e ea e en , e ee n e o ne or o a .

3 3 A ir . wh l 6m i di m t r h t th up i t ir u m f r
n on ee 1 z . n a e e as ee on s c c e en c e ,

dist t 6 fr m tr t c tr ; ( i ) h w m y t th
an cm
o c en e o th ren d (i i )e . o an ee a re e e , an .

wh t i th l gth f th cir u m f r
a s e en o i whi h th high st p i ts f th
e c e e n ce n c e e o n o e

t th i th h ight f th t th b i g 7 ?
ee l e, e e
mo e ee e n
c

34 If t
.h l gth fe t h m
eni ut h d f w
o t h = 8m m e wh t dist n e -
an o a a c I , a an c e

d s i t d p ss v r i
oe s en a d yPio e y r? n o ne a n o ne ea

3 5 Wh t dist . a i tr v rs d by an c e p i t i th ir u m f r
s a e f w t ere a o n n e c c e e n ce o a a

wh l i di m t r i f th wh l m k s 4 r v l uti s i
ee
m 2 n a e e , e h ur Pee a e I oo e o on n o ne -
o

36 T h . rth tur s i t is
e ea d y
n If i t di m t r : 8000 m i l es
on s ax o n ce a a . s a e e ,

fi d th v l ity p
n e e oc s d f p i t th E qu t r
er ec o n o a o n on e a o .

3 7 Wh t ught t b th di m t r f
. a o o m i ll st e whi h i t m k e a e e o a one c s o a e

I OO r v l uti s p m i ut i f p ri
e o on er t h s th t t s ur g d gri d
n e, ex e en c e eac e a o ec e oo n

i g
n p i t
a o nth ir u mf r
on sh u l d h v
e c c v l ity f b ut 8 p
e e n ce o a e a e oc o a o
m
er

sec o n dP
3 8 Dr w tw . a tri ir l s with
o t h
c o n ce n rd 5 m d c cth d c e e a ii 2 c
an en e

s rib
c tri ir l wh s circu m f r
e a c o n c en c c qu l s th m f th tw th r
c e o e e e n ce e a e su o e o o e

c ir u m f r s F i d l s i t l gth
c e e n ce . n ,
a o, s en .

3 9 Wh t i th r dius f
. a s cir l wh s ir u m f r
e a io qu l t th
a c e o e c c e en c e s e a o e

diff r c b tw th circu m f r s f circl s 4

e en e e e en e d 45 i di m t r ?
e en c e o e 2 cm
an cm
n a e e

40 F i d th di m t r f
. n e ir l wh s ir u m f r
a e e io qu l t fi
a c c e o e c c e e n ce s e a o ve

ti m s th t f ir l 3 i di m t
e a o
m
a c c e 0c n a e er .

41 D s rib t w. e c ir l s m ki g th ir u m f r
e o c c e f ,
qu l t ne
a n e c c e ence o o ne e a o o

q u rt
a r the t f t h a th r o e o e .
 CHAPT E R Ix .
—H T E CI CLE R . 229

42 ir u m f.r s f tT he
w tri ircl s 5
m c d 80 H w e en ce o o c o n cen c c c e are o an 31
. o

f p rt
ar a th y ? a a re e

43 O f tw t th d wh l s whi h w rk t g th r th first h
. o fi fty th
oo e ee c o o e e , e as , e

s d igh ty t th H w m y r v l uti s wi ll th first m k whi l th

ec o n e ee . o an e o on e a e e e

s c d m k s si ty ? Wh t di m t r h th first i f th t f th s d
e on a e x a a e e as e ,
a o e e co n

H i nt —T he di st c b tw
an e e ee n t h e c en tr s e o f th e t th ee on b th wh l s m ust b
o ee e
th e s ame .

44 di m t r f t th d wh l h vi g
. T he a e e t th : 6 o H w a oo e ee a n 1 00 ee 0 o

m y t th m ust wh l h v which wh
an ee a t d with th first wh l
ee a e, , en co nne c e e ee ,

m k s t a er v l uti s whil th first m k s

en e o P A d wh t m ust b i t
on e e a e o ne n a e s

di m t r P
a e e

4 5 O f tw b l t d wh l s i
.
. m chio th first m k s tw l v r v l uti
e e s
ee n a a n e, e a e e e e o on

whi l th s d m k s fi
e e If th di m t r f th first w h l
ec o n a egé fi d ve . e a e e o e ee z cm
,
n

th t f th s c d
a O e e on .

46 I v t . d d s rib
n en rr g m t f t th d wh l s su h th t
an e c e an a an e en o oo e ee , c a ,

i f th first wh l r v l v s
e c d y th l st wh l wi ll r v lv
ee e o e on e a a , e a ee e o e o nc e a

seco n d .

47 T h hi
. d wh l se f c rri g n
5
" i di m t ree H w m y o a a a e a re I .
‘
n a e e . o an

r v l uti s wi ll th y m k wh i l th f r wh l s
e o on e i di m t r m ka
5e e e o e ee , 1 m n a e e ,
a e 2 00

r v l uti s P
e o on

48 I . ir l mn i di m t r fi d th l gth f th
a c c e 2 subt d d by
n a e e n e en o e a rc en e

o ne sid f e o ,

( )
i T h i scrib d
. squ r e n e a e .

( )
i i T h i s r i b dr g l rp t g
. e n c e e ua en a o n.

( i i i ) T h i scrib d r gu l r t g. e n e e a oc a on.

( i ) T h i scrib d r gu l r d c g
v . e n e e a e a on .

49 D i m t r f circ l
. a 33 H w l g i
e e o f 4
a P e .
m
. o on s an ar c o I O
O

5 0 Wh t i th di m t r f th
. a irc l i f
s e f 4 h l gth
a e e o e c e an a rc o 0
0
as a en

of 8 3 .
m P
Wh at i s th e r a dius o f a c ircl e i n whi c h e ac h d egre e o f th e c i rcu m fer
51 .

e n ce h a s a l e n gth o f I
m P c

5 2 Wh t s t e l e gth o f I o n a pr o tr a ct o r th e di am e t e r o f which 4 8 ?
a i
. h n
O m
,
0

5 3 F i n d th e r ati o b e tw ee n th e l e n gths o f d e gr e e s o n tw o c o n c e n tri c c i r

.

c l e s th e ra dii o f which are I d m an d 8d m

, .

5 4 H o w m a n y d egre e s e tc are th e r e i n an are e qu a l i n l en gth to th e

. ,
.
,

ra d ius O f th e circ l e P
55 . F i d
n th e r ti b tw
a o e een an a rc of a qu dr t a an an d th e co rr sp die on ng

c h rdo .
 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GI NNE RS .

VII —A r ea of th e Ci r c l e .

21 2 . T he r
a ea o f a Ci c e r l l ways l ess t han t hat o f a c irc um
is a

sc ri b e d r egul ar po l ygo n and

, gr eat er t han t hat o f an i nsc rib ed
r egu lar p o lygo n ; m o r eo ver the ar eas o f t hese p o lygo ns appr o ac h
,

n ear e r t o ea c h o t he r an d t o t he ar ea o f the c ir c l e as t he n u m b e r
, ,

o f t he ir s i d es i s i n c r e as ed We m i ght t her efo r e find the ar ea o f

.
, ,

a c ir c l e b y a pr o c ess si m il ar t o t hat em pl o ed fo r fin d i n
y g t he
l engt h o f the c irc um fer enc e T he fo llo wi ng m e t ho d ho wever i s
.
, ,

m u c h b e tt e r
Cir c u m sc ri b e a r egu l ar p o l ygo n ab o u t a c ir c l e ( as i n F g i .

an d l et r i t s l ess r ad i u s r ad i u s o f the c ir c l e N o w i t i s c l ear .

,

t hat by i nc r easi ng t he nu m b er o f si des i n the p o lygo n w e c an m ak e ,

i t s ar e a a ppr o ac h t he ar ea o f th e c ir c l e as n e arl y as w e pl ease b u t ,

w e c n n o t m ak e it ab so l u t e ly e qu al t o t he ar e a o f t he c ir c l e ; i n
a

o t he r w o r d s ,

t hat val ue whi c h the ar ea o f the p o lygo n

Ar ea o f t he c ir c l e a ppr o ac hes b u t n ev er ab so l u t el y r eac he s as
, ,

t h e nu mb e r o f i t s s i d es i s i n c r e ase d .

T h i s valu e o f the ar ea o f th e p o lygo n i s t er m ed i ts l i m i ti ng val u e ,

o r s i m pl y i t s LIM IT ; so t hat w e m ay w rit e th e ab o v e e qu ati o n m o r e

b ri e fl y t hu s
,

Area o f the c ir c l e li m it o f ar ea o f the p o lygo n .

By 13 3 ar ea o f the po l ygo n
, fi x i t s p e ri m e t e rrT h i s e qu a .

ti o n i s tr u e n o ma tt r how g ea t o r flow m a ll the n u mb er o f si d es

,
e r s .

N o w b y i n c r e asi ng the n u m b er o f si d e s t h e p eri m e t er c an b e m ad e

, ,

t o appr o ac h t h e c ir cu m fe r en c e o f t he c ir c l e as n early as w e pl e ase ,

bu t c n n e ve r q u i t e r eac h it
a T h er efo r e .
,

Li m i t o f ar e a o f t he p o l ygo n % r X c ir c u m fe r e n c e o f t h e c ir c l e .

T he r e fo r e ( Axi o m

Ar ea of ci r cl e a
r x i ts ci r c u m erence
f .
23 2 GE O ME T RY FO R B E GINNE RS . 21
5 .

7 : gi v es a r e su lt fa r m o r e ac c u r a t e t han c o u l d b e a c t u all
y
c o n s tr u c t e d w it h r ul e r an d c o m p ass es .

E x rc i s s — 1
e e Dr w
. ir l . d th a fi d th sida c f c e, quiv l t
an en n e e O an e a en

squ r ( i ) by c m put ti ( i i ) by
a e, . o stru ti
a on,H w d t h r su l ts
. co n c on . o o e e

agr Pee

2 C stru t
. on squ r c d tha m k ir l q uiv l t t th squ r
a e, a n en a e a c c e e a en o e a e .

3 F i d th r ti
. n f th e r s f squ r d ir l i f
a o o e a ea o a a e an a c c e, ,

( )
i A sid
. f th squ r i qu l
e ot t h r dius
e f th cir l
a e s e a o e a o e c e .

( i i ) A sid f th squ r i qu l t th di m t r f th circ l

. e o e a e s e a o e a e e o e e .

Up o n the s i des of t he ri ght tri angl e A B C ( F ig .

as d i am e t e rs d esc ri b e c ir c l es
, . By
1 4 2,
AW= A F + B C .

If w e m u ltiply t he t e rm s o f t hi s
equ a ti o n by i n
,
t he e q u alit y i s n o t

d e str o ye d ( Axi o m an d we oh

t ai n ,

2
xfi
fl
i n x fi =i x +i a C .

N ow t hese t hre e qu an titi es ,

t ak en
i n o r d e r are t he ar eas O f t he c ir c l e s
,

p ip e-08 ,
d esc ri b e d u p o n t he hy p o t e nu se an d
t h e t w o l e gs as d i am e t e r s .

T h eo r em Tl i e f Me
’
ci r cl e a es c r i oea ti i e l zypo te
’
. a r ea o
p
u on

n u se o f a ri g/i t t ri a n l e
g as di a meter i s equ a l to tb c su m o f tl i e a r eas
'
f ci r cl es a es cr i oea u tl ze tw o a s a i a m eters
’
l egs
’
o ti i e p on .

N OT E —
T his i
sp c i l c s f v ry g r l th r m wh i ch m
s a e a a e o a e ene a eo e b e a ed ay c ll
r l i d T h r m f Py h g r s m ly :if p t/ i d f
.
,

th e G e ne a ze eo e o t a o a ,
na e u on ze s es o a r ig / i t tr i a n

g l e w e c on str u ct a ny t/zr ee s i m i l a r f ig u r es tne a r ea

< , f ze fig u r e c on st r u cted upon t/ze
o t/

hypo ten u se w i l l oe equ a l to tne s u m of tb c a r ea s of t/ze fig u r es con str u cted upon t l t e

E xe rc is es . I . Ma k ir l qu l t th m f tw giv ir l s
e a c c e e a o e su o o en c c e .

2 . M k
a e a circ l e e qu l t twi
a gi v circ l
o ce a en e .

3 . M k
a e a cir l c e e qu l t th di ff r c f tw giv cir l s
a o e e en e o o en c e .

4 . M k
a e a cir l c e e qu l t h l f f giv ir l
a o a o a en c c e .
 CHAPT E R Ix .
— T HE CI CLE R . 23 3

21 6 . Pr o b l em . T o fi na
’
t/ze a r ea o f a ci r cu l a r secto r A OB
( g
F i . h a vi ng g i ven the r a di u s of tb c ci r cl e a n d t/ze an
g l e f
o

ti l e secto r .

S o l u tio n .
—F r o m 18 2, Co r o ll ary, an d

212 it fo llo ws t hat r

t h e a e a o f a se c o t r
i s fo u n d b y m u l tiply i ng i ts a rc oy l za lf t/i e
r a ( ti ns of tl ze ci r cl e .

E xa m p l e — Let the r adi u s an d

t he an g e o f lt r T he n
t he se c o ,

Cir c m fer e nc e o f c irc l e

u 2 X 3} X 14 4
.

Arc O f sec t o r 11 x c ir c u m fe r e n ce
3
0
.

Ar ea o f se c t o r i t s arc X 7 : 68 4 4
m q
.

Co m p u t e the se c t o r fo r t he fo ll o w ing
val u es o f t h e angl e
0

7 0 2

Pr o b l em i
’
21 7 . . T o
f n d t/ie a r ea y
c a ci r c u l a r seg men t

CE D ( F ig . fia vi ng gi ven th e r a di u s o f tb c c i r cl e, th e a ngl e

at tl ze cen tr e COD , a nd t/ze l zezg/i t E F f

o tlze se
g m en t .

S ol u ti o n . Co m p u t e t h e r a eas o f t h e se c o t r C O D and t he tri ~

a ng e l COD . T h e n, se gm e n t CE D se c t o r C O D tri angl e

COD .

E x a mpl e .
— Let t he r ad i u s the a ng e l CO D an d

4
t he h ei gh t E F : 6 T he n t he se c o t r COD
3 2 o

In t he tri angl e C O D , t he a ltit u de O F OE

t he b ase C D an d t he a ear of t he tri angl e

x T he r efo r e the a ear of t he seg
,
2

m en t an a n s w e r co rr e t c e n o u gh

fo r pr ac ti al p rp o ses
al l c u .

N E —T h h ight E F ( F g
OT 9) f e s gm te i 20 o a e en and th e an gl e COD at th e
c tr t i d p d t f ch th r but c ct d by r l wh ch
.
,

en e , are no n e en en o ea o e a re onne e a e ati o n i

i t i th bus i ss f T rig m try t i v st i g

,

s e ne o o no e o n e a te .
 GE OM E T RY F O R B E GIN N E RS .

218 . P RACT ICAL E X E RCIS E S .

( T a/
ee 7T : u n l ess ot/
ze r w i se sta t ed .
)
i d th r f ir l h vi g giv
F n e a ea o a c c e, a n en,

1 T h di m t r
. e a e e 4 T h r dius Il m
37
m . e a 0
.

2 T h di m t r
. e a e e 5 T h r dius . e a

3 T h .di m t re 9
m a e e 6 T h r dius 43 .
m . e a
m ”
.

F i d th r f Cir l (
n e a ea o h vi g giv
a c e 77 a n e n,

7 T h .di m t re 8 34 6
a m e e 9 T h r dius .
. e a

8 T h di m t r
. e a e e 10 T h r dius . e a

F i d th r dius f
n e ir l h vi g giv
a o a c c e, a n en ,

11 T h . r e a ea 14 T hIo r q . . e a ea 2 000 8 4 3

12 T h . r 94 6
e a ea 15 T h r
‘1m
. . e a ea in

13 T h . r e a ea 16 T h r 7 . e a ea 2 54
m i l es

1 7 T h r dius f
. e ir l
a F i d th
o r ( i ) t ki g :3 1 ( )
a c c e n e a e a, . a n 71
7 , i i .

7T: Wh t i th diff r ( i
a squ r s c ti m t rse
) f t h r su l ts ?
e ence n a e en e e o e e

Which r su l t i m r e rr t ? s o e co ec

18 T h di m t r f
. e a ir u l r p rk i
e e oF i d th a diff r c i i t
c c a a s Ik
m
. n e e en e n s

r s m put d ( i ) t ki g
a ea co e , ( )
i i. t ki g
a n 71
'

z . a n
'

71

19 A m . buys ir u l r fi l d di m t r
an a c f c f ur a ts p squ r e , a e e or o ce n er a e

f t
oo Wh t diff r
. a wi ll th r b i th pri p id f th fi ld c rdi g
e en c e e e e n e ce a or e e ac o n

as IT
”
i t k s qu l t 3 } qu l t
a en e a o or e a o

20 D s r i b
. ir l
e c d the a c fi d it r c e, an en n s a ea .

21 F i d th
. r f ir l if i t ir u m f r
n e a ea o 8a c c e s c c e e nc e om

22 T h . ir um f r e c f ctr m sur s e e n ce o F i d th r f r ss a ee ea e n e a ea o a c o

s ti
ec on .

23 If th l gth f
. e ir u l r r
en c urs i t b o a c h w m y rs
c a ace -
o e s o e I m fle
,
o an ac e

of l d wi ll i t c v r ?
an o e

24 If th . ir u m f r e c f g rdc b d e e n ce o wh t i i t r ? a a en -
e a s s a ea

25 Ar u d th b ks f
. o n ir u l r p d pl t d 56 p p l rs 6 p rt
e an o a c c a on a re an e 2 o a ,
m
a a .

Fi d th
n r f th p de a ea o e on .

26 Wh t wi l l i t
. ast t c v r r u d t b l th r dius f whi h
co o o e a o n a e e a o c

h c l th i 6 m wid
\ e o s d 0c
sts p m t r ?e an co er e e

F i d th r dius th
n e ir u m f r
a ,
d th r f cir l qu l t
e c c e e n c e , an e a ea o a c e e a o,

27 T h . m f tw cir l s wh s di m t rs
e su o o 5 d 6 c e o e a e e a re
101
an
m
.

28 T h . m f tw e su irc l s wh s r s
o 60 o c d e o e a ea are 1m a n

29 T h di ff r ir l s wh s r dii 3 d 4 m an m
. e f tw e ence o o c c e o e a a re .

3 0 T h di ff r ir l s wh s ir um f r s d m m
. e f tw e e n ce o 33o c 44 c e o e c c e enc e a re an .
23 6 G E OM E T RY F O R B E GI NN E RS . 21 8 .

51 ir l d squ r h v
. A c s
c e an r a F i d th di ff r
a e c a e th e am e a e a , I zo q
m
. n e e en e

b tw th ir u m f r c f t h irc l d th p ri m t r f th squ r
e ee n e c c e en e o e c e an e e e e o e a e .

5 2 If .ir l squ r r gu l r h g
a c c e, a d r gu l r ct g
a e, a ch e a e xa o n, a n a e a o a o n ea

ti
co n a n fi d t h di ff r c s b tw n t h p ri m et rs f t h p l yg
e e en s d e e ee n e e e o e o on an

th e cir u m f r c f th ir l
c e en e o e c c e .

5 3 A cir u l r pi
. f l d i r c st i th sh p f squ r th thick
a e ce o ea s eca n e a e o a a e, e

ne ss r m i i g th s m If th r dius f th i rc l 4 5 fi d sid f t h
e a n n e a e . e a O e c e 0m
, n a e o e

squ r a e .

5 4 F i d th di m t r f
. n ir l quiv l t t r gu l r t g wh s
e a e e o a c c e e a en o a e a oc a on o e

sid e 2 2m .

5 5 T h r dius f
. ir l 8 Fi d th di ff r
e a o b tw i t r
a c c e d m
. n e e e n ce e ee n s a ea an

th r f th i scrib d r gu l r h g
e a ea o e n e e a e xa o n.

56 I pictur fr m 6 squ r i i rcu l r pi tur th r dius f whi h

. n a e -
a e 0 cm
a e s a c a c e, e a o c

F i d th r f th p rt t v r d by th pictur
n e a ea o e a no co e e e e .

57 I .ir l wh s r dius 3 fi d th r f s ct r f
n a c c e o e a 0 0m
,
n e a ea o a e o o

5 8 If th r dius f
. ir l 76 fi d th r f s ct r wh s
e a o a c i c e
cm
, n e a ea o a e o o e arc s

20 l g
cm
on .

5 9 H w l rg i
. s t r if it
o ac ti s e s a d i 4 l
ec o g? s arc on a n 1 20
°
an s 0 cm
on

60 Wh t p rt f th
. tir ir l i th s ct r wh s
a a O e enqu l s th r dius e c c e s e e o o e a rc e a e a

of th ir l ?
e c c e

6 1 If t h . r f a s t r f 45 e a ea o fi d t h r dius f th
,
ir l
ec o o
°
z q m
, n e a o e c c e .

6 2 T h r dius f
. ir le a th h i ght f o s eg m t
a c c e d th e e o a en an e

an gl f th s g m t :
e o e F i d th
e r f th s g m t
en n e a ea o e e en .

I ir l wh s r dius
n a c c e fi d th r f th s g m t t ff by th
o e a n e a ea o e e en cu o e

sid f e o ,

63 T h i scrib d qui l t r l tri g l

. e n e e a e a an e .

64 T h i scrib d squ r
. e n e a e .

65 T h i scrib d r gu l r h
. e g
n e e a e xa on .

66 T h i scrib d r gu l r
. e tgn e e a oc a on .
 CHAP rE R Ix .
— RE VIE w . 23 7

R E VIE W O F C H APT E R IX .

1
S Y N O PS IS .

I .
—S e c t o rs , An g l e s a t. the C e n t r e , C h o r d s , S e g m e nt s .

1 80 . Re vi w e of —
26 28 . De fi iti s n on o f a secto r , a n a n l e a t
g th e cen tr e, a

zo r d , a
c/ d i a m eter , a sem i c i r cu m er en ce,
-

f g r ea t er a nd l ess a c rs ,
a seg

m en t, g r ea ter s g m ts S i a nd l ess e en . x cor ol l a r i es .

1 81 . E qu g s t th c tr th ir rcs ch rds s ct rs
a l an l e a e en e, e a ,
o , e o , an d s g m ts
e en .

F iv tfi me F ur ll i
eor e D fi iti f
s q.
d o co r o ar es . e n on o a ua r a nt .

182 . U qu l
ne gl s t th a tr th ir rcs d s ct rs
an e a e ce n e, e a an e o . O n e tl zeo r em .

One co r ol l a r
y .

183 . P r p rti s
o e e of a di am e e t r p rp di u l r e en c a to a ch rdo . T w o t/zeor em s .

O n e p r obl em . T wo co r o l l a r i es .

184 . Equ l d u qu l ch rds th ir g l s

a an ne a o , e an e at th e c tren e, an d th ir e di s
t c s fr m th
an e tr F ur tn m o e cen e . o eo r e s .

II . In s c ri b e d A n g l es .

185 . De fi iti f i i b d g l
n on o an n scr e an e .

18 6 . M surea f i s ri b d g l O tfi m F ur l l i
e o an n c e an e . ne eo r e . o c or o a r es.

187 . App l i ti f 1 66 t th
ca irc l T w tfi m
on o o e c e . o eo r e s .

§ 1 88 . Pr du t f th p rts f
o c h rd p ss i g thr ugh p i t withi
o e a o a c o a n o a o n n a

cir l O t/ m O
c e . ll y
ne zeor e . n e co r o ar .

III .
—S e c ant s an d T a n g e nt s .

189 . Defi iti s f

n t d on o a seca n an a ta ng en t .

1 90 . R l ti
e ab tw t g ton e een a an en an d a r dius dr w
a a n to th e p i to n of con

t t O t/ m
ac . ne zeor e .

1 91 . T g t t circ l thr ugh

an en o a e o a g iv en p i t o n . O ne p r od/em . O ne cor ol

192 . M ea sur e of th e an gl b tw e e een a t g t

an en an d c h rdo . O n e t/zeor em .

IV . T W O Ci r c l e s .

1 93 . De fi iti f
n on o c o n cen t r i c an d eccen t r i c c ir l s i g thc e ,
a r n , e l i ne f
o cen t r es .

1 94 . Re l tiv p siti s
a e o on of tw o e cc e n tri c c irc l s F iv c s s
e . e a e .

1 r
He e , an d i n th e e m ai n in r g ch p rs a te th e sy ps i s i pr s t d i c d s d
no s e en e n a on en e
rm wh ch d b si s f r l ss t d d r vi w cc rd i g
,

fo i m a y b e m a e th e a o a mo e or e e x en e e e a o n
to th d scr
e i e t i o n o f th e ea e t ch r .
23 8 G E OM E T RY F OR
”

B E GI NN E RS .

