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 GREEN HYDROGEN

NAME: JESSE SARPONG-MENSAH

COURSE: MSC ADVANCED CHEMICAL

ENGINEERING

LECTURER: PROF. JAY WADHAWAN

DATE: JANUARY 2023

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Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 DEFINING HYDROGEN .................................................................................................... 3

1.2 FUEL FOR THE FUTURE ................................................................................................... 3

2.0 THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY .............................................................................................. 4

3.0 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 5

3.1 WATER ELECTROLYSIS / SPLITTING ........................................................................... 5

3.2 OTHER PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES ............................................................................. 6

4.0 HYDROGEN STORAGE ......................................................................................................... 7

4.1 STORING GASEOUS HYDROGEN ................................................................................... 7

4.2 STORING LIQUID HYDROGEN ....................................................................................... 7

4.3 STORING SOLID HYDROGEN ......................................................................................... 8

5.0 TRANSPORTATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF HYDROGEN........................................... 8

6.0 HYDROGEN USAGE ............................................................................................................ 10

7.0 PROS AND CONS OF HYDROGEN .................................................................................... 11

8.0 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................... 11

9.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 12

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This paper talks about hydrogen in general, the production, storage, distribution, and utilization
of hydrogen, its potential to decarbonize economies and speed up the transition to Net Zero while
generating thousands of green jobs, hydrogen’s sustainability as a reliable fuel, and how green
hydrogen will be if utilized globally.

1.1 DEFINING HYDROGEN

The simplest and most ubiquitous chemical element in the entire universe is hydrogen. Hydrogen
is the lightest molecule and naturally occurs as two bonded H atoms (H2). Under standard
conditions, it is tasteless, odorless, and colorless. On planet Earth, hydrogen is primarily bound
within molecules of either hydrocarbons or water (H20). Hydrogen can also be utilized as a safe
and reliable fuel, but it must be produced from a primary source of energy. It is considered
desirable because, when you burn it, hydrogen produces water as a byproduct. No greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions or air pollutants are associated with the use of hydrogen. Hydrogen has the
highest energy density amongst today’s most commonly used fuels, which include natural gas,
gasoline, and diesel. Hydrogen is much lighter than gasoline vapor and air, so it dissipates
quickly when it is released. This enables quick dispersion in the event of a leak. Since at room
temperature hydrogen has a very low density, hydrogen energy is typically measured by weight
in kilograms instead of by volume (Connell et al., 2022). Despite being a colorless gas, hydrogen
has been assigned color codes like black hydrogen (hydrogen produced from coal), green
hydrogen (hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources and water electrolysis), gray
hydrogen (hydrogen produced from natural gas), brown hydrogen (hydrogen produced from
lignite), and so forth. These color codes are used by the energy industry to indicate the energy
sources, production processes, and primary feedstocks used to produce hydrogen.

This paper’s only focus will be on green hydrogen, how it will help speed up the transition to Net
Zero while generating up to 100,000 green jobs, and its great potential in global energy sectors.

1.2 FUEL FOR THE FUTURE

Fossil fuels have been powering energy systems globally for thousands of years now. The
continuous use of fossil fuels as the main source of energy in various industries poses a threat to
the earth’s climate due to the greenhouse gas emissions associated with it. In order to
decarbonize economies, reduce the significant amounts of greenhouse gases emitted, and save

