CHAPTER 11

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
In this chapter, we analyse simple electric circuits that contain devices such as batteries and
resistors in various combinations. We begin by introducing the concept of rate of flow of charges,
known as direct current (d.c). In addition, we shall discuss Kirchoff’s two rules, which are used
to simplify and analyse more complicated circuits.

11.1. Electric current

The flow of charge in a definite direction constitutes the electric current. The electric current in a
circuit denoted by I, is defined as the rate of flow of charge through it. Mathematically it is given
by:
Charge flowing (q)
Electric current (I) =
time taken (t)
When the rate of flow varies with time, we define instantaneous current as:
dq
I=
dt
The SI unit of electric current is the Ampere (A) or Coulomb per second (C/s). Thus, 1A is
equivalent to 1C of charge passing through the surface area in 1 s. In an electric circuit, the arrow
head marked represents the direction of conventional current, that is, the direction of flow of the
positive charge, whereas the direction of the flow of the electrons gives the direction of electronic
current which is opposite to that of convectional current. A moving charge, positive or negative,
is usually referred to as a mobile charge carrier. The current flowing through a conductor depends
upon the nature and the dimensions of the conductor.

11.2. Drift Velocity

Good conductors have large numbers of free charges in them. In metals for instance, the free
charges are electrons. The distance that an individual electron can move between collisions with
atoms or other electrons is quite small. The electron paths thus appear nearly random. However,
there is an electric field in the conductor that causes the electrons to drift in the direction opposite
to the field. The drift velocity vd , is the average velocity with which free electrons get drifted
towards the positive end of the conductor un the influence of an external electric field.

11.3. Relation between electric current and drift velocity

It is possible to obtain an expression for the relationship between the electric current and drift
velocity by considering the number of free charges in a segment of a conductor. Let us consider a
portion of cylindrical rod that has a volume V, cross sectional area A, length ∆x, and carries a
constant current I. For convenience, we consider charge carriers each having a charge e. Let N be
the number of charge carriers. See figure 11.1.
Figure 11.1 A portion of a straight rod of uniform cross-sectional area A, carrying a constant
current I. The mobile charge carriers are assumed to be positive and move with an average
speed vd
The electric current is given by:
total charge flowing (q)
Electric current (I) =
time taken (t)
Ne
I=
t
We know that the relation between time, distance and velocity is:
distance length
t= =
velocity velocity
∆x ∆x
t= ⟺v=
v t
Then, the expression for electric current becomes:
Ne Nev
I= =
∆x ∆x
v
We know that the relation between volume, length and area is:
V
V = A∆x ⟺ ∆x =
A
The expression for electric current then becomes:
Nev NevA N
I= = = evA
V V V
A
N
Where V = n, is the electron density, defined as the number of electrons per unit volume.

Therefore, the expression for electric current becomes:

I = nevA
Here v = vd , the drift velocity. Finally, the expression for electric current becomes:
𝐈 = 𝐧𝐞𝐯𝐝 𝐀

11.4. Electric current density

The electric current density denoted by J, is defined as the electric current flowing per unit area.
That is:
𝐈
𝐉=
𝐀
The SI unit of the current density is A/m2. Generally, the current density is a vector quantity.
Using the relation I = nevd A, we get the expression for the electric current density as:
I nevd A
J= =
A A
𝐉 = 𝐧𝐞𝐯𝐝
In vector notation, the expression for the electric current density is:

𝐉⃗ = 𝐧𝐞𝐯⃗⃗𝐝

11.5. Ohm’s law and electrical resistance

Ohm’s law states that the electric current I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference V or ∆V, across the conductor provided the physical conditions of a
conductor such as temperature, etc. That is:
V∝I
Then:
V
V = IR ⇔ =R
I
Where R is known as the resistance of the conductor, which depends upon the nature and
dimensions of the conductor. Note that Ohm’s law is valid only for metallic conductor. The graph
of the electric current versus the potential difference is a straight line as shown in figure 11.2.

Figure 11.2 The slope of the I versus V curve in the linear region yields a value for 1/R
Resistance of a conductor is the obstruction posed by the conductor to the flow of electric current
through it. It is given by:
V
R=
I
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω). The resistance of a conductor changes with temperature.
A material obeying Ohm’s law is called an ohmic material or a linear material. If a material does
not obey Ohm’s law, the material is called a non-ohmic or a nonlinear material.

11.6. Electrical resistivity and conductivity

Electrical resistivity denoted by 𝝆, of a material of a conductor is defined as the resistance of unit
length and unit of cross-section area of the conductor.
Resistance R of a conductor is directly proportional to the length l of a conductor and inversely
proportional to the area A of the cross section of the conductor. That is:
R∝l
1
R∝
A
l
R=k
A
Here k = 𝜌, is a constant called the resistivity of the material of the conductor. Hence:
𝐥
𝐑=𝝆
𝐀

The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (Ωm). The resistivity of a conductor changes with
temperature and depends upon the nature of the conductor.
The electrical conductivity denoted by 𝛅, of a conductor is defined as the reciprocal of its
resistivity. It is given by:
𝟏
𝛅=
𝛒
The SI unit of electrical conductivity is per ohm-metre (/Ωm).

