1.

1 INTRODUCTION
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links.
A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single
technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information.
The connection need not be via a copper wire; fibre optics, microwaves, infrared, and
communication satellites can also be used.
Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we will see later. They are usually
connected together to make larger networks, with the Internet being the most well-known
example of a network of networks.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network and a distributed
system. The key distinction is that in a distributed system, a collection of independent
computers appears to its users as a single coherent system. Usually, it has a single model or
paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of software on top of the operating system,
called middleware, is responsible for implementing this model. A well-known example of a
distributed system is the World Wide Web. It runs on top of the Internet and presents a model
in which everything looks like a document (Web page).
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received
by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind
of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent
every 30-ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay,
an uneven quality in the video is the result.

A data communications system has five components

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, Fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood
by a person who speaks only Japanese.

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 Figure 1.1 Components of Data Communications

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Business Applications
 to distribute information throughout the company (resource sharing). sharing physical
resources such as printers, and tape backup systems, is sharing information
 client-server model. It is widely used and forms the basis of much network usage.
 communication medium among employees. email (electronic mail), which employees
generally use for a great deal of daily communication.
 Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer network instead
of by the phone company. This technology is called IP telephony or Voice over IP
(VoIP) when Internet technology is used.
 Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a graphical computer screen
doing business electronically, especially with customers and suppliers. This new model
is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) and it has grown rapidly in recent years.
2. Home Applications
 peer-to-peer communication
 person-to-person communication
 electronic commerce
 entertainment. (Game playing,)
3. Mobile Users
 Text messaging or texting
 Smart phones,
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
 m-commerce
 NFC (Near Field Communication) example blue tooth
4. Social Issues
With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom brings with it many unsolved social,
political, and ethical issues. Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a host
of other applications allow people to share their views with like-minded individuals. As long
as the subjects are restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not too many
problems will arise. The trouble comes with topics that people actually care about, like politics,
religion. Views that are publicly posted may be deeply offensive to some people. Worse yet,
they may not be politically correct. Furthermore, opinions need not be limited to text; high-

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resolution colour photographs and video clips are easily shared over computer networks. Some
people take a live-and-let-live view, but others feel that posting certain material (e.g., verbal
attacks on particular countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is simply unacceptable and that
such content must be censored. Different countries have different and conflicting laws in this
area. Thus, the debate rages. Computer networks make it very easy to communicate. They also
make it easy for the people who run the network to snoop on the traffic. This sets up conflicts
over issues such as employee rights versus employer rights. Many people read and write email
at work. Many employers have claimed the right to read and possibly censor employee
messages, including messages sent from a home computer outside working hours. Not all
employees agree with this, especially the latter part. Another conflict is centred around
government versus citizen’s rights. A new twist with mobile devices is location privacy. As
part of the process of providing service to your mobile device the network operators learn
where you are at different times of day. This allows them to track your movements. They may
know which nightclub you frequent and which medical centre you visit.

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in
Figure.

Figure 1.2 Data Flow Direction

Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one- way street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (Figure a). Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.

Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (Figure b). Walkie-talkies and
CB (citizens band) radios are both half- duplex systems.

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Full-Duplex
In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (Figure c). One common
example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex
mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.

Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit
time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a
network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the
software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often
need more throughputs and less delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If
we try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay
because of traffic congestion in the network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.

Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to- Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options,
such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible When you change television channels by
infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television's control system.

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Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or
temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Figure 1.3 Types of Connection

Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a
network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices
(usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

Figure 1.4 Types of topologies

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MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network.

Figure 1.5 Mesh Topology

A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh topology.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to each of the other
computers in that network. The number of connections in this network can be calculated using
the following formula (n is the number of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the network have
connections to multiple other computers in that network. It is an inexpensive way to implement
redundancy in a network. In the event that one of the primary computers or connections in the
network fails, the rest of the network continues to operate normally.

Advantages of a mesh topology

 Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.

Disadvantages of a mesh topology

 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable
option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential for
reduced efficiency.

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STAR

Figure 1.6 Star Topology

A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this configuration,
every node connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central
network device acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type
of network card used in each computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network
cable is used to connect computers together.

Advantages of star topology

 Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer, hub, or
switch.
 Easy to add another computer to the network.
 If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally.
 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs often use a star
topology with a central hub.
Disadvantages of star topology
 Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the central
network device.
 The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the network
can handle.
 If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all computers
are disconnected from the network.

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BUS:

Figure 1.7 Bus Topology

A line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device
are connected to a single cable or backbone.
Advantages of bus topology
 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.
 It requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of bus topology

 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

RING:

Figure 1.8 Bus Topology

Ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a circular data
path. In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they reach their
destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction, called a
unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.

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The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the ring is
broken, the entire network is affected.
Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or wide area networks
(WANs).
Advantages of ring topology
 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each workstation.
 Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
 Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.

Disadvantages of ring topology

 All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the
network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
 The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure

Figure 1.9 Hybrid Topology

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Types of Networks based on size
The types of networks are classified based upon the size, the area it covers and its physical
architecture. The primary network categories are PAN, LAN, WAN and MAN. Each network
differs in their characteristics such as distance, transmission speed, cables and cost.

 PAN covers very small area-0-10-m

 LAN covers the smallest area -1 km(max)
 MAN covers an area larger than LAN and - 50 km(city)
 WAN comprises the largest of all- >50 km

PAN (Personal Area Network)

 PAN is a computer network formed around a person.
 It generally consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant.
 PAN can be used for establishing communication among these personal devices for
connecting to a digital network and the internet. Characteristics of PAN
 It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems

Advantages of PAN
 Here, are important pros/benefits of using PAN network:
 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN
 Here are important cons/ drawback of using PAN network:
 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
 Distance limits.

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LAN (Local Area Network)

Figure 1.11 LAN

 A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are
connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building.
 It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other
application.
 The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in someone's home
or office.
 In general, LAN will be used as one type of transmission medium.
 It is a network which consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices across several
buildings.

Characteristics of LAN
 Here are important characteristics of a LAN network:
 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet.

Advantages of LAN
 Here are pros/benefits of using LAN:
 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed software
for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.

