CHAPTER 6: COMMUNICATION RECEIVERS

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:
• Analyze the relationship between the IF, local oscillator, and signal frequencies
mathematically and calculate any one of them, given the other two.
• Explain the major types of external and internal noise, and explain how each
interferes with signals both before and after they reach the receiver.
• Calculate the noise factor, noise figure, and noise temperature of a receiver.
• Analyze the operation and purpose of the AGC circuit in a receiver.

LEARNING CONTENT
A. INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
B. NOISE
C. TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS
D. RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVER

A. INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY AND IMAGES

The choice of IF is usually a design compromise. The primary objective is to obtain good
selectivity. Narrowband selectivity is best obtained at lower frequencies, particularly when
conventional LC tuned circuits are used. Even active RC filters can be used when IFs of 500
KHz or less are used.
At low frequencies, the circuits are far more stable with high gain. At higher frequencies, circuit
layouts must take into account stray inductances and capacitances, as well as the need for
shielding, if undesired feedback paths are to be avoided.
However, when low IFs are selected, a different sort of problem is faced, particularly if the
signal to be received is very high in frequency. This is the problem of images. An image is a
potentially interfering RF signal that is spaced from the desired incoming signal by a frequency
that is two times the intermediate frequency above or below the incoming frequency, or

𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝐼𝐹 and 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑠 − 2𝑓𝐼𝐹

where;
𝑓𝑖 = image frequency
𝑓𝑠 = desired signal frequency
𝑓𝐼𝐹 = intermediate frequency
Example 6-1.
A superheterodyne receiver must cover the range from 220 to 224 MHz. The first IF is 10.7
MHz; the second is 1.5 MHz. Find (a) the local oscillator tuning range, (b) the frequency of the
second local oscillator, and (c) the first IF image frequency range. (Assume a local oscillator
frequency higher than the input by the IF.)

B. NOISES
Noise is an electronic signal that is a mixture of many random frequencies at many amplitudes
that gets added to a radio or information signal as it is transmitted from one place to another
or as it is processed. Noise is not the same as interference from other information signals.
Noise also shows up on a black-and-white TV screen as snow or on a color screen as confetti.
If the noise level is high enough and/or the signal is weak enough, the noise can completely
obliter ate the original signal. Noise that occurs in transmitting digital data causes bit errors
and can result in information being garbled or lost. Noise is a problem in communication
systems whenever the received signals are very low in amplitude Noise can be external to the
receiver or originate within the receiver itself. Both types are found in all receivers, and both
affect the SNR.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, also designated SNR, indicates the relative strengths of the
signal and the noise in a communication system. The stronger the signal and the weaker the
noise, the higher the S/N ratio. If the signal is weak and the noise is strong, the S/N ratio will
be low and reception will be unreliable. Communication equipment is designed to produce the
highest feasible S/N ratio.
Signals can be expressed in terms of voltage or power. The S/N ratio is computed by using
either voltage or power values:

𝑆 𝑉 𝑆 𝑃
= 𝑉𝑠 or = 𝑃𝑠
𝑁 𝑛 𝑁 𝑛

where 𝑉𝑆 = signal voltage

𝑉𝑛 = noise voltage

𝑃𝑆 = signal power
 𝑃𝑛 = noise power

External Noise
External noise comes from sources over which we have little or no control— industrial,
atmospheric, or space. This is generally known as white noise.

• Industrial Noise - Industrial noise is produced by manufactured equipment, such as

automotive ignition systems, electric motors, and generators.
• Atmospheric Noise - Atmospheric noise is often referred to as static. Static usually
comes from lightning, the electric discharges that occur between clouds or between
the earth and clouds.
• Extraterrestrial Noise - Extraterrestrial noise, solar and cosmic, comes from sources in
space. One of the primary sources of extraterrestrial noise is the sun, which radiates
a wide range of signals in a broad noise spectrum.

Internal Noise
Internal noise, although it is low level, is often great enough to interfere with weak signals. The
main sources of internal noise in a receiver are thermal noise, semiconductor noise, and
intermodulation distortion.