V .
—I n s c ri b e d an d C i r c u m s c ri b e d F i g u re s .

De fi iti s f i i é d d i m i é d figur s
n on o n scr e an c r cu s cr e e .

Cir l i s rib d i
c e tri g l O
n c ll y e n a an e. n e c or o ar .

Circ l ir u m s rib d b ut tri g l O

e c c ll yc e a o a an e. n e c or o ar .

R l ti
e a b tw th
on sid s f ir u m s rib d qu dri l t r l
e ee n e e o a c c c e a a e a . One
t/zeor em . O ne c o r ol l a r
y .

Re l a ti on b tw e ee n th e a n gl s e o f an i s ri b d qu dri l t r l
n c e a a e a . O n e t/i eo
r enz . O ne co r ol l a r
y .

Cir l i s rib d i r gu l r p l yg
c e n c O e t/ m n a e a o on . ne i eor e .

Circ l ircu m s rib d b ut r gu l r p lyg

e c c O t/ e m a o a e a o on . ne zeo r e .

D ivisi f ir u m f r
on o i t qu l p ts T hr c s s
a c c e e n ce n o e a ar . ee a e .

R gu l r p lyg
e i s rib d i
a o ir l on n c e n a c c e .

R gu l r p l yg
e air u m scrib d b ut ir l
o on c c e a o a c c e .

C stru ti
on f r gu l r p l yg
c s
on o e a o on .

A i s rib d r gu l r p l yg
n n c d th i s rib d r gu l r p l yg
e e a with o o n , an e n c e e a o on

twi m y sid s
c e as an e .

A i s rib d r gu l r p l yg
n n c d th
e ircu m scrib d r gu l r p l yg
e a o o n , an e c e e a o on

with th s m u mb r f sid s
e a e n e o e .

VL —L engt h of a. Ci r c u m f e r e n c e .

T he g
r l truths which b l us t fi d th l gth
en e a en a e o n e en of a c ir um f r
c e

e n ce M th d f pp l yi g th s truths
. e V lu f
o o a n e e . a e o

F rm u l f
o th l gth f
a ir u m f re
or R l ti e en o a c c e nce . e a on b twe ee n tw o

c ir u m f r s th ir r dii d th ir di m t rs
c e en c e , e a ,
an e a e e .

T w w ys f sti m ti g th l
o a gth f o e a n e en o an arc .

Pr t i l
ac r is s
ca exe c e .

V II .
—A rea of a. Ci r c l e .

Me th d f fi di g th r f ir l
o o n n e a ea o a c c e .

F rm u l f
o th r f ir l R l ti b tw th r s f ir l s
a or e a ea o a c c e . e a on e e en e a ea o c c e ,

th ir r dii d th ir di m t rs
e a , an e a e e .

A ir l c d th quiv l t squ r
c e an e e a en a e .

R l ti
e a b tw th r s f ir l s d s rib d up th sid s f
on e ee n e a ea o c c e e c e on e e o a

right tri g l di m t rs
an e as a e e .

Ar f s t r
ea o a ec o .

Ar f s gm t
ea o a e en .

Pr ti l
ac r is es
ca exe c .
24 0 G E OM E T RY FOR B E GI NNE RS .
[Si 21
9 .

CH APT E R X .

T HE
‘

E L L IP S E .

CO NT N —I
E T S . . T he P r p rt i s
o e e o f th e E ll ips e 2 19 II . Co n stru ti c on of

E ll ips s e 222

L —m e P r op er t i e s of th e E l l ip s e .

21 9 . Am o ng c u ved r li nes the el l i

p se r ank s i n i m p o rt anc e n ext
t o th e c ir c l e .

2 1 0 S h o ws lli pse m ay b e d esc ri b ed Fas t en a

ho w an e .

i e c e o f p ap e r u p o n asm o o t h su r
p
fac e sti c k i n two pi ns at any d i s
,

t anc e a p art and t ie to t he pi ns the ,

en d s o f a stri ng l o nger t han t he

d i st ance ap art o f the p i ns T hen .

d esc rib e t he c urve w i th a penc il as ,

sho wn i n t he figu r e t ak i n r e to
g c a ,

k ee p t he stri ng c o nst an tly str e t c hed

t o i ts full l engt h .

AS t he p o i nt o f t he p en c il m o ves
a r o u n d th e i n i t d i t n f r m
p s s s a c e o ,

e it h e r o ne o f t he p i ns i s c o n s t an tl y

c hang ng i b u t i t i s c l ear t h at t he su m o f i ts d i stances fr o m t he t wo

p i n s m u st alw a s r em ai n th e sam e
y .

T hu s, i n F i g . 2 1 0, AB + B B : AO B Q A 1? B R, et c .

D e fin i t i o n .
T he E LLIPS E is a cu r ve s u ch th a t the su m o f th e

oi nt i n i t f ro m tw o fix ed poi nts i s th e s a me
d i sta n ces f
o every p .

T he t wo fixe d p o i n t s are c all ed t h e f o ci .

T he p o i n t 0 h al f w ay b e t wee n th e fo c i i s c all ed t he cen tre

,
-
,
.

De fin e t h e e lli pse r e gar d e d as t h e l o cu s o f a m o v i ng p o i n t .

 CHAP T E R x .
—T H E E LLIPS E . 24 1

T he d i st anc e OA or O B fr o m t h e c en tr e to e it her of the fo c i , is

ca ll ed the llip se
eccen tr i ci ty o f t he e .

T he l ess t h e ec c e n tri c it y t hat i s to say the near er the fo c i are ,

-

to e ac h o t he r t he w i d e r t he e llip se b ec o m e s i n pr o p o rti o n t o i ts
,
-

l engt h and t he m o r e nearly i t appr o ac hes to t he fo r m o f t he c ir c l e

, .

D esc ri b e seve r al ellip se s w it h t he ir fo c i at d i ffe r e n t d i st an c e s fr o m

e ac h o t he r .

What d o es t he e llip se b ec o m e i f the fo c i c o i nc i d e o r what c o m es ,

to t he sam e t hi ng i f o nl y o n e p i n i s u se d t o w h i c h b o t h e nd s o f
, ,

t h e t hr ead are fas t en e d ?

N OT E — T h ll i ps i
I m r b ut i fu l curv th
e e th c ircl E llips s
e s a o e ea e an e e. e or
curv s c l s ly r s m bl i g ll ips s m uch us d i rt s ; i c b i t w rk
.
,

e o e e e th n e e a re e n e a n a ne o
t( b l s m rr rs i v ri us d s ig s d p tt r s i rch s f bridg s d
,

a e i o h n a o e n an a e n n t e a e o e an
rch it ctur I i t h sk l fu l f th ll ps d s ll m r c m p l curv s th t
, , , ,

ina e e t s o t e i u se o e e i e an ti o e o ex e a
t h su p r i r i ty f G r k v r th t f h r i s i l rg ly d Astr my
.
,

e e o o ee a rt o e a O ot e n at o n s a e ue o no
pr s ts us w i h m pl s f ll ips s h gr d st sc l O rth d l l
.

e en t e xa e o e e on t e an e a e u r ea an a
t h pl s f h S l r S yst m r v lv r u d h ll ipt i c l p ths i b
.

e anet o t e i
o a e e o e a o n t e su n n e a a n o e
di en c e h l w f g v it t i
to t e h a big o f th f c ira a o n, t e su n e n at o ne o e o
ll ips i c ct d w i h h c ircl i r m rk b l w y A
.

N OT E T h 2 -
e e e s o nn e e t t e e n a e a a e a
s ct i f cyl i d r (p g 4 F g 3 ) m d by pl p r ll l t th b s s i ( lik
. .

e on o a n e a e i a e a a ne a a e o e a e s e
th b s s ) c ircl ; but f h s c i i i cl i d t h b s s h b u d ry f th
.
,

e a e a e I t e e t on s n ne o t e a e t e o n a o e
s ci ll i p s ; d h m r i cl i d h s c i g r h lli ps i
,

e t on 15 an e e h l an t e o e n ne t e e t o n, t e on e t e e e n
pr p rt i
o o i br d h All th i s i s ly sh w by m ki g s c i s thr ugh
on to ts ea t s ea i o n a n e t on o a
w d cyl i d r
.

oo en n e

k t c ircl p p r wi h y pl c d d i r ct ly i fr t f h
.

If w l e oo a a e on a e t o ne e e a e e n on o t e
c tr f h c ircl d h gr du lly t ur h p p r t i ll i dg c m s i fr t f
en e o t e e , an t en a a n t e a e ts e e o e n on o

th e y w
e h ll fi d th t h p p r i ur d r u d h C l w i ll pr s t th
e, e S a n a as t e a e s t ne a o n t e e e e en e

pp r c f ll ips wh i ch b c m s rr w r d rr w r d t ds
, ,

a ea a n e o an e e e o e na o e an na o e an en to a ss
fi lly i t str ight l i I th i s w y w p ss by i m p rc pt i b l gr d t i s
,

na n o a a ne n a e a e e e a a on 1 0 111
t h c i rc l th str ight l m
, ,

e e to e a e.

220 llip se C D E F ( F i g
. In an e . t he li ne C D , wh i c h
asse s t hr o u gh t h e fo c i an d i s l i m
p ,

it ed b y the ellip se i s all e d t he ,

c

M j or Ax i ; an d t he li ne E E
a s ,

wh i c h p asses t hr o u gh t he c en tr e 0
p erp e nd i c u l ar t o the m aj o r axi s ,

an d is li m it e d b y t he el li pse i s
:

c all d t h e [Mi n o
e Ax i s r .

F ig 21 1
I F r o m t he d efin iti o n o f t he
. .

elli pse it fo llows t hat A C + B C = A D

,
B D, or 2 A C
242 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 221 .

AB 2 B D A B ; whenc e ( Axi o m III

) . 2 AC = 2 B D, an d
A C : B D ; t hat i s,
T he ver ti ces o f a n el l i
p se a r e a t th e sa m e d i sta n ce f r o m the f o ci .

II . S i nce O A OB, and AC B D ; he e fo t r r e ( Axi o m IL),

OA + A C = O B + B D , o r O C = O D ; h a i s, t t
T he cen tr e of a n el l ipse hi sects the m aj o r a xi s .

III B e c au s e ( F i g
. A F + B F : AC B C, and A C
.

B D ; t h e r e fo r e , A B + B B : B D B C C D ; t hat i s,
T he su m o f the d i sta n ces o f a ny p oi n t qf the el l ipsef r o m th e f o ci
i s equ a l to the m aj o r a xi s .

IV S i nc e A A O E
. g A B OE ,
t her efo r e A E =B E ; an d s n c e i
AE BE CD , t her efo r e 2 AE CD , and AE = 1
2 CD
BE t hat i s,
T he e n ds o f the m i n o r axis a re e u i d i s ta n t
q f rom the f o ci , th e
f
di s ta n ce bei ng e
q ual to h a é the m aj o r ax is .

V . Si nc e A A OE N
AA OF ,
t her efo r e OE O F ; t hat i s,
T he cen tr e of a n el l i p se hi sects the mi n o r a xi s.

i ses —l T wh t
E xe rc . th thr sid s f th right tri gl A G E
. o a ar e e ee e o e an e

( g
F i . r sp tiv l y qu l Pe ec e e a

2 Wh t ki d f p l
. a figur i A E B F ( F g
n o an e Why e s i .

3 G iv
. th s f en ll ips fi d th p siti s f th f ci
e a xe o an e e, n e o on o e o .

4 G iv
. th m j r en s d th p siti s f th f ci fi d th m r
e a o a xi an e o on o e o ,
n e i no

5 S mi m j r
. eis 8 ; s m i m i r is
-
a o ax F i d th1 m tricity e -
no ax n e e c c en .

6 S mi m j r
. is 3 ;
e -
a o tricity
ax F i d th s m i m i
1 .
m
r is
e c c en n e e -
no ax .

7. S m i m i r eis -
no tri ity 9 F i d th s m i m j r is
ax e c c en c 0 .
m
. n e e -
a o ax .

8 M j r
. is 58 ;a o m i axr is 45
m H w f
d“ p rt th f i ? no ax
a . o ar a a are e oc

9 T h p th f t h
. e rth b ut th
a o ( t f cus ) i
e ea ll ips wh s
a o e su n a one o s an e e o e

axe s are d g gr phi l m i l s H w

an th l st eo a ca e . o c an e ea

and th gr t st diste s f th rth fr m th

ea e an ceb m put do e ea o e su n e co e

221 . AR E A O F AN ir c l es ab o u t t he
E LLIPS E .
—If w e d e sc rib e c

axes o f an e llip se as d i a m e t e r s ( se e F i g it i s Ob i o u s t hat . v

t h e ar ea o f the e llip se i s l e ss t han t ha t o f t he c i r c l e w it h t he se m i

m aj o r axi s as r ad i u s an d gr ea t er t han t ha t o f t he c ir c l e w it h t he
,
24 4 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 222 .

II .
—C on s tr u c t 1 on ’

of E l l i p s es .

2 2 . Pr o b l e m . T o co n s tr u ct an el l i
p s e, h a vi ng g i ven the
m aj o r a x i s a nd th e ecce n t r i ci ty .

Let ( g
F i . 212 ) C D b e t he g i ven m aj o r a x s, i O i ts m i dd l e p o i nt .

M ak e O A OB t he gi ve n cc

tri c it y t hen A an d B are t he c en

fo c i F i n d t he p o i n t s E an d F .
,

su c h t ha t t he d i s t an c e fr o m e ac h .

o f t he m t o A a n d t o B i s e q u al
t o t he se m i m aj o r axi s ; E an d -

F a e t he en d s o f t he m i no r r

a xi s .

In o r d er t o find m o r e p o i n ts o f t he elli pse as su m e any p o i n t s ,

77 1, n p e tc
,
l yi ng i n the m aj o r axi s b e t ween A and 0 Wit h a
,
.
,
.

r ad i u s equ al t o C m d esc rib e ar c s fr o m eac h fo c us as c entr e b o t h

, ,

ab o v e an d b e l o w C D ; a nd li k ew i se d o t h e sam e w it h a r ad i u s

e q u al t o D m t h e fo u r p o i n t s m ar k e d 1 w he r e t he se ar c s i n t e r se c t , ,

a e fo r p o i n t s O f t h e e lli pse
r u F o r b y t hi s c o n str u c ti o n t he su m .
, ,

o f t h e li n e s d r aw n fr o m e i the r o f t h e p o i n t s m ar k ed I t o t he t w o

fo c i i s eq al t o t he m aj o r axi s
u
( S ee 220 III ) .
,
.

In li k e m an n e r b y t he u se o f n t h e p o i n t s m ark e d z an d b y the
'

, , ,

u s e o f p t h o se m r k e d 3
,
re fo u n d a ,
a .

B y d r aw i ng ( fr ee han d ) t hr o u gh al l t hese p o i n t s a c u rv ed li n e
-

m k i ng t he c u r at u r e as n e arl y n i fo r m as p o ssi b l e w e o b t ai n a
a v u ,

c rv e w h i c h a ppr o a c he s t he n e ar er t o t he e xa t e llip se r eq u ir e d
u c ,

th e gr e t e r th e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s t ha t are pr ev i o u sl y d e t e r m i ned
a .

E xe r i s c se 1 H w . ll ips b d scrib d by c ti u us m ti
. o c an an e e e e e on n o o on

( G rd rs s m tim s a this m th d t tr th ut l i
en e o e f e u se e o o ac e e o ne o an

e ll ipti l fl w r b d )
ca o e -
e .

2 C struct t h
. on ll ips wh s m j r is 80 e e d c tri ity 3
e o e a o ax cm
an ec en c 0 0m
,

by fi di g si t p i ts i th ll ips
n n x ee n o n n e e e .

3 C struct t h ell ips wh s m j r

. on e is 6 d c etri ity o e a o ax 0 cm an e c en c

fi d i g f urt
n n op i ts ee n o n .
 223
] CHAPT E R x .
— T HE E LLIPS E . 24 5

223 . Pr o b l e m . T o co n s tru ct an
p
el l i se, h a vi ng g i ven the
try the a i d of ci r cles d es cr ihe d a he n t the
a x es , a x es a s d i a m eter s .

Let A B an d CD ( F i g 2 1 3 ) b e t he g ve n axes . i i n t er se c ti ng at 0 .

ri
ir l t
D e sc b e c c es ab o u A B and C D
as d i am e t er s T hr o u gh O d r aw any
.

r ad ii O E O F et c T hr o ugh the
, , .

p o i n t s w her e t hese r ad ii c u t t he
i nner c ir c le d raw li nes ll A B and ,

t hr o u gh t he p o i n t s w her e the r ad ii
c u t t he o u t e r c ir c l e d r aw l i nes II
CD .T he i n t e r se c ti o n o f e ac h
p air o f these li nes i s a p o i n t i n the
r equ ir ed ellip se ; S O t hat no t hi ng
r em ai ns b u t to d r aw ( fr ee hand ) -

t hr o gh al l the p o i n t s o f i n t e r sec ti o n
u

a sm o o t h c urve .

i
E xe rc l se s . . Co n s tru t ll ips h vi g f
c an e e a n or i ts a xe s7 2 cm
and 40
0m
,
an d

fi d th p sit i
n es o on o f th f ci
e o .

2 C stru t
. on c an e ll ips wh s m j r is i t
e o e a o ax s o th e m i r is
no ax as :
5 4 , . an d

fi d t h p s i ti s
n e o on o f th f ci
e o .

224 . Pr o b l em . T o co ns tru ct w i th a r cs o f ci r cl es a c u rve

th a t r ese m hl es a n el l i
p se .

Dr aw a li ne A D ( F ig . an d d iv i d e i t i n t o t hr ee equ a l p art s ,

A B B C, C D
, . Wit h
r a d i u s e q u al t o a

o n e o f t h ese p art s d esc ri b e ab o u t B a n d

C as c entr e s t w o c ir c l es u tti ng e h ,
c ac

o t he r i n E and F T hr o u gh t h ese A .

p o i nt s and t he tw o c en tr es d raw t he
li n es E C E H F ] F K T he n d e
, , ,
.

sc ri b e ab o t E an d F as c en tr es w it h
u ,

a r dia l
us e t o E G t
uah e a r s O H and c
q ,

1K . T h e c u r e A G T ZD J K i s t he r q ir e d
v e u c u ver .
24 6 GE O M E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS . 2 24 .

T he e lli pti c al c u rves e m pl o yed i n t h e art s are u su ally c o nstru c t ed

i n t h i s o r a s i m il ar w ay fr o m ar c s o f c ir c l e s .B y c o m p o u n d i ng
a r c s o f c ir c l es i n d i ffe r en t w a s a gr ea t v ari e t y o f c u rves m ay b e
, y
,

c o n s tr u c t ed
. S o m e exam pl es are a d d e d b el o w i n F igs 2 1 5 2 2 2
, .
-
.

E xpl ai n h o w eac h figu r e i s c o n str u c t e d .

24 8 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS . 22
5 .

CH APT E R X I .

PL A N E S .

CO N T E N T S .
—I S tr ight Li s i
. a ne n S pa c e
(hi 2 25 II . A Pl a n e 228

I II . A Pl a n e a nd a S tr ight Li
a ne (N 23 1 IV . T wo P lanes 236

V . T hr ee P l ane s (6 VI . So i l d A ng l e s

L —S t r a i g l i t L i n es 111 S p ace .

225 . r e s st u d i e d ( tri angl es p o l ygo ns c ir c l es

T hu s far t he figu , , ,

e tc
) .a e r r pr e s e n t
su c h as c a n b e e
e d i n t heir tr u e S ha p e o n p ap er
o r t h e b l ac kb o a r d t hey are figu r es w h i c h li e w ho lly i n o ne plan e .

We sh ll no w pr o c ee d t o c o n si d e r so m e o f t he pr o perti es o f
a

fig u r e s w h i c h a e n o t c o n fin e d t o o n e pl an e r E v er y ac t u al b o dy .

w h i c h w e c an see o r h an d l e i s an e xam pl e o f su c h a figu r e .

We S hall b egi n b y exam i ni ng t he r el ati o ns o f li nes an d pl anes i n

s p ac e t o o n e an o t h e r .

I th i s p rt f G m try h j c u t r d by '

N OT E I n t d h i f d i ffi l y
a o eo e t e zr s an c e cu t en o n e e
b g i rs l s i c c iv i g d h l d g firm ly i h m i d h ru l i v p s i
e nne ie n on e n an o in n t e n t e t e re a t e o
t i on s f t h l i s d pl s u d r c s i d r t
o e ne an W h ut h p w r d th i s
ane n e on e a ion it o t e o e to o
t h pr e fs f h oo m m u t o m r w rds ; w i th t h pr fs
t eo re s a o s ily m st r d ;
n to e e o I t e oo a re e a a e e
i f ct m ny f h
n a h r m s W ll s m s l f vi d t Acc rd i gly i th bri f p c
a o t e t eo e i ee e -
e en o n n e e S a e
h r d v t d h subj ct rig r us pr fs w ill t lw ys b gi v but c r wi l l
.
,

e e e o e to t e e o o oo no a a e en , a e
lw ys b k t t f rth h ru h h i sh ll b c m pl t ly r l i d i
,

a a e ta en o se o t e t t so t at t a e o e e ea ze n
t h ughto T h g m ri c i m g i i
e m ust b eo rc i s d d s r gth d b f r
et a n at o n e e xe e an t en en e e o e
h m i d i pr p r d study h subj ct w i th l l h rig r f l g i c
.

—A d d i t i l d ffi cu l y i s s fr m th f ct h t i r pr s i g
t e n s e a e to t e e a t e o o o .

N OT E 2 n a o na i t ar e o e a t a n e e en t n

m g i tud s i d i ff r t pl s up s i gl pl surf c ( h t f p p r h
.

a n e n e en an e on a n e ane a e t a o a e or t e
b l ckb rd ) h s m g itud s m us i g r l b ch g d i s i
a oa t e e a n e sh p t, n en e a e an e n ze or a e or
b th Li s d gl s m ust b l r d i pl figur s i b h s i
,

o ne an an e d e a te e n S i ze , ane e n ot ze an
sh p T h rul s f d i g h i s c rr c ly b s d h pri c i pl s f G m ry
.

a e e e or o n t o e t a re a e on t e n e o eo et

d c s ti ut th A t f P rsp ct iv f Is m i c Dr w i g T h r i
. ,

an on t e e r o e e e, o o e tr a n e tc e e s o ne

g r l ru l f Is m tr i c D w m g wh i ch i i us fu l t b r i m i d
.
,

ene a e o o e ra q t t s e o ea n n a s u a r e, no

i n th p l e f t h d w i
a ne o
g i p t d ie t h t p l
ra by nh m b t g l
s r e r es en e n a a ne a r o us , a r ec a n e

g rs sh u d k h b t
,

by p a l l l g m
ar a d i l
e o by ra l l p B ani a l mc rc e i f an e i se e nn e o a e a a o

c m p ri g h figur s i th b k d h s wh i ch th y dr w th m s lv s w ith ctu l

.
,

o a n t e e n e oo an t o e e a e e e a a

l i s d p l s p l c d i t h pr p r r l v p s i i s u i l th y bl cg
, ,

ne an an e a e n e o e e at i e o t on nt e a re a e to re o

c h ru r l i v p s it i s f t h p rts f dr w i g d t m k s i m il r
,

i
n ze a t on e t e t e e at e o on o e a o a a n an o a e a

dr w i gs h m s lv s F l i s wi r s d s tr t ch d hr ds m y b mpl y d ;
,

a n t e e e or ne e an e e t ea a e e o e
s p p r c rdb rd h p c b rd g ss fl r s d s
.
,

for p l an e ,
t i
a i
e ,
f a l t
oah d ,
i a f t h n e e o oa ,
a ,
e oo an e o e
 2 26
] CHAPT E R xi .
— PLAN E S . 24 9

r m ; f b d i s su i b l m d l s m d f w d c rdb rd (
oo or o e ta e o e a e o oo or a oa s ee F ig s—6) 1 or
c struc d s i m pl y f st i ff w i r f h dg s
.
,

on te o e or t e e e

r s l s d pl s h v b i c d i Ch p
.

N OT E
3 S m f h l i f
-
o e o t e e at o n o i ne an an e a e e en n o t e n a

N 24 2 5 T h l r r sh u ld r fr sh h i m m ry c ss ry by
.

t
er I d i an n e ea n e o e e s e o i f ne e a

r v i w i g th m
. .
, , ,

e e n e .

226 tr aight li n es i n s p ac e m ay have e it he r o f t hr e e

. T wo s

r el ati e p o siti o ns as fo ll o w s
v ,

( )
i .T h e y m ay b e p ar a ll e l t o e ac h o t he r .

( )
i i T h
. e y m a
y i n t e r sec t e ac h o t h er .