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 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the
LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
 Here are the important cons/ drawbacks of LAN:
 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of
installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer good
privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not
able to secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to
software setup and hardware failures

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire
city, college campus, or a small region.
 This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly limited to a single building or
site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an
area from several miles to tens of miles.

Figure 1.11 MAN

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Characteristics of MAN
 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
 Mostly used medium is optical fibres, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN
 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
 Here are drawbacks/ cons of using the MAN network:
 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which connects with other LAN's using
telephone lines and radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.

Figure 1.12 WAN

Advantages of WAN
 Here are the benefits/ pros of using WAN:
 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated at
longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.

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Disadvantage of WAN
 Here are drawbacks/cons of using WAN:
 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and
wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of networks.

Protocols and Standards

Protocols (rules)
what to communicate, how to communicate and when to communicate
Key Elements of Protocols
1. Syntax - Structure of format of data
2. Semantics - Meaning of each section bits
3. Timing - When to send and how fast.

Network Standards
Networking standards define the rules for data communications that are needed for
interoperability of networking technologies and processes.
Standards help in creating and maintaining open markets and allow different vendors to
compete on the basis of the quality of their products while being compatible with existing
market products.
During data communication, a number of standards may be used simultaneously at the different
layers. The commonly used standards at each layer are −
Application layer − HTTP, HTML, POP, H.323, IMAP
Transport layer − TCP, SPX
Network layer −IP, IPX
Data link layer − Ethernet IEEE 802.3, X.25, Frame Relay
Physical layer −RS-232C (cable), V.92 (modem)

Standards
❖ Agreed upon rule
❖ A common set of rules

Categories of Standards
1. De facto - By convention or by fact
 These are the standards that are followed without any formal plan or approval by any
organization.
 They have come into existence due to traditions or facts.
 For example, the HTTP had started as a de facto standard.

2. De jure - By Law or by Government

 These standards are the ones which have been adopted through legislation by any
officially recognized standards organization.

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  Most of the communication standards that are used today are de jure standards.

Some of the noted standard’s organizations are

 International Standards Organization (ISO)
 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Internet Research Task Force (IETF)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

Network Software
Computer hardware was the main concern at the starting of computer development. Later the
network software is highly required. In the following sections we examine the software
structuring technique in some detail.
 Protocol Hierarchies
 Network architecture
 Design Issues for the Layers
 Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

Protocol Hierarchies:
A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for
implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex, unstructured
program with many interacting components. The resultant software was very difficult to test
and modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered approach. In a
layered approach, networking concept is divided into several layers, and each layer is assigned
a particular task. Therefore, we can say that networking tasks depend upon the layers.
 The main aim of the hierarchies is to divide the design into small pieces.
 Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to
manage communications and run the applications.
 It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems.
 It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher
layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in a
layer will not affect the other layers.
 The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to network.
However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a higher layer
and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are implemented.
The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
 Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
 Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with
peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the
messages used.
 Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.
 In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the
layer n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n
protocol.

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Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.

 In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to layer
n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer immediately just below
it, until the lowest layer is reached.
 Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes place.
 In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and
manageable tasks.
 The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered
architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information is shared among
different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one layer can be easily replaced
by another implementation.

Advantages:
 Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process in
such a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks. In
short, we can say that this approach reduces the complexity of the design.
 Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the independence
of layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
 Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one layer
can be changed without affecting other layers.
 Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analysed and tested individually.

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Network Architecture:
 A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture
 Neither the details of the implementation nor the specification of the interfaces is part of
the architecture
 A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a protocol
stack.

Typical flow:
 A message, M, is produced by an application process running in layer 5 and given to layer
4 for transmission
 Layer 4 puts a header in front of the message to identify the message and passes the result
to layer 3
 The header includes control information, such as address/port, to allow layer 4 on the
destination machine to deliver the message
 Other examples of control information used in some layers are sequence numbers, sizes,
and times
 layer 3 must break up the incoming messages into smaller units, packets, prepending a layer
3 header to each packet
 Layer 3 decides which lines to use and passes the packets to layer 2

 Layer 2 adds to each piece not only a header but also a trailer, and gives the resulting unit
to layer 1 for physical transmission

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 At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to layer, with headers
being stripped off as it progresses

Design Issues for the Layers

Some of the key design issues that occur in computer networks are present in several layers.
The following are briefly mention some of the more important ones.
 Identifying senders and receivers - some form of addressing is needed in order to specify
a specific source and destination.
 Rules for data transfer - The protocol must also determine the direction of data flow, how
many logical channels the connection corresponds to and what their priorities are. Many
networks provide at least two logical channels per connection, one for normal data and one
for urgent data.
 Error control – when circuits are not perfect, both ends of the connection must agree on
which error-detecting and error-correcting codes is being used.
 Sequencing - protocol must make explicit provision for the receiver to allow the pieces to
be reassembled properly.
 Flow Control - how to keep a fast sender from swamping a slow receiver with data. This
is done by feedback-based (receiver to sender) or agreed-on transmission rate.
 Segmentation and reassembly - several levels are the inability of all processes to accept
arbitrarily long messages. It leads to mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting, and then
reassembling messages.
 Multiplexing and demultiplexing – to share the communication medium by several users.
 Routing - When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a route must be
chosen.

Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

In order to establish a connection between two or more devices, there are services in Computer
Networks. There are two services that are given by the layers to layers above them. These
services are as follows:
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Services
Connection-Oriented Services
There is a sequence of operations to be followed by the users of connection-oriented service.
These are:
1. The connection is established.
2. Information is sent.
3. The connection is released.
In connection-oriented service, we have to establish a connection before starting the
communication. When the connection is established, we send the message or the information
and then we release the connection.
Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service. We can send the
message in a connection-oriented service if there is an error at the receiver's end. An example
of connection-oriented is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol.

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In the above diagram, a solid line between Device A and Device B indicates that there is a
dedicated link with which the stream of data travels between them. With the help of this link,
a receiver can send an acknowledgment to the sender about the status of the packet.
Advantages
Benefits of Connection-Oriented Services are as follows:
 Connection-Oriented Services are reliable.
 There is no duplication of data packets.
 There are no chances of Congestion.
 These are Suitable for long connections.
 Sequencing of data packets is guaranteed.
Disadvantages
Drawbacks of Connection-Oriented Service are as follows:
 This allocation of resources is mandatory before communication.
 The speed of connection is slower. As much time is taken for establishing and relinquishing
the connection.
 In the case of Network Congestion or router failures, there are no alternative ways to
continue with communication.