11.7. Effect of temperature on resistance

The resistance 𝐑 𝟐 of a metallic conductor at a temperature 𝐭 𝟐 is given by:
𝐑 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝛂(𝐭 𝟐 − 𝐭 𝟏 )]
Where 𝐑 𝟏 is the resistance of a conductor at initial temperature 𝐭 𝟏 and 𝛂 is the temperature
coefficient of resistance. The same applies for the resistivity. Thus;
𝛒𝟐 = 𝛒𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝛂(𝐭 𝟐 − 𝐭 𝟏 )]
Where 𝐑 𝟐 is the resistance of a conductor at final temperature 𝐭 𝟐 , 𝐑 𝟏 is the resistance of a
conductor at initial temperature 𝐭 𝟏 and 𝛂 is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. That is;
𝐑𝟐 − 𝐑𝟏 𝛒𝟐 − 𝛒𝟏
𝜶= =
𝐑 𝟏 (𝐭 𝟐 − 𝐭 𝟏 ) 𝛒𝟏 (𝐭 𝟐 − 𝐭 𝟏 )

11.8. Electric Power

Electric power denoted by P is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred. That is;
Energy transfered Work done W
P= = =
time time t
We know that W = qV, then;
qV q
P= =V
t t
q
Since I = t , therefore;

𝐏 = 𝐕𝐈
Where I, is the current and V is the potential difference across the circuit. Electric power is
measured in watts (W).

11.9. Combinations of resistors

Resistors in a circuit may be used in different combinations, and we can sometimes replace a
combination of resistors with one equivalent resistor. In this section, we introduce two basic
combinations of resistors that allow such a replacement.
11.9.1. Resistors in a series combination
Various resistors are said to be connected in series if they are connected as shown below. Figure
11.3(a) shows two resistors R1 and R2 that are connected in series with a battery B. Figure 11.3(b)
shows a circuit diagram for this combination of resistors.
When the circuit is connected, the amount of charge that passes through R1 must also pass through
R2 in the same time interval. Otherwise, charge will accumulate on the wire between resistors.
Thus, for series combination of resistors, the current I is the same in both resistors. Figure 11.3(c)
shows a single resistor Req that is equivalent to this combination and has the same effect on the
circuit. This means that when the potential difference ∆V is applied across the equivalent resistor,
it must produce the same current I as in the series combination.
Figure 11.3 (a) Two resistors are connected in series to a battery B that has a potential difference
∆𝑉. (b) The circuit diagram for this series combination. (c) An equivalent resistance Req replacing
the original resistors set up in a series combination.
In this case the effective resistance is given by the relationship:
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐

We can extend this treatment to n resistors connected in series as:

𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐑 𝐧

Thus, the equivalent resistor of a series combination of resistors is simply the algebraic sum of the
individual resistances and will always be greater than any one of them.
In series combination, the potential difference across each resistor is different and the total
potential difference in this case is given by;
∆𝐕 = ∆𝐕𝟏 + ∆𝐕𝟐
We can extend this treatment to n resistors connected in series as:
∆𝐕 = ∆𝐕𝟏 + ∆𝐕𝟐 + ⋯ + ∆𝐕𝐧

11.9.2. Resistors in a parallel combination

Various resistors are said to be connected in parallel if they are connected as shown below. Figure
11.4(a) shows two resistors R1 and R2 that are connected in parallel with a battery B. Figure 11.4(b)
shows a circuit diagram for this combination of resistors. Figure 11.4(c) shows a single resistor
Req that is equivalent to this combination and has the same effect on the circuit. The potential
difference ∆V between the battery’s terminals is the same as the potential difference across each
resistor.
Figure 11.4 (a) Two resistors are connected in parallel to a battery B that has a potential
difference ∆𝑉. (b) The circuit diagram for this parallel combination. (c) An equivalent resistance
Req replacing the original resistors set up in a parallel combination.
In this case the effective resistance is given by the relationship:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝐑 𝟏 𝐑 𝟐

We can extend this treatment to n resistors connected in parallel as:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + ⋯+
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝐑 𝟏 𝐑 𝟐 𝐑𝐧

Thus, the equivalent resistance of a parallel combination of resistors is simply the algebraic sum
of the reciprocal of the individual resistances and is less than any one of them.
In parallel combination, the current passing through each resistor is different and the total current
in this case is given by;
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐
We can extend this treatment to n resistors connected in parallel as:
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐈𝐧

11.10. Electromotive force, internal resistance and terminal potential difference

A battery is often called a source of electromotive force or, a source of emf (this unfortunate
historical name describes a potential difference in volts, but not a force). The emf 𝜺 of a battery is
the maximum possible potential difference that the battery can provide between its terminals,
usually the voltage at zero current.
Because a real battery is made of matter, there is a resistance against the flow of charge within the
battery. This resistance is called the battery’s internal resistance and is usually denoted by r.
Internal resistance of a cell is defined as the resistance offered by the electrolyte and electrodes of
a cell when electric current flows through it.
Terminal potential difference of a cell is defined as the potential difference between two
electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit. Terminal potential difference of a cell is always equal to or
less than emf of a cell. For an ideal battery with zero internal resistance, the potential difference
between its terminals is equal to its emf 𝜺 (directed from the −terminal to the + terminal). For real
batteries, this is not the case.
Given a simple circuit containing a resistor of resistance R, a battery with an emf 𝜺 and internal
resistance r, the current flowing through that circuit is given by:
𝜺
𝐈=
𝐑+𝐫
Note that the current I depends on the resistance R of the external resistor (which is called the load)
and the internal resistance r of the battery. Since 𝑅 ≫ 𝑟 in most circuits, we can usually neglect r.

11.11. Kirchoff’s Rules

Not all circuits can be reduced to simple series and parallel combinations. A technique that is
applied to loops in complicated circuits consists of two principles called Kirchhoff’s Rules.
11.11.1. Kirchoff’s first rule (Junction rule)
This rule states that at any junction in a circuit, the sum of the ingoing currents must equal the sum
of the outgoing currents. That is:

∑ 𝑰𝒊𝒏 = ∑ 𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕

The first rule merely states that no charge can accumulate at a junction. This rule is based on the
principle of conservation of charge within any system.
11.11.2. Kirchoff’s second rule (Loop rule)
This rule states that for any closed loop in a circuit, the sum of the potential differences across all
elements must be zero. That is:

∑ ∆𝑽 = 𝟎
𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑

The second rule follows from the law of conservation of energy but is expressed in terms of
potential energy.
When we apply Kirchhoff’s second rule to a loop, we should note the following sign conventions:
(1) When a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the potential difference ∆𝑉 is −IR
(Fig. 11.5a).
(2) When a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the potential difference ∆𝑉 is
+IR (Fig. 11.5b).
(3) When a source of emf is traversed in the direction of its emf (from− to +), the potential
difference ∆𝑉 is + 𝜺 (Fig. 11.5c).
(4) When a source of emf is traversed in the direction opposite to its emf (from + to −), the potential
difference ∆𝑉 is −𝜺 (Fig. 11.5d).

Figure 11.5 The potential differences ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 across a resistor of resistance R and a

battery of emf E (assumed to have zero internal resistance), when each element is traversed
from a to b