( )
i i i T h e
y m y b e n e it h e r p a r a ll el no
a i n t e r s e c ti n g r .

In t he fir s t t wo c ases t he li n e s m u s t l i e i n t he sam e pl an e
G i e e xam pl es o f b o t h c ase s
v If t h e li n e s i n t e r sec t t h ey m ay b e .
,

e it he r p e rp e n d i c u l a r t o e c h o t he r o i n c li ne d t o eac h o t h e r a r

In t h e t h ir d c ase t h e t wo li n e s d o n o t l i e i n th e sam e pl an e A .

li ne fr o m no rt h t o so u t h o n t he t ab l e an d a li ne fr o m e ast t o w est ,

o n t h e fl o o r i s n e xam pl e o f t w o s c h li n e s
,
a u .

Let A B an d C D ( F g 2 23 ) r e pr ese n t t w o li n es w h i c h are n o t i .

p a r all e l n d d o n o t ai n t e r sec t an d l e t E ,

b e t h e p o i n t o f A B w h i c h i s n ear es t t o
C D an d F t h e p o i n t o f C D w h i h i s
,
c

n ear est t o A B T h e n the l i n E F i . e s

th e s h o r tes t d i s ta n ce betw ee n the l i n es AB A

a nd CD , a nd is a co m m o n p p er e n d i cu l a r

to bo th l i n es .

NOT E In F i g 2 23 A B is to b e r g rd d
e a e as i n th e pl an e o f th e ppr
a e CD as

rly p rp d cul r t h i s pl
. .
, ,

nea e en i a o t an e .

227 . Let A B C an dD E F ( g
F i . 224 ) ang e s l s p ac e ,

and l e t A B II D E ,
an d B C II E F
Co n c e iv e t he ang e l AB C to m o ve
so t ha t rt e x B k eep s i n t h e li ne
i ts ve

B E an d A B
,
an d C B t o r e m ai n

p ar lle l t o t he ir first p o siti o ns When

a .

B r eac hes E it i s e i d en t t hat A B ,

v A

will c o i n c i d e w it h D E and C B w it h ,
25 0 G E O ME T RY FO R B E GINNE RS . 2 28 .

FE ,
an d t her efo r e the an g e l A B C w ill i i d e w it h
c o nc t he ang e l
DE F .

T he r efo r e ,
t he t heo r em of l an e
P G eo m e try 58 ) t h at an
gl es,
w h os e s i des a re r es p ec ti v e ly p a r a l l el a nd d i r ected the s a me w ay

f ro m th e ver tex , a r e equ a l , al so ho l d s tr u e o f any two angl es .

in
s p ac e .

II . A Pl an e .

228 . till w at e r the su r fac e Of a t ab l e t he fl o o r

T he su rfac e of s , , ,

o r t h e b l ac kb o ar d a e e xam pl es o f pl an e su r fa c es o r p l a nes
,
r G iv e ,
.

a n o t h e r e xam pl e H o w c an a pl an e b e gen e r at e d by m o ti o n ?
.

( S ee

H ow w as a pl ane d e fin e d i n 28 ? An d w hat i s the t est of a

pl ane rfac e ?
su

T h e fo ll o w i n g i s t h e m o r e ab s tr ac t b u t m o r e pr ec i se d efin iti o n
c o m m o nl i e n b m a t h e m a ti c i an s
y g y v

D e fin i t i o n — A PLAN E i a s rf a ce u ch th t the s t
. s u s a ra igh t l i ne
w h i ch j o i ns an
y t w o p o i n ts i n th e s u r a cef l i es w h ol ly i n the f
s u r a ce .

A pl an e li
tr ai gh t li ne ) m ay b e c o nc e i ed t o e xt end i nd efi
( k e a s v

n i t el y T he s r fac e o f t he t ab l e m ay b e ex te n d e d i n t ho u gh t as
. u

far as w e pl ease a n d i n su c h a w ay t ha t t he s r fa c e w hi c h w e
,
u

i m agi n e w ill b e everyw her e a p art o f t he sam e pl ane as t he ac t u al

su r fac e w h i c h w e see .

E xe i —G i v
rc s e . i st c f v rti l p l
e an h ri t l p l
n an e o a e ca a n e, a o zon a an e , an

i c l i d pl
n ne an e .

229 . When w e c o n c e ve a i plane t i i

as c o n a n ng a g i ve n p o n i t
or s tr ai gh t li ne ,
we are sa id to p a ss the p l a n e th r o ugh the p o i n t or

th e l i ne .

r o u gh o ne p o i n t an end l ess nu m b er o f pl anes i n al l c o nc eiva

T h
bl e p o siti o n s m ay b e p asse d .

T hr o u gh tw o p o i n t s al so w e m ay p ass as m any d i ffer ent pl anes

, ,
25 2 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GIN N E RS . 2
3 1 .

I II .
-
A Pl an e an d a S tr a i g h t L i n e .

23 1 trai gh t li ne m y b e e it he r
. A s a ,

ar all e l t o a pl an e
( )
i P . .

e rp e n d i c u l ar t o a pl an e
( )
i i P . .

c li n e d t o a pl a n e
( )
i ii In . .

An e dge o f t h e c e ili ng i s p ar all e l t o t he fl o o r a pl um b —lin e i s

p erp end i c u l ar t o the su rfac e o f still wat e r ; a r aft er o f a c o m m o n
r o o f i s i nc li ned t o the l e e l gr o n d G iv e o ther exam pl e s v u . .

In F g 2 2 6 t he li ne A B i s p ar ll e l t o th e pl an e
i .
, T he li n e a

B 0 i s p erp end i c u l ar t o M a n d t he li nes P C and P D a e i n c li n e d .

, r

to M
i s s — 1 D r w figur l ik F ig 0 t i ll ustr t th di ff r t
E xe rc e . . a a e e . 22 ,
o a e e e en

p siti s which str ight l i m y h v l t i c t p l

o on a a ne a a e re a x o a ane .

2 H ld. p ci l ( i ) p r ll l ( i i ) p rp dicul r ( i i i ) i c l i d t th
o a en ,
. a a e ,
. e en a ,
. n ne , o e

t bla e .

23 2 . D e fin i t i o n .
—A s tr a igh t l i ne a nd a
pl a ne a re p a r a ll el ,

f
i they ca n n o t meet h ow ev er f a r ex ten ded .

T h i s c o nd iti o n w ill b e fu l fill ed if t h e trai gh t li ne A B ( F g 2 2 6)

s i .

i s p ar all el t o a s tr ai gh t li n e C E in
t h e pl an e ; fo r si n c e A B c n n eve r ,
a

m ee t C E an d c an n ev e r l ea v e t h e
,

plane d e t erm i n ed b y A B an d C E
229 it c an n e er m ee t th e pl ane
, v

M i n wh i c h C E li e s H e nc e .
,

I . A s tr a igh t l i ne i s p a r a l l el to a

F ig . 2 26 .
p l a ne if i t i s pa r a l l el to a s tr a i gh t
l i ne d r a w n i n the pl a n e .

II . If tw o l i nes a re
p a r a l l el , every
p l a ne
p a s sed th r o ugh o ne o f
the l i nes w i l l be p a r a l l el to th e o th er l i ne .

What exc ep ti o n i s t he r e t o t h i s l ast st at em en t ?

1 In n a m i ng a pl an e , a s i gl l tt r
n e e e ,
as M or N ,
is usu lly su ff ci t
a i en .
 CHAPT E R xi .
— LAN E SP . 25 3

i ses
E xe rc . 1 . H o w m an y l i s p r ll l t
ne a a e o a pl an e ca n be dr w thr ugh
a n o

a p i t utsid
o n o e th e pl an e P
2 . If tw o l ines a re p r ll l
a a e to a pl a n e , are th y p r ll l
e a a e to ea ch th r ?
o e

G iv i ll ustr ti s
e a on .

233 trai gh t li n e p erp en d i c l r o r i n c li ned t o

. A s ,
u a a plane w ill ,

( pr o l o n ge d if n ec essar y ) m ee t t h e pl an e i n
,
p o in t a . T hi s p o in t
i s c all e d th e f t o f t he li n e oo .

D e fin i t i o n . A s tr a i gh t l i ne i s perpen d i c u l a r to a
p l a n e if i t
,

i s p erpen di cu l a r to ev ery s tr a i gh t l i ne th a t ca n be d r a w n
i ts f oo t i n th e pl a ne .

It i s l
a so sa id to be no r ma l t o the pl ne
a .

A li n e
i ng t hi s pr o p ert y c an
hav a l ways b e d r awn fr o m a p o n i t
B ( F g 2 2 7 ) t o a p l ane 111
i . Fo . r,

am o n g all th e li n e s t h a t c an b e

d r aw n fr o m B t o m e e t t he pl an e ,

t her e w ill b e o ne P O sho rt e r t han , ,

any o t h e r If w e d r aw t hr o gh i t s
. u

fo o t 0 any str ai gh t li n es A B C D , ,

et c .B O w ill b e t h e sho rt est li ne

,

fr o m P t o e ac h o f t hese li n es t h e r e
fo r e p erp end i c u l ar t o eac h
an d al l o f t h e m .

H en c e , a
p p er en d i c u l a r m ea su r es th e d i s ta n ce f ro m a p oi n t to a

p l a ne .

T hr o u gh t he i nt ersec ti o n O ( F ig . 228 ) of t wo li n es ,
AB an d CD ,
d r aw a ny li ne OE _ _ 1 CD , an d r ev o l ve OE ab o u t CD , k ee pi ng
OE 1 CD ; t he r e is o n e , an d o n ly

o ne, p o siti o n ill

in wh i ch the li n e w
al so b e 1 AB Le t O P b e t hi s .

p o s iti o n ; t h e n O P b e i n g t h e o n l y ,

lin e t hr o u gh 0 p erp end i c l ar t o b o t h u

A B an d C D m st b e p e rp e n d i c l ar,
u u

t o t he pl an e p asse d t hr o u gh A B and

CD T herefo r e
.
,
254 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GIN E N RS . 234 .

[f a s tr a i gh t l i ne i s p p er en di c u l a r to tw o s tr a i gh t l i n es d r a w n
th r o ugh a p oi n t o f th e l i ne, i t i s p pen di cu l a r
er to th e pl a n e co n ta i n

i ng th os e t w o l i nes .

i s pr o p o siti o n e nabl e s u s t o so l e t he pro b l e m

T h v

T o m ak e a pl an e p e rp e n d i c l r t o s tr a i gh t li n e u a a .

We hav e o nly to d raw t hr o gh ny p i n t o f the li n e u a o

t w o p e rp en d i l r s nd t he n t o p a s pl n e t hr o u gh
cu a ,
a s a a

these p e rp e n d i c l r E xpl ai n h w rp n t e r wo l d
u a s . o a ca e u

p ro c e e d i n o rd er to w s q u r e l y i n t w o t he b e a m fsa a o

wo o d sho w n in F ig . 229 .

E xe ri c ses . 1 . G iv e exa m pl s e o f a li n e p rp di ul r t
e en c a o

F ig 2 29
a pl an e .

Wh e n right tri g l r v l v s b ut l gs
. .

2. a an e e o e a o o ne of i ts e ,

wh t i ga r t d by th th r l g P
s en e a e e o e e

3 At p i t f
. str ight l i i sp c h w m y p rp dicu l rs
a o n o a b a ne n a e, o an e en a can e

r ct d P F r m p i t t i th l i h w m y p rp d i cu l rs
e e e o a o n b l t no n e ne , o an e en a ca n e e

f ll t t h l i
a o P e ne

4 F i d th dist c fr m
. n p i t P t pl e i f i t d i st c fr m
an e o a o n o a an e, s an e o a

p i t A i th p l
o n nd t h dist c f this p i t fr m th f t f th
e an e a , an e an e O o n o e oo o e

p rp d i cu l r l t f ll fr m th first p i t t th p l
e en a e ab S lv f oth e o n o e an e . o e or e

s wh r
ca e 7 b 8
e e a z 1 ,
.

5 Pr v th t l i s dr w fr m p i t m ti g p l
. o e a net qu l dist a n o a o n ee n a ane a e a an

fr m t h f t f th p rp dicu l r l t f ll fr m t h p i t
o e oo o e qu l e d t en a e a o e o n a re e a an

o f tw l i s dr w t u
o qu l dist c s fr m th f t f th p p d i
ne a n o ne a an e o e oo o e er en cu

th m r r m t i t h gr
e o e tr e o e s e ea e .

6 Pr v th c v rs
. f t h first p rt f th l st
o e e rcis
on e e o e a o e a e xe e .

7 F i d t h l cus f p i ts i
. n p l quidist t fr m p i ts t i th
e o o o n n a an e e an o o n no n

pl an e .

8 F i d th l cus f p i ts quidist t fr m t w g i v
. n e o p i ts o o n e an o o en o n .

9 F i d th l cus f p i ts quidist t fr m thr

. n e giv p i ts
o o o n e an o ee en o n .

234 . Let A B a nd CD ( F ig . 23 0
) be n o rm al t o t h e pl a ne

a n d su pp o se l A C k e e pi ng p r ll e l t o
AB to m o v e a o ng ,
a a i ts
os iti n T h e n i t s p o s iti o n r e l a tiv e t o t h e pl n e will n o t a
p o .

t hat i s it w ill r e m ai n n o r m al t o t he p lane

,
 25 6 GE OM E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS . 2
3 6 .

IV . T WO P l a n es .

23 6 plan es m ay b e e it her
. T wo
ar all e l t o e ac h o t h e r
( )
i
’

P
. .

( )
ii P e rp
. e n d i c u l ar t o e a c h o t h e r .

( )
i i i In c li ned t o e ac h o t he r
. .

T h e fl o o r and c e ili ng o f t h e r o o m are p ar all el pl an e s t he fl o o r

an d a s i d e o f t h e r o o m are p e rp e n d i c u l r t o e c h o t h e r the fl o o r a a

an d t he r o o f o f t he ho u se are i n c li n e d t o e ac h o t h e r G i e o t her . v

exam pl e s .

E x is s
e rc l I F g 3
e .
-
whi h p l s
. n p r ll l p rp dicu l r
i . 2 2 , c an e a re a a e e en a

inc li d ne

2 Dr w tw p l
. a s f ch ki d
o an e o ea n .

3 H l d tw pl
. o s ( b ks thi sticks f w d t ) p r ll l ; p p
o an e oo , n o oo , e c . a a e er en

du l r ; i c l i d
a n ne .

23 7 . D e fin i t i o n —T w o p l a n es a re
p a r a l l el
if th ey ca nn o t

m eet h ow ever f a r
’ ’
ex ten a ea .

T h i s c o nd iti o n i s f l fill e d i f the pl anes M and N ( F g 23 3 ) are

u i .

b o t h p erp en di c u l r t o t h e sam e li n e A B a F o r i f w e p ass a t hir d .

plan e t hr o u gh A B it w ill i n t er se c t M i n a li n e C D L A B ( why

,
.

an d N i n a li n e E F 1 AB T h er e fo r e C D an d E B b e i ng i n
_ _ .
, ,

t h e sa m e pl an e a e p ar all e l ,
ran d c an n ev e r m ee t T he .

sa m e r easo n i ng m ay b e a ppli e d t o al l pl an e s t ha t c an b e p assed

t hr o u gh A B 5 t her efo r e t he pl an es M a nd N c an never me et ,

.
 CHAPT E R XI .
—PLAN E S . 25 7

T he r e fo r e ,

I . P l a n es th a t h a ve a co m m o n n o r m a l a r e
p a r a ll el .

T he c o n v e se r is a sol tr u e . S ta t e it .

It i s l
a so e v i d en t fro m w ha t pr e c e d es t hat , ,

II . T h e i n tersecti o n s f
o tw o p a r a l l el
p l a nes hy a th i r d pl a ne a re

p a r a l l el l i n es .

If, l
a so , CE ll DE ( F ig . t h en C D E E is a p ar all el o gr am
an d AC B D th t is a ,

III Pa r a l l el l i nes he t w ee n pa r a l l el pl a nes a r e

. equ a l .

Am o ng he se e q u a t
a a e n e s are t hel p r ll l li common norm lsa

wh ich m e as r e t he d i st an c e a p rt
u a of t he planes t her e
fo re ,

IV . P a r a ll el pl a nes a r e every w h er e equ a l ly d i s ta n t .

23 8 . T w o p l a n es a re perpen d i cu l a r to ea ch
D e fin i t i o n .

o th er if a no r m a l to ei ther pl a n e, er ected a t a ny o i n t of h ei r
p t

i n ter secti o n , l i es i n the o th er pl a ne .

T he gl e m an
a d e b y t h e n o r m al s t o t h e t w o pl n es e r e c t e d at t h e a ,

sam e p o i n t o f t h e i n t e r ec ti o n i s ri gh t angl e ( w hys ,

a

Let t he pl n e s M n d N ( F g 23 4 ) i n t e r se c t i n t h e lin e A B
a a i .
,

an d l et C D b e n o r m al t o M an d l i e i n IV .

D r aw D E n o rm l t o N t hen C D E i s a ri gh t angl e ( why ?)

a

t he r efo r e D E m t l i i n M the us e

p l an e c o n t a i n i n g a l l li n e s e
p p e n r

d i c ul ar t o C D at D .

rt r l et G b e ny o t he r p o i n t
F u he ,
a

o f t h e i n t er se c ti o n an d d r aw G E no ,
r

m al t o Il l an d O H n o r m l t o IV T h en
,
a .

G F ll D C n d si n e D C a c

li es i n the pl n e IV nd G l so li es i n a ,
a a

J V t he r e fo r e G F m u t l i e i n ZV F o
,
s . r

li k e r e so ns G H l i i n M
a ,
es

Co m par i ng t h ese r esu l ts w it h t he d efin iti o n ,

we see that,
25 8 GE OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS . 23
9 .

I T w o pl a n es m u s t he perp en di cu l a r , if a s i ngl e n o r m a l to on e of
.

th e pl a n es er ec ted a t a p o i n t of the i n ters ecti o n l i es i n th e o th er pl a ne .

II E very pl a ne p a ss ed th r o ugh a n or m a l to a pl a ne i s p erpen

.

d i cu l a r to th a t pl a ne .

E xe rc i ses . 1 . H ow c an a pl an e p rp dicu l r t
e en a o a giv p len an e be p ss d
a e

thr ugh giv

o a en p i t
o n

2 . H ow c an p l p rp d i cu l r t
a an e e en a o a giv p l en an e be p ss d thr ugh
a e o a

str ight l i
a ne, ( i )
. wh t h l i l i s
en i e ne e n th giv p l
e en an e
( )
i i wh . it i en s

i li d t
nc ne o th e giv p l en( )i i whan e P i . en i t i p r ll l t
s a a e o th e giv p l en an e

23 9 . T w o i n cl i ned ) i n tpl
e r se c t e ac h
an es M an d N ( F ig . 23 5

o t he r an d fo r m w h a t i s c all e d a D IH E D R AL AN G LE T h i s an gl e
l
.

m y b e c o n c e i e d a s ge n e r a t e d b y a v

t h e r e o l ti o n O f o n e O f t he pl an es M v u

b o t t h e li n e A B n til it c o m es i n t o a u u

t h e p o s iti o n o f t h e o t h e r pl an e J V .

T h e pl n e s M n d N are c ll e d t he a a a

f O f t h e a n l
g 3e t h e in t e rse c ti o n a ces

A B i s c ll e d t he dg o f t he angl e a e e .

A d i he d r al angl e i s al ways m e as u r e d
b y t he angl e o f t w o li n e s If 0 C i s l . _ _

A B d u ri n g t h e r ev o l ti o n o f f}! ab o u t ,
u

A B 0 C d esc rib es the angl e C O D , ,

wh i c h has t h e sam e v al u e w he r e v e r t h e p o i n t 0 i s sit at ed i n t he u

li ne A B T h i s angl e m ay t h er e fo r e b e u sed t o m e asu r e

t he d i he d ral a ngl e m d e b y t h e pl an es T h at i sa .
,

A d i h ed r a l g l e i s m ea s u r ed h
an
y th e a ng l e m a d e hy t w o l i n es

dr aw n th r o ugh a ny p o i n t of th e edge, perpen di cu l a r to the edge, o n e

h ne i n o th er i n th e
'

o ne p l a n e,
th e o th er p l a n e .

E xe ri
c ses .
—1 ustr t by th l v s
. Ill a e, e ea e and e dg s e of a b k dih dr l
oo , e a

an gl s e , and ho w th y m sur d
e a re ea e .

2 . If th e ang l f th l i s whi h m sur

e o e ne c ea e a dih dr l e a an gl e is wh t a

p siti
o on d o th e pl s h v P
an e a e

1
F r om G r ee k w rds m
o ea ni n g tw o
f
-
a ced ,
260 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 24 1 .

If t wo pl anes M and N ( F g 23 9 ) are b o t h perp end i c u

Of th e i .

lar t o t h e t h ir d pl an e B it fo ll o w s fr o m 23 8 t hat t he ir i n t er
, , ,

se c ti o n m u st b e a n o r m l t o t he pl an e I? fo t he n o r m al t o R
a r
,

e r e t e d at t he p o i n t O m u st l i e i n b o t h M
c n d IV
,
a .

E x r ie c se G iv . m pl f thr p r ll l p l s ; f tw p l s b th
e a n e xa e o ee a a e an e o o an e , o

p rp d i cu l r t third p l
e en a o a an e .

VI .
—S ol 1
'

d Angl es .

Wh en t hr e e
24 1 .
or r e pl ne s m ee t i n o ne p o i nt 0 ( F i g
mo a .

2 4 1 ) t h ey are sai d t o f r m at t ha t p o i n t a S O LID ANG LE

o T he .

pl nes re c all e d t he f a
a a t he ir li n es O f i n ces ,

t e se c t io n t he dg an d t h e an l e s at O e es ,
r
g ,

m d e b y t he t w o e d ge s o f e ac h pl an e t he
a ,

l n a ngl es O f t h e so li d a n l e
p a e
g .

If t h e r e a e o nl y t hr ee pl an e s t h e angl e
r ,

i s s ally c all e d a t i h d a l angl e

u u r e r .

In o r d er t o fo r m a tri he d r l an gl e fr o m a

t hr e e angl es i n o ne pl n e A O B AOC a ,
a,

h B O D : c (F g
,
o f whi c h we i .

w ill s pp o s e a t o b e t h e gr ea t e s t t u r n t he
u ,

pl an e A O C ab o u t A O and t he pl an e A O D ,

ab o u t B O, till t hey m ee t i f p o ssi b l e an d t h e li ne s C O an d D O

, ,

c o nc i id e .

If 5 c a, CO an d D O w ill
i i d e w hen t u r ned t hr o u gh j u st c o nc

h al f r ev o l u ti o n so t h t b o t h gai n l i e i n th e pl n eo f t he p ap er
a ,
a a a

if b c a C O an d D O c a nn o t b e m ad e t o c o i n c i d e
, In b o t h .

c as e s n o tri he d r al a ngl e w ill b e fo r m e d B t if h c > a C O an d . u ,

D O w ill c o i n c i d e i n a li n e O E e it h e r i n fr n t o f t h e pl ane O f t h e
,
o

p ap e r ( F i g o r b eh i n d it
.
( F ig ac c o r d i n g as t h e m o ti o n .

i s f or w a d o r ha hw a d ; an d a tri he d r al angl e i s fo r m e d
r c r And .
,

si n e c i s su pp o se d t h e gr ea t es t o f t h e t hr ee angl e s it fo ll o w s t hat
a ,

h c a nd t ha t h H e n c e i n v y t i h d l ng lze
‘
a ,
c a .
,
e er r e ra a

su m o f an
y tw o f
o the pl a n e a ngl es i s g r ea ter th a n the thi r d .
 z4 i .
j CHAP rE R x1 .
—PLAN E S . 261

If t h e m o ti o n r r
i s fo w a d s, t he t hedra ri l l
ang e sho wn in F i g . 2 42

r
i s fo m e d ; i f b ac kw ar d s ,
t he tri he d r l a an g el sho wn i n F g 2 43 i . .

Ph e se t w o an g e s l ar e com p o se d o f e qu a l plan e ngl es t ak en i n

a ,

o r d er ; yet th ey c anno t b m d e to o i n i d e b e c a se t he ir e q l e a c c ,
u ua

p rt s fo llo w i n v
a o r d e r — i n o n e fr o m l e ft t o ri gh t ; i n t h e
re er s e , ,

o t h e r fr o m ri gh t t o l e ft
,
.

T h ey s t an d t o e c h o t h e r i n t h e s m e r el ti o n as an O bj ec t t o i ts
a a a

i m age i n a m irro r o as t he right h n d t o t h e l e ft T w o s c h so li d

,
r a . u

a ngl es are sai d t o b e y m m t i c l s e r a .