Connection Less Services

It is similar to the postal services, as it carries the full address where the message (letter) is to
be carried. Each message is routed independently from source to destination. The order of
messages sent can be different from the order received.
In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from source to destination without
checking the destination is still there or not or if it prepared to accept the message.
Authentication is not needed in this. An example of a Connectionless service is UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) protocol.

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Advantages
Benefits of Connection Less Services are as follows:
 There are usually low overheads.
 Connection-Oriented services help to broadcast or multicast messages to multiple
recipients.
 In this, there is no circuit setup. Thus, it takes a fraction of a minute in order to establish a
connection.
 In the case of Network congestion or router failures, it has an alternative path of data
transmission.
Disadvantages
Drawbacks of Connection fewer services are as follows:
 These are susceptible to congestion in the network.
 It is not reliable as there is the possibility of a loss of data packets, wrong delivery of packets
or duplication is high.
 In this, each data packet needs lengthy fields because these are supposed to hold all the
destination addresses and the routing information.

Let us understand the differences between the above given two services:
Connection-Oriented Services Connection Less Services
Connection-Oriented services are designed Connectionless services are based on
on the basis of the Telephone System. the Postal System.
In this type of service, a prior connection In this type of service, no prior connection is
needs to be established. needed.
These services Ensure the reliable transfer As these services are best efforts services
of data. but reliability is not guaranteed in these.
There are chances of occurrence of
There is no possibility of congestion.
congestion using these services.

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 In this authentication is required before
transmitting the data packets to the receiver.
These services are suitable for long and
steady transmissions.
In this connection is established through
the process of signalling
In this type of service, data packets travel
towards their destination node in a
sequential manner.
Retransmission of lost data bits is possible.
Delay is more while transferring the
information. But after the establishment of
connection, these services offer fast
delivery of information.
In this, authentication is not required before
transmitting the data packets to the receiver.
These services are suitable
for burst transmissions.
There is no such signalling concept exists.
In this type of service, data packets travel
towards their destination node in a random
manner.
In this, it is not possible.
Due to the absence of the connection
establishment phase, there is no delay.

Computer Network Architecture / Models:

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how
computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

1. Peer-To-Peer Model
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with
equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this
can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

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Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore,
it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

1. Client/Server Model
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to
access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network
are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer,
etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1
wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication
with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore, we can back up the
data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of
the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System (NOS) to provide the resources to the clients,
but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

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1. CENTRALIZED SYSTEMS:
We start with centralized systems because they are the most intuitive and easy to understand
and define.
Centralized systems are systems that use client/server architecture where one or more client
nodes are directly connected to a central server. This is the most commonly used type of
system in many organizations where a client sends a request to a company server and receives
the response.

Figure – Centralized system visualization

Example –
Wikipedia. Consider a massive server to which we send our requests and the server responds
with the article that we requested. Suppose we enter the search term ‘junk food’ in the
Wikipedia search bar. This search term is sent as a request to the Wikipedia servers (mostly
located in Virginia, U.S.A) which then responds back with the articles based on relevance.
In this situation, we are the client node, Wikipedia servers are the central server.

Characteristics of Centralized System –

 Presence of a global clock: As the entire system consists of a central node (a server/ a
master) and many client nodes (a computer/ a slave), all client nodes sync up with the
global clock (the clock of the central node).
 One single central unit: One single central unit which serves/coordinates all the other
nodes in the system.
 Dependent failure of components: Central node failure causes the entire system to fail.
This makes sense because when the server is down, no other entity is there to send/receive
responses/requests.

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Scaling –
Only vertical scaling on the central server is possible. Horizontal scaling will contradict the
single central unit characteristic of this system of a single central entity.

Architecture of Centralized System –

Client-Server architecture. The central node that serves the other nodes in the system is the
server node and all the other nodes are the client nodes.

Advantages of Centralized System –

 Easy to physically secure. It is easy to secure and service the server and client nodes by
virtue of their location
 Smooth and elegant personal experience – A client has a dedicated system which he uses
(for example, a personal computer) and the company has a similar system which can be
modified to suit custom needs
 Dedicated resources (memory, CPU cores, etc)
 More cost-efficient for small systems up to a certain limit – As the central systems take
fewer funds to set up, they have an edge when small systems have to be built
 Quick updates are possible – Only one machine to update.
 Easy detachment of a node from the system. Just remove the connection of the client node
from the server and voila! Node detached.
 Centralized control: In a centralized system, the central authority has complete control
over the system, which can lead to better coordination and decision-making.
 Easier to manage: As there is only one central node to manage, it is easier to maintain
and manage the system.
 Lower latency: Centralized systems can provide lower latency compared to distributed
systems as there is no delay in communication between different nodes.
 Higher performance: Centralized systems can achieve higher performance as the
resources can be optimized for specific tasks.
 Simpler implementation: Centralized systems are easier to implement as they require
fewer complex algorithms and protocols.

Disadvantages of Centralized System –

 Highly dependent on the network connectivity – The system can fail if the nodes lose
connectivity as there is only one central node.
 No graceful degradation of the system – abrupt failure of the entire system
 Less possibility of data backup. If the server node fails and there is no backup, you lose
the data straight away
 Difficult server maintenance – There is only one server node and due to availability
reasons, it is inefficient and unprofessional to take the server down for maintenance. So,
updates have to be done on-the-fly(hot updates) which is difficult and the system could
break.
 Single point of failure: Centralized systems have a single point of failure, which can cause
the entire system to fail if the central node goes down.
 Lack of transparency: Centralized systems lack transparency as the central authority has
complete control over the system, which can lead to issues like censorship and bias.

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 Security risks: Centralized systems are more vulnerable to security risks as the central
authority has complete access to all the data.
 Limited scalability: Centralized systems have limited scalability as the central node can
only handle a limited number of clients at a time.
 Limited innovation: Centralized systems can stifle innovation as the central authority has
complete control over the system, which can limit the scope for experimentation and
creativity.