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earth’s climate, there needs to be modifications in the utilization of the various energy sources.
This can be accomplished by implementing one of the subsequent techniques: increasing
efficiency while reducing the consumption of fossil fuels, using carbon-free or low-carbon
energy sources such as renewable energy sources, and separating and sequestering carbon
dioxide produced from fossil fuels (Brandon & Kurban, 2017). But in order to reach a
decarbonized economy by the year 2030, a fossil fuel replacement is needed. As concerns about
the rising GHGs emissions and air pollution from the utilization of fossil fuels keep rising,
interest in using hydrogen as a fossil fuel replacement keeps growing because of its
environmentally friendly nature. Decreasing the dependency on fossil fuels and potentially
reducing GHG emissions and pollutants can be achieved by using hydrogen as the main fuel.
Hydrogen, being a clean energy carrier, concurrently decarbonizes the commercial, residential,
industrial, and transportation sectors. Although, at present hydrogen is being considered as the
main alternative to and replacement for fossil fuels, it is not a naturally occurring substance.
Instead, it is found in chemical substances such as hydrocarbons and water that must undergo
chemical transformation to produce hydrogen gas. The most widely utilized technique for large-
scale hydrogen generation is the steam reforming of natural gas. Producing hydrogen by steam
reforming natural gas involves the utilization of fossil fuels at the production stage, where
greenhouse gases are emitted. However, the hydrogen economy can't achieve its goal of
decarbonizing economies by 2030 if hydrogen continues to be generated by the steam reforming
of natural gas technique. In order to speed up the transition to Net Zero, hydrogen must be
obtained from a process like water electrolysis (green hydrogen), which does not involve using
fossil fuels. In spite of the fact that many industries in the UK and all over the world have
already implemented hydrogen fuel systems in its infancy, the production, storage,
transportation, and utilization of hydrogen present issues that need to be addressed. To fully
harness hydrogen’s potential across all economies, government support and collaboration with
academia and industry are needed.

2.0 THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY

Prof. John Bockris invented the phrase "Hydrogen Economy" in 1970 during a speech at the
General Motors Technical Center. (Brandon & Kurban, 2017). Hydrogen economy, synonymous
with sustainable energy, refers to the situation where the whole energy system of a country is
solely based on hydrogen. It can also be defined as an economy in which hydrogen is the primary

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energy carrier along with electricity. Hydrogen has great technical, economical, and societal
appeal as a viable solution to decarbonize economies by the year 2030. The eventual successful
outcome of a hydrogen economy is contingent on the general public. The hydrogen economy
being accepted by the world market is not only dependent on its commercial and practical
viability but also on the safety in widespread usage. The realization and development of
hydrogen-based economies have been difficult and challenging tasks due to the substantial
investments needed. Hydrogen has always had the potential to be significant, but the challenges
of establishing hydrogen economies all over the world have hindered progress. This is mainly
because the production, storage, transportation, distribution, and utilization sectors in the
hydrogen economy all have challenges that need to be addressed while maintaining strategic
policy support. In the transportation sector, for example, the debate over whether hydrogen fuel
cell vehicles or hydrogen refueling infrastructure should come first has stymied progress toward
using hydrogen as a transportation fuel. The transition to using hydrogen as the primary fuel in
global economies will fundamentally change energy systems all over the world while reducing
atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions. Hydrogen’s sustainability, cleanliness, and versatility
support a smooth transition to the hydrogen economy from the current global economy
dominated by fossil fuels (Dixon et al., 2016).

3.0 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

The most prevalent technique for hydrogen production is the steam reforming of natural gas.
This production process is not ideal because there are significant amounts of greenhouse gases
emitted into the atmosphere. The aim of the hydrogen economy is to get rid of using steam
reforming of natural gas to generate hydrogen and use effective, efficient, and inexpensive
methods to produce hydrogen from renewable natural resources in significant quantities.

3.1 WATER ELECTROLYSIS / SPLITTING

Water splitting seems to be the most viable process for large scale hydrogen production from
non-fossil natural resources at the moment. For the water splitting process, solar radiation is first
converted to electricity in a photovoltaic cell, after which the water electrolysis takes place in a
different cell. Water electrolysis is achieved using an electrolyzer device. The most commonly
used electrolyzer device is the alkaline electrolyzer. This type of electrolyzer has a relatively low
capital cost compared to the other types of electrolyzers. An alkaline electrolyzer uses a cell with