T w o so li d angl e s re q l i f t h e y e c o m p o se d o f e q
a e l pl ne
ua ,
ar ua a

a n l e s t ak en i n th e
g am o rd er W e m ay c o n c e i ve t w o e q
s e l . ua

so li d angl es pl ac e d o n e u p o n t h e o t h e r so a s t o c o i n c i d e i n al l

t he ir p rt s a .

What ever b e t he n u m b er o f pl an e angl es w h i c h c o m p o se so li d a

a ngl e th i ,
s m ti m t d i n d g
e r u ,
m est h l th n
a e if e r ees , us e ess a

it w er e e qu l t o t h e pl an e n gl es w o l d n ec essarily l i e i n n e
a a u o

pl n e an d w o l d n o t fo rm a so li d angl e
a ,
u .

E x is e rc 1 G iv es . mpl s f s li d. gl s e e xa e o o an e .

2 I . s l id g l h w i th
n a o gl which t w f s m k wi th ch
an e, o s e an e o ac e a e ea

o th r m sur d ?
e ea e

3 D r w s l id
. ag l h vi g thr f c s f ur f c s i f c s
a o an e a n ee a e o a e s x a e .
262 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GIN N E RS .

R E V IE W O F CH APT E R X I .

I . S t r a i g h t L i n e s i n S p ac e .

Na tur f S l id G m try
e o o eo e .

T w str ight l i
o s i sp
a ne n a c e.

T w g l s i sp c
o an e n a e .

II . A P l an e .

228 . De fi i ti f p l
n on o a an e .

229 . D t rm i ti
e e f pl na on o a an e .

23 0 . I t rs cti
n e f tw pl
e on O o an e s .

III .
—A S t r ai g h t L i n e an d a P l an e .

s ti s f str ight l i with r sp t t

Po i on O a a ne e ec o a pl an e .

T h str i ght l i
e p r ll l t p l
a ne a a e o a an e .

T h str ight l i
e p rp dicu l r t p l
a ne e en a o a an e .

T W rm l s t p l
O no a o a an e .

T h str ight l i
e i li d t pl
a ne nc ne o a an e .

IV . T W O Pl an e s .

23 6 . tiv p siti s f tw p l
Re l a e o on O o an e s .

23 7 . T w p r ll l p l
o a a s e an e .

23 8 . T w p rp
o dicu l r p l s
e en a an e .

23 9 . T WO i c l i d pl s
n ne an e .

V . T h r e e P l an e s .

240 . Re l a tiv p siti s

e o on of thr p l ee an e s .

VI . l
S o i d An g l es .

24 1 . Sol id an gl s
e . S mm e y tric l s l id a o an gl s e . E qu l s l id
a o an gl s
e .
264 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 24 3 .

If we exam n e i t he p o lyhe dr o n s i n F g 2 p age 4 we find t hat i .

, , ,

No . I
. h a s 5 f e s 6 c o r n e r s a n d 9 e d ge s
ac , , .

II has 6
. 8 12

III h as 8
. 1 2 1 8
IV h as 5
.
5 8

In eac h O f t hese c ases t he n u m b er o f fac es nu m b er O f c o r

,

n er s n m b e r o f e d ge s
u 2 .

T hi s r e l a ti o n i s p er fe c tl y ge n er al an d i s c all e d E u l er s T h eo r e m 1
’
, .

Let F d e n o t e t he n u m b e r O f f c es C t he n m b e r o f c o r n e r s E t he
a ,
u ,

n m b er o f ed e s t h m t at e E u l e r s T h e o r e m as fo ll o w s
’
u
g e n w e a
y s

In ever y pol yh edr on , F C E 2 .

§ 24 3 .p o lyh ed ro n w ho se fac es are equ al r egul ar p o lygo ns

A ,

an d w h o se so li d angl es ar e al l e q u al i s c all ed RE GULAR ,

.

It i s e asy t o sho w t ha t o nl y fiv e r egu l ar p o l yhe d r o ns are p o ssi b l e .

We k n o w alr eady t hat at l east t hr ee fac e s are n ec essar y to fo r m

a so li d a n l e a l s o t h a t t h e su m O f t h e pl a ne an gl e s at ea c h c o r n er
g ,

m u st b e l ess t han fo u r ri gh t angl es

T he an gl e O f t he e q u il a t er al tri angl e
° °
an d 3 X 60 1 80

t her efo r e t hr e e su c h tri angles m ay fo r m a so li d angl e Li k ew i se

,
.
,

fo r su c h tri angl es m ay b e u sed si n c e 4 x 60 al so fi e

°
u ,
v

s u c h tri ngl e s si n c e so t h t
° °
a , 5 x 6 0 B u t 6 x 60 a

si x o r m o r e t h an si x e q u il a t e r al tri n gl es c an n o t fo r m a so li d a ngl e
, ,
a .

T he r efo r e o n l y t hr e e r egu l ar p o l yhe d r o n s are p o ssi b l e w ho se

,

fac e s are e q u il at e r al tri an gl e s .

T he angl e O f a squ ar e S i nc e 3 x 9 0 w hil e

°

4 x 90
°
t hr ee i s the o nly n m b e r o f squ ar es t hat c an u

fo r m a so li d an gl e .

T he angl e o f a r egu l ar p e n t ago n Si n c e 3 x 1 0 8

°

w h il e 4 x 1 0 8 o n l y t hr ee r egu l ar p en t ago ns c an b e u se d
°

t o fo r m a so li d angl e .

1E ul r w e f m us G r m
as a a m th m t i i
o e b r 7 7 d i d 7 83
an a e a c an , o n 1 0 ,
e 1 .
5 243
] CHAPT E R xi 1 .
—GE OM E T R CAL
’

I B O D IE S . 265

T he l
r egu l ar hexago n
ang e o f a S i nc e 3 x 0 1 2
°

t hr ee hexago ns plac ed t o ge t her w it h a o r ner c o m m o n w o u l d li e c

i n o n e pl an e an d c o u l d n o t fo r m a so li d angl e T her e fo r e n o .
,

so li d angl e an b e fo r m e d w it h r eg l ar h e xago n s
c s till l e ss w it h
u

r egu lar p o lygo ns hav ing m o re t han six si d es .

T he r efo r e ,
on ly fiv e r egu l ar p o lyhedr o ns are p o ssi b l e . T hey
are,

( ) 1 r eg l ar T e tr ahed r o n ( F i g
T he u . b o u nd ed b y fo u r
e q u il a t e r l tri n gl e s
a a .

( )
2 T h e r eg l ar u O c t a h e d r o n (F g i . b o u nd ed b y e i gh t
e q il a t er l
u tri an gles
a .

( 3) T h e r e g l a r u Ic o s ah ed r o n (F g i . b o u n d ed b y t w en t y
e q il t e r al tri ngl e s
u a a .

( 4) T h e r e gu l a r H ex h e d r o n a ( g
F i . b o u n d ed b y si x

squ ar e s .

( 5) T h e r e g l a r u D o d e c ah e d r o n ( F g i . b o u nd ed b y t wel ve
regu l ar p en t ago n s .
266 G E OM E T RY FOR E E GINN E RS . 24 3 .

T O DEVE LO P t he su rfac e o f a so li d i s t o d r aw i n o ne pl ane the

1

va ri o us p art s o f t h e s r fac e so t h t wh en fo l d e d p t hey sh ll fo r m

u ,
a u a

t he so li d .

T he rfac e o f the so li d w hen d rawn i n o n e pl an e i s c all ed the

su , ,

D E VE LO PM E NT o f t h e su r fac e .

T h e su r fa c es o f m ny so li d s c ann o t b e d e e l p e d ; b u t w he n
a v o

t hi s c an b e d o n e it i s e sy t o o nstr u c t b y t hi s m eans m d l o f
,
a c o e s

t h e s o li d s .

T he su r fac es O f t he r egu l ar p o l yh e d r o n s re all d e v e l o p ab l e an d a ,

t he ir plane m o d e l s a e sho w n i n r 2 4 9— 25 3 .

T O m ak e m o d el s t he se
li d s d r aw o n c r db o ar d t he d i gr m s
Of so ,
a a a

sho w n i n t h e s e fi r e t t h m t f t h r d b r d d t h en
g s u e o , Ocu e c o a a n u a ,

cu t h l f t h r o gh t h e e d ges O f t h e a dj c e n t p o l go n s
a u T h e fig r e s
a u
y .

w ill t h e n r e d il y fo l d
a
p i n t o t h e sh a p e O f t h e so li d s
u nd n b e ,
a ca

r e t i ned i n sh p e b y m ean s o f gl e o p ast e

a a u r .

1 Li t r lly
e a ,
u n r ol l .
 268 GE OME T RY FO R B E GI N E RS N . 24
5 ,

What is an o hl i qu e p ar all e lo pip e d ( F g 25 7 ) i . A ri gh t p ar alle l o

pip e d ( E i g . 25 8)
A r ect a n p arall el o pip e d i s a ri gh t p arall e l o pip ed all O f
g u l a r
,

w h o se fa c es re r e c t angl e s
a .

A ca h i s a righ t p ar a ll el o pip e d al l O f w ho s e fac es ar e s u ar es

e
q ,

( g
F i .

E xe ri c se s .
-
1 . Can yo u giv e an e xa m pl e Of a prism ? Wh t k i d a n of

a pris m i s it P
2 . p i t t l t r l f s l t r l dg s th b s s th h ight
In F i g . 25 4 , o n ou a e a ac e , a e a e e , e a e , e e .

3 N m . pris m with b s f fi sid s i sid s ight id s

a e a a a e O ve e ,
s x e , e S e .

4 Wh t. th l t r l f c s f ri ght pris m ? Why i

a a re e l t r l dg
a e a a e O a s a a e a e e

equ l t th h i ght f th pris m ?

a o e e O e

5 H w m y f
. os dg s c r rs i prism with b s f thr sid s
an ac e ,
e e ,
o ne , n a a a e o ee e ,

f ur sid s i
o id s ight sid s tw ty sid s ? App l y E u l r s f rm ul t ch
e , s x S e , e e ,
en e e
’
o a o ea

o ne Of th s s s e e ca e .

6 D r w th f ll wi g
. a e o o n

( )
i O b l iqu . tri gu l r pris m ( ) O b l iqu p r ll l pi p d
e an a . v . e a a e o e .

( i i ) Ri ght p t g . l pris m ( i ) Right p r ll l pip d en a o na . v . a a e o e .

( )
i i R ight h
i g l pris m ( i ) R ct gu l r p r
e xal l l pip d
o na . vi e an a a a e o e .

( )
i R gu l r
v h . g l pris me( i i i ) Cub a e xa ona . v . e .

If a c ir c l e ( F i g . 2 60
) m o v e i n the d ir ec ti o n
rm al t o no

i ts o w n pl an e k ee pi ng al w ays p ar all e l t o ,

i t s fir st p o siti o n it gen er at e s a so li d c all e d ,

the ri gh t c i r cu l a r Cy l i n d er . T he sa m e

so li d is a so l ge n e rat ed by a r ec t angl e
A B CD ( g
F i . 2 w h i c h r e o l es ab o t v v u

o ne s i de CD .

D e fin i t i o n .
— A r i gh t ci r c u l a r CYL

F ig . 2 60 .
I DEN R i s the p s ol i d hy th e re v ol u r o d u ced

ti o n f
o a r ecta ng l e a ho i i t o n e of i ts s i d es

—I futur by
.

N OT E n e, th e w rd cyl i d r
o n e th e right c ircu l r cyl i d r wi ll a n e be
m e an t .

A c
yli n d e r i s b ou nded b y a r su r fac e c all e d th e co n v x
c u ved e

su r fac e ,
an d b
y t w o e q u al an d p ar ll e l c ir c l es c all ed th e ha a ses .

T he li ne j o i n i ng t he c en tr es O f t he b ases i s c all ed t he a x i s ; i t s

l engt h i s equ al t o t he h ei gh t o f t he c yli n d e r .

 CHAPT E R XII .
— GE OM E T RICAL B O D IE S . 269

24 6 . If t he p o lygo n A B CD E ( F ig . 2 61 ) m ove a onl g the

li n e A O k e e pi ng ,
p ar ll e l a

t o i ts fir st p o siti o n b t ,
u

d i m i n i sh i n g i n S i e at a z

u n i fo r m r a t e w i th t l ,
ou a

t i ng i n h p
er n til it i s
s a e, u
-

r e d e d t o a p o i n t O i ts
uc ,

s i d e s will d e sc ri b e tri n a

g l e s an d t h e p o l
, yg o n will
g e n e r a t e a s o li d c a ll e d a

P yr a m id .

D e fin i t i o n .
—A P YRAM ID is a
p lyh edor o n ho u n d ed hy tr i a ngl es
th a t h a ve a c o mm o n v er tex , a n d hy a ol
p yg o n w h ose s i d es a re th e

ha ses of th e t r i a ng l es .

T he tri angl es ll ed t he l te a l f c
are c a t he ir li n es o f i nt e sea r a es r c

ti o n ,
t he l t l
a er a g ; t h ir c o m m o n e rt e x t he v t x O f t he
ca es e v ,
er e

py ra m id n d t h e p o l ygo n t h e h
a O f t he p r a m i d
y ,
a se .

T he h ei gh t o f t he p yr am i d i s t h e d i st an c e ( O P ) fr o m t he vert ex
to t he b ase .

A p yr am i d i s tr i a ng u l a r , qu a d r a ng u l a r , et c .
,
ac

co r d i ng as i t s b a se i s a an g e , q u a d tri
a e a , l ril t r l etc .

A re u a r
g l p yr am id is a p yr am i d w h i c h has a
r eg l ar p o l ygo n fo r i ts b se
u a ,
n d i n w h i c h t he
a

p erp en d i c l r fr o m t he ert e x
u a v p sses t hr o gh t he
a u

c en t r e o f t h e b se T h e d i st n c e O M
( g
F a i . a

fr o m t he v e rt e x t o a S i d e O f t he b se i s lle d
a ca

t he sl a n t h ei gh t .

E xe rc s es i . 1 . In F i g . 2 61 ,
pi to n out l at e ra l fa c s l t r l dg s
e ,
a e a e e , th e

b s
a e, the v rte h i gh t e x, th e e .

2 . N m a pyr m i d w i th b s f fi sid s 6 i d s 8 s i d s
e a a a a e o ve e S e e .

3 . Wh t k i d f pyr m i d i t h t tr h dr ( F g 4 4 )
a n o a a s e e a e on i . 2

4 . Wh t k i d f tri g l s
a th f c s
n f r gu l r pyr m id
O an e a re e a e o a e a a

5 . Dr w ( i )
a tri gu l r pyr mi d ( i i ) r gu l r h g l pyr m id
. a an a a . a e a e xa o na a .
27 0 G E OM E T RY F O R B E GIN N E RS . 24 7 .

24 7 . If a c ir c l e ( F g i . 2 63 ) m ove in a d ir ec ti o n
r m l t o i t s no a

o w n pl a n e k e e pi ng p ar all e l t o i t s
,

fir s t p o siti o n b u t d i m i n i sh i ng i n
, .

S i e at
z a n i fo r m r at e till it i s
u

r ed u e d t o a p o i n t O i t w ill gener
c ,

a t e a so li d a ll e d a ri ght ci c l
c r u ar

Co n e .

T he sa m e so li d is a sol ge n e a e d r t
by ri gh t tri angl e A O B
a ,
w hi c h

r e o l e s ab o t t h e l e g O B
v v u .

D e fin i t i o n .
—A fi gh t ci r cu l ar CO N E i s th l i d p ro d u ced e so hy
th e r ev o l u ti o n o f a ri gh t tr i a ng l e a ho u t o n e o f i ts l egs .

N OT E . utur by th w rd c
In f e, r ight c ircu l r c w i ll b m t
e o o ne a a one e ean .

A c o ne i s b o u n d e d b y a u rv e d s r fac e c all e d i t s c n v x su r fac e u co e ,

an d b y a c ir c l e c all e d i t s h e T h e p o i n t O i s t he v t x O f t h e
as . er e

c o n e an d t h e li n e O B j o i n i n t h rt e x t o t h e c en t r e O f t he b ase
, g e v e

i s the x i a i t s l e ngt h i s e q al t o t h e h gh t O f t he c o n e
s u ei .

T he l eng t h O f t h e li ne A O ( F i g 2 63 ) i s c all e d t h e l a n t h i gh t . s e .

§ 248 . F r o m t he m o d e
g r ti o n O f t h e of ene a fo u r b o d i es no w .

d es b d
c ri e — P ri
, s m Cy li n d e r P y r m i
,
d C o n e — ,
a , ,
i t fo ll o w s t h at a

s e c ti o n m a d e b y a pl a n e p ar a ll e l t o t h e b as e i s ,

In a pri smp o lygo n e q u al t o the b ase

, ,
a .

In a l i nd er a c ir c l e e q al t o th e b ase ( F i g
cv ,
u .

In a p yr a m i d a p o l ygo n S i m il ar t o t h e b ase ( F g
,
i .

In a c o n e a c ir c l e sm all e r t han th e b ase ( F g

,
i .

T he se c ti o n O f a c yli n d e r m d e b y a pl ane i n c li n e d a t o t he
 272 GE OM E T RY FO R BE GI NNE RS . 2
50.

b ases O f t he fr ust u m i n t h e par all el li n es A P an d ral

E Q ( yp
wh a

an d d r aw E M ll O B By 1 59, .

_ _Q
Q OE 0 12 121?
_
’
an d
PQ E A E A AM
T he r efo r e ,

OQ E F
P Q AM
0P = 0 Q+ QP

E xe rc i ses . 1 . Wh a t a re t h e fac e s of th e frustum of a pyr m id

a

2 . If ( F ig . 2 71 ) PQ 5
m
,
AB : E F : 2
m
,
fin d O Q a n d O P .

3 . Giv en th e h ight P Q ( F ig
e . 2 72 ) O f th e f rustu
m O f a o n e, c an d th e r dii
a

of th e b s s a e fi d th h ight f
n e e o th e c o n e c u t o ff, a n d a l o th e s h i ght
e of th e

en tir e co ne .

H i nt . D r w B C Il O P
a ,
a n d u se th e s i m i l r t ri g l s
a an e OB Q an d A B C .

4 . If ( F ig . 2 72 ) = m
P Q 4 , A1 >
= 3
m
, B Q: 1
m
,
fin d O Q an d o r .

25 0 r fac es o f t he pri sm the pyram i d t he c ylin d e r and

. T he su , , ,

t he c o n e are al l d ev e l o p ab l e .

F g 2 73 sh o w s th e d ev el o p m en t o f a r egu l ar hexago n al pri sm ;

i .

F g 2 7 4 t ha t O f a r e gu l ar p yr am i d w ho se b ase i s a squ ar e
i . .

T he au xili ary li n es i n t he t wo figu r es serve t o ill u str at e h o w t h ey

are t o b e c o n s tru c t e d F g 2 75 i s t h e d ev el o p m ent O f a r egu l ar
. i .

hexago nal pyram i d H o w i s i t c o n s tru c t e d ?

.
 2 CHAPT E R xn .
— GE OM E T RICAL B O DIE S . 27 3

T h e d ev e lo p m ent O f the c o nv ex su r fac e o f a c yli nd er i s a r ec t

angl e fo r w e c an r o ll u p a r ec t ang l ar she e t O f p ap e r fo r exam u
,

l
p ,e i n t o t h e sha p e O f a c y li n d ri c a l su r fac e and c o nv e r sel
y a c yl i n ,

dri cal su rfac e c an b e u nro l l e d i n t o a r ec tangl e ( F g i .

F ig . 27 7 .

T h e d ev e l o p m en t Of t h e c o nv ex su rfac e Of a c o ne is a c ir cu lar
t r
se c o w ho se arc ir c u m fe r en c e O f t he b ase O f t he c o ne and
is t he c ,

Who se r ad i u s i s the S l an t h e i gh t o f t he c o n e ( F g i .

F g 2 7 6 S ho w s t he d ev e l o p m e n t o f t h e e n tir e s rfac e o f a c yl i n
i . u

d er F g 2 77 t ha t O f t he e n tir e s rfac e O f a c o n e F i g 2 7 7 t ha t
i .
,
u .
,

O f t h e en tir e su rfac e O f t he fr u s t u m o f a c o n e .

E x i
e rc ses M k m d l s f th f ll wi g s l ids
. a e o e O e o o n o

l . A r gu l r tri gu l r pri s m
e a an a 6 A cub . . e .

2 A r gu l r h
. e g l pris m
a e xa ona 7 A cy l i d r . . n e .

3 A ri ght pri s m
. t r gu l r , no 8 Ac
e a . . on e .

4 A r ct gu l r p r ll l pip d
. e an a a a 9 A frustu m f pyr m id
e o e . . o a a .

5 A r gu l r h
. e g l pyr m id
a exa 10 A frustu m f
o na a . . o a c o ne .
274 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 2
5 1 .

III . T h e Sph er e .

25 1 . D e fin i t i o n .
—A S PH E RE i s the s ol i d
p r o d u ced hy the
r ev o l u ti o n o f a se mi ci r cl e ( or
)
ci r c l e a ho u t th e d i a m eter ( F ig .

N OT E — S pi n
pi c f m a e e o o ne y r pi d l y
a on th e t a bl e , an d it w ill pr s e en t the '

a pp r c f ph r
e a an e O a S e e.

T he sem i c ir c u m fe r enc e
-
PM Q d e sc ri b es t he
r fac e o f t h e su

s p her e an d it i s l ear t hat t hi s su rfac e

c

m u s t b e e v e r yw her e e q all y d i s t an t u

fr o m O t h ,
e n tr e O f t he se m i ir c l e
e c c

T h i s p o i n t O i s all e d t he cen t e o f t h t
c r

sp h e r e .

T he r efo r e a s p h er e m ay al so b e d e
,
‘

fin e d as a so l i d hou n ded hy a f
s u r a ce

w h i ch is every w h er e equ a l ly di s ta n t

f ro m a p o i n t c a l l ed th e cen tr e .

What i s a r a di u s o f a sp her e a d i a meter t

An o range m ay b e t ak en as a go o d e xa m pl e o f a sp he r e If w e .

c u t an o r a nge i n t o a se ri e s O f p a r a ll el S li c e s ,

t h e p l an e s o f d i v i s i o n b e t w e en t he sli c e s
are c ir c l es d i ffe ri ng i n si z e t h e l ar ge s t b e i ng ,

t hat w hi c h p asses t hr o u gh t he c en tr e o f the

o r ange .

E very s e cti o n o f a s
p h ere m a de h
y a p l a ne

is a c i r cl e .

ti o n p asses t hr o u gh the c entr e

If t h e se c

o f t he s p h e r e it i s ll ed a g ea t ci cl ,
ca r r e ,

i n all o t h e r s e s it i s c ll d a m a ll ci l
ca ,
a e s rc e .

T he e u al p a rt s i n t o w h i c h a r ea t c ir c l e d i v i d e s t h e S p h e r e a e
q g r

ca ll ed H em i sp h er es .

In F i g . 2 8 0, t he sec ti o ns P A QB an d AGB H are gr eat c ir c l es ;

the se c ti o ns CE DE an d [11 S N T are s m all c ir c l e s .

Al l g r ea t ci r cl es f
o a s
ph ere a r e equ a l ; th ey h a ve the s a m e cen r e, t
the s a me r a di us , th e sa me di ameter , as the p
sh er e i tself .
27 6 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NNE RS . 2
5 2.

t anc e b e t ween t he plan e s o f the c ir c l es i s t he h ei gh t Of th e z o ne,

an d t he c ir c u m fe r e n c e s o f t h e c ir l e s c are i t s ha ses . If one of

t h e pl an e s t o c h es t h e s p h e r e w it h o u t
u cutti ng it ( o r i s a t ngent a

p l an e
) t h e,
o n e i s c all e d a z o n e f o n
z o e h a se Po i n t o u t z o n e s i n
.

F ig . 2 80 .

i
E xe rc I G ivses m p l s f sph r s ( g l b s b ll s )
. . e e xa e o e e o e , a .

2 Dr w
. figur f ph r with l i s i i t t i ll ustr t th d fi iti s f
a a e o a S e e ne n o a e e e n on o

this s ti ec on .

3 H w wi ll
. sph r b d i vid d by thr gr t irc l s m utu ll y p p
o a e e e e ee ea c e a er en

di l t
c u ar h th r o e ac o e

4 I wh t
. ns i th surf af th rth divid d Whi h
z o ne s e s ac e o e ea e c are z o n e

Of b s
o ne a e

25 2 r. An t r t he pee l i s rem o v ed i s e asily d i vi de d

o ange , af e ,

i n t o w ed ge S h ap ed S li e s s e p r a t e d b y n at u ral pl an e s O f d iv i s i o n
-
c ,
a .

T hese pl an es are pl an es o f gr ea t c ir c l es i n t e rs e c ti ng i n a c o m m o n
d i am e t e r In t he fr u it t h e n u m b e r o f t he pl an es i s li m it ed b u t
.
, ,

i n any sp her e w e m ay i m agi n e as m any su c h p l anes as we pl ease

, ,

al l p asse d t hr o u gh a c o m m o n d i am e t er , an d eac h c u tti n

g t he sur
fac e O f t he s p h er e i n the c ir c u m fe r en c e O f a gr eat c i r c l e .

F i g 2 8 1 S ho ws sev e r al su c h pl n e s p assi ng t hr o u gh t he d i am e t er
. a

P Q T hey i n t er se c t t he su rfac e i n t he
.

c ir c u m fe r en c e s t he fr o n t p art s o f w h i c h ,

are t he se m i c ir c u m fer en c es P A
QP B Q -

, ,

e tc .

i c ir c u m fe r enc es a e c all ed
T h e se sem -
r

M i di a n and t he p o rti o n O f th e s r er s, u
q

fac e O f t h e sp here c o m pri se d b e t ween t wo

m e r i d i an s i s c all ed a L u n e Po i n t o u t .

lu n es i n F i g 2 8 1 . .

T e es t i a l M e i di a n s a re t h e c ir c u m rr r r

fere n c e s o f gr ea t ir c l es o n t he e art h s su r fac e m ad e by pl an es

’
c

as si n g t h r o gh t he eart h s a xi s
’

p u .

T he su r fac e O f s p h er e i s n o t d ev e l o p ab l e b u t a cl o se a
a
pp ro xi ,
 2
5 2 CHAPT E R xi r . G E OM E T RICAL B ODIE S . 27 7

m ati o n t o it c an be c o ns tru c t e d by d r aw i ng a seri es o f equ al l u nes

in pl an e as fo ll o w s
o ne ,

D i i d e a li n e A B ( F g
v w h i c h m u s t b e m ad e e qu al t o
i
34 .

ti m es t he d i am e t e r O f t he pr o p o se d sp he r e i n t o t w el e eq al p art s , v u ,

an d ad d n i n e O f t h e s e p ar t s t o e ac h e n d o f t he T h en w it h a ,

rad i u s equ al t o t en Of t hese part s

ro m the po i n t s ,
d esc rib e r
a cs f
m ar k e d 3 e t c ;I, 2, a r c,
s fr o m t he.
p o i n t
an d
s mli k ew i se
ar k e
,
d ,

I II III e t c as sho w n i n t he figu r e

.
,
.
,
.
,
.T he se ar s w ill i n c l o se
,
. c

l u n es w hi h c t o t an d pr o p erl y fo l d e d u p w ill v ery near ly fo r m

c ,
u u ,

a co m pl t e s p h e ri c al su rfac e
e .

It i s b y a pr o c ess O f t hi s so r t t hat t h e su r fac e s o f b all o o n s b as e ,

b all s gl o b es e t c ar e m ad e
, , .
,
.

E xe rc i s es . 1 . De sc i b
r e ho w a h m isph r w u l d
e e e o be g r t d by
e ne a e

m o ion t .

2 . Ma k e a mo dl e of a sph r e e.
27 8 G E OM E T RY F OR BE GINN E RS .

RE V IE W O F CH APT E R X II .

I . Po y h ed rons l .

24 2 . De fi iti n on o f th e Po l yh dr e on . S p ific
ec n am e s O f p l yh dr s
o e on . E ul r s
e
’

th r eo em .

24 3 . T h e fiv e r gu l r p l yh dr s
e a o e on . De v l pm t
e o en of th ir surf
e ac e s . H ow
mo d l s f th m
e m d
o e are a e .

11 .
—T h e P ri s m ,
C y l i n d e r , P y r a mi d , an d Co n e .

De fi iti f th P is m D i ff r t ki ds f pris m s T h p r l l l
n on o e r . e en n o . e a a e o

pip d e .

D fi iti
e n f th Cy l i d r
on o e n e .

D fi iti
e n f th Pyr m id
on o D i ff r t ki ds f pyr m ids
e a . e en n o a .

D fi iti
e n f th C on o e o ne .

S ti
ec s f th pris m y l i d r pyr m id d
on o e , c n e , a ,
an c o ne .

F rustu m f pyr m id o a a o r a co ne .

D v l p m t f th su f
e e o s f th s f ur s l ids H w m d l s
en O e r a ce o e e o o . o o e of

th m e m d ar e a e .

III .
—T h e S ph ere .

25 1 . T he S ph r d fi d S t i e e f sph r m d by pl
e ne . ec on o a e e a e a an e . G r eat

an d s m ll cir l s S ph ri l tri g l s
a d p l yg
c es Z . e ca an e an o on . one s .

25 2 . Me ridi l i s L u s H w m d l f sph r m y b
an ne . ne . o a o e o a e e a e ma d e .
280 GE O ME T R Y FO R B E GI NN E RS . 2
54 .

14 w u l d E r is 3 b s l v d i f th l ss ( th gr t r) r dius
. H ow o xe c e I e o e e e or e ea e a

of th b s w r give i st d f sid f th b s
a e e e en n ea O a e o e a e

1 5 T h t t l sur f
. f gu l r h g l pris m
e o a sid f th a ce O a re a e xa o na a e O e

b s a e F i d th h ight ( T bl p n e e se e a e, .

16 I r gu l r h g l pris m th h ight : h sid f th b s

. n a e a exa o na ,
e e ,
a e o e a e a .

F i d th t t l su f
n e o a A 6 hr ac e
3 \/3 . ns . a a
2
.

25 4 . T HE CY LIN D E R . T h e d ev e l o p m ent of the c o nv e x su r

fac e i s a r ec t angl e ( F g i . 2 76 ) w h o se b as e i s e q u a t o t he l c ir c u m

fe r enc e O f t he b ase O f t he c yli n d er and ,

w ho se altit u d e i s e u al t o
q
t he h e i gh t O f t he c yli n d e r T he b ase s Of th e c li n d e r a e e u al
y
.

q r

c ir c l es T her e fo r e
.

I . Co n vex f s u r a ce ci r cu m er en ce f ( f ha se
i x hei gh t f
o cy l i n der .

II o ta l s u rfa ce
. T co n vex s u r a ce f tw i ce the a r ea f
o ei ther

ha se .

E xe rc i d th i se v surf th r s f th b s s d th t t l
s . F n e con ex ac e, e a ea o e a e , an e o a

sur f c f th f ll wi g y l i d rs
a e o e o o n c n e

1 H ight :
. r dius f b s
e a o a e 1m .

2 H ight .
: 96 di m t r f b s 6
e
m 0m
,
a e e o a e 0 c

3 H ight 4 5 circu m f r c f b s
e .
m
,
e en e O a e

4 H ight : 34 r fb s
e 6 74 m
,
a ea o a e 1 .
qm .

5 H ight r dius f b s
e a o a e

6 H ight h r dius f b s
e , a O a e r .

7 H ight h di m t r f b s
e d ,
a e e o a e .

8 H w m y sq yds f sh t t i
. o r quir d t v r th
an v surf c
. . o ee n a re e e o co e e con ex a e

Of acircu l r t w r 4 f high th di m t r f th b s b i g
a o e o t
,
e a e e O e a e e n

9 T h l gth f h ll w tub
. e 3en t h ut r d i m t r 36 th thick
O a o o e
m
,
e o e a e e cm
, e

ne ss f th m t l
O F i d th
e r f th i r v surf
e a n e a ea O e nne con ex ace .

25 5 . T HE P Y RAM ID . T he l at eral su rfac e c o ns s s O f it tri angl es

t h e b ase i s a p o l ygo n . T he r e fo r e ,

I . L a ter a l s u r a ce f su m o f the a r ea s o f the tr i a ngl es o f w hi ch

i t is co m p os ed .

II . T o ta l s u i f a ce l a ter a l su i f a ce a r ea o f the ha se .

E xe r i s Fi d th t t l sur f c
c se . n e o a a e of th e fo ll o wi g r gu l r pyr m ids
n e a a

1 . T ri gu l r pyr m id s l
an t h ighta a ,
an e sid f b s 4
e O a e 2 0m
.
 2 CHAPT E RX III .
— S UR FACE S AN D VOLUM E S O F B O D IE S . 28 1

2 .qu r pyr m id l t h i ght

S a e sid f b s 3
a , S an e e o a e
m .

3 O ct g . l pyr m i d l t h i ght :
a o na sid f b sa ,
S an e e o a e

4 H w . th bv
o rc i s s b s l v d i f th l ss ( gr t r) r dius
c an e a o e e xe e e o e e e or ea e a

O f t h b s i give i pl c
a e f s id ( S T
en bl p n a e O a S e ee a e, .

5 T h h i ght f
. e r gu l r tri gu l r pyr m id : 8
e o d th
a id f th e a an a a
m
, an e S e o e

b s a e F i d th t t l sur f c n e o a a e .

H t —F i d l ss r d i us f b s by m s f th T b l p
in s n e a d th h o a e ea n O e a e, . 2 2 1 , an en t e

sl t h ight by m s f 1 4 2
.

an e ea n o .

6 H i ght f r gu l r h
. e g l pyr m id 8 sid f th b s
o a e a
5 e xa ona a 1 m
, e o e a e I .
111

F i d th
n t sur f ce e n i re a e .

7 T h v rt
.
f pyr m id with r ct gul r b s i v rtic ll y b v th
e e ex o a a a e an a a e s e a a o e e

m i dd l p i t f t h b s
e o n F i d t h t t l sur f c i f t h h ight
o e a e 6 d th
. n e o a a e e e
m
, an e

sid s f th b s
e O 4 e d a e a re 2 .
m
an

8 T h h i ght f th frustu m f
. e e r gu l r pyr m id with squ r b s
o e O a e a a a a e a e

1 6 m
, d th sid s f t h b s s
an e 4 d e F i d th
O tir surf c e a e a re
m
an n e en e a e .

H i t —T h l t r l surf c c s i sts f f ur qu l tr p
n s e a e a i ds F i d th i r m a e on o o e a a ez o n e co

lt i tud by m s f 1 4 2
. .

m on a e ean o .

25 6 . T HE CO N E
l o p e d c o n ex su r fac e i s a c ir c u l ar
. T he d e v e v

se c t o r ( F g 2 7 7 ) w h o se ar c i s eq al t o t h e c ir c m fer e n c e O f t h e
i . u u

c o n e an d w h o s e r a d i s i s e q al t o t he S l an t h e i gh t
,
T he b ase o f u u .

t h e c o n e i s a c ir c l e T h er e fo r e .

I Co nv x s f a c
. ci c mf e en c of hur
a x h f
l th sl a n t e r u er e se a e

hei gh t .

II . T o ta l s u r a ce f co n vex su i f a ce a r ea o f the ha s e .

E xe r is
i d t h c v sur f c th r f th b s
c es . F n d th ti e on ex a e, e a ea o e a e, an e en re

surf c f t h f ll w i g c s :
a e O e o o n one

l S l t h ight
.
5 r dius f b s
an e
m
,
a O a e 2 m .

2 S l t h
. i ght : O fi di m t r
an f b se o ,
a e e O a e [ 2ft

3 S l t h ight :
. 6 an c i rcu m f r c f b s
e 12 . 2
m
,
e en e O a e

4 S l t h i ght : h r d i us f b s
. an e ,
a O a e r .

5 Sl t h i ght h di m t f b s d
. an e ,
a e er o a e .

6 H ight : m
. d i us f b s
e (
m
,
ra o a e se e

7 H ight . h r d i us f b s
e ,
a o a e r .

8 H w m y squ r y rds f s i l c l th
. o an r quir d t m k c ic la e a o a -
o are e e o a e a on a

t t 6 high i f th d i m t r f th b s i 4
en o h
,
e a e e O e a e s 03 .

9 T w c . s h v qu l b s s but i thr t i m s h igh th th r

o one a e e a a e ,
o ne s ee e as as e o e .

C m p r th i r
o v surf c s
a e e co n ex a e .
28 2 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GINN E RS . 2
57 ,

25 7 . F RUST UM OF A CO N E l o p m en t o f t hi s su r fac e
. T h e d ev e
i s a p rt o f a c ir c u l r ri ng ( F g 2 83 ) w ho se ar c s A B and C D ar e
a a i .

t he c i r c u m fe r e nc e s O f t he

ases O f t h e fr s t u m
“
x ,
x b a n d u ,
I

w ho se d i s t an c e a p r t i s a

x e q u al t o t he S l an t he i gh t

O f t h e fr s t m We sh ll u u . a

fir st fin d t he ar e b y t he a

m e t h o d o f r easo n i ng se d u

in 212 ( a m e t ho d w h i c h
w e shall hav e o c c asi o n t o

u se agai n he r eaft e r ; an d
)
shall t he n tr ansfo r m the
val u e O f t he ar ea t hu s O b t a i n e d i n t o t wo o t h e r u se fu l fo r m s .

Co nstr u c t a se ri es O f tr ap e o i d s su c h as t he t hr ee S ho w n i n F g
z , i .

2 83 ,
b y d r aw i ng r ad ii n d p ar all el p air s o f t ange n t s ( w hy are t h ey
a

p a r all e l P
) .T h e c o m m o n altit u d e O f t h e se tr a p e o i d s d i s t an c e z

b e t w een t h e a r c s sl a n t he i gh t o f fr st u m B y i n c r easi n g the

u .

n u m b e r O f su c h t r a p e o i d s w e c an pl a i nl y m ak e t h e su m O f t he ir
z

ar e as a ppr o a c h t h e ar e a O f t h e fr u s t u m a s n earl a s w e pl e a s e
y ,

alt ho u gh it w ill n e e r qu it e r e ac h it
v T h at i s t o say .
,

Su r fa c e O f t h e fr u st u m li m it O f the su m o f the tr ap ez o i d s .

By 1 3 1 an d b y ad d iti o n t h e su m O f t he tr ap ez o i d s
,
1 su m
2

o f t he ir p ar all e l S i d es x S l an t h e i gh t As t he n u m b er o f tr ap e o i d s
. z

i s i n c r e ase d t h e su m O f t h eir par all e l si de s a ppr o ac he s b u t n e er

, ,
v

q u it e r e a c h e s t h e su,
m o f t h e ar c s A B an d C D T h e r e fo r e .
,

Li m it o f su m o f t he tr a p e o i d s gz
( A B C D ) X S
-
l an t h e i gh t

O f fru s t u m .

T h er e fo r e ( Axi o m
I . Co nvex f
s u r a ce o ff r u s tu m 5( A B x C D ) s l a nt h ei ght

§( su m o f ci r c u mfere n c es of ha ses ) x sl a n t h ei gh t .

T he r esu lt b e p u t i n t o an o t he r fo r m , a s fo ll o ws Let a fru s

c an

tu m b e ge n e r at ed b
y t h e r e vo l u ti o n O f t h e tr a p e z o i d A X B Y
( F ig .
284 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 2
5 8 .

i d th
F nv su f d l s th t t l sur f
e co n ex f th f l l wi g f
r a ce , a n a o e o a ac e, o e o o n ru s

tum s fc s: o one

4 S l t h ight
.
: an d fb s s 5
e
m d 3 11
m
, ra n O a e an
m
.

5 S l t h ight :
. di m t r f b s s 8
an e d a e e O a e I in
an l o in .

6 S l t h ight : h r dii f b s s
. an e d h ,
a o a e ,
a an .

7 S l t h ight : h r dius f m idd l s cti

. an e , a O e e on r .

8 T h h ight f
. frustu m :
e e th r di i f th b s s
O a
7 d e a o e a e a re m
an

F i d th c
n v sur f ce on ex a e .

H i t — It i
n vi d t fr m F g 84 d fr m 1 4 2 h t s l t h ight
. s e en ,
o i . 2 an o ,
t a an e

V 122 (7
9 . T he h ight e of a rustu m
f h , th e ra d n o f th e b s s
a e a re a a n d h . F i d
n

th e co n v sur f
ex ac e .

25 8 . T HE S PH E RE . ri
i irc l e X B Y (F i g
Insc b e i n t he sem c .

w h it a r ad i s OX : h l f O f a r eg l r p o lygo n w it h an
u r, a u a

e e n n u m b e r o f s i d e s ( h e r e fo u r D r
v
) aw t h e .

l ess r ad ii O M O l V O P O Q nd fr o m the , , ,
a

e rti c es A
v B ; C l e t fall t he p e rp en d i c u l ar s
, ,

A D , B O, C E .

If t he se m i
ir c m fe r en c e an d the si d es o f
-
c u

t h e p o l ygo n r e o l e ab o u t X Y t h e fo r m e r w ill
v v ,

d esc ri b e t h e s rfac e o f a s p h e r e an d t h e S i d e s
u ,

o f t h e p o l go n w ill d e sc ri b e t h e c o n e x s u r fa c e s v
y
o f c o n es o r fr u s t u m s o f o n es Whi c h tw o c .

s i d e s w ill d es c rib e t h e fo m e r ? r

By 25 7 III ( i n cl d i ng E xe r c i se
,
. u

r
S u fac e d e sc r ib e d b y S i d e X A 2 OM DX 7r .

AB : 2 7r ON OD .

B C : Z WOP X E 0 .

CY : Z WO Q X YE .

Ad d i ng t he se e qu ati o n s an d r em emb eri ng t h t a OM : ON

O P : O Q, w e hav e ,
T o a t l su r fac ed esc ri b e d b y s i d e s O f p o lygo n 2 O M x X Y 7r

AS the n u mb e r o f s i d e s i s i nc r eased the t o t al su rfac e d esc rib e d

,
 CH APT E R xn I .
—S UR FACE S AN D VOLUM E S O F B O D IE S . 28 5

by t he S i d es appr o ac hes t he su rfac e Of th e s p he r e as i ts li m it .

T ha i s, t
S u r fac e o f sp h er e
li m i t o f su r fac e d e sc ri b e d b y s id es O f t he
p o lygo n .

As t he n u m b e r o f si d e s i s i n c r eased ,
t he l ess r ad iu s OM ap

pro a c h es as i t s li m it T h e
r r e fo re .
,

Li m it o f su r fac e d esc ri b e d b y
X X Y
t h e S i d es O f t he p o l ygo n
.

T he r efo r e ( Axi o m
Su r f c e o f t he sp h e r e
a z ir r X Y: 2 71 r
-

X 2 r 4 71 7
3
.

Or 209 ,
I . S i i if a ce f
o a
p
sh er e ci r cu m er e n ce f o f a g r eat ci r cl e X th e
di a m eter f ou r ti m es th e a rea o f a g r ea t c i r cl e .

T he ab o v e m e ho d t a ppli ed t o a p art o f t h e e m i c ir c l e — as fo r s , ,

i n st n e t h e a A B
a c ,
rc C w h i c h b y r e o l i n g d e sc ri b e s a o ne
, ,
v v ,
z ,

g i e s as t h e r e s lt
v u ,

II . S u rfa ce o f a zo ne ci r c u m er en ce o f f a g r ea t c i r cl e x h ei gh t

f
o z o ne .

E xe ri c ses .
— Fin d th e sur f c s
a e Of th e fo ll o wi n g sph r s e e

1 . dius 5
Ra 4 m
t r 44
. . D i am e e m
.

2 . R d i us a3é 2 5 Di m t r in
. a e e

3 . R d i us a 6 Di m t r
r . d . a e e .

7 . F i d th sur f c
n f th rth t ki g th d i m t r 8 m il s
e a e O e ea ,
a n e a e e as 000 e .

8 . If th su f c f e sph r 4 r a fi d th r dius
e O a e e 00 9 9 1 , n e a .

9 . F i d t h t t l sur f c
n feh m i sph r i f th r d i us 6m
o a a e o a e e e e a

19 . F i d th t t l sur fa
n c f h m i sph r i f th r d i us
e o a e o a e e e -
e a r .

11 . H w m uch l th r wi ll i t t k t c v r
o b s b ll i f th di m t r
ea e a e o o e a a e -
a e a e e
l i t) ?

12 . If th e r dius
a of a sph r e e fin d th e r
a ea o f a zone th e h ight
e of

which 2
m
.

13 ght f cyl i d r di m t r f i t b s C m p r i t t t l sur

. H ei o a n e a e e O s a e . o a e s o a

fa c e w i th th t f th l rg st sph r th t a O b i scri b d i i t
e a e e e a c an e n e n .

A S ur f c f t h sph r surf f th
ns yli d r
. a e o e e e ace o e c n e .

NO T h i s curi us f ct w
T E . d i sc v r d by Arch i m d s m r th
o C
a as o e e e e o e a n 200 B . .
28 6 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NNE RS . 2
5 9 ;

II . V ol u m es of B o d i es .

25 9 . In o r d er to
p ar e t he si es o r m agn t u d es O f b o d i e s
c om z i
,

w e se l ec t a b o d y O f k n o w n s i e as t h e c o m m o n t e r m O f c o m p ari so n z

o r u n i t an d t hen fin d ho w m any ti m es t h i s u n it i s c o n t ai n e d i n
‘

o t he r b o d i es .

D e fin i t i o n . T he n u m her of ti m es the u ni t is co n ta i ned in a

ho dy , f ol l o w ed hy the n a me o f th e u n i t, is ca l l ed the VO LUM E f

o the

ho dy .

If, fo r i nst an c e t he c ub i c i nc h i s the u nit and o ne b o d y w ill

, ,

c o n t ai n it fo u r ti m es w hil e an o t h e r b o d y w ill c o n t ai n it t w el e v

ti m es t he vo l u m es O f t he b o d i es are fo u r c u bi c i nc hes and t w e l e

, v

c u b i c i n c he s and o n e O f t h e b o d i es i s e xa c tl
y t h r ee ti m es as l ar ge

as t he o t h e r .

T h e m o s t c o nven i en t u n it s o f vo l u m e are ci h w h o edges a r i es se e

equ a l to th e u n i ts o f l ength .

T he CUB IC I N CH ( c u b . the CUB IC F OOT ( cub . an d t he

CUB IC YAR D ( c ubit s . T h e B US H E L an d t h e

are su c h un .

G ALLO N are n o t su c h u n it s T h e b u she l c o n t a i n s .

the ( Un it e d S t a t es ) l i qu i d gall o n c o n t ai ns 3 1 c u b i n a n d t h e 2 . .
,

( U n it e d S t a t e s ) d ry gall o n c on t a i ns c ub in . .

In t he m tri c syst e m th e u n it s O f v o l u m e a e al ways c u b es r

e ,

w h o se e d ges are u n it s o f l en gt h T he t hr e e m o st u se d are th e .

CUB IC M E T E R t he CUB IC D E CIM E T E R an d t h e

CUB IC CE NT IM E T E R
T he c ub i c d ec i m e t e r i s O ft en c all ed a LIT E R A H E CT O
LIT E R ( hl ) 1 0 0 lit e r s
. .

T h e c ub i c m e t e r when u se d fo r m easu ri ng w o o d i s c all ed a

, ,

ST E R E .

N OT E cub i c f t I cub i c m t r cub i c m t r

oo cub i c f t e e I e e ee .

bush l l it rs l r bush l
. .

I e e I i te e
g ll
.

l i qu i d g ll l i t rs lit r
.

I a on e . I e a on .

E xe r i ses c l T h bush l
. t i ns 4 p h H w m y ubi i ch s i
. e e co n a ec s . o an c c n e n

o ne De k c
 88 GE O M E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS . 2 61 .

261 . T HE RE C T A GULAN R PA RALLE LO PIP E D . In t he rec t an

gu
l ar p ar all el o pip ed AP ( F ig . 2 86
) l et t h e e dge s be A B 5 ,
m
AD
AM : 7 m
. T hen t he b ase AB CD con

t ai n s
5 1
qm
p o n e ac h s u a r e In e
q a nd u

t er O f t he b ase w e c an c o n s tr u c t a pil e o f
7
c ubi m e t er s su c h as D Q so t ha t t he so li d
c , ,

m u st c o n t ai n exac tly 7 x 5 10
5 c ub ic m e 1

t ers .

A li k e r esu lt w o u l d b e O b t ai n e d i f t he e d ge s
had any o t he r v al u es If t her e w er e fr ac ti o ns .

O f a m e t e r w e w o l d pr o c e e d as sh o w n i n fin d
,
u

i ng t he ar ea O f a sq u ar e T h er e fo r e ,

t h e n u mb e r of u n it s o f o l u m e i n a r e c t ang l ar p ara
v ll el o pip e d i s u

fo u n d b y m u l tiply i ng the n u m her of u n i ts of a r ea i n th e ha se hy

the n u m her of l i nea r u n i ts i n the h ei gh t O r, m o re b ri e fl y, .

Vol u me f
o a rec ta ng u l a r p a r a ll el o pp i ed ha se x h ei gh t .

If a, h, a nd c d e no t e the l e n gt h ,
t he b r ea d t h , an d t he he i gh t
Of t he so li d t hen ,
t he b ase a x h, a nd t her e fo r e t he l
v o um e

a x h x c .