Applications of Centralized System –

 Application development – Very easy to set up a central server and send client requests.
Modern technology these days do come with default test servers which can be launched
with a couple of commands. For example, Express server, Django server.
 Data analysis – Easy to do data analysis when all the data is in one place and available
for analysis
 Personal computing

Organizations Using –
National Informatics Centre (India), IBM

1. DECENTRALIZED SYSTEMS:
These are other types of systems that have been gaining a lot of popularity, primarily because
of the massive hype of Bitcoin. Now many organizations are trying to find the application of
such systems.
In decentralized systems, every node makes its own decision. The final behaviour of the
system is the aggregate of the decisions of the individual nodes. Note that there is no single
entity that receives and responds to the request.
Example –
Bitcoin. Let’s take Bitcoin for example because it is the most popular use case of
decentralized systems. No single entity/organization owns the bitcoin network. The network
is a sum of all the nodes who talk to each other for maintaining the amount of bitcoin every
account holder has

Figure – Decentralized system visualization

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Scaling –
Vertical scaling is possible. Each node can add resources (hardware, software) to itself to
increase the performance leading to an increase in the performance of the entire system.

Architecture of Decentralized System –

 peer-to-peer architecture – all nodes are peers of each other. No one node has
supremacy over other nodes
 master-slave architecture – One node can become a master by voting and help in
coordinating of a part of the system but this does not mean the node has supremacy over
the other node which it is coordinating.

Advantages of Decentralized System –

 Minimal problem of performance bottlenecks occurring – The entire load gets balanced
on all the nodes; leading to minimal to no bottleneck situations
 High availability – Some nodes (computers, mobiles, servers) are always available/online
for work, leading to high availability
 More autonomy and control over resources – As each node controls its own behaviour, it
has better autonomy leading to more control over resources.
 Improved fault tolerance: Decentralized systems are designed to be fault tolerant,
meaning that if one or more nodes fail, the system can still continue to function. This is
because the workload is distributed across multiple nodes, rather than relying on a single
point of failure.
 Increased transparency: Decentralized systems often have a transparent and open
structure, which allows for greater accountability and trust. Each node has access to the
same information, making it more difficult to manipulate or corrupt the data.
 Greater security: Decentralized systems can be more secure than centralized systems
because there is no single point of failure or vulnerability that can be exploited by
attackers. Data is distributed across multiple nodes, making it more difficult to hack or
compromise.
 Improved scalability: Decentralized systems can be more scalable than centralized
systems because adding new nodes to the network can help to distribute the workload and
increase capacity. This can be particularly useful for large, complex systems that need to
be able to handle high volumes of traffic or data.

Disadvantages of Decentralized System –

 Difficult to achieve global big tasks – No chain of command-to-command others to
perform certain tasks
 No regulatory oversight
 Difficult to know which node failed – Each node must be pinged for availability checking
and partitioning of work has to be done to actually find out which node failed by checking
the expected output with what the node generated
 Difficult to know which node responded – When a request is served by a decentralized
system, the request is actually served by one of the nodes in the system but it is actually
difficult to find out which node indeed served the request.
 Security challenges: Decentralized systems can be vulnerable to security threats such as
DDoS attacks, sybil attacks, and 51% attacks. These attacks can compromise the integrity
and security of the network, leading to data breaches and loss of trust.

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 Lack of scalability: Decentralized systems can face scalability issues as the number of
nodes increases. This is because each node needs to maintain a copy of the entire
database, which can be difficult to manage as the database grows.
 Inefficient resource utilization: Decentralized systems can suffer from inefficient
resource utilization as some nodes may have spare computing resources while others may
be overloaded. This can lead to a waste of resources and decreased performance.
 Lack of standardization: Decentralized systems lack standardization, which can make it
difficult to integrate with other systems and can lead to interoperability issues. This can
be a major challenge for organizations that need to work with multiple decentralized
systems.
 Slow transaction processing: Decentralized systems can be slower in processing
transactions compared to centralized systems. This is because each transaction needs to
be validated by multiple nodes, which can take time.

Applications of Decentralized System –

 Private networks – peer nodes joined with each other to make a private network.
 Cryptocurrency – Nodes joined to become a part of a system in which digital currency is
exchanged without any trace and location of who sent what to whom. However, in bitcoin,
we can see the public address and amount of bitcoin transferred, but those public
addresses are mutable and hence difficult to trace.

Organizations Using –
Bitcoin, Tor network

1. DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS:
A distributed system is a collection of computer programs that utilize computational
resources across multiple, separate computation nodes to achieve a common, shared goal.
Also known as distributed computing or distributed databases, it relies on separate nodes to
communicate and synchronize over a common network. These nodes typically represent
separate physical hardware devices but can also represent separate software processes, or
other recursive encapsulated systems. Distributed systems aim to remove bottlenecks or
central points of failure from a system.

Example:
Google search system. Each request is worked upon by hundreds of computers that crawl the
web and return the relevant results. To the user, Google appears to be one system, but it
actually is multiple computers working together to accomplish one single task (return the
results to the search query).

29
The architecture of Distributed System –
 peer-to-peer – all nodes are peers of each other and work towards a common goal
 client-server – some nodes become server nodes for the role of coordinator, arbiter, etc.
 n-tier architecture – different parts of an application are distributed in different nodes
of the systems and these nodes work together to function as an application for the
user/client

Advantages of Distributed System –

 Low latency than a centralized system – Distributed systems have low latency because of
high geographical spread, hence leading to less time to get a response.
 Scalability: Distributed systems are highly scalable as they can be easily expanded by
adding new nodes to the network. This allows the system to handle a large amount of data
and traffic without compromising on performance.
 Fault tolerance: Distributed systems are fault-tolerant, meaning they can continue to
function even if some nodes fail or go offline. This is because the workload is distributed
among multiple nodes, so the system can continue to operate even if some nodes are
down.
 Increased reliability: With multiple nodes in the network, distributed systems are more
reliable than centralized systems. Even if one node fails, there are still other nodes that
can provide the required service.
 Cost-effective: Distributed systems are often more cost-effective than centralized
systems, as they can be built using off-the-shelf hardware and software components. This
makes them a more affordable option for many organizations.
 Improved performance: Distributed systems can achieve higher performance by using
parallel processing techniques, where tasks are split among multiple nodes in the network,
and each node processes its share of the workload simultaneously. This can significantly
reduce processing time and improve overall system performance.