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an anode, cathode, and an electrolyte based on a solution of caustic salts. Energy is needed to
break water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen, but this energy is eventually recovered during
the oxidation process to produce water. The energy needed to split the water to release hydrogen
must be obtained from a non-fossil source such as hole-electron pair excitement in a robust
semiconductor by solar radiation. A sturdy semiconductor material that can satisfy and withstand
nature’s competing requirements is to be used. Photons from the sun fall inside the visible
spectrum, requiring semiconductors with a bandgap lower than 1.7 eV for an efficient and
effective absorption (Bockris, 1999). In order to closely match the spectrum of the sun, oxide
semiconductors such as titanium dioxide can be doped with impurities that lower their bandgap
energies. Existing challenges for water electrolysis presently include low conversion efficiency,
high electric power costs, and high production costs. The ways of alleviating water electrolysis
costs are by reducing the cost of electricity, reducing the cost of the electrolyte, or removing the
membrane (separator) to reduce ohmic losses. For the reduction of the cost of electricity,
intermittent electricity generated from renewable sources such as hydropower and wind can be
used. However, it is anticipated that the price of electricity would eventually go down as
renewable energy technology develops further (Connell et al., 2022).

3.2 OTHER PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

Nature’s efficient hydrogen manufacturing processes such as plants using hydrogen for the
manufacturing of carbohydrates in their stalks and leaves or microorganisms such as microbes
and algae using molecular-level processes to efficiently produce hydrogen at ambient
temperatures, can also be capitalized on by thoroughly comprehending molecular functions and
structures and duplicating such processes using synthetic materials in applications as fuel-cell
cathodes and anodes (Crabtree et al., 2004). These natural hydrogen-producing methods entail
complex protein structures that have not been fully unraveled. Additionally, hydrogen can also
be produced from biomass, which is a more environmentally friendly method than generating
hydrogen from fossil fuels. Large-scale hydrogen generation from biomass involves the steam
reforming of bio-oils, steam gasification, pyrolysis, gasification, and the decomposition of sugars
using enzymes (Tashie-Lewis & Nnabuife, 2021). The main concerns for the mass production of
hydrogen from biomass are determining if the site being used for producing hydrogen from
biomass competes with the feedstock while also addressing the political aspects of this decision.

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While hydrogen production from fossil fuels is presently more cost-competitive, hydrogen
produced from renewable sources is expected to be the lowest-cost option in the near future.

Thorough studies, research and assessments are being carried out to determine the most practical
and economic viability of the various hydrogen production techniques but at present, water
splitting seems to be the most viable technique for producing hydrogen on a large scale.

4.0 HYDROGEN STORAGE

Once hydrogen is produced, it must be stored. Depending on its intended use, hydrogen can be
stored in the liquid state (e.g., cryogenic liquid dewars), the solid state (e.g., metal hydrides), or
the gaseous state (e.g., compressed hydrogen gas being stored in high-pressure gas tanks).

4.1 STORING GASEOUS HYDROGEN

Using high pressure storage tanks for storing compressed hydrogen is the conventional approach
for the storage of hydrogen gas. Geological storage such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, salt
caverns, and aquifers are currently being considered as the most the most cost-effective and
viable options for storing large amounts of gaseous hydrogen. In both the United States of
America (USA) and the United Kingdom (UK), salt caverns are already being used to store
hydrogen (Lord et al., 2014). Salt caverns usually have a lesser gas capacity but faster delivery
rates and can therefore be used to stabilize the diurnal fluctuations in the supply of renewable
energy. With a 1% hydrogen loss and no contamination concerns, salt caverns currently seem to
be the most viable solution for gaseous hydrogen storage for energy buffering (Sherif et al.,
2005). The United Kingdom has over thirty large salt caverns that are presently being used for
the storage of natural gas. The North Sea has numerous depleted gas and oil reservoirs and salt
bed resources that could also add to this storage capacity (Stone et al., 2009). Due to depleted oil
and gas reservoirs’ low response yet high capacities, they are typically considered more
appropriate for seasonal storage.