• Thermal Noise - Most internal noise is caused by a phenomenon known as thermal

agitation, the random motion of free electrons in a conductor caused by heat.
- Thermal agitation is often referred to as white noise or Johnson noise, after J. B.
Johnson, who discovered it in 1928. Just as white light contains all other light
frequencies, white noise contains all frequencies randomly occurring at random
amplitudes. A white noise signal therefore occupies, theoretically at least, infinite
bandwidth. Filtered or band-limited noise is referred to as pink noise.
The amount of open-circuit noise voltage appearing across a resistor or the input
impedance to a receiver can be calculated according to Johnson’s formula

𝑉𝑛 = √4𝑘𝑇𝐵𝑅

where 𝑉𝑛 = rms noise voltage

𝑘 = Boltzman’s constant (1.38 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾)

𝑇 = temperature, K (℃ + 273)
𝐵 = bandwidth, Hz

𝑅 = resistance, ohms

Example 6-2
What is the open-circuit noise voltage across a 100-kV resistor over the frequency range of
direct current to 20 kHz at room temperature (25°C)?
TEMPERATURE SCALES AND CONVERSIONS
Three temperature scales are in common use: the Fahrenheit scale, expressed in degrees
Fahrenheit (8F); the Celsius scale (formerly centigrade), expressed in degrees Celsius (8C);
and the Kelvin scale, expressed in kelvins (K). The Kelvin scale, which is used by scientists,
is also known as the absolute scale. At 0 K (2273.158C and 2459.698F), or absolute zero,
molecular motion ceases. When calculating noise values, you will frequently need to make
conversions from one of these temperature scales to another. The most common conversion
formulas are given here:

𝑇𝐶 = 5(𝑇𝐹 − 32)/9 or 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝐾 − 273

9𝑇𝐶
𝑇𝐹 = + 32
5

𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273

• Thermal noise can also be computed as a power level. Johnson’s formula is then

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑘𝑇𝐵

where 𝑃𝑛 = average noise power in watts

Example 6-3
What is the average noise power of a device operating at a temperature of 90°F with a
bandwidth of 30 kHz?

• Shot noise is also white noise in that it contains all frequencies and amplitudes over a
very wide range. The amplitude of the noise voltage is unpredictable, but it does follow
a Gaussian distribution curve that is a plot of the probability that specific amplitudes
will occur. The amount of shot noise is directly proportional to the amount of dc bias fl
owing in a device. The bandwidth of the device or circuit is also important. The rms
noise current in a device 𝐼𝑛 is calculated with the formula

𝐼𝑛 = √2𝑞𝐼𝐵

where q = charge on an electron

I = direct current, A
B = bandwidth, Hz
Example 6-4
Assume a dc bias of 0.1 mA and a bandwidth of 12.5 kHz. The noise current is
 𝐼𝑛 = √2𝑞𝐼𝐵 = √2(1.6 × 10−19 )(0.0001)(12,500) = √4 × 10−19 = 0.623 Na

Expressing Noise Levels

The noise quality of a receiver can be expressed as in terms of noise fi gure, noise factor,
noise temperature, and SINAD.
Noise Factor and Noise Figure

• The noise factor is the ratio of the S/N power at the input to the S/N power at the
output. The device under consideration can be the entire receiver or a single
amplifier stage
𝑆𝐼𝑁 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑁𝑅 =
𝑆𝐼𝑁 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

When the noise factor is expressed in decibels, it is called the noise figure (NF):

𝑁𝐹 = 10 log 𝑁𝑅

Example 6-5
An RF amplifier has an S/N ratio of 8 at the input and an S/N ratio of 6 at the output.
What are the noise factor and noise figure?

8
𝑁𝑅 = = 1.333
6
𝑁𝐹 = 10 log 1.333 = 10(0.125) = 1.25 𝑑𝐵

Noise Temperature

Most of the noise produced in a device is thermal noise, which is directly proportional
to temperature. Therefore, another way to express the noise in an amplifier or receiver
is in terms of noise temperature 𝑇𝑛 . Noise temperature is expressed in kelvins.
Remember that the Kelvin temperature scale is related to the Celsius scale by the
relationship 𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273. The relationship between noise temperature and NR is
given by

𝑇𝑁 = 290(𝑁𝑅 − 1)

C. TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

RF input Amplifiers
The most critical part of a communication receiver is the front end, which usually
consists of the RF amplifier, mixer, and related tuned circuits and is sometimes
simply referred to as the tuner. The RF amplifier, also called a low-noise amplifier
(LNA), processes the very weak input signals, increasing their amplitude prior to
mixing. It is essential that low-noise components be used to ensure a suffiiciently
high S/N ratio.
The tuned circuits must provide the input selectivity necessary for image rejection. In
a receiver of this kind, the mixer must also be of the low noise variety. Many mixers
are MOSFETs, which provide the lowest noise contribution. Low-noise bipolar
transistor mixers are used in IC mixers.

Most LNAs use a single transistor and provide a voltage gain in the 10- to 30-dB range.
Bipolar transistors are used at the lower frequencies, whereas at VHF, UHF, and
microwave frequencies FETs are preferred. The RF amplifier is usually a simple class
A circuit. A typical FET circuit is shown in figure above.

At microwave frequencies (those above 1 GHz), metal-semiconductor FETs, or

MESFETs, are used. Also known as GASFETs, these devices are junction fi eld-effect
transistors made with gallium arsenide (GaAs). A cross-section of a typical MESFET is
shown in Fig. 9-28. The gate junction is a metal-to-semiconductor interface because it
is in a Schottky or hot carrier diode. As in other junction FET circuits, the gate-to-source
is reverse-biased, and the signal voltage between the source and the gate controls the
conduction of current between the source and drain. The transit time of electrons
through gallium arsenide is far shorter than that through silicon, allowing the MESFET
to provide high gain at very high frequencies. MESFETs also have an extremely low
noise figure, typically 2 dB or less. Most MESFETs have a noise temperature of less
than 200 K.
D. RECEIVERS AND TRANCEIVERS
VHF Aircraft Communication Circuit
Most modern receivers are in IC form. Virtually all of the circuitry can be incorporated in a
single chip. Some external discrete components are still needed but are minimal. These
may include coils, bypass and tuning capacitors, antennas, crystals, filters, and in the case
of audio, a power amplifier and speaker or headphones. Some discrete designs still exist
and are good examples of overall receiver architecture. The example to follow is a VHF
receiver for aircraft radio. VHF receiver the typical VHF receiver circuit shown in Fig. 9-36
is designed to receive two-way aircraft communication between planes and airport
controllers, which takes place in the VHF range of 118 to 135 MHz. Amplitude modulation
is used.
A superheterodyne receiver is tuned by varying the local oscillator frequency, which is set
to a frequency above the incoming signal by the amount of the IF.
SDR Communications Receiver
Software-defined radio (SDR) receivers are becoming the most common form of radio
today, either in integrated circuit form or as a completed product. An example of a
commercial shortwave/amateur radio receiver using SDR concepts is the SDR-IQ made
by RFSPACE Inc. Fig. 9-38 shows the receiver along with an antenna tuner that matches
a variety of antenna types to the 50-ohm input to the receiver. The SDR-IQ is designed to
be used with a desktop PC or laptop. The receiver is just the front-end, while the PC is
used for the DSP and the display. The general frequency range is 500 kHz to 30 MHz. It
can demodulate AM, SSB, DSB, FM, and CW (continuous wave or Morse code) signals.

Transceivers
Most two-way radio communication equipment is packaged so that both transmitter and
receiver are in a unit known as a transceiver. Transceivers range from large, high-power
desktop units to small, pocket-sized, handheld units. Cell phones are transceivers as are
the wireless local-area networking units on PCs. Transceivers provide many advantages.
In addition to having a common housing and power supply, the transmitters and receivers
can share circuits, thereby achieving cost savings and, in some cases, smaller size.