Disadvantages of Distributed System –

 Difficult to achieve consensus.
 The conventional way of logging events by absolute time they occur is not possible here.
 Network complexity: Distributed systems require a complex network infrastructure to
operate, which can be difficult to set up and maintain. Network outages and bottlenecks
can cause system failures and data loss.
 Security challenges: Distributed systems can be vulnerable to security threats such as
cyber-attacks, data breaches, and unauthorized access. It can be challenging to implement
robust security measures across all nodes and ensure data privacy and integrity.
 Synchronization issues: Data consistency and synchronization across all nodes can be a
challenge, especially when multiple users are accessing the system concurrently.
Ensuring data consistency and avoiding data conflicts requires complex algorithms and
protocols.
 High development and maintenance costs: Distributed systems require specialized skills
and expertise to design, develop, and maintain. This can lead to high development and
maintenance costs, especially for large-scale systems.
 Limited scalability: Distributed systems can have limited scalability due to network
constraints, synchronization challenges, and other technical limitations. Scaling up the
system requires significant investment and can be challenging to implement.

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Applications of Distributed System –
 Cluster computing – a technique in which many computers are coupled together to work
so that they achieve global goals. The computer cluster acts as if they were a single
computer
 Grid computing – All the resources are pooled together for sharing in this kind of
computing turning the systems into a powerful supercomputer; essentially.

Organizations Using –
Apple, Google, Facebook

1. Web based model:

Web based model patterns are separated into many different layers or tiers which is called
Multi- or Three-Tier Architecture. You can easily replace and upgrade each layer
independently.
Presentation Layer: This layer is accessible to the client via a browser and it includes user
interface components and UI process components. As we have already discussed that these
UI components are built with HTML, CSS, and JavaScript (and its frameworks or library)
where each of them plays a different role in building the user interface.
Business Layer: It is also referred to as a Business Logic or Domain Logic or Application
Layer. It accepts the user’s request from the browser, processes it, and regulates the routes
through which the data will be accessed. The whole workflow is encoded in this layer. You
can take the example of booking a hotel on a website. A traveller will go through a sequence
of events to book the hotel room and the whole workflow will be taken care of by the business
logic.
Persistence Layer: It is also referred to as a storage or data access layer. This layer collects
all the data calls and provides access to the persistent storage of an application. The business
layer is closely attached to the persistence layer, so the logic knows which database to talk
to and the process of retrieving data becomes more optimized. A server and a database
management system software exist in data storage infrastructure which is used to
communication with the database itself, applications, and user interfaces to retrieve data and
parse it. You can store the data in hardware servers or in the cloud.

Some other parts of the web application which is separated from the main layers that exist in
the architecture are…
 Cross-cutting code: This part handles communications, operational management, and
security. It affects all parts of the system but should never mix with them.
 Third-party integrations: Using third-party APIs we can integrate payment gateways,
social logins, GDSs in travel websites, etc.

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OSI
 OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
 Created by International Standards Organization (ISO)
 Was created as a framework and reference model to explain how different networking
technologies work together and interact
 It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow Each layer has specific functions
it is responsible for
 All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a network

Top to bottom
 All People Seem to Need Data Processing

Bottom to top
 Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

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 Figure 1.38 OSI Layers

The interaction between layers in the OSI model.

33
 Figure 1.39 Interaction between layers in the OSI model

An exchange using the OSI model

Figure 1.40 An exchange using the OSI model

34
7 layers are classified into 3 sub layers
1. network support layer
2. transport layer
3. user support layer
 Layers 1,2,3- physical, data link and network are network support layers.
 Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups.
 Layers 5,6,7- session, presentation, application are user support layers.

Physical Layer
 Physical layer is the bottom (layer 1) of OSI model.
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
 The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node to next.

Figure 1.41 Physical Layer

Functions of Physical Layer

 Convert bits to signals - involves a stream of bits (sequence of 0's and 1's) without any
interpretation. To be transmitted bits must be encoded into the signals - electrical or optical.
 Bit synchronization - It is necessary to have synchronization between sender and receiver
at the bit level that is the clocks of the sender and the receiver must be synchronized.
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media - It defines the characteristics of the
interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of
transmission medium.
 Bit rate control- also defines the transmission rate (Data Rate) i.e. the number of bits sent
per second
 Line configuration - 1. Point-to-point 2. Multipoint
 Physical topology – Mesh, star, bus, ring
 Transmission mode - simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
 Multiplexing - Code-division multiplexing (CDM) is a technique in which each channel
transmits its bits as a coded channel-specific sequence of pulses

35
Data Link Layer
 The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next.

Figure 1.42 Data link Layer

Functions of Data Link Layer

 Framing: - divides the data from N/W layer into frames.
 Physical Addressing: - Add a header to the frame to define the physical address of the
source and the destination machines.
 Flow Control: - It is the traffic regulatory mechanism implemented by Data Link layer that
prevents the fast sender from drowning the slow receiver.
 Error Control: - It provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Feedback: - after transmitting the frames, the system waits for the feedback.

Network Layer

Figure 1.43 Network Layer

Functions of Network layer

 It is responsible for the source to destination delivery of a packets across multiple networks.

36
 Routing: -Provide mechanism to transmit data over independent networks that are linked
together.
 Logical addressing: - Adds Logical addresses of sender and Receiver.

Transport Layer
It is responsible for source process to destination process delivery of entire message

Figure 1.44 Transport layer

Transport layer provides two types of services:

1. Connection Oriented Transmission: In this type of transmission the receiving device
sends an acknowledgment back to the source after a packet or group of packets is
received.
2. Connectionless Transmission: In this type of transmission the receiver does not
acknowledge receipt of a packet.