4.2 STORING LIQUID HYDROGEN

The approach for storing liquid hydrogen can be done using the liquefaction technique. The
method of hydrogen liquefaction comprises of compression, expansion, and cooling to convert
hydrogen gas to liquid hydrogen. The Joule–Thompson expansion cycle is the most common and
simplest liquefaction technique used. With this liquefaction method, gaseous hydrogen is first

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compressed at ambient pressure. The compressed hydrogen gas is then cooled in a heat
exchanger before passing through a throttle valve, where it goes through an iso-enthalpic Joule–
Thompson expansion, producing liquid hydrogen. The liquid hydrogen is then removed, and the
cooled gas is sent back to the compressor via a heat exchanger. A dewar-type vessel will then be
utilized to keep liquid hydrogen at a final temperature of -253.15 degrees Celsius (Conte et al.,
2001). Because a significant portion of the hydrogen's energy content may be lost during
liquefaction, storing hydrogen in liquid form entails high energy expenses.

4.3 STORING SOLID HYDROGEN

Storing hydrogen in the solid form can be done by chemically bonding it to alloys in the form of
metal hydrides. Metallic alloys that absorb hydrogen are referred to as metal hydrides. Alloys
can be used as a storage mechanism due to their ability to absorb and release hydrogen. These
metal hydrides can be categorized into three main groups: Ti-based alloys, Mg-based alloys, and
LaNi5-based alloys. Ti and LaNi5 based alloys adsorb and desorb hydrogen at low temperatures,
whereas Mg-based alloys hydrate and dehydrate at high temperatures with a much greater
hydrogen content. To resist the charge-discharge cycles, these metal hydride alloys must be
thermally and structurally stable. Implementing metal hydride storage systems presents two key
challenges: a delay between initial heating and the release of the hydrogen gas, and insufficient
heat to generate hydrogen from the hydride.

Choosing the state or form for storing hydrogen strongly depends on the end-use energy
conversion applications, with each storage option having its own pros and cons. The storage of
hydrogen in gaseous form is preferred due to the lower costs involved. It is also preferred to store
hydrogen in the liquid form due to its high volumetric energy density. Hydrogen being stored in
the solid state on the other hand, is considered more efficient and safer than liquefaction and
compression due to lower self-discharge, leak proof status, and higher charging efficiency cons
(Mazloomi & Gomes, 2012). More and more studies, researching and assessments are being
carried out to determine the most practical and economic viability of the different hydrogen
storage options.

5.0 TRANSPORTATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF HYDROGEN

High-strength steel pipelines linking the storage and production points to the end-use points
make up the infrastructure for transporting and distributing hydrogen. It is important to note

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however that, pipeline materials constantly in contact with hydrogen easily get embrittled by
hydrogen. This mechanism is referred to as hydrogen embrittlement and can damage a wide
range of materials, even the high-strength steel pipelines currently being used for transporting
and distributing hydrogen. In hydrogen embrittlement, lone hydrogen atoms first diffuse through
the metal. Small quantities of hydrogen diffuse into the metal at higher temperatures, while
diffusion is aided by a concentration gradient at lower temperatures. While recombining in
minuscule voids of the metal to form hydrogen molecules, hydrogen atoms create pressure in the
cavity they are trapped in (Tashie-Lewis & Nnabuife, 2021). The pressure will build-up will and
eventually cause the metal to crack open. By adhering to the recommended maintenance
procedures and safety measures, unwanted losses and damages can be easily avoided. Other
transportation and distribution system components, including pressure reduction stations, pipe
seals, and end-use components, must also be evaluated for suitability. Without a change in
infrastructure, the power-to-gas model is leaning towards blending small amounts of hydrogen
with natural gas. Blending natural gas with hydrogen could be a transition step towards
converting the gas grid system to solely transport hydrogen. The main issue with the power-to-
gas model at the moment is how much hydrogen can be properly blended with natural gas. The
properties of the natural gas being utilized and the design of the appliances that are already in
place both play a role in determining how much hydrogen can be safely blended with natural gas
without jeopardizing public safety.