In t he c ase O f t he c u b e, a h c ; t her efo r e ,

Vol u m e f
o a c u he a x a x a a
3
.

H er e a
3
is a S ho rt w ay O f ex tor pr essi ng t hat a is t ak en as a fa c
t hr ee ti m e s i r a i ed t th thi r d pow
,
or s H en c e t he thir d p o w er
s o e er .

O f a n m b e r i s O ft en c all e d t he c he O f t h e n m b e r
u u u .

R e m a r k — S i n c e t h e e d ge o f a c u b i c m e t e r 1 O d e c i m e t er s
'

.
,

t her efo r e c ub i c m et er
,
1 10 x 10 x IO o o o c ub i c d ec i m e r

t er s ( lit ers) F o r a li k e r e aso n 1 c u b i c d ec i m e t er

. O O O c ub i c ,
I

c en ti m e t e r s In ge n e r al .
,

T he r a ti o het ween tw o u n i ts o f vo l u m e i s th e cu he f
o th e r a ti o

het ween the o n d i ng u n i ts of l eng th

co r r es
p .

E xe rc i s se . F i d th v l um s
n e o e of th e fo ll o wi ng cu bs e

1 . E dg e 8 3 E dg . e
72
9m
. 5 . Ar ea o f b s a e 369 m
.

2 dg 4 E dg m 6 Ar fb s
. E e . e 93 . . ea o a e S .
 CHAP T E R X III .
-
R
S U FACE S AN D VOLUM E S O F B O D IE S . 28 9

d th v l um s f th f ll wi g r ct gul r p r ll l pip ds
Fi n e o e o e o o n e an a a a e o e
m h i ght
7 L gth br dth 7 m
. en 34 ea , e 0

8 L gth . l br dth en h h ight h ,

ea , e .

9 L gth .
br dth 1 h ight h
en ea , e .

1 0 Ar fb s.
8 h ight 4
ea o a e 1 9 m
, e
m
.

1 1 Ar fb s.
5 h ight : h
ea o a e ,
e .

1 2 H w m y cub s . o ch with andg : b put i t

e , b
ea an e e I d m
,
c an e n o a ox

1z m by 8
‘i by 6 i sid m sur m t
dm am
,
n e ea e en

1 3 F i d th . u m b r f cubic d cim t rs f w d i
n e n b rd 5 l g
e O e e e O oo n a oa m on ,

0 6 wi d
.
m
3 thick W
e, o o h t ki
. d f m s l i d i t h b . rd a n O a o s e oa

1 4 H w high m ust b
. o 5 l g d wid b t h l d 3 l it rs ?
a ox
dm on an z am
e e o o 0 e

15 V l u m f
. cub o e O F i d th a dg e n e e e .

1 6 V lum f
. cubic l t k
o e O a F i d i t d pth a an n s e .

1 7 V l um f
. cub V Fi d t h dg
o e o a e . n e e e .

18 T w d i m . si s f r
o ct gu l r p
en r ll l pip
on d O d 5 m a e an a a a e o e a re an .

F i d t h third d i m
n es en i on .

1 9 A r m i 8 l g 6 wid
. oo 5 h i gh
s H w m y ubi m t rs d s
m on ,
m
e, 2
”
. o an c c e e oe

it c ti H w m uch m r sp c w u l d i t i c l s i f th fl r h d th s m
on a n o o e a e o n o e e oo a e a e

p ri m t but w r i th sh p f squ r
e e e r, e e n e a e o a a e

20 H w m y st . s 3 l g 5 wid
o an
S thi
o ne k r quir d tdm on ,
1 .
dm e,
an“
c ,
a re e e o

bu i l d w ll 4 l g 3 high d
a a 0
m thi k on ,
m
,
an c

21 H w m .y l it rs o f w t r h v f
an ll i g erd l g o d 3
m a e a e a en n a a en on an 2

wid i f v ss l st d i g i i t i fi ll d t th h ight f
e, a e e an n n s e o e e O 1 2cm

22 H w m y
. h gsh o ds wi ll t ank “ by o “ by 9 h ld
“
( h gs
ea a an 10 12 o 1 o

h d 63 g ll s )
ea a on .

23 Wh y d s . cubic f t c t i 7 8 ubi i ch s
oe o ne oo on a n 1 2 c c n e .

262 . T HE R IGHT PA R ALLE LO PIPE D .

— If f ro m t he
l el o p i p e d A G ( F ig . 2 87 ) we t ak e a w ay the

pri sm t hr o gh t he e dge
B G , by as s ng p i u

B F pl a p erp en d i l r t o the
an e B F M N cu a

b e asn d t he n pl c e t h i s pri s m o n t h e l eft

,
a a

i n t h e p o siti o n A 1 7 t h e ri gh t p ar all el o pip e d 1 ,

w ill b e tr n sfo r m e d i n t o an e q i
a l en t ec u va r

t n g l a p r ll e l o pip e d hav i ng t h e s m e h e i gh t
a u r a a a

an d n e q i v l e n t b ase
a u T her e
a

fo r e b y ,261 ,

Vo l u me f
o a ri gh t pa r a l l el opiped ha se x hei gh t .
29 0 G E OM E T RY FOR B E GI NNE RS . 26
3 .

S i nc e r
a ea A B CD AB x B M t h er efo r e ,
the vo l u m e f
o th e
ri g p
h t a r a l l el o i
pp ed A G AB B M X B F : AB B F X B M
r
a ea AB E F x B M : a r ecta ng u l a r f a ce ta hen as ha se x th e
cor r es p o n di ng h ei gh t .

E xerc i ses
i d th v l u m f right p ll l pip d i f th h i g h t
. 1 . F n e o e O a a ra e o e e e

d th b s i
1 1m , an p r ll l gr m h vi g th l gth
e a e s a d th l t i tud 5
a a e o a a n e en 12 m
an e a e
m

2 A w ll
. l g 3
m
a h i gh i
zo
m
8 th i ck t th b tt m d 4 thick t
on , ,
s 0 .
m
a e o o an 0 .
m
a

th t p
e Fi d h w m
o . y cubic m t rs i t c t i s
n o an e e on a n

H i t — C s i d r h w ll
.

n on right p ll l p ip d h vi g f b s tr p i d
e t e a a a ra e o e a n or a e a a ez o
wh s p r ll l s id s
o e a a 8 e d 4 e a re 0 .
m an o m .

263 . T HE O B LIQUE PAR ALL E LO PIPE D . Le t A G ( g

F i . 2 88
) be
an li q u e p rall el o pip e d
Ob a . T h ro u
g h t h er r E p ass c o ne a pl an e
p p
e r en d i c l ar t o t h e
u e d ge E F, c u tti n
g fr o m t h e p ar all e l o pip e d t he
so li d AM D N E H O an d pl ac e ,

t hi s so li d o n t he ri gh t i n the
p o siti o n B P C QF G P B y .

t hi s o p er ati o n the o b li q u e p r ,
a

al l el o p i p e d i s tr an sfo r m e d i n t o

an e q i va l e n t ri gh t u p arall el o
pip ed ha i ng t he sam e h ei ght
,
v ,

an d r e t angu l r b ase E F P O
a c a

e q u i al e n t t o t h e b ase E
v F GH
o f t h e O b li q e p ar all e l o pip ed u

N O W t he v o l um e O f
t he righ t p ar all el o pip ed its b a se E F E O x t h e he i gh t 26 2)
t he r efo r e ,

Vol u me of the o hl i qu e p a r a l l el o
pp i ed ha s e E F GH x hei gh t .

264 . R IAN GULAR PRISM If t hr o u gh the edge s A B and

T HE T .

G ] ! o f t he Ob li qu e p ar all el o pip e d A G ( F g 2 88 ) w e p ass a pl an e i .

,

i t w ill d i v i d e t h e so li d i n t o t wo O b li q e tri n gu l ar pri sm s T he u a .

s am e pl an e d i vi d es t h e e u i v l en t ri h t p ar all e l o pip e d i n t o t wo ri gh t
q g a

tri angu l ar pri sm s T hese ri gh t pri sm s are e qu i val en t e ac h t o i ts

.
,
292 G E OM E T RY F OR B E GI NN E RS . 2 66 .

E xe rc i s es d th v l u m s f th f ll wi g r gul r pris m s
. Fin e o e o e o o n e a

1 . H g l p is m h ight :
e xa o na sid f b s
r , e e O a e 2
m
.

0
1 H g l pris m h i ght : h sid f b s
e xa o na ,
e ,
e o a e a .

0
9 O ct g l pris
a m h i
o na ght : 8 5 i d f b s ,
m e
cm
,
S e O a e Io c
5
4
1 O ct g l pri s m h i ght : h sid f b s
a ona ,
e ,
e O a e a .

266 . T HE CY LIND E R . If w e i nsc ri b e i n th e b ase s Of a c

yl i n

r eg l r p o lygo ns o f the am e n m b er O f
d er u a s u

s i d e s so t ha t t h e ir s i d e s t ak e n p ir b p r a
,
y e , ai ,
ar

p ar all e l n d t he n p ass pl n e t hr o gh ea h p ir ,
a a s u c a

o f s i d es t h e se pl an e s w it h t h e p o l o n w ill f rm
yg s o

:
,

a pri sm i n c i h d i n t h e c li n d e r
y ( g
F s r e i

N o w t h e gr e t e r t he n u m b e r O f l t e r al f c e s i n a a a

t h e i n s ri b e d pri sm t he n ear e r d o e s i ts v o l m e
c
, u

a ppr o c h t h t O f t h e li n d e r t h a tai s t o a c
y s
y a ,

V o l m e o f yli n d er li m it O f v o lu m e o f i n
u c

s c ri b e d pri s m .

T h e v o l m e O f t h e pri sm i t s b ase x i t s h e i gh t
u

an d i t s b s e has t h e b as e o f t h e c yli n d e r fo r i t s li m it
a T h e r e fo r e .
,

li m it O f t he vo l m e O f t he i nsc rib ed pri sm b ase O f yli n d e r x i ts

u c

h e i gh t .

H e n c e ( Axi o m
f i ts h ei gh t
'

Vol u m e o th e cy h n d er i ts ha se .

E xe ri
c ses i d th v l u m s f th f ll wi g cy l i d rs
. F n e o e O e o o n n e

1 . H i ght
-
e 6 r fb s 4 m
, a ea o a e 2 9 m
.

2 . H ight : e r dius f b s a O a e 2m

3 . H ight : e di m t r f b s 6 a e e o a e l cm
.

H ight : c i rcu m f r c f b s 44
'

4 . e e en e O a e

5 . H ight : h r dius f b
e ,
a O ase r .

6 . H ight eh r dius f b s ,
d a o a e .

7 . T h v l um ef cy l i d r
o e o th h ight :
a F i d th r d i u
n e z oO
Cb m
,
e e I n e a s

Of th e b s a e .

8 . T h v lum ef ocy l i d r V th h ight : h F i d th r dius f th

e O a n e ,
e e . n e a o e
g
bs
a e .
f

9 . cy l i dric l p i l h l di g
A n a a o n e xa c tly o ne l it er is 1 8 0m
h igh . F i d the
n

di am e e t r f th b s
o e a e.
 C HAPT E R X III .
—S URFACE S AN D VOLUM E S O F B O D IE S . 29 3

10 . A h o ll o w ir
ut r di m t r 9 th i on tub e is 6 m
lo ng ,
th e o e a e e 2 000
, e nn e r
di m t r
a e e H w m y cub i c d ci m t rs f ir th r o an e e e o o n a re e e

11 H w l g i
. ir tub i f t h i r di m t r
o on th ut rs an on e, e nne a e e e o e ci r

mf th v l m I cm
cu 5
e re n c e ,
e o u e

1 2 A v ss l i th sh p cy l i d r i t b m d fr m sh t ir
'

. f e e n e a e O a n e s o e a e o ee -
o n 2c m

thick T h v ss l i t b
. h igh d t h l d
e e l it rs Wh t m ust b
e s o e 1“ ,
an o o 1 00 e . a e i ts
out r d i m t r
e a e e

267 T HE T . YR A M ID — Le t S A B C
R LAN GULAR nd S P . a

M N O ( F g 2 9 1 ) b e t wo tri angu lar p yram i d s s ta nd i ng o n t h :

i .

sam e h o ri o n t al pl n e za n d ha i ng e q u i l e n t b ases A B C and

a ,
v va

M N O an d e qu al he i gh t s
,
D i i d e t he o m m o n he i gh t i nt o n y . v c a

n m b e r O f e q u l p a rt s an d t hr o gh t he p o i n t s o f d i i si o n p ass
u a ,
u v

pl ane s p rall e l t o t he b ase s O f t he p yr am i d s Si n c e the b as es a e

a . r

e
q i al e n t
u v it fo ll o w s fr o,
m t h e m o d e O f gen e ra ti o n o f a p r a m i d
, y
t hat any t wo se ti o ns as D E F and P QP sit uat e d at ’

c , ,

t he s m e d i sta n c e fr o m t h e b ases w ill al so b e e q u i al en t

a ,
v .

In t h e t w o p yr m i d s o ns tr u t tri angu l ar pri sm s su c h as D E F G E ]

a c c ,

an d P QR T U V h a i n fo u pp e r b as e o n e O f t h e se c ti o n s ; fo
g ,
v r r

l t er al edges li nes p ar all el t o S A o r S M ; an d fo a c o m m o n

a ,
r

h e i gh t t he d i sta n e p art O f t wo se ti o ns
,
It fo ll o ws fro rn
c a 265 c .
,
v

, ,

t hat t hese pri sm s will b e e qu i al en t t ak en p a ir by t he v , .

t w o p yr am i d s ; t h e r e f r e o ,

t h e su m s O f t h e ir o l m es v u

w ill b e e q a l n o m a tt e r
'

u ,

h o w m a ny or h o w fe w of

t hem t her e m ay b e B t . u ,

t he gr ea t er t h e ir n m b e r u

t he n e r er t he s ms
a of u

t he ir o l m es ppr o ac h t he
v u a

v o l m e s O f t h e t wo p r
u a
y
m id s t h t i s t o say a ,

V o l u m e O f e h p yr m i d ac a li m it O f su m O f vo u m es l of t he i n

s c ri b e d pri sm s .
29 4 G E OM E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS . 26
7 .

N o w th e su m s O f t hese o l u m es r em ai n always e qu al ; t her efo r e

v

t he ir li m i ts ,
or the v o l u m es o f t h e p yr am i d s m u s t al so b e eq ua l , .

H en c e ,
tw o t r i a ng u l a r py r a mi ds l i a vi ng equ i va l en t l a ser a nd

equ a l na g/i fs
q a re e u i va l en t

N o w l e t S —A B C ( F ig . 2 ) 9 2 tri angu l ar p r am i d
be any y If .

we pass a p l an e t hr o u h B
g C ll S A an d a pl an e t hr o u gh S IIA B C
, ,

w e fo r m a tri angu l ar pri sm

A B C S P Q T h i s pri sm i s .

d i v i d ed b y t h e pl an e S B C ,

and a pl an e p asse d t h r o gh u

0 an d S B i n t o t hr ee tri an ,

gu l a r p y r am i d s S —A B C , ,

B —S B C, an d C—SP Q . Of
F 25
0 . 2 92 .
t hese ,
—
S AB C an d C—SB Q _

are i l t b e c au se t hey
e q u v a en

hav e e q u v a eni l t b ase s an d e qu a l h e i gh t s . Al so B S B C an d

,

C SB i l t b ec au se w e m ay t ak e S fo r the c o m m o n
Q are e q u v a en ,

e rt e x an d t h en t hey hav e e q u al h e i h t s d i r m
v , g ( t h e sta n c e f o S
t o t he pl an e B C P Q) an d e q i val e n t b se s ( t he e qu al tri an gl es u a

B B C an d B C Q) T h er efo r e eac h p yr am i d
.
g, t h e pri sm N ow ,
.

t h e v o l m e O f t h e pri s m
u b as e x h ei gh t ; t h er efo r e t he v o l u m e ,

o f t h e p yr m i d S —A B C i c h h as t he sam e b ase an d t h e sam e

a
( w h
h ei gh t as t he pri sm ) }; b ase x h ei gh t T her efo r e a
.
,

Vo l u m e f a tr i a ng u l a r py r a m i d i é a s e x i fs n g /
o
7} f; a u .

E xe rc i se s — l H eight o f a r egu l ar tri an gu l ar pyr am i d : 1 5m o n e sid e

. . ,

o f th e b a s e 2
m
F i n d th e v o l u m e
. .

2 H eight O f a r e gu l ar tri an gu l ar pyram i d i o n e sid e O f th e b a s e

'

. a ,
.

F i n d th e v o l u m e .

3 A tri a gu l r pyr
. n a a m id 9 high h as an is o s c el e s ri ght tri an gl e fo r b as e
0 m c
,

o n e l e g o f which Fi n d t h e v o l u m e o f th e pris m .

4 A tri a n gu l a r pyra m id wi th a n is o sc e l e s r i ght tri an g l e fo r b a s e i s

.

h i gh It s v o l u m e F i n d ( i ) th e a r e a O f th e b as e ; ( i i ) th e p eri m e
.

.
2 . .

ter O b s
f th e a e .

5 T h frustu m f r gu l r tri gu l r pyr m id i 4 h i gh

. e O a e a an a a s
m
,
an d tw o h omo o l
g us s i d s f t h b s s
o e od 5 Fi d i t v l u m
e a e ar e 2
m
an 1 2 m
. . n s o e .
( S ee
 —
29 6 GE OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 2
7 .
0

E xe rc i se s .
— F in d
v l u m s f th f ll wi g s th e o e o e o o n co ne

H ight : 5
k

I
r fb s 6
e 1 m
,
a ea o a e 09 m .

W H ght
i : m m d i us f b s 3
e ,
ra O a e
m
.

W H ight : l dius f b s e i , ra O a e r .

P H ight : 74
h di m t f b s 4 6
e
cm
,
a e er o a e .
m
.

H i ght l di m t r f b s
il ’
s e i ,
a e e O a e a .

b
c H ight circu m f r c f b s
e e en e o a e

fl S l t h ight : 5 r d i us f b s
an
3 e
m
,
a o a e
m

m S l t h i ght : h r d i us f b s
an e ,
a o a e r

w F i d th v l u m f c n wh s s l t h ight di
e o e o a o ne o e an e am e e tr Of th e b s a e
m
2 .

10 V l um f c . 8 o r dius f b s e O 8 F i d th h ight
a o ne 00 °b m
, a o a e 1 .
m
. n e e .

1 1 F i d t h v l um . f th frustu m f
n c i f t h r dii f th b s s
e o e O e O a o n e, e a O e a e are

7 5 .
cm
d 5 d t h hanight 5
m 0m
(S , an e e 2 9
. ee

12 A v ss l h t h sh p
. f t h f ustu m f
e c e m h i gh as d th i r e a e o e r o a o ne 1 ,
an e nne

circu m f r c s f th b s s 5 de en eH w m y cub i c m t rs f w t r
o e a e a re
m an
o an e e O a e

wi ll i t h l d o

1 3 \Vh t p rt f c r m i s i f c tw fifth high th ti ‘

l
. a a O a o ne e a n a o ne o -
s as as e en re

co n e is c u t o ff ?
14 . H o w m an y g ll s f w t r w i ll v ss l h l d w hich h
a on o a e a e e o as th e S hp a e

of th e f rustum O f c ath h ight b i g

o n e, t h di m t rs f th
e e e n e a e e O e b a s es 1 8i n

and 1 2 i n

15 . utch wi d m i ll i
A D sh p n n th e a e Of th e f rustu m of a c o ne is m m high .

T he o ut r di m t r t th b tt m d th
e a e e a e o o an e to p are 1 6
m an d 1 2
m
; th i e r nne

di m a e e t rs d 12 m
H w m y cubic
an o an me t rs
e of st one wr e e re quir d t e o

bui l d i t
16 . T he chim y ne of a h ig h d th
fac t ry i
o s 32
m
,
an e o ut r C rcu m f r c s
e i e en e o f
i ts b tt
o om an d to p are d 4 whi l th b r an 1
m
, e e o e i s, thr ugh ut o wid o , 2
m
e .

H o w m an y cubic m e e t rs f b ick d s i t c t i
O r oe on a n

27 0 T he . r esu lt s O b a nedt i in 1 —
26 266 m ay b e su m m ed

up in o ne
g e n e r al r l e u ,
as fo llo w s
Vo l u m e o f a p r i sm or a cy l i n d er : b a s e x h ei g h t .

An d r esu lt s
th e Ob a n e d t i in —
267 269 m ay b e su m m e d u p in
o ne ge n er l r u l e a ,
as fo ll o w s
1
Vo l u m e o f a p yr am i d or a con e 3, ba se x h ei g h t .
 CHAPT E R XIII —SURFACE S . AN D VOLUM E S O F B OD IE S . 29 7

27 1 . T HE SPHE RE
r d er to find the o l m e O f a sp h er e
. In o v u ,

c o n c e i e a se ri e s o f pyr am i d s fo r m e d h
v i ng fo r a o m m o n e rt ex ,
av c v

t h e c e n tr e o f t h e s p he r e an d fo b ses t he f e s O f a p l yh e d r o n ,
r a ac o

c ir c m s c ri b ed ab o u t t he sp he r e ( t hat i s a p o l yh e d r o n w h o se f c e s
u ,
a

t o h t he s r fa e O f t he sp he r e e h i n a si ngl e p i nt ) B y i n
uc u c ,
ac o .

c r e si ng t he n mb e r O f t he se p yr m i d s w e c an m k e t he ir su m
a u a ,
a

a ppr o ac h t he vo l u m e O f t he sp he r e as n e rl y a s w e pl eas e ; o r i n a ,

o t h er w o r d s ,

V o l m e O f s p her e
u li m it O f su m O f t he p yram i d s .

N o w eac h p yr am i d he i gh t b se and t he ir c o m m o n h e i gh t a ,

r ad i s O f t he sp he r e t her e fo r e s m O f t he p yram i d s 1; r ad i s
u ,
u
1 u

O f sp h er e s m O f t he fac e s T he li m it O f t he su m O f t he f c es
u . a

( w h e n t h ir n u m b e r ies i n r e s e d m o r e a n d m o r e
) :t h e su r fac e O f
c a z

t he s p h e r e T he r e fo r e li m it O f t he s m O f t he p yr am i d s
.
,
r ad i s u u

su r f c e O f t he S p he r e
a T he r e fo r e ( Axi m . o

Vo l u m e f h f f /
’
r a ni a s
o a s
p ere s u r a ee o s
p zer e .

E xe rc i ses .
—1
d th v l um f sph r i f th r dius
. F in e o e o a e e e a 6m .

2 Fi d th v l u m
. nf sph r i f t h r d i us
e o e O a e e e a r .

3 F i d th v l u m
. nf sph r i f th d i m t r 4
e o e o a e e e a e e l cm

4 F i d th v l u m
. nf sph r i f t h d i m t r
e o e O a e e e a e e a
’
.

5 Fi
. d t h v l u m nf sph r i f t
e h C rcu
o m f r c f
e o gr t cai rc l R e e e i e en e O a ea e 10

6 R qu i r d th v l u m
. e f t h l rg st sph r th t
e e o b tur e d fr m
O e a e e e a c an e ne o a

cubic l b l ck f w d wh s dg
a o o H w m uch f t h w d i l st
oo o e e e 2 I d m
. o O e oo s o

7 T h v lum
. f sph r
e o 8 F i d t h r d i us
e O a e e 1 0°b
m
. n e a .

8 T h v lu m
. f sph r V Fi d th r d i us
e o e O a e e . n e a .

9 F i d th v l u m
. nf th l rg st sph r th t
e o b tur d fr m
e O yl i
e a e e e a c an e ne o a c n

d fw
er O d wh s di m t r i t h i ght
oo o e a e e s e 12 0m
.

10 T h di m t r f
. cy l i d r i t h i ght : h C m p r th v l u m f
e a e e o a n e s e . o a e e o e O

this cy l i d r with th t f th l rg st sph r th t

n e ab i cl s d i i t
O e a e e e a c an e n o e n .

A V l um f th sph r v l u m f th cyl i d r
ns . o e O e e e o e o e n e .

N —T h i s curi us f c w d i sc v r d by Arch i m d s b ut 3
OT E o a t as o e e e e a o 2 0 B . C .

1 1 F i d th diff r c b tw
. n th v l u m s
e f tw
e en c c tric sph r s
e e een e o e O o on en e e

wh s r d i i 4 d 5
o e a a re
m
an
m
.

12 I tw c c t i c sph r s th v l u m
. n o on f th l rg r
en r twic th t f th e e , e o e O e a e e a o e

sm ll r If th r dius f th s m ll r
a e . e fi d t h r dius f th l rg r
a o e a e 1
m
,
n e a o e a e .
298 GE O M E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS . 2 72 .

27 2 . T he l
v o u m e o f an
y b o d y, w hatev e r b e it s shap e , m ay b e
fo u n d by w ei ghi ng ,
it a n d t h e n d i vi d i ng th e w ei gh t oy th e w ei ght
o
f o n e u n i t f
o v o l u me . T h e qu o ti ent w ill b e t he nu mb e r O f un it s
Of v o u m e l i n t he b o d y .

In t he m e tri c sys e m , t t he m o s t com mo n un it s O f w ei gh t are,

m
T /ze G RAM t/ze w ei gh t f fp (
°

(g ) C )
c
. o [ o u re w a te r at 4
The KILOGRAM ( kg ) . we i gh t o f J
ed
of
“
p u r e w a ter ( at 4
°
C )
i nc e I
S OOO
°d m
I k il o r am
g I 0 0 0 rc cm
g am s ,
1 .

T he r a ti o O f t he w e i gh t O f a ny su b st an c e t o t he w ei gh t O f t he
s m
a v o l m e O f p u r e wat er i s
e u all e d t he S PE CIFIC G RAVIT Y o f t ha t c

su b s t an c e .

SPE CIFIC G RAVIT IE S OF S OM E CO M M O N S UB S T AN CE S .

Pl a ti u m n B r ss ( sh t )
a ee B ox w doo

G ld
o St lee Ic e
M rcury
e I Ir on
( c st ) a O ak
L d
ea II 35 Zi cn Al c h l
o o

S ilv r e I M rb l
a e Pi ne
7
C pp r
o e G l ss
a Co rk
T he gram an d t h e k il o gr am be i ng b y d efin iti o n t he w e i gh t s o f
u n it v o l u m e s O f w a t e r , it fo ll o w s t ha t t h e ab o v e n u m b e r s expr e ss

i t s O f I O f the s bst anc e i n gr am s o r o f

t h e w e gh
cc m
u ,
c m
(1lit er ) Of

t he su b s t an c e i n k il o gr am s .

Whenc e it i s c l ear t hat i n the m e tri c syst em ,

Vo l u m e o f a M d) ,
i ts sp ecific g r a vi ty

t he vo u m e l b e i ng
pr essed ( i ) i n c ub i c c en ti m e t er s o r ( i i ) in
ex ,
.

c u b i c d e i m e t e r s ( l it er s )
c ac c o r d i ng a s t h e w e i gh t i s expr essed
,

( )
i . i n gr a m s o r
( )
i i i n k il o gr am s . .

T he m o s t i m p o rt an t E n gli sh u n it s O f w ei gh t are th e POUND ( l b ) .

w and t he T ON
avo ir d up o i s t h e O UN CE , ( ) fe
o z l .
,
300 GE OM E T RY F O R B E G INN E
‘

RS . 2 73 .

27 3 E qu i va l en t
. so li d s hav e t he sam e vo l u m e ( si e ) z si mi l a r

so li d s ,
t he sa m e sh a p e ; eq l so li d s the sam e vo l u m e
ua , an d t he

sam e sh a pe .

E qu al p o l y h e d r o ns m u st fu fi l l t hr ee c o nd iti o ns
e y m u st hav e r
( i ) T
. h t he sam e nu m b e of fac es, equ a l ea c h to

e ac h .

( i i ) . ir h o m
T heo l o g o u s e d g es m u s t b e equ a l .

( )
i i i T h.e ir h o m o l o go u s so li d an l es m u s t b e
g qu a l e .

S i m il ar p o l yh e d r o n s m s t al so fu l fil t hr ee c o n d iti o n s
u

ey m u s t hav e t h e sam e n m b e r o f fac e s i m i l

( )
i . T h u s a r eac h to
eac h .

( i )
i . ir h oT he
m o l o go us e d ge s m u s t b e p p ti o n l ro or a .

e ir h o m o l o go u s s o li d an gl es m u s t b e
( )
i a T h.
q l e ua .

In b o t h c ases t her e are t he sam e n u m b e r o f e d ge s an d al so o f

,

c o r n e rs .

Co nv er sel y i f a l l th r e O f t h e ab o v e c o n d iti o ns ho l d tr u e o f t wo
,
e

o
p y l h e d r o n s t h en t h es e p o l yh e d r o n s are e q u a l o r si m il ar a s th e
, ,

c ase m ay b e .

T her e are fo u r i m p o rt an t c lasses o f si m ilar so li d s

( i .
) Al l eu hes a nd r eg u l a r
p y h
ol ed r o ns f
o the sa me n a m e a re

si mi l ar .

( i)i . r d er t ha t t w o r egu l ar pri sm s o r t w o r egu l ar p yram i d s

In o

m ay b e si m il ar t hey m s t h v e t h e s m e n u m b e r o f fac es an d t h e ir
,
u a a ,

h o m o l o go u s l a t er al e d ge s m s t b e pr o p o rti o na l t o t he h o m o l o go u s
u

si d es o f t h e ir b ases B u t the ho m o l o go u s l a t e r al e d ges i n t he

.

p ri s m s are o bv i o u sl y pr o p o rti o n al t o t h e h e i gh t s an d i n t h e p yr a ,

m i d s t he y are eas il y pr o ve d t o b e pr o p o rti o n l t o t he h e i gh t s b y a ,

r easo n i ng as i n 249 ; an d t he ho m o lo go u s si d es O f the b ases are

( y
b 1 67 ) pr o p o rti o n al t o t h e l ess r ad ii o f t h e b as e s T h e r e fo r e .
,

two r egu l a r p ri s ms or
py r a m i ds w i th th e s a m e n u m her o f s i des a r e

si m i l a r , if th ei r h eigh ts a re p p
ro o r ti o na l to the l ess r a di i o f thei r

ha ses .
 2 74 ] CHAPT E R x m . R
SU FACE S AND VOLUM E S O F B ODIE S . 3 01

( i i)i r e
.
gar d i ng t h e c yli nd er o r t he c o ne as t he l i m i t o f t he
By
i ns rib ed r eg l ar pri sm o r eg lar p yr am i d w he n the nu m ber o f
c u r u ,

i t s s i d es i s i nc r ease d m o r e and m o r e 266 it b e c o m es ,

e v i d e n t t h t tw cy l i n d a tw o n e i mil a
o f thei h ei ght ers or to es a r s r, i r s

i re
p p ro o r ti o n a l to the r a di i o f th ei r ha ses .

( i v .
) All sph er es a r e si m il a r .

27 4 . If t he e d ge o f a c u b e a, the ( t o t al
) su rfac e 6a
2
,
and

t h e vo l ume a
3
.

N o w , i f w e hav e o t h er c u b es w h o se e d ge s are 2 a,
3 a, 4 a , etc .
,

t he ir s u rfa c es w ill b e 4 , 9, 1 6, et c .
,
ti m es t hat Of t he fi s r t b e si n c e cu ,

an d t h e ir o l m es
2 2 2 2 2 2
( 2 a
) 4 a , (3 ) a
9 a , (4 a
) I 6a ,
et c . v u

w ill be 8 , 2 7 , 64 , etc .
,
ti m e s ha t t O f t he fir st c ub e ,
S i nc e
( )
2 a 8 a
3 3
,

3 3 s 3
(3 ) a
7 ) 2 a , (4 a 64 a ,
e tc .

B eari ng i n m i n d t h at 4 , 9 , 1 6, e t c .
,
are t he s qu a r es , and 8, 2 7,

64 , e t c , t he t u ées , o f 2 , 3 , 4 , e t c , w e
. . se e t ha t in c u b es t h e su rfac e
is pr o p o rti o nal t o t he s
qii a r e, an d t he vo u m el pr o p o rti o nal to t he

c u he, o f t he e d ge .

Wha t has he r e b ee n sho wn t o b e tru e o f t h e su r fac e an d v o u m e l

Of the c ub e ii ir e sp ec t t o its e dges c an b e sho wn t o b e tr u e O f ,

t he su r fac e an d o l u m e O f al l S i m il a r s o li d s i n r esp e t t o any

v c

ho m o l o go s u li nes ( e dges he i ght s r ad ii d i am e t er s

, , , ,

T h t i s to
a say ,

I . T he s u r a ces f f
o tw o s i m il a r s o l i ds a re
p p ro o r ti o n a l to the

SQUAR E S of a ny t w o h o m o l og ou s l i n es .

II . T he v o l u m es f
o tw o si m i l a r s o l i ds a re
p p ro o r ti o n a l to th e

CUB E S f
o an
y t w o h o m o l og o u s l i n es .

E xe rip r th surf c
c se s .
—l
d t h v l um f. ub wh s Co m a e e a e an e o e o a c e o e

edg ew i th th s f cub wh s dg
2
m
o e o a e o e e e I
m

2 T h dg f cub
. F i d th
e e dg f cub ( i ) h v i g twi
e o a e Im . n e e e o a e, . a n ce

th sur f c
e ( )
i i h v i g twic
a t h v l
e,u m f t h first cub a n e e o e o e e .

3 R qu i r d t h d pth f cubic l t k which wi ll h l d 64 m s

. e e e mu h e o a a an o ti e as c

as asim i l r t k wh s d pth 3 a an o e e
m
.
 O2 G E OM E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS .

L§ 2 74 .

4 . p r ( i ) th surf c s ( i i ) th v l um s f th r ct gu l r
Co m a e . e a e , . e o e , o e e an a

p r ll l pip ds wh s dg s
a a e o e h d 3 3b 3
o e e e a re a , , e, a n a, ,
c .

5 G iv . tw sim i l r y l i d rs wh s di m t rs
en o d 4
a d wh s
c n e o e a e e a re a a n
’ ’
a , an o e

h ights h d 4 h Pr v th t L ws I d st t d b v i it l i s h l d
e a re an . o e a a . an a e a o e n a c , o

tru f th m
e o e .

6 S m . rcis ppl i d t tw sim i l r c s

a e e xe e a e o o a one .

7 G iv . t w sph r s w i th
en dii d S
o Pr v th t t h
e e b v l ws h l d ra r an r . o e a e a o e a o

tru f th ir surf c s d th i r v l u m s
e o e a e an e o e .

8 T h . dg f p l yh dr e e 8 e d th h m l g us dg
o a o f si m i le on
m
,
an e o o o o e e o a ar

p lyh dr
o e H w m y ti m s wi ll th first p l yh dr
on o c t i th an e e o e on on a n e

s c d
e on

9 A b . i 9 l g 58 wid
ox s d 43 m d p
0
cm
F i d th di m
on , si s f cm
e, an c
ee . n e en on o

a sim i l r b twic a l rg ox e as a e .

10 F i d th v l u m
. n f th b i th l st
e o rcis if i t thr dim si s
e o e ox n e a e xe e s ee en on

are d ub l d o e .

1 1 Fi d i t v l um i f
. n
.
dim s i i d ub l d If tw dim si s
s o e o ne en on s o e . o en on ar e

d ub l d
o e .

1 2 I wish t m k
. ir cy l i d r si m i l r t cy l i d r wh s di m t
o a e an on n e , a o a n e o e a e er

62 d wh s h ight :
cm
an but thr ti m s
o e l rg Wh t m ust b
e ee e as a e . a e

i t dim
s si s H w m y ki l gr m s f ir
en on r quir d
o an o a o o n a re e e

13 H w f fr m t h v rt
. o f arc 5 h i gh m ust p l p r ll l t
o e e ex o a o ne 0 m a an e a a e o

th b s b p ss d i rd r th t th t ff m y b ctl y m f th l
e a e e a e n o e a e c o ne cu o a e e xa o e
fi ;

en tir c e o ne

14 D ivid i t tw
. quiv l t p rts by p l
e n o p ll l t th b s a
o e a en a , a an e ar a e o e a e,

cone 65 high d h vi g b s wh s di m t r 3
0m
, an a n a a e o e a e e 00
m
.

15 If t h r dius f
. sph r e a wh t wi ll b th r dius f ph r
o a e e a e e a o a S e e

ten ti m s l rg e as a e

16 I h v. cy l i dric l a b i ler 6 f l
a g d i di m t r d I wish
n a o e o t on an n a e e ,
an

an o th r b i l r sim i l r i h p but
e o e l rg Wh t m ust b i t di m si s P
a n S a e as a e . a e s en on

1 7 If th . dg f r gu l r t t h d : i t
e e e o b pr v d th t t h
a e a e a e ro n I f “, c an e o e a e

surf c a 3e d t h v l m 29m 7 8 ,
m fi
an d t h sur f d
e th v l u m
o u e I °l’
n e ac e a n e o e

i f th dg 7
e e
m e .

1 8 If t h . dg f r gu l r t h dr e e e it o b pr v d th t t h
a e a oc a e on I f “, c an e o e a e

surf c : 3 4 64
a e d th . l m Ig
m
47 4 , ; fi d
an th sur f d eth vo u e z o . 1 °b m
n e ac e an e

v l u m i f th dg
o e e e e
3 04 G E OM E T RY FOR B E GI NN E RS . 2
75 .

24 . Wh at is th e co stdiggi g ll r s l g 8
of wid d n a ce a l l .
m on , . 8 m e , an 2 . 62m
d p cubic m t r P
'

ee ,
at th e rat e o f
p er e e

25 . Wh at i s th e w ight f m rb l b l k 75m l g 35m wid

e o a a e oc 2 . on ,
0 . e, a n d

5
m thick P
26 .A body w ei ghs l ess i n w a ter th a n i n a i r hy ex a ct l
y th e w ei ht
g o
f i ts
ow n v ol u m e o
f w b dy
a t er I f a o 1 2 g
m lon , 6
0 2wid
m . d 4 thick w i ghs
m . . e, a n 0 . e

4
k
00 g i i wh t wi ll i t w igh i w t r P
n a r, a e n a e

27 F i d t h sp cifi gr vity f t h b dy i th l st
. n e e rcis c a o e o n e a e xe e .

28 H w m u h wi ll b l ck f m rb l
. o m l
c g 6 wid
m d
a 8 thick o o a e 2 on , 1 . e, an 0 .
m

w igh u d r w t r P
e n e a e

29 Which wi ll w i gh th m st i w t r
. ir ub wh s dg e m e o n a e ,
an on c e o e e e 1 2c

or a r t gu l r p r ll l pip d f l d 5 l g m wid
ec a n a a a e o d 8 thi k P e o ea 1 0a
on ,
10 c
e, an cm
c

30 I r .m 6 m l gn a 4 75
m wid
oo d 88 m high
. 2 6 p rs on s I , .
1
e, an 2 . a re e on . n

wh t tim w i ll th i i th r m b c m u fit f r spir ti i f ch p rs
a e e a r n e oo e o e n or e a on ea e on

br th s ti m s m i ut
ea e 20 d t ch br th viti t s 4
e a nf i P e, a n a ea ea a e 00 ccm o a r

3 1 Wh t i th w ight f t h
. a i i ths b v m ti d r m P ( S p ifi
e e o e a r n e a o e -
en one oo ec c

g vity f th i
ra o e a r

32 W h t m ust
. b th h ight a f b 5
m l g d e
m
wid th t i t m y
e e o a ox 2 . on an 2 e, a a

h ldo 22 .

3 3 A r t gu l r v ss l 4 8
.
m l g d 36 wid
e c an
m a t i s 56 l it rs f
e e
c
on an
c
e co n a n e o

w t r Wh t i th d pth f th w t r P
a e . a s e e O e a e

34 I t . r b i 8 l g d 5 wid 56 f r
m n o
m
a co n -
n put ; fi d th on an . 2 e,
hl o c o n ar e n e

h ight
e .

3 5 T h t t l sur f c
. f ecub 54 ; fi d th m f i t dg s
o a a e o a e
k“ n e su O s e e .

36 T l d . ub s en h withea dg :
en c m lt d i t
e , e ac an e e a re e e n o o ne

c ub ; fi d i t dg
e n s e e .

3 7 If th di m si s f tru k
e en d m fi d th di m
on o si s a n are I
n“
, an 2 ,
n e en on

o f m i l r tru k th t wi ll h l d ight ti m s
a Si a n m uch a o e e as .

3 8 F i d th di m si s f si m i l r tru k h l d i g twi
. n e en m uch on o a a n o n ce as .

39 A w d . tr ugh i t b m d wh s i r di m si s
oo en o t sb o e a e, o e nne en on a re o e,

l gth 3 3 5 br dth 6 d pth

en m
.
m
,
m thea ds t b m
1 thick th sid s
.
,
e 1 e en a re o e 10
0
,
e e

d th b tt m
an m
( )
i e H w om y cubi
o m tr s
1 20f w d r. quir d ? . o an c e e o oo a re e e

( i i ) H w m y l it rs wi ll th tr ugh h l d ? If th tr ugh i m d
. o an e f k e o o e o s a e o oa

w d wh t wi ll i t w igh ? ( i i i ) wh m pty ? ( i ) wh fu ll f w t r ?
oo , a e . en e v . en o a e

40 Wh t wi ll i t c st t d i g dit h r u d
. a fi l d i th sh p f squ r
o o a c a o n a e n e a e o a a e,

c t i i g 4 h ct r s i f th ditch i t b
on a n n e
m d
a e p m wid t th b tt m
, e s o e 2 ee ,
I e a e o o ,

1 4.
m a
t t h t p d t h pric e i o 5 p
, an ubic m tr f rth
e thr w t ? e s er c e e o ea o n ou

4 1 H w m y cubic m tr s f m ur
. o an r quir d t c v r with l y r e e o an e a re e e o o e a a e

2c m thi k tri gul r fi l d wh s b s 84

c a an
m d l titud
a e o e a e o an a e
 CHAPT E R XIII —SUR FACE S . AN D VOLUM E S O F B OD IE S . 3 05

4 2. I f 7 800 h 1 gr v l spr d up r t gul r m d w 56 m by

0f a e are ea on a e c an a ea o 0

how m uch gr v l i r quir d t m k l y r f th s m th i ck ss

a e s e e o a e a a e o e a e ne

up on a tr p id l fi l d wh s p r ll l sid s
a ezo g
a d 74
m ed l ti o e a a e e a re 2o m a n 0 , an a

tud e 2
50 ?
m

43 . T hr ugh o an o rific i e n th e sid e of a v ss l 6 m squ r w t r fl ws

e e c
a e, a e o at

th ert a e of 16m
pe r s c d
e on . H o w m an y h ct l it rs wi ll fl w t i
e o e o ou n o ne

m i ut n e?

hr ugh r t gu l r rifi m by 8 m w t r fl ws rt f
44 . T o a ec an t tha o ce 1 2
c c
a e o a e a e o

zom
p s c d
er H w me uch onw t r. w i ll fl w t o i h ur ? a e o ou n o ne o

4 5 If . bush l f wh t m k s 4 8 l bs f fl ur d
o ne e o b rr l f fl ur
ea a e . o o , an o ne a e o o

c t i s 96 l bs h w m y b rr l s f fl ur
on a n 1 .
,
o b m d fr m th an a t ts f e o o can e a e o e c o n en o

a bi “l
n 20 g “ wi d on d 6“ d p fi ll d with wh t P
,
10 e, an ee , e ea

46 H w m y t s f i
. o b p ck d i
an on bui l di g 6 “ l g 4 “ wid
o c e c an e a e n a n 0 on , 0 e,

an d 3 “ h i gh P 0

47 H w m
. y t s o f l wi ll
an b i “ l
on g 6 “ o wid co a d “ d p a n 20 on , 1 e, a n 12 ee

t i ll wi g
con a n, a t o t ? n o a on

48 H w m
. y g ll o s f w t r
an wi ll cist r
a 8 “ d
on p d
o 6 “ squ r t a e a e n ee ,
an a e a

th b tt m h l d P
e o o ,
o

49 A m r h t i m p rts 4
. e c f wi an Wh t m ust b th di m si s i
o 0 111 o ne . a e e en on , n

f t f cubi l t k which wi ll just h l d i t P

ee , o a ca an o

5 0 Aft r sh w r I fi d d i sh p l c d i th
. e a o e ,p i fi ll d w i th w t r
n a , a e n e O e n a r, e a e

t th d pth f h l f
o e e i h H w m y t s f w t r h v f ll up
o a an nc . o an on o a e a e a en o n o ne

squ r m i l th f ll b i g supp s d v rywh r th s m P

a e e, e a e n o e e e e e e a e

51 H w m. y bricks o 8 X4 X an wi ll b r quir d t bui

in
l d w ll 5
“ in z i n
e e e o a a 0

l g 3 “ high d 6g thick ll wi g i i
on ,
0 ,
an 1 h dim si f th m rt r ?
In
, a o n i“ n e ac en on or e o a

52 H w m. y c rds o f w d i an pi l 6 “ l o g 8 wid
“ o d 7 high P
“ oo n a e 0 on , e, a n

N O 0T E d fw . d i pi l 8 l g 4 wi d d 4 h igh
n e c or o oo s a e
‘t
on ,
“ e , an
ft
.

5 3 A sti k f ti m b r i
. 4 X 8
c o t th d Wh t l gth f i t wi l l
e s 1 in 1 in a e en . a en o

t i 3 ubic f t P
co n a n 0 c ee

54 F i d th
. c t tsn i b de
f t f b
o n en rd 8“ l
, g n
5 wid oa rd ee , o a oa 1 on , 1 in e, a n

2 19
thick P
N O OT Eb d f t i
. l g wi d
ne oa r d thi ck
oo s 1
ft
on , 1
“
e , an 1
“
.

55 F i d t.h c st f n p l ks e ch 6“
o l g 8 wido 20 d 3 thick t an , ea 1 on , 1 in e, an
in
, a

p hu dr d f
er t b rd mn sur e ee , oa ea e .

5 6 H w m y f t f l u m b r b rd m sur wi ll b r quir d t m k
. o an ee o e , oa ea e, e e e o a e a

b ox utsid m sur m t th thick ss f th l um b r t b o e ea e en , e ne o e e o e

I l i n
?
57 . F i d th v l u mn e o e of a 3
-
sid d r gu l r pri sm
e e a if a l at er a l e dg e a sid e

of th e bs a e
 06 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 2
75 .

58 . In a r gul r h g l pris m th h ight 3 ti m s th l ss r dius f

e a exa o na e e e e e a O

th eb s a e F i d th h ight f si m i l r pris m m d f g l ss which

n e e o a a , a e o a ,

w ighs e

59 high m ust r gu l r h g l pris m b t h l d

. H ow a e h t l it r i f a e xa o na e o o o ne ec o e

o ne sid f th b s e o e a e

6 0 A y l i
. dri l v ss
c l th
n r f wh
ca s b s e
5
m e t i s 75 f
, e a ea o o e a e 9
,
co n a n hl o

w t r wh fu ll ; fi d th h ight f th v ss l
a e en n e e o e e e .

6 1 G iv th di m si s f
. e eyl i dri l v ss l whi h wi l l h l d
en on l it rs
o a c n ca e e c o 1 000 e .

I t h is qu sti
s d t rm i t
e on i d t rm i t ? Why ?
e e na e o r n e e na e

62 R quir d th di m si s f si m i l r y l i d r th t wi ll h l d
. e e e en m uch ?
on O a a c n e a o
}
3 as

63 If v ss l h l di g
. a e h t l it r i
e y l i d r wh s h ight i qu l
o n one ec o e s a c n e o e e s e a

t th di m t r f th b s
o e a e e fi d th h ight
o e a e, n e e .

"
64 A yli . dri l ist
c r 3 45
n m d p ca d mc wid i t b l i d with
e n . ee an 1 1 . e s o e ne

st so ne h f whi h rt r i l ud d m sur s
, e ac m o c ,
m by 6 o m H w m y
a nc e ,
ea e 12 c c
. o an

st s r quir d ?
o ne a re e e

65 A y l i
. dri l b icl r i n5 8 m l g d
ca h di mo t r fe F i
s d th on an as a a e e o n e

r f th
a ea o v surf c p s d t th fi i f this sur f c i t rs ts th
e co n ex a e ex o e o e re , a e n e ec e

c ir u l r d f th b i l r i n
c a en o f e o e n a a rc o

66 If gl ss y l i d r 35
. a
ma i di m c t r nd m i e h ight i fi l l d with
0 . n a e e an I n e s e

w t r d th w t r i th p ur d i t
a e , an e a e th r y l i d r 8 i di m t r
s en
m o e n o ano e c n e 0 . n a e e ,

h w high wi l l th w t r ris i th l tt r v ss l ?
o e a e e n e a e e e

67 O t f . yl i dri l r s rv ir 8 8 i di m t r w t r fl ws t th r t
u o a c n ca e e o .
m n a e e a e o a e a e

o f p 21s d T hr ugh wh t dist

er e co n . wi l l th surf o f th w t r f ll i a an c e e ac e o e a e a n

o ne h ur ? o

68 Ab ut th . v surf c f yli d r 8 i di m t r d
o e co n
m
ex high
a e o a c n e 0 . n a e e an 1 2m
.
,

a c rd o
m i di m t r i w u d u ti l th surf i mp l t l y c v r d
2 m n a e e s o n n e ace s co e e o e e .

H w m y m t rs f
o an rd r quir d ?
e e o co ar e e e

69 A w ll i t b .
5 ed p s d 3 oi di me 1 t r T h pric
m f diggiee g an 2 .
m n a e e . e e or n

it i t b s o p cubi m t r f th first thr m t rs f d pth

e er c e e m r or e ee e e o e , o e

f orth t thr m t rs d
e n ex ee b i g dd d t th pric f
e e , an h
so o n , e n a e o e e or e ac

su c ssiv thr m t rs f d pth F i d th st f diggi g th w ll

c e e ee e e o e . n e co o n e e .

70 A st ir y l i d r 3 l g d
. ca -
on c i di m t r i r duc d i
n e
m
on an 20 cm
n a e e s e e n a

tur i g l th t di m t r f
n n a e o a F i d th l ss i w ight
a e e o n e o n e .

71 T h h . ri t l s e ti o f b th tub
zon a
m high i ec ll ips wh s on o s a a -
1 s an e e o e axe

a re 1 8m d
. 64
m an H w m y l it rs f w t r wi ll i t h l d
0 . . o (S an e o a e o ? ee

7 2 H w l rg . oyli d r a b m d by r ll i g up
e a c n r t gul r sh t
e c an e a e o n a e c an a ee

o f i 8z ncm by 6 i f th h ight f th y l i d r i 8 P H w l rg wi ll
m0 c
0 0
,
m
e e o e c n e s 0
c
o a e

th cy l i d r b i f t h h i ght i 6 m P
e n e e e e s 0c

ir y l i d r 8 l g d w ighi g i b r d thr ug h th
“

A m
73 . n on c n e 0 01
on an e n s o e o e

c en tr u ti l f th ir i r m v d ; fi d th thi k ss f wh t is l ft
e n o e on s e o e n e c ne o a e .
308 G E OM E T RY FO R B E GI NN E RS . 2 76 .

87 b s f pyr m id i
. T he a e osqu r d i t sid s
a qui l t r l t i
a s a a e, an s e are e a e a r

an g l s ; fi d i t v l u m i f id f th squ r 4
e n s o e a S e o e a e 0 0m
.

88 T h .dg f r gu l r ct h dr :
e e e O fi d ( i ) i t sur f
a e ; ( ) it
a o a e on n . s ac e i i . s

v l um ; ( i i i ) th r ti f i t v l um t th t f ub h vi g th s m dg
o e . e a o o s o e o a o a c e a n e a e e e .

8 9 A b i l l h vi g th f rm f
. , c a i t b r m v d
n d th b s
e o o a o n e, s o e e o e , an e a e

di vid d i t bui l d i g l ts
e n o T h sl t h ight f th hi ll :
n -
o . d th i e an e o e an e c r

cu mf f th b s
e re n c e o
7 ( i ) H w m y cubi m t rs f rth m ust
’
e a e . o an c e e o ea

b r m v d ? ( i i ) If th b s i divid d i t
e e o e . i qu l l ts h w l rg wi ll
e a e s e n o s x e a o , o a e

ea c hb ? e

9 0 T h h ight f
. c e 86 e d t h s l t h ight i twic
o a o ne m uch ; cm
,
an e an e s e as

fi d ( ) th
n ir f th b s ; ( i i ) th v l u m f th c
. e a ea o e a e . e o e o e o ne .

91 A t w r h . c ic l r f 5 8 high d
o e as a i di m t r ; fi d i t
on a oo .
m
an n a e e n s

r
a ea .

92 T hr . l d c s ee h 4
m high
ea denh vi g f di
one m t rs ,1 m
e ac 0c ,
an a n or a e e 20 ,

24
0m
d , an r sp ct i v l y m l t d t g th r
e d c st i t
e e h vi g th
, a re e e o e e an a n o o ne a n e

s m h ight ; fi d i t di m t r
a e e n s a e e .

9 3 If th thr . s f th l st rcis h d b
e ee co n e st i th sh p f o e a e xe e a een c a n e a e O a

cub wh t w u l d b th dg f th cub
e, a o e e e e o e e .

9 4 H w f fr m th b s m ust
. o ar f sug r 54
o h i gh d 8 i
e a e a co n e o a ,
cm
an 1 cm
n

di m t r b t i tw p r ll l t th b s i rd r th t th p rts m y b
a e e , e cu n o, a a e o e a e, n o e a e a a e

equ l ? a

9 5 S h w h w th c
. o f th l st o r is m y b divid d by p l s p
.
e one o e a e xe c e a e e ane ar

all l t th b s i t thr
e o e qu l p rts
a e n o ee e a a .

96 O t f . c ircu l r pi c f sh t t i 8 6 i di m t r s ct r with th
u O a a e e O ee -
n cm
n a e e a e o e

an gl 5 i t d this i th r ll ed i t th sh p f
e 1 0
0
s cu ,
an ; fi d th
s en o n o -
e a e o a c o ne n e

vo l u m f this c e o o ne .

9 7 E pl i h w y x w u l d fi d th h i ght f
a n o ouh vi g giv th o n e e o a co ne a n en e

cir u m f r c f th b s d th s l t h ight ?
c e en e o e a e an e an e

9 8 I wish t fi d t h v l u
. f str ight pi tr th t t p rs t p i
o n e a e o a a ne ee a a e o a o nt ,

th circu m f r
e c f th b s b i g 4 T h tr c sts sh d w 3 1
e en e o e a e e n
m
. e ee a a a o 0 m 0 11

at th s m ti m th t th sh d w f v rtic l d
e a e e a l g i e a o o a e a ro 1 2m
. on s

Wh t i th tr w rth t $ 8 p ubi m t r ( br h s t b i g r g rd d
a s e ee o a er c c e e an c e , e c .
, e n e a e

as w rth th pri f f ll i g d trim m i g ) P

o e ce o e n an n

9 9 A gr it c l u m h
. th
an h p f th frustum f
e o n ; th b s
as e S a e o e o a co ne e a e is

2 12. i m
ircu m f r n c th t p 5 d th h
e e n ce, ight : 5 F i d i t
e w ighto 1 .
m
, an e e
m
. n s e .

1 00 A v ss l h l di g
. he th ef rm f th frustu m f
o n 1 21
; th as e o O e o a co n e e

l w rb i di m t r d th upp r b s ; fi d i t h ight
cm m
o e i 8 as e s 2 n 4 a e e ,
an e e a e 2
c
n s e .

1 01 H w m uch sh t t i i r quir d t m k
. o sp ki g tub 4 l g
ee n s e e o a e a ea n -
e 1 . 2m on ,

an d 43 d 36 cmm i di m t r t th
an c
ds ? n a e e a e en
 CHAPT E RX III .
—SUR FACE S AN D VOLUM E S O F B OD IE S . 3 09

102 u h m t l i r quir d t m k ti
. Ho w m c th di m t r f th
e a s e e o a e a n c an , e a e e o e

b tt m b i g
o o th t f th p t p 6
e n d th h ight b i g 4 8m ?
a O e o en o 1 cm
, an e e e n

103 Assu m i g th . sk ( F g 96) t c sist f tw frustum s f c s

n e ca i . 2 o on o o o o ne

p l c d w i th th i r gr t st b s s t g th r t th
a e e ea e a e o e e a e

m idd l fi d i t v lum
e, h vi g giv th t th d i
n s o e, a n en a e

am t f th m idd l s cti
e er O 76
e th di m t r e e on
0m
, e a e e

o f ch d :
ea d l
en gth : Wi ll th an en 1m . e

an sw r bt i d b t l rg
e O t
a ne s m ll e oo a e or oo a ?

1 04 A m r ccur t v l u f th v l um f
. o e a a e a e or e o e o

a ca sk m y b f d by a f th f r m u l
e o un u se o e o a,

V l u m % h ( + 1W) o e vr r
2
2 ,

wh r h th l gth : r dius f
e e e end [P di us f th gr t st
,
r a o o ne en , ra o e ea e

s cti
e F i d th v l u m
on . f th pr c di g c sk by m
n e os f this f m u l e o e e e n a e an o or a .

1 05 H w m y b tt l s f wi
. o ch h l di g
an b fi ll d f m
o e o n e, ea o n c an e e ro

a c sk i which th gr t st d t h l st d i m t rs 86
a n e ea e d 6 r s p ct an e ea a e e are cm
an 2 cm
, e e

i ly
ve d t h l gth
,
an e en

1 06 H w m y g ll s wi ll
. o c sk h l d wh s l gth i
an a d gr t st
on a a o o e en s an ea e

an d l st c i rcu m f r c s
ea “ d r sp ctiv l y ?
e en e 12 an e e e

27 7 . T HE S PH E RE .

1 07 . H o w m an y bu ll ts 5 i di m t r e b st fr m
1 f l d?
mm n a e e c an e ca o Iok g o ea

1 08 . T he E n gl ish t i l d bt i b ut $ 4
na ona Wh t w u l d b
e s a o , a o e

th e di m t r a e e of a sph r f g l d h vi g th s m v l u ssum i g
e e o o f g ld a n e a e a e, a n Ik g o o

as w rth 7
o 20 ?
109 . T he di tr
b ut 3 ti m s th t f th rth F i d
am e e o f th e su n is a o 11 e a o e ea . n

th v l u m
e f th
o ssu m i g t h di m t r f t h rth t b 8 m i l s
e O e su n , a n e a e e o e ea o e 000 e .

110 E i ghty bu ll ts
. qu l i i thr w i t e cy l i dri c l v ss l
,
e a n S z e, a re o n n o a n a e e

68 i di m t r c
cm
n t i i g w t r If th l v l f th w t r is s m fi d
a e e on a n n a e . e e e o e a e r e 20 ,
n

th di m t r f
e abu ll t e e o a e .

1 1 1 A b dy s i ks i w t r ti ll th w ight f th w t r disp l c d
. o n n w i ght a e e e o e a e a e e

o f th b dy e H w h vy i o sph r
. i d i m t r wh i ch fl ts h l f u d r
o ea s a e e 0 2 .
m
n a e e oa a n e

w t r?
a e

1 1 2 F i d th w ight f
. nw d sph r 3 6 i d i m t r i f
e e si th O a oo en e e 0 .
m n a e e o ne -
x

of i t bu l k i b l w th w t r l v l wh
s s it fl
e o ts w t r e a e -
e e en oa on a e .

1 1 3 If w d sph
. a i di m t i r duc d t
oo en h lf i t e re 20 cm
n a e er s e e o o ne -
a s

origi l v l um i l th wh t wi ll th b i t di m t r ?
na o e n a a e, a en e s a e e
3 10 G E OM E T RY FOR B E GI N E N RS . 2 78 .

1 14 i d th di m t r f sph r m d by m lti g t g th r thr

. F n e a e e o a e e a e e n o e e ee

sph r s wh s di m t rs
e e o e 8 a d 4 r sp ctiv l y
e e a re 0 .
m
, an 0 .
m
e e e .

1 1 5 A sph r . i di m t r i r duc d i si by tur i g ti ll i t

e e n a e e s e e n ze n n s

di m t r i
a e e tw l fth l ss th t first H w m u h i th v l u m r duc d ?
s o ne -
e e an a . o c s e o e e e

1 16 T h ut r circu m f r c f h ll w sph r
. e o e 4 th thi k ss
e en e o a o o e e 1 .
m
, e c ne

4 2 F i d t h i t ri r v l u m
mm
. n e n e o o e .

11 7 A rch i th f rm f h m isph r h
. n a n e i r di m t r f
o o a e e e as an nne a e e o

d i t th i k
an : 7 s Fi d h w m c y cubic m t rs f st
n es s 0 .
m
it. n o an e e o o ne

ti s
co n a n .

1 1 8 Wh t i th v l u
. f h misph ri l c pp r k tt l
a s e a e Oi si d di m a e e ca o e e e n e a e

te r, i f th thi k ss f et h pp r c : m
ne d c pp r i w rth
o e
p co e l c
,
an o e s o er

:
ki l gr m ?
o a

11 9 T h di m t r f b ll
e a th m t ri l f whi h i t i
e e o a a m d oon e a e a o c s a e

w ighs 5 p squ r m t r ; d th
e 0 .
kg er tt ch d b l w w ighs
a e e e Fi d an e c ar a a e e o e n

it s asc si l f rc i f i w ighs
en ona o
p l it er d th b
a r ll i fi
e ll d with er e ,
an e a o on s e

co a l g whi h i h l f h vy
as c i s a as ea as a r .

Hi t — T h n sc s i l f rc w ight f th i d i spl c d by th b ll
e a en o na o e e o e a r a e e a oon
w ight f t h b ll h b ll
.

e h o d h g
e ai o on, t e c ar , a n t e as n t e a oon .

1 20 Wh t ust b hm . t ut r d a i m tr f h ll w sph r 5 thi k i

e e o
m m e a e e o a o o e e 2 c , n

o rd r th t i t m y h l d just 6 lit rs ?
e a a o
‘
0 e

1 21 H w m y b di s. o l rg th an m u l d b m d fr m th
o e as a e as e oon co e a e o e

ea rth t ki g th di m t r f th l tt r b dy f ur ti m s th t f th f rm r ?
,
a n e a e e o e a e o as o e a o e o e

1 22 If dr p f s p d w at r 4 i di m t r i b l w i t bubb l
. a
m
o o oa an e
c
n a e e s o n n o a e

1 5
m ic
d i m t
n r fi d t h athick ss
e e f t h ,
bubb n l e ne o e e .

1 23 T h t w frigid. s t i
e o f th rth s surf c Wh t i
zone co n a n o e ea
’
a e . a s

th h ight f
e e ch ? Wh t i th d i m t
o ea z one f th Ar ti ir l ? a s e a e e r .o e c c c c e

§ 27 8 . E QUI VALE NT S UR FACE S AN D S OLID S .

124 . A c ub e and a sph r h v e e a e th e s am e v lum

o e ; which h as the gr t r
ea e

sur f c a e?

125 . A c ub e an d a sph r h v e e a e th e s am e surf ace ; which h as th e gr t r

ea e

v l um
o e ?
T he r dius
a of th e b s a e of a
'

co n e : th e h ight
e of th e c o n e 20
: cm

F i d n ,

1 26 . T he edg f e o an e quiv l t ub a en c e .

1 27 . T he h ight f
e o an e quiv l t cy l i d r a en n e , e tc .
, h vi g th s
a n e am e bs a e .

1 28 . T he r dius f
a o an e quiv l t sph r a en e e .
3 12 GE O M E T RY FO R B E GIN N E RS . 2 7 9.

14 0 l t h ght f
. S an 8 di m t r f i t b s
ei Ofi d th a co ne
0m and
, a e e o s a e n e

h ight f cy l i d 4 i d i m t r h vi g
e O
m a n qu i v l t c v surf c
er
c
n a e e , a n an e a en on ex a e .

14 1 T r .s f r m ph r 6 anm i di m t r i t
o quiv l t cy l i d r th
a S e e
c
n a e e n o an e a en n e , e

di m t r f i t b s t b th s m
a e e O th t f th sph r th Om p th i
s a e o e e a e as a o e e e en c are
'

e r

surf s ac e .

14 2 A l d sph r 9 i di m t r i r c st i th sh p f cub ;
.
m ea en e e c
n a e e s e a n e a e o a e

fi d th
n dg f th ub
e e e o e c e .

14 3 A th r ph r
. f th s m
no i i r st i th f rm f cy l i d
e S e e O e a e S ze s e ca n e o o a n er

5
cm i
di
n m t r ; fi d th h ight f th y l i d r
a e e n e e o e c n e .

14 4 Wh t m ust b t h h ight f
. a cy l i d r wh s b s i 4 m i di m e e e o a n e o e a e s
c
n a e

ter i f it h t h s m sur f
as th t f sph r 4 i di m t r ?
e a e ac e a s a o a e e cm
n a e e

1 4 5 A sph r i
.
m i di m t r d th b s
e e f qu i v l t cy l i d r
s 1 0 c
n a e e , an e a e o an e a en n e

has th s m e di m t r ; c m p r th sur f c s f t h tw b di s
a e a e e o a e e a e o e o o e .

N t —Am g l l qu i v l t b d i s h s ph r h th l st surf c
o e. on a e a en o e t e e e as e ea a e .

14 6 A sph r . d y l i d r h v quiv l t surf c s ; th sph r i

e e an a c n e a e e a en a e e e e s

1 0 m i
c
di m t r d l ik wis i th b s f th y l i d r ; m p r th
n a e e ,
an so e e s e a e O e c n e co a e e

v l u m s f th tw b di s
o e o e o o e .

N t o e Am g l l b d i s h v i g qu i v l t surf c s t h s p h r h
-
on a t h gr
o t st
e a n e a en a e e e e as e ea e
v lu m
.

o e.

27 9 . RAT IO S OF SU R FACE S AN D O F SO LIDS .

1 47 . prism s h v b s s
T wo th ti f a e a e ea ch t i i g 36 ; wh t i
m
co n a n n 9 a s e ra o o

th i r v l u m s i f th ir h ights
e o e
m d 5
m ? e e are 1 0 c
an 1 0

148 C m p r i g
. r l th v l u m s f t w pris m s i f th y h v q i
o a e n en e a e o e o o e a e e u va

l tb s s
en a e .

1 49 C m pa i l i k m
. o r th v lu m s f tw cy l i d rs tw pyr m ids
re n e a nn e e o e o o n e ,
o a ,

an d tw s with quiv l t b s s
o c o ne , e a en a e .

1 5 0 T h v l u m s f tw pris m s w i th quiv l t b s s m eh
. e o 36
e d o o e a en a e a re O an

wh t i th r ti f th ir h ights ? If th h ight f
a s e i a fi d o o e e e e o o ne s n

th t f th th r
a o e o e .

A m high i r du d i si till th h ight i th b s

151 . 8 c o ne
c
s e ce n ze e e s e a e

r m i i ng th s m Wh t fr ti l p rt f th wh l i l ft ?
e a n e a e . a ac o na a o e o e s e

1 5 2 I t th . ds f cy l i d r
n o
m l g tw c sh p d h l s 3
e en o a n e 1 2 c
on o o ne -
a e o e

d p b r d If th y l i d r w igh d t first 6 8 wh t wi l l i t w igh ft r

ee are o e . e c n e e e a 00 , a e a e

th h l s
e o e m d ? are a e

1 5 3 If cy l i d r
. d ah v qu l b s s wh t m ust b th r t i f
n e an a co ne a e e a a e ,
a e e a o o

th i r h ights i rd r th t th i r v lu m s m y b qu l ?
e e n o e a e o e a e e a

15 4 T h h ights f t w pris m s
. e ch e m p re th ir v l u m s i f
o o are e a co a e o e

th b s
e f
a e o i f ur ti m s th t f th
o ne th r s o e a o e o e .
 CHAPT E R XIII .
-
R
S U FACE S AN D VO LUM E S O F B OD IE S .

15 5 . Co m pr a e g r l th v l u m s f t w pris m s tw cyl i d rs tw
in e ne a e o e o o , o n e , o

pyr m idsa , or tw o c s h vi g qu l h ights

o ne , a n e a e .

156 . A c o ne 6 i di m t r i tur
cm
n d i l th u t i l th di m t r i
a e e s ne n a a e n e a e e s re

d u c e d to 5c m , t h e h ight r m i i g u ch g d ; wh t p rt f th wh l c
e e a n n n an e a a o e o e o ne

l
i s ef ? t
15 7 . If t h e a b v o e tur d ti ll i t i r d c d t
is ne s e u e o o ne -
fo urth i t rigi l s o na vo l

um e, wh t will b i t a e s di m t r ?
a e e

T h dg f cub
e e
m
; fi d
e o a e 10 0
n ,

1 5 8 V l um .f th l rg st cy l i d r th t
o e o b m d fr m i t e a e n e a c an e a e o .

159 V l um .f th l rg st sph r
o e o e a e e e .

160 V l u m .f t h l rg st co e o e a e o ne .

161 C m p r th v l u m s f th
. o b v cub y l i d r sph r
a e e o e o e a o e e, c n e , e e, an d c o n e .

T h di m t r f
e cy l i d r i t h ight :
a e e ; fi d
o a n e s e 10 0m
n ,

1 62 V l u m . f t h l rg st sph r th t
o b tur d fr m i t ;
e o e a e e e a can e ne o

1 63 V l u m .f th l rg st c o e o e a e one .

164 C m p r t h v l u m s f t h
. o b v cy l i d r sph r
a e ed c o e o e a o e n e , e e, an o ne .

165 Wh t p rt f . h m isph r i t h l rg st c
a a th to a e e e s e a e o ne a c an be ma d e

fr om it ?
1 66 d i m t r d th h ight f cyl i d r
. I f th e a e equ l m p r th an e e o a n e a re e a , co a e e

c v surf c with th r s f th b s s
on ex a e e a ea O e a e .

1 6 7 I f th d i m t r
. d t h h ight e f c a qu l c m p r th
e e an e e o a one are e a , o a e e

c v surf c w i th th r f th b s
on ex a e e a ea o e a e .

1 68 If th c v . surf c f cy l i d re on m f r s f th b s s
ex m a e o a n e su o a ea o e a e ,
co

p r th h i ght w i th t h r d i us f t h b s
a e e e e a O e a e .

169 I w t .cy l i d r wh s c v sur f c sh l l b i ti m s th r f

an a n e o e on ex a e a e S x e e a ea o

th b s
e Fi d th r ti
a e . f t h h i ght t t h r dius f t h b s
n e a o O e e o e a o e a e .

1 70 Wh t r l ti . m st i st b tw
a th h ight f c
e a on d i t di m u ex e ee n e e o a o ne an s a

t r i rd r th t th c v surf c m y b qu l i r t th b s
e e n o e a e on ex a e a e e a n a ea o e a e?

1 7 1 C m p r th c v
. o surf c s f y l i d r d c h vi g qu l
a e e on ex a e o a c n e an a o ne a n e a

b s s d h i ghts C m p r l s th ir t t l sur f s
a e an e . o a e, a o, e o a a ce .

1 72 C m p r t h sur f c s f t w sph r s wh s di m t rs
. o a e e 6m d a e O o e e o e a e e a re
c
an

7 Wh t i g r l i th r l ti b tw
a ,
n th
e ne asurf c s f sph r s di ff r
, s e e a on e een e a e o e e e

i g i di m t r
n n a e e ?

1 7 3 A yl m d . d h m i sph r h v qu l b s s d h i ghts C m
c e r an a e e e a e e a a e an e . o

p r ( i ) th i c v surf s ( i i ) th i r t t l surf c s ( i i i ) th i r v l u m s
a e . e r on ex a ce . e o a a e . e o e .

1 74 T h di m t r f
. cy l i d r : it h ight :
e a e e fi d th v l u m
o af n e s e n e o e o

th l rg st r gu l r p r ll l pip d th t b m d fr m i
e a
t e e c an a t a a e o e a c an e a e o .

1 7 5 C m p r th v l u m s f
. o sph r
a e d t h l rg st ub th t
e o b e o a e e an e a e c e a c an e

m d fr m i t
a e o .
14 GE OM E T RY FO R B E G I N E N RS .

R E V IE W O F CH APT E R XIII .

I .
— S u rf a c e s of B od ies .

S ur f ac e o f a pris m .

S ur f c a e o f a cy l i d r n e .

S rf c
u a e O f a pyr m i d a .

S ur f c a e o f a c o ne .

S ur f ac e o f th frustu m
e o f a co ne .

S urf ac e o f a sph r e e .

II . Vo lu m e s of B o d ies .

De fi iti f V l um U its f v l u m
n on o o e . n o o e .

M sur m t f v l u m s
ea e en A l ysis
o f th di ff r t
o e . na o e e en s s
ca e

sid r d
co n e e .

V l u m f th r ct gu l r p r ll l pip d
o e o e e an a a a e o e .

V lum
o f th right p r ll l p i p d
e o e a a e o e .

V l um
o f the o b l iqu p l l pi p d
e O e ara o e .

V l u m f th tri gu l r pris m
o e o e an a .

V l u m f y pris m
o e o an .

V l u m f th cy l i d r
o e o e n e .

V l u m f th tri gu l r pyr m id
o e o e an a a .

V l um
o f e o
y pyr m id
an a .

V l um
o f th c
e o e o ne .

R su l ts f
e 261 —
o 26 9 su m m d up i tw ru l s e n o e .

V l u m f sph r
o e o a e e .

R l ti
e a b tw v l um d w i ght
on e e en o e an e .

E quiv l t s l ids si m i l r s l i ds qu l s li ds
a en o ,
a o ,
e a o .

T w l ws pp l i b l t si m i l r s l ids
o a a ca e o a o .

III .
-
E xerc i ses an d Ap p l i c at i o ns .

P ris m s d cy l i d rs
an n e .

Pyr m ids
a d s an c o ne .

T h sph r
e e e .

E quiv l t surf c s
a en d s l ids a e an o .

R ti s f surf
a o o s d s l ids ace an o .