Functions of Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: Divide the message received from Session layer into
Segments and number them to make a sequence for reassembly at the receiving side.
 Service point addressing: Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process on destination machine.
 Error Control: Make sure that the entire message arrives without errors else retransmit.
 Flow Control: Transport layer makes sure that the sender

37
Session Layer
 It is responsible for beginning, maintaining & ending the communication between two
devices, which is called session.

Figure 1.45 Session layer

Functions of Session Layer

 Establishment, maintaining and ending a session:
 Sends SYN packet – establish request
 Receives ACK & SYN- established
 To end – Sender sends ACK
 Dialog Control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
 Synchronization: Allows a process to add checkpoints to a stream of data.

Presentation Layer
 This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems.

Figure 1.46 Presentation layer

38
Functions of Presentation Layer
 Data Translation: Encoding and Decoding Sender to Common format on Sending side
Common to Receiving format on Receiver side
 Data Encryption: For security and privacy purpose.
 Data Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information.

Application Layer
 Provides User interfaces and support for Services, like e- mail, file transfer.

Figure 1.47 Application layer

Functions of Application Layer
 Network Virtual terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access, and Management: This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host.
 Mail Services: This application provides various e-mail services.
 Directory Services: This application provides the distributed database sources and access
for global information about various objects and services.

Figure 1.48 OSI Layers functions

39
TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
–A protocol suite is a large number of related protocols that work together to allow networked
computers to communicate.
 The TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
 Host-to-network
 Internet
 Transport
 Application

Figure 1.48 TCP/IP

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

Application Layer
Application layer protocols define the rules when implementing specific network applications
Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate and efficient data delivery Typical protocols:
FTP – File Transfer Protocol For file transfer
Telnet – Remote terminal protocol for remote login on any other computer on the network
SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol For mail transfer
HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol for Web browsing
 The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a communication protocol for electronic mail
transmission.
 The File Transfer Protocol is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer
files between a client and server on a computer network.

40
 The Domain Name System is a hierarchical and decentralized naming system for
computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network.
 Simple Network Management Protocol is an Internet Standard protocol for collecting and
organizing information about managed devices on IP networks and for modifying that
information to change device behaviour.
 Network File System is a distributed file system protocol allowing a user on a client
computer to access files over a computer network much like local storage is accessed.
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol is a simple lockstep File Transfer Protocol which allows a
client to get a file from or put a file onto a remote host.
Encompasses same functions as these OSI Model layers Application Presentation Session

Transport Layer
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
Does not mean it has a physical connection between sender and receiver
TCP provides the function to allow a connection virtually exists – also called virtual circuit
UDP provides the functions:
Dividing a chunk of data into segments
Reassembly segments into the original chunk
Provide further the functions such as reordering and data resend Offering a reliable byte-stream
delivery service
Functions the same as the Transport layer in OSI
Synchronize source and destination computers to set up the session between the respective
computers.

Internet Layer
The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects independent
networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network layer protocols are
the IP and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting.

Host-to-network layer
The Host-to-network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP reference model. It combines the
link layer and the physical layer of the ISO/OSI model. At this layer, data is transferred between
adjacent network nodes in a WAN or between nodes on the same LAN.

41
Network application and Application Protocol:
A network application is any application running on one host providing communication to
another application running on a different host. Network applications allow network operators
to easily manage and monitor network traffic as well as analyse data that can be used to improve
network systems.
The application layer protocols used to make communication between sender and receiver
faster, more efficient, reliable, and secure. These protocols will be discussed further below.
 SMTP
 TELNET
 FTP
 MIME
 POP
 HTTP
 DNS

42
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
One of the most popular application layer protocols for network services is electronic mail (e-
mail). The TCP/IP protocol that supports electronic mail on the Internet is called Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
SMTP transfers messages from senders' mail servers to the recipients' mail servers using TCP
connections. In SMTP, users are based on e-mail addresses. SMTP provides services for mail
exchange between users on the same or different computers.
Following the client/server model:
 SMTP has two sides: a client-side, which executes on a sender's mail server, and a server-
side, which executes on the recipient's mail server.
 Both the client and server sides of SMTP run on every mail server.
 When a mail server sends mail (to other mail servers), it acts as an SMTP client.
 When a mail server receives mail (from other mail servers), it acts as an SMTP server.

Terminal Network (TELNET)

TELNET is an application layer protocol in which a client-server application allows a user to
log onto a remote machine and lets the user access any application program on a remote
computer. TELNET uses the NVT (Network Virtual Terminal) system to encode characters on
the local system.
On the server (remote) machine, NVT decodes the characters to a form acceptable to the remote
machine. TELNET is a protocol that provides a general, bi-directional, eight-bit byte-oriented
communications facility. Many application protocols are built upon the TELNET protocol.
Telnet services are used on PORT 23.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
FTP is the standard mechanism provided by TCP/IP for copying a file from one host to another.
FTP differs from other client-server applications because it establishes 2 connections between
hosts. Two connections are Data Connection and Control Connection.
Data Connection uses PORT 20, and control connection uses PORT 21. FTP is built on a client-
server architecture and uses separate control and data connections between the client and the
server. One connection is used for data transfer, the other for control information (commands
and responses). The FTP is data reliably and efficiently.

43
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)
The Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an extension of SMTP that allows the
transfer of multimedia messages. If binary data is included in a message, MIME headers are
used to inform the receiving mail agent that is as follows:
 Content-Transfer-Encoding: The header alerts the receiving user agent that the message
body has been ASCII encoded and the type of encoding used.
 Content-Type: The header informs the receiving mail agent about the type of data in the
message.

Post Office Protocol (POP)

POP (Post Office Protocol) is also called the POP3 protocol. This is a protocol used by a mail
server in conjunction with SMTP to receive and holds mail for hosts. POP3 mail server receives
e-mails and filters them into the appropriate user folders.
When a user connects to the mail server to retrieve his mail, the messages are downloaded from
the mail server to the user's hard disk.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used mainly to access World Wide Web (www) data.
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the Web's main application-layer protocol,
although current browsers can access other types of servers. A repository of information spread
all over the world and linked together.
The HTTP protocol transfers data in plain text, hypertext, audio, video, etc. HTTP utilizes TCP
connections to send client requests and server replies. It is a synchronous protocol that works
by making both persistent and non-persistent connections.