According to a study conducted by the EU, natural gas can be blended with about 30% hydrogen
without putting the general public’s safety in jeopardy. Another study in the United Kingdom
also suggests that early levels of hydrogen should be limited to about three percent within the
United Kingdom’s natural gas pipeline. The gas grid in the United States of America (USA) is
already delivering natural gas mixed with 10% hydrogen (Dodds & McDowall, 2013).
Transitioning to gas-to-gas pathways will take a very long time, and decisions must be made if
governments are to fulfil the CO2 reduction target in the coming years. Future hydrogen
transportation and distribution systems may resemble the natural gas pipelines that are currently
in use, but with new modifications like better duct materials to prevent hydrogen leakage,
alternative working pressures, and higher flow rates to overcome gaseous hydrogen's lower
energy content. It is envisaged in the hydrogen economy that from the production plants and
storage units, liquid hydrogen will be transported and distributed to consumers by means of

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supertankers, while gaseous hydrogen will be transported and distributed through underground
pipelines (Sherif et al., 2005).

6.0 HYDROGEN USAGE

In addition to hydrogen’s usage in the chemical and oil and gas sectors, it can also be utilized in
transportation applications such as Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs) and fuel cells. Hydrogen
fuel cells have enormous potential in the transportation sector to improve the energy efficiency,
significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and ultimately eradicate the utilization of fossil
fuels. Not only can fuel cells be used in trucks, buses, and cars, but they can also be used to
power electric ships and replace diesel electric generators in locomotives (Marbán & Valdés-
Solís, 2007). Hydrogen fuel cells are seen as the most promising power source for next-
generation automobiles in the hydrogen economy and the only technology that has a chance of
rivalling internal combustion engines. (ICEs). Hydrogen's primary selling point as a fuel is its
intrinsic suitability for usage in fuel cells. A fuel cell vehicle powered by pure hydrogen is
considered an emission-free vehicle because the only byproduct is water. While maintaining
comparable characteristics in terms of peak speed, range, and acceleration, fuel cell vehicles are
considered way more efficient than conventional vehicles (Staffell et al., 2019). Among the
numerous classes of fuel cells, the Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) are
considered the most suitable for mobile applications due to their quick response to load changes,
rapid start-up, and very high power density. PEMFC-powered vehicle research is being carried
out by car manufacturers all over the world, with tests being conducted on both buses and cars to
determine the technological and economic viability of this technology. However, there are
economic and technical hurdles to overcome before hydrogen fuel cell vehicles will be globally
available. Advancements in the hydrogen-powered vehicle technology are market-driven and
must compete with the conventional vehicles presently. The lack of refueling infrastructure, the
low cost of gasoline, and the rise in vehicle costs are all impeding the advancement of hydrogen
fuel cell vehicles. Another major concern is how to provide hydrogen to fuel cells. The options
available are to either use the vehicle’s fuel processor to produce hydrogen or store hydrogen on
board of the vehicles. Hydrogen can also be considered as one of many complementary low-
carbon technologies, along with on-site renewables, electrification, heat networks, and demand
reduction as an alternative to heating with natural gas or oil (Connell et al., 2022).

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The transition to widespread hydrogen use is occurring gradually and will eventually be a
successful concept.

7.0 PROS AND CONS OF HYDROGEN

Hydrogen has a wide range of benefits. Hydrogen plays a significant role in decarbonizing global
energy sectors by presenting carbon-free fuel flexibility and also providing energy storage to the
grid. Hydrogen’s versatility as a clean fuel, ability to power system services and provide heat can
be exploited to reduce the carbon intensity of multiple economic sectors. The deployment of
hydrogen technologies could neutralize up to about one-fourth of global greenhouse gas
emissions produced by industries and fossil fuels by the year 2030 (Ball & Wietschel, 2009).
Thousands of green jobs will also be generated as global hydrogen economies develop. The
skills applied in the fossil fuel industries today are applicable to the green hydrogen industries.
Also, the utilization of hydrogen as an alternative option to diesel and gasoline for transport will
reduce price shocks that usually occur in the global fossil fuel supply chain. This is mainly
because hydