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Experimental development of predictive models for quantification of total

volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) from the points of sales of petroleum
products in fueling stations

Article in Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering · July 2024

DOI: 10.1016/j.cscee.2024.100641

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Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering

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and-environmental-engineering

Case Report

Experimental development of predictive models for quantification of total

volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) from the points of sales of petroleum
products in fueling stations
Francis B. Elehinafe a, *, Christine O. Ogunleye a, Ayo Adesina a, Jacob A. Sonibare b
a
Environmental Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
b
Environmental Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In many developing nations, heavy reliance on petroleum products for power generation and transportation
Quantification stems from limited access to sustainable energy sources and inadequate electricity supply. This research aims to
TVOCs experimentally develop predictive models for quantification of total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) from
Points of sales
the dispensing processes of the selected petroleum products: petrol, kerosene, and diesel. A lab-scale fueling
Petroleum products
station was fabricated with five selected siphon pumps of different flowrates. These with a view to investigating
Fueling stations
the effect of fuel flowrates on TVOCs emission released near the nozzle gun and the vehicle tanks/portable
container openings with varying effective cross-sectional areas (CSAs). The results revealed that petrol emits the
highest concentrations of TVOCs emissions among the fuels due to its high volatility. At the highest flowrate of
0.33 L/s and the smallest effective CSA (1.59 × 10− 4 m2 ) of the receiving tank/container openings, the highest
concentrations (89, 57, and 45 ppm) of petrol, kerosene, and diesel were released, respectively. When the fuel
flowrate was reduced to 0.20 L/s with the same effective CSA, the TVOCs emissions decreased to 53, 37, and 29
ppm for each fuel respectively. Additionally, the lowest TVOCs emission concentration of 5 ppm was observed at
the slowest diesel fill rate of 0.05 L/s with the largest effective CSA of the tank/container opening that would
make the TVOCs emission concentrations above the standard 0.5 ppm recommended by TECAM. The results also
showed that emission fluxes of TVOCs increase when the effective CSA of the tank/container opening is reduced.
The highest TVOCs emission flux (5.6 ×105 ppm /m2 ) was recorded from the receiving tank/container opening
with the smallest effective CSA of 1.59 × 10− 4 m2 . It was discovered in the study that at high flow rates and
smaller effective cross-sectional areas of tank/container openings, there are increase in TVOCs emissions and
fluxes. Predictive models. Equations (2)–(4), were developed from the results with the use of Minitab and
MATLAB software for predicting, estimating emission inventory and controlling of TVOCs emissions at the points
of sales of fueling stations by regulatory bodies.

1. Introduction accounting for 70 % and 99 % of sales respectively [3].

In the world, there are about 1.42 billion automobile owners
including 1.06 billion cars for personal use and 363 billion commercial
vehicles [1]. According to a survey from the year 2009–2010, the
number of vehicles registered globally rose from 980 million to 1.015
billion, a 3.6 % increase [2]. Urbanization is the core reason for this
increase in vehicle population in developed countries and some devel­
oping countries in the world. According to a survey done in India, the
transportation sector is a major consumer of diesel and petrol
In Nigeria, there is a large demand for petroleum products as an
energy source due to the unstable provision of electricity from the na­
tional power grid. This growth has led to extreme dependence on the
downstream sector of oil and gas industries in the production and supply
of petroleum products. Dual-purpose kerosene is still a common source
of energy in rural areas of Nigeria for activities such as domestic cook­
ing, lighting lanterns, and burning activities. Due to the false urbani­
zation in Nigeria, there are uncontrolled locations and construction of
numerous petrol filling stations in populous cities [4], like Lagos. The

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: francis.elehinafe@covenantuniversity.edu.ng (F.B. Elehinafe).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2024.100641
Received 28 December 2023; Received in revised form 23 January 2024; Accepted 25 January 2024
Available online 1 February 2024
2666-0164/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
F.B. Elehinafe et al.
downstream sector of the petroleum industry involves transportation,
supply trading, refining distribution, storage and sale of fuel products
including Premium Motor Spirit (PMS) also known as petrol, Liquefied
Natural Gas (LNG), Automated Gas Oil (AGO), and Dual-Purpose
Kerosene (DPK) in fueling stations [5].
Petroleum products are highly flammable and are stored in under­
ground tanks where the fuels are retailed via meter pumps at fuel sta­
tions [6,7]. Numerous studies show that volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) are evaporated, due to their high volatility, into the atmosphere
during the fueling process, spills and storage in fuel stations and areas
surrounding the facilities [8–10]. Petroleum delivery in fuel stations,
vehicle refueling, emissions from poorly sealed tanks and container
tanks, and the improper handling of petroleum resulting in spills are the
main sources of VOCs emissions.
VOCs are declared to be a major cause of negative health effects in
humans by the World Health Organization, thereby are labelled haz­
ardous substances when released in substantial amounts [11]. Study
showed that the impact of BTEX emissions from gas stations into the
atmosphere has far-reaching effects [12]. VOCs emitted from petroleum
are toxic and pollute the air, and some like benzene are extremely toxic,
carcinogenic and cause DNA damage [13]. According to the Air Quality
Expert Group (AQEG), non-methane VOCs are a large class of organic
molecules that are occasionally directly detrimental to health, and more
frequently serve as precursors to the creation of ozone, photochemical
smog, and particulate matter (PM) [14,15]. This is also supported by the
characterization of gas station emissions during the CAREBeijing 2008
field study conducted by Zheng et al. [16].
An assessment was carried out by Ajayeoba et al. [17], on the risk
factors of VOC emission in petroleum stations in Nigeria. It was observed
that VOC exposure in petrol stations affected the people who worked in
or lived nearby filling stations. Along with ergonomic deficits, VOCs
were shown to cause negative health issues such as nausea, cough, eye
irritation, headache, low back pain, dizziness, and discomfort in the eyes
and/or loss of coordination. Prolonged exposure to prominent levels of
VOCs also caused unconsciousness, respiratory failure, cardiac sensiti­
zation, coma, and occasionally death [18,19]. Low TVOC concentration
levels is considered to be less than 0.3 ppm. Acceptable levels of TVOC
ranges from 0.3 to 0.5 ppm of concentration. From 0.5 ppm of TVOC
concentration level onwards the concern is considered to be consider­
able or high [20].
Studies relating to evaporative emissions from the point of sales of
fuels at fueling stations in Nigeria are currently limited. Many research
studies on the spatial monitoring and characterization of VOCs around
filling stations and on emissions from major process equipment in the
production and refining sector of the petroleum industry as reported by
Huy & Oanh [21]. This research work aims at the development of pre­
dictive models for quantifying levels of total volatile organic compounds
(TVOCs) concentrations from different openings of vehicle fuel-tanks,
containers like kegs and drums in fueling stations, from the point of
sales of petroleum products. This was necessitated by the simulation of a
laboratory scale fueling station.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Fabrication of receiving vehicle fuel tanks/portable containers with
varying openings and experimental set-up of a laboratory-scale fueling
station
One reservoir and five fuel tanks/containers of circular openings
with designed cross-sectional areas (CSAs) as summarized in Table 1,
were fabricated for the assessment of TVOCs emissions from delivery of
each of the selected fuel products: petrol, kerosene and diesel with their
densities: 0.733, 0.788 and 0.828 kg/L respective, determined in the
laboratory at varying specific flowrate capacities of the selected siphon
pumps: 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.33 L/s available in circulation in Nigeria.
The medium of transfer was constructed with the use of pipe connection
2
Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 9 (2024) 100641
Table 1
Design specifications of the openings of the fabricated receiving fuel tanks/
containers.
Opening Radius (m) CSA (m2 ) Effective CSA (m2 )
2
1 2.50 × 10− 19.64 × 10− 4 14.53 × 10− 4
2 2.24 × 10− 2
15.77 × 10− 4 10.66 × 10− 4
3 1.98 × 10− 2
12.32 × 10− 4 7.21 × 10− 4
2
4 1.72 × 10− 9.30 × 10− 4 4.19 × 10− 4
2
5 1.46 × 10− 6.70 × 10− 4 1.59 × 10− 4
and fuel siphon pump to imitate a typical fueling station. Plate 1 shows
the experimental set up of laboratory-scale fueling station for the
assessment of TVOCs emissions.
2.2. Determination of the concentration of TVOCs emitted during the
dispensing of the selected petroleum fuel products
ALTAIR 5X portable gas analyzer, obtained from Ribble-Enviro Ltd,
UK was used for monitoring the concentrations of TVOCs emissions
during the dispensing of each fuel at different flowrates and at different
CSAs of the receiving fuel tanks/containers. The gas analyzer is a small,
light and easy to use device which makes it very ideal for field moni­
toring in areas where conventional monitoring requirements are some­
how restricted. The device provides optimal functionality even under
harsh conditions. This monitor measures up to four gases simultaneously
and for the purpose of this study only TVOCs was required. The device
has a high resolution of 0.1 ppm for TVOCs with a very short response
time of 15 second and measuring range of 1–100 ppm, with photoion­
ization detector. The gas analyzer was placed at each of the openings of
the receiving fabricated fuel tanks/containers during the dispensing of
fuel products for monitoring and quantifying the concentration levels of
the TVOCs emitted.
2.3. Determination of the emission fluxes of TVOCs
By varying the cross-sectional of the openings of each receiving fuel
tanks/containers, the TVOCs concentration emitted per cross-sectional
area, emission fluxes. were determined, using equation (1), for each
fuel at different flowrates of the selected siphon pumps: 0.05, 0.1, 0.2,
0.3, 0.33 L/s.
Concentration of TVOCs emitted (ppm)
Emission Flux = (1)
Cross sectional area ofopening (m2 )
2.4. Response surface analysis and development of predictive models of
TVOCs emission
With the use of Minitab and MATLAB software, the TVOCs concen­
trations were plotted against the CSAs of receiving tank openings and
the flowrate s of the selected fuel. The 3D response surface plots were
generated on Minitab and predictive models were derived using fit data
code in MATLAB.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Results
Figs. 1 and 2 show the results of the concentration of TVOCs emitted
during the dispensing of petrol, kerosene and diesel at different flow­
rates and effective CSAs of opening of the receiving tanks/containers.
The 3D surface response plots from which the models for predicting
the optimal concentrations of TVOC emissions from the dispensing of
the fuels while varying effective CSAs of openings, the flow rates and the
fluxes are shown in Figs. 4–6. In Table 2, a summary of the predictive
models is shown for each selected fuel from fit data code in MATLAB and
interpreted as uncoded equations (2)–(4).
F.B. Elehinafe et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 9 (2024) 100641

Fig. 1. The plot of TVOCs concentration emitted during the dispersing of a) Petrol, b) Kerosene and c) diesel at different flowrates and at fixed CSAs.

TVOCspetrol (FR, CSA) = 46.8 + 190.1(FR) − 1.34 × 104 (CSA) − 202(FR)2 3.2. Discussion
5
− 1.643 × 10 (FR)(CSA)
Experiment showed that the density of the petrol sample had the
(2) lowest value determined to be 733 kg/m3 . The density data collected
during this experiment was similar to that obtained by Fakinle et al.
TVOCskerosene (FR, CSA) = 23.7 + 205(FR) − 5216(CSA) − 335.3(FR)2 [22]. The data measurement for the density of petrol obtained ranged
− 1.342 × 105 (FR)(CSA) (3) from 728.5 to 746.7 kg/m3 . This was followed by the next kerosene
sample, which was measured to have a density of 788 kg/m3 , higher
TVOCsdiesel (FR, CSA) = 35.06 + 26.36(FR) − 1.57 × 104 (CSA) than the density of the petrol sample. The diesel sample had the highest
− 21.45(FR)2 − 4.821 × 104 (FR)(CSA) (4) density value measured to be 828 kg/m3 . The density measurements of
kerosene and diesel are within the standard ranges; according to ASTM
where. D3699 of 775–840 kg/m3 and to ASTM D975 of 820–845 kg/m3
TVOCspetrol = Total volatile organic compounds emitted by petrol respectively. According to Fakinle et al. [22], the study concluded that
during dispensing the evaporation rate was inversely proportional to the density of the fuel
TVOCskerosene = Total volatile organic compounds emitted by kero­ samples as the volatility is the ability of a substance to readily form
sene during dispensing vapours under a given condition [23,24]. As reported by Frosina et al.
TVOCsdiesel = Total volatile organic compounds emitted by diesel [25], evaporative emissions are influenced by the fuel type and the
during dispensing vapour pressure in the tanks.
FR = Flowrate of the fuel pump at fueling station Fig. 1a–c shows the TVOCs emitted at the openings of the receiving
CSA = Effective cross sectional area of the vehicle fuel tank/portable fuel tanks/containers of different CSAs at five different flowrates of the
container opening selected fuels from the reservoir tank. In Fig. 1a, it was observed from
the plot that the highest TVOCs concentration of 89 ppm was emitted

3
F.B. Elehinafe et al.
Fig. 2. The plot of TVOCs concentrations emitted during the dispensing at different
CSAs at fixed different flowrates of a) Petrol, b) Kerosene and c) diesel
Fig. 3 show the results of the emission fluxes of TVOC emission during dispensing of the selected petroleum fuel products.
from petrol flowing at the highest flow rate of 0.33 L/ s. At the same flow
rate of 0.33 L/s, this is followed by TVOCs concentrations of 82, 78, 71
and 64 ppm. When the petrol was pumped at a lower flowrate of 0.30 L/
s, the TVOCs concentration dropped to 70, 64, 59, 55, and 49 ppm. The
same trend was seen as the flow capacity of the pumps lowers to 0.05 L/
s, from which the lowest TVOCs concentration of 14 ppm was emitted. In
Fig. 1b, it was observed from the plot that the highest TVOCs concen­
tration of 57 ppm was emitted from kerosene flowing at the highest
flowrate of 0.33 L/s. At the same flow rate of 0.33 L/ s, this is followed by
TVOC concentrations of 54, 50, 43 and 31 ppm at varying effective CSAs.
When the kerosene is pumped at a lower flow rate of 0.30 L/ s, the TVOC
concentration dropped to 45, 41, 38, 32, and 24 ppm accordingly to the
effective CSAs. The same pattern was observed as the flow capacity of
the pumps lowers to 0.05 L/s, from which the lowest TVOCs concen­
trations of 9 ppm was emitted.
Also, in Fig. 1c, it was observed that the highest TVOCs concentra­
tion of 45 ppm was emitted from petrol being dispensed at the highest
flowrate of 0.33 L/s. At the same flow rate of 0.33 L/ s, this was followed
4
Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 9 (2024) 100641
by TVOC concentrations of 41, 38, 32 and 26 ppm. At a lower flow rate of
0.30 L/s, the TVOCs concentrations dropped to 35, 32, 29, 25, and 21
ppm. The same trend was seen as the flow capacity of 0.05 L/s, from
which the lowest TVOCs concentration of 5 ppm was being emitted. This
trend was observed for kerosene and diesel, is due to the increase in the
rate at which the receiving tank is filled with fuel as the flow capacity of
the fuel siphon pump increases. The fuel vapours are forced out at the
opening of the receiving tank quickly as the receiving tank/container is
filled with liquid fuel at a faster rate [26]. From the study of the effect of
refueling rate on fuel system refueling, it was concluded that increasing
flowrate causes more fuel vapour to escape through the fuel filler [27].
This evaporation phenomenon is explained during the refueling of the
vehicle tank, as the fuel is pumped through the fuel gun. This causes a
pressure buildup in the tank as the fuel surface is rising; allowing fuel
vapours to flow in the reverse direction of the fuel flow [28].
Fig. 2a–c shows the emissions of TVOCs with decreasing effective
CSAs for petrol, kerosene and diesel. In Fig. 2a it is seen from the plot
that the highest TVOCs concentration (89 ppm) was emitted from the
F.B. Elehinafe et al.
Fig. 3. The plot of emission fluxes of TVOCs during the dispensing at different flowrate
and at fixed different CSAs of a) Petrol, b) Kerosene and c) diesel.
smallest effective CSA (1.59 × 10− 4 m2 ) of the opening when refueling
petrol. As the effective CSAs increased in size, the TVOCs concentrations
reduced. At the effective CSA of 10.66 × 10− 4 m2 , the TVOCs concen­
trations emitted reduce to 71, 55, 39, 27, and 19 ppm with the varying
flowrates. The lowest TVOCs concentration (14 ppm) emission is shown
to be from the largest effective CSA of 14.53 × 10− 4 m2 . This similar
trend is observed in Fig. 2b and c It is concluded that TVOCs emissions
increased from the receiving containers with decreased CSA. As reported
in a study by Huang et al. [29], the tank pressure increases as the liquid
fuel was continuously introduced into the tank, this increased the
over-head pressure and the exiting pressure of the fuel vapours being
displaced [29]. The most crucial factor behind vapour generation from
fuel tank/container opening while filling is the quantity of empty vol­
ume on the top of the fuel tank/container [30]. As the effective CSA of
the tank opening become larger, the exiting pressure of the emitting
vapours are reduced greatly [31]. Although, when the effective CSA of
opening reduces, the exiting pressure of the vapours increases. With the
use of no vapour recovery unit (VRU) that allow operators to comply
with prevailing emission regulations while recovering valuable hydro­
carbon gas as the case vehicle fuel tanks/portable containers, the va­
pours are forced out of the opening, resulting in increased TVOCs
emissions [32]. From Figs. 1–3, it is observed that petrol has highest
5
Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 9 (2024) 100641
TVOCs emissions for it has highest volatility [33,34]. Petrol has the
highest TVOCs emissions irrespective of the flowrate and the
cross-sectional area of the openings among the fuels.
Fig. 3a shows the emission fluxes of TVOCs during the refueling of
petrol from the reservoir tank to the receiving tank/container. The
highest evaporation flux was 5.6 × 105 ppm/m2 at the flow rate of
0.33 L/s, with an effective CSA of 1.59 × 10− 4 m2 . This shows from the
plot that the highest rate of TVOCs emission was produced at the highest
flowrate of fuel and the smallest effective CSA of the opening through
which the fuel vapour escapes. This same trend is seen in Fig. 3b and c
with kerosene and diesel having high evaporation fluxes of 3.58 ×
105 ppm/m2 and 2.8 × 105 ppm/m2 respectively at the same flowrate
and effective CSA. Also, as shown in Fig. 3a–c, the trend of increased
flowrates led to higher values in evaporation fluxes. As the effective CSA
of the opening is reduced, the evaporation flux is not reduced signifi­
cantly. This explains the increasing values of emission fluxes as the
effective CSA of the opening reduces. As the effective CSAs of the
opening of the fuel tanks/containers are reduced, the higher the evap­
oration fluxes of TVOCs emission during dispensing of the fuels. This is
supported by a study which concluded that large openings increase
emission flux of fuel vapours from the receiving tanks/containers [35].
Fig. 4a–c shows the plots of the concentrations of TVOCs emissions
F.B. Elehinafe et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 9 (2024) 100641

Plate 1. Experimental set-up for a lab scale fueling station.

4. Conclusion
Table 2
Predictive model generated with MATLAB software for each fuel at varying CSAs
The following can be deduced from the quantification of TVOCs
of fuel tank openings and flowrates.
emissions during the transfer of the petroleum products from the
TVOCfuel (FR, C.A) = p00 + p10(FR) + p01(C.A) + p20(FR)2 + p11(FR)(C.A) reservoir tank to the receiving vehicle fuel tanks/portable containers.
Coefficients Petrol Kerosene Diesel Higher quantities of TVOCs are released at higher flow rates of petro­
p00 46.8 (− 139.9, 23.72 (− 151, 35.06 (− 96.22, leum fuel products as result of greater displacement of vapour in the fuel
233.5) 198.4) 166.3) container. The effective CSA of the fuel tank/container’s opening is
p10 190.1 (− 1219, 205 (− 1113, 1523) 26.36 (− 964.5,
inversely proportional to the concentration of TVOCs emitted due to
1599) 1017)
p01 − 1.34e+04 − 5216 − 1.571e+04 exerting pressure of the headspace vapours in the tank. The TVOCs
(-1.245e+05, (− 1.091e+05, (− 9.38e+04, emissions, at the points of sale of petroleum products in fueling, are
9.767e+04) 9.869e+04) 6.239e+04) dependent on the pump flowrates of the fuels, the fuel volatility, and the
p20 − 202 (− 2750, − 335.3 (− 2719, − 21.45 (− 1813,
CSAs of the openings of the receiving vehicle fuel tanks and the portable
2346) 2048) 1770)
p11 − 1.643e+05 − 1.342e+05 − 4.821e+04
containers.
(− 6.856e+05, (-6.219e+05, (− 4.148e+05,
3.571e+05) 3.535e+05) 3.184e+05) Funding

against CSAs of tank/container openings and flowrates of the fuels. In The authors did not receive any funding for the project.
Fig. 4a, when dispensing petrol at flowrate of 0.33 L/ s and CSA of 1.59 ×
10− 4 m2 , 89 ppm of TVOCs was emitted. This is shown at the highest CRediT authorship contribution statement
point on the surface plot. In Fig. 5a–c, the TVOCs concentration for each
fuel was plotted against the TVOCs fluxes and the flowrates of the fuels. Francis B. Elehinafe: Validation, Supervision, Data curation,
The plots describe TVOCs emission patterns while there are variations in Conceptualization. Christine O. Ogunleye: Writing – original draft,
emission fluxes and flowrates. The TVOCs emission patterns are also Formal analysis. Ayo Adesina: Methodology, Investigation. Jacob A.
shown in Fig. 6a–c, while there are variations in the evaporation fluxes Sonibare: Writing – review & editing.
and the CSAs of the receiving fuel tank/container openings. The pre­
dictive models generated for the selected fuels with MATLAB codes are
presented in details in Table 2 and summarized as uncoded Equations Declaration of competing interest
(2)–(4). The equations show the uncoded coefficients in relation to the
fuel’s flowrate and fuel’s tank/portable container CSA of opening. From The authors do not have conflicts of intersts.
these equations in order to study TVOCs emissions at a typical fueling
station, the equations can be used for predicting, quantifying emission Data availability
inventory and controlling of TVOCs emissions at the points of sales in
fuelling stations by regulatory bodies. These findings agree with some Data will be made available on request.
research conducted by Romagnuolo et al. [30], Pshenin et al. [36],
Banerjee et al. [37], Dong et al. [38] and Тер-Мкртичьян [39]. 6.0 Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank Covenant University Centre for

Research Innovation and Discovery (CUCRID), Ota, Nigeria for its sup­
port in making the publication of this research possible.

6
F.B. Elehinafe et al.
Appendix A. : Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.cscee.2024.100641.
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