Domain Name System (DNS)

In Domain Name System (DNS), TCP/IP protocol uses the IP address that uniquely identifies
a host's connection to the Internet to identify an entity. DNS is a hierarchical system based on
a distributed database that uses a hierarchy of Name Servers to resolve Internet host names into
the corresponding IP addresses required for packet routing by issuing a DNS query to a name
server.
DNS in the Internet: DNS is a protocol that can be used on different platforms.
Domain name space is divided into three categories.
 Generic Domain: The generic domain defines registered hosts according to their generic
behavior. Each node in the tree defines a domain which is an index to the domain name
space database.

 Country Domain: The country domain section follows the same format as the generic
domain but uses 2 characters of country abbreviations (e.g., the US for the United States)
instead of 3 characters.
 Inverse Domain: The inverse domain maps an address to a name.

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Application Layer Protocol Examples
Examples of application layer protocols include the X.400 Message Handling Service Protocol
allowing email transfer between compatible systems.
 The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNTP) provides remote host management.
 Use the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for message or text communications.
 To accept and store mail for hosts, a mail server employs the POP (Post Office Protocol)
protocol in conjunction with SMTP.

Overview of Services

THE INTERNET
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected the way we do
business as well as the way we spend our leisure time. Count the ways you've used the Internet
recently. Perhaps you've sent electronic mail (e-mail) to a business associate, paid a utility bill,
read a newspaper from a distant city, or looked up a local movie schedule-all by using the
Internet. Or maybe you researched a medical topic, booked a hotel reservation, chatted with a
fellow Trekkie, or comparison-shopped for a car. The Internet is a communication system that
has brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
A Brief History
A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as computers and printers. An
internet (note the lowercase letter i) is two or more networks that can communicate with each
other. The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase letter I), a collaboration of
more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. Private individuals as well as
various organizations such as government agencies, schools, research facilities, corporations,
and libraries in more than 100 countries use the Internet. Millions of people are users. Yet this
extraordinary communication system only came into being in 1969. In the mid-1960s,
mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone devices. Computers from
different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another. The Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in
finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share their
findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort. In 1967, at an
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for
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ARPANET, a small network of connected computers. The idea was that each host computer
(not necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized computer,
called an inteiface message processor (IMP). The IMPs, in tum, would be connected to one
another. Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own
attached host. By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four nodes, at the University of California
at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford
Research Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to form a
network. Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication
between the hosts. In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core
ARPANET group, collaborated on what they called the Internetting Projec1. Cerf and Kahn's
landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end- to-end delivery of packets. This
paper on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) included concepts such as encapsulation, the
datagram, and the functions of a gateway. Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to
split TCP into two protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internetworking
Protocol (lP). IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for higher-
level functions such as segmentation, reassembly, and error detection. The internetworking
protocol became known as TCPIIP.

The Internet Today

The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a simple
hierarchical structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by
connecting devices and switching stations. It is difficult to give an accurate representation of
the Internet because it is continually changing-new networks are being added, existing
networks are adding addresses, and networks of defunct companies are being removed. Today
most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet service providers
(lSPs). There are international service providers, national service providers, regional service
providers, and local service providers. The Internet today is run by private companies, not the
government. Figure 1.13 shows a conceptual (not geographic) view of the Internet.

International Internet Service Providers:

At the top of the hierarchy are the international service providers that connect nations together.
National Internet Service Providers:
The national Internet service providers are backbone networks created and maintained by
specialized companies. There are many national ISPs operating in North America; some of the
most well-known are SprintLink, PSINet, UUNet Technology, AGIS, and internet Mel. To
provide connectivity between the end users, these backbone networks are connected by
complex switching stations (normally run by a third party) called network access points

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 (NAPs). Some national ISP networks are also connected to one another by private switching
stations called peering points. These normally operate at a high data rate (up to 600 Mbps).
Regional Internet Service Providers:
Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs are smaller ISPs that are connected to one
or more national ISPs. They are at the third level of the hierarchy with a smaller data rate. Local
Internet Service Providers:
Local Internet service providers provide direct service to the end users. The local ISPs can be
connected to regional ISPs or directly to national ISPs. Most end users are connected to the
local ISPs. Note that in this sense, a local ISP can be a company that just provides Internet
services, a corporation with a network that supplies services to its own employees, or a
nonprofit organization, such as a college or a university, that runs its own network. Each of
these local ISPs can be connected to a regional or national service provider.

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X.25
Introduction
 X.25 is a standard suite of protocols used for packet switching across computer networks.
 The X.25 protocol works at the physical, data link, and network layer (Layers 1 to 3) of the
OSI model.
 Each X.25 packets contains up to 128 bytes of data.
 The X.25 network handles packet assembly at the source device, delivery, and then dis-
assembly at the destination.
 X.25 packet delivery technology includes not only switching and network-layer routing,
but also error checking and re-transmission logic should delivery failures occur.
 X.25 was originally designed more than 25 years ago to carry voice over an analog
telephone line.
 Typical applications of X.25 today include automatic teller machine networks and credit
card verification networks.
 X.25 also supports a variety of mainframe terminal/server applications.
 An X.25 network consists of a network of interconnected nodes to which user equipment
can connect.

 The user end of the network is known as Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and the carrier’s
equipment is Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE).
 X.25 routes packets across the network from DTE to DTE.

Uses of X.25
 X.25 is a mechanism for transferring transparent data.
 One of the largest uses of X.25 is the transfer of asynchronous data streams such as those
produced by simple terminals like credit card readers.
 These devices connect to a Packet Assembler/Disassembler (PAD) that organizes the
asynchronous data streams into X.25 packets for transmission across the network.
 PAD design is based on CCITT standards X.28, X.29 and X.3. X.28 is a standard protocol
that applicable between the terminal and the PAD.

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 X.29 is a protocol that exists between the PAD and the network.
 Whenever function is performed with PAD and terminal, X.3 protocol is worked. Together
these three protocols are called XXX.
 X.25 remains important in Point-of-Sale credit card and debit card authorization.

Characteristics of X.25
 Maximum packet sizes vary from 64 bytes to 4096 bytes, with 128 bytes being a default on
most networks.
 X.25 is optimized for what today would be considered quite low speed lines: 100kbps and
below.
 X.25 has been the basis of the development of other packet switched protocols like TCP/IP
and ATM.
 These protocols also have the ability to handle one-to-many connections and the ability to
match DTE’s having different line speeds, both characteristics of X.25.
 X.25 has been around since the mid 1970’s and so is pretty well debugged and stable.
 There are no data errors on modern X.25 networks.
 The major technical drawback of X.25 today is the inherent delay caused by the store-and-
forward mechanism, which in turn restricts the useful data transmission rate.

Frame Relay:
 It is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical and data link layers of
OSI reference model.
 FR is based on packet switching technology.

Frame relay devices are

1. Data terminal equipment (DTE)
2. Data circuit terminating equipment (DCE)

Data terminal equipment (DTE):

 It is terminating equipment for a specific network.
 It is typically are located on the premises of a customer.
 Examples: Terminals, Personal computer, Router and Bridges.

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Data circuit terminating equipment (DCE):
 These are carrier owned inter-networking devices.
 It provides clocking and switching services in a network.
Frame relay has following benefits over a private line network design:
1. Cost saving
2. More efficient circuit use
3. Higher network availability
4. Higher performance

ATM
1. Driven by the integration of services and performance requirements of both telephony
and data networking: “broadband integrated service vision” (B-ISON).
2. Telephone networks support a single quality of service and are expensive to boot.
3. Internet supports no quality of service but is flexible and cheap.
4. ATM networks were meant to support a range of service qualities at a reasonable cost-
intended to subsume both the telephone network and the Internet.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM):

It is an International Telecommunication Union- Telecommunications Standards Section
(ITU-T) efficient for call relay and it transmits all information including multiple service
types such as data, video, or voice which is conveyed in small fixed-size packets called cells.
Cells are transmitted asynchronously and the network is connection-oriented.
ATM is a technology that has some event in the development of broadband ISDN in the
1970s and 1980s, which can be considered an evolution of packet switching. Each cell is 53
bytes long – 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload. Making an ATM call requires first sending
a message to set up a connection.
Subsequently, all cells follow the same path to the destination. It can handle both constant
rate traffic and variable rate traffic. Thus, it can carry multiple types of traffic with end-to-
end quality of service. ATM is independent of a transmission medium; they may be sent on
a wire or fibre by themselves or they may also be packaged inside the payload of other carrier
systems. ATM networks use “Packet” or “cell” Switching with virtual circuits. Its design
helps in the implementation of high-performance multimedia networking.

ATM Cell Format –

As information is transmitted in ATM in the form of fixed-size units called cells. As known
already each cell is 53 bytes long which consists of a 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload.

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Asynchronous Transfer Mode can be of two format types which are as follows:

1. UNI Header: This is used within private networks of ATMs for communication between
ATM endpoints and ATM switches. It includes the Generic Flow Control (GFC) field.
2. NNI Header: is used for communication between ATM switches, and it does not include
the Generic Flow Control (GFC) instead it includes a Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) which
occupies the first 12 bits.

Working of ATM:
ATM standard uses two types of connections. i.e., Virtual path connections (VPCs) which
consist of Virtual channel connections (VCCs) bundled together which is a basic unit
carrying a single stream of cells from user to user. A virtual path can be created end-to-end
across an ATM network, as it does not rout the cells to a particular virtual circuit. In case of
major failure, all cells belonging to a particular virtual path are routed the same way through
the ATM network, thus helping in faster recovery.

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Switches connected to subscribers use both VPIs and VCIs to switch the cells which are
Virtual Path and Virtual Connection switches that can have different virtual channel
connections between them, serving the purpose of creating a virtual trunk between the
switches which can be handled as a single entity. Its basic operation is straightforward by
looking up the connection value in the local translation table determining the outgoing port
of the connection and the new VPI/VCI value of connection on that link.

ATM vs DATA Networks (Internet) –

 ATM is a “virtual circuit” based: the path is reserved before transmission. While Internet
Protocol (IP) is connectionless and end-to-end resource reservations are not possible.
RSVP is a new signalling protocol on the internet.
 ATM Cells: Fixed or small size and Trade-off is between voice or data. While IP packets
are of variable size.
 Addressing: ATM uses 20-byte global NSAP addresses for signalling and 32-bit locally
assigned labels in cells. While IP uses 32-bit global addresses in all packets.

ATM Layers:

1. ATM Adaption Layer (AAL) –

It is meant for isolating higher-layer protocols from details of ATM processes and prepares
for conversion of user data into cells and segments it into 48-byte cell payloads. AAL
protocol excepts transmission from upper-layer services and helps them in mapping
applications, e.g., voice, data to ATM cells.

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  Physical Layer –
It manages the medium-dependent transmission and is divided into two parts physical
medium-dependent sublayer and transmission convergence sublayer. The main
functions are as follows:
1. It converts cells into a bitstream.
2. It controls the transmission and receipt of bits in the physical medium.
3. It can track the ATM cell boundaries.
4. Look for the packaging of cells into the appropriate type of frames.
 ATM Layer –
It handles transmission, switching, congestion control, cell header processing, sequential
delivery, etc., and is responsible for simultaneously sharing the virtual circuits over the
physical link known as cell multiplexing and passing cells through an ATM network
known as cell relay making use of the VPI and VCI information in the cell header.

ATM Applications:
1. ATM WANs –
It can be used as a WAN to send cells over long distances, a router serving as an end-
point between ATM network and other networks, which has two stacks of the protocol.
2. Multimedia virtual private networks and managed services –
It helps in managing ATM, LAN, voice, and video services and is capable of full-service
virtual private networking, which includes integrated access to multimedia.
3. Frame relay backbone –
Frame relay services are used as a networking infrastructure for a range of data services
and enabling frame-relay ATM service to Internetworking services.
4. Residential broadband networks –
ATM is by choice provides the networking infrastructure for the establishment of
residential broadband services in the search of highly scalable solutions.
5. Carrier infrastructure for telephone and private line networks –
6. To make more effective use of SONET/SDH fiber infrastructures by building the ATM
infrastructure for carrying the telephonic and private-line traffic.

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