EXERCISES
1. The charge that passes a cross-sectional area A=10−4 m2 varies with time according to the
relation Q = 4 + 2t + t2, where Q is in coulombs and t is in seconds.
(a) Find the relation that gives the instantaneous current at any time, and evaluate this
current at time t =2 s.
(b) Find the relation that gives the current density at any time, and evaluate this current
density at time t =2 s. [(a) I =2(1 + t),6 A, (b) J =2 × 104(1 + t), 60 kA/m2]
2. Estimate the drift speed of the conduction electrons in a copper wire that is 2 millimeters
in diameter and carries a current of 1A. The free-electron density is 8.45 × 1028
electrons/m3. [2.35 × 10−5 m/s]
3. A metallic rod has a length 1.5m and a diameter 0.2 cm. The rod carries a current of 5A
when a p.d of 75V is applied between its ends.
(a) Find the current density in the rod.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field applied to the rod.
(c) Calculate the resistivity and conductivity of the material of the rod. [(a) 1.59×106
A/m2, (b) 50 V/m, (c) 3.14 ×10−5 Ω.m, 3.18×104 (Ω.m)−1]
4. At 20 ℃, a silver wire has a diameter of 2 mm, a length of 50 cm, a resistivity of 1.6×10−8
Ω.m, a temperature coefficient of resistivity of 4×10−3/℃ and carries a current of 5A.
(a) What is the current density in the wire?
(b) Find the magnitude of the electric field applied to the wire.
(c) What is the potential difference between the ends of the wire?
(d) What is the resistance of the wire?
 (e) Find the temperature of the wire when its resistance increases to 6.5×10−4 Ω.
[(a) 3.9 × 105 A/m2, (b) 6.357 × 10−3 V/m, (c) 3.184 × 10−3 V, (d) 6.366 ×10−4 Ω, (e)
23.91℃]
5. A coil consists of 5000 turns of wire, each turn having a length of 200 mm and the wire
has a cross sectional area of 0.032 mm2. Calculate the resistance of the coil at 20℃ if the
resistivity of the wire is 17.5 × 10−9 Ωm at 20℃. [547 Ω]
6. A heating element using Nichrome connected to a 230V supply draws an initial current of
3.2A which settles after few seconds to a steady value 2.8A. What is the steady temperature
of the heating element if the room temperature is 27℃? Temperature coefficient of
resistance of Nichrome averaged over temperature range involved is 1.7 × 10−4 /℃
[867℃]
7. A steady uniform current of 5mA flows axially along a metal cylinder of diameter 0.5mm,
length 5m and resistivity 3 × 10−5 Ωm. Determine
(a) the p.d between the ends of the cylinder
(b) the rate of production of heat. [3.75V; 0.01875W]
8. The temperature coefficient of resistivity of copper at 20℃ is 3.9×10−3(℃)−1. Calculate
the percentage increase in its resistivity when its temperature increases to 220℃. [78%]
9. A heating coil is made from a nichrome wire of diameter 0.9mm. The coil is designed to
produce 240W of thermal power when connected to a source that has a potential difference
of 24V.
(a) What is the resistance of the coil?
(b) What current does the heating coil draw from the source?
(c) What is the length of the coil? [(a) 2.4 𝛀, (b) 10 A, (c) 102 mm]
10. A 1 k Ω carbon resistor used in an electric circuit is rated 0.4W.
(a) Find the maximum allowable current that can pass through the resistor.
(b) Find the maximum allowable potential difference that can be applied across the resistor
[(a) 0.02 A, (b) 20 V]
11. In figure 11.6, R1 =3 Ω, R2 =6 Ω, R3 =1 Ω, R4 =7 Ω, and the p.d ∆𝑉=30 V.
(a) What is the equivalent resistance between points a and d?
(b) Evaluate the current passing through each resistor. [(a) 10 𝛀 (b) 3 A; 2A; 1 A]

Figure 11.6 See exercise 11

12. For each of the combinations shown in figure 11.7, find a formula that represents the
equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B. Assume that R = 2 Ω and the p.d
across each combination =12 V, then for each combination, find the current in each branch
 of the circuit. [(a) 5 R/2, (b) R, (c) 3 R/5, (d) 6 R/11: (a) 2.4 A, 1.2 A, 1.2 A, 2.4 A, (b) 3
A, 3 A, 3 A, 3 A, (c) 4 A, 6 A, 2 A,2 A, (d) 2 A,3 A, 6 A]

Figure 11.7 See exercise 12

13. A voltage of 30 V is applied across a carbon resistor with first, second and third rings of
blue, red and yellow colors respectively. What is the resistance of this resistor and value
of current through the resistor? [6.2 x 105 𝛀; 6.2 x 105 A]
14. The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12V. If internal resistance of the battery is 0.4Ω,
what is the maximum current that can be drawn from the battery? [30A]
15. A light bulb that has a resistance R=4 Ω is connected to a battery that has an emf 𝜺 = 9V
and internal resistance r =0.02 Ω. Find the current in the circuit and the terminal voltage of
the battery. [2.24 A; 8.96 V]
16. When a 10 Ω resistor is connected across the terminals of a cell of emf 𝜺 and internal
resistance 𝒓, a current of 0.10 A flows the resistor. If the 10 Ω resistor is replaced with 3 Ω
resistor, the current increases to 0.24 A. Determine the values of 𝜺 and 𝒓. [1.2 V; 2 𝛀]
17. Two resistors of resistances 4Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel and then connected to a
3Ω in series. A battery of internal resistance 0.6Ω and e.m.f 3V is connected across the
combination of resistors. Calculate the current in each of the resistors. [0.5A; 0.3A; 0.2A]
18. For the circuit shown in figure 11.8, let R1 =3 Ω, R2 = 6 Ω, R3 =3 Ω, R4 = 6 Ω, and 𝜺
=7.5V. Find the values of the currents I1, I2, I3, and I4 in the circuit. [I1 =0.5 A, I2=−1 A,
I3=−0.5 A, I4 =0]

Figure 11.8 See exercise 18

19. Using Kirchhoff’s rules, find the current in each resistor in figure 11.9. [𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟓 𝒎𝑨
(through 𝑹𝟏 ), 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝑨 (through 𝑹𝟐 ), 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟗 𝒎𝑨 (through 𝑹𝟑 )]

Figure 11.9 See exercise 19

20. In the Bohr model, the electron of a hydrogen atom moves in a circular orbit of radius 5.25
x 10-11 m with a speed of 2.2 x 106 m.s-1. Determine its frequency ‘f ’ and the current ‘ I ’in
the orbit. [6.67 x 1015 Hz; 1.1 x 10-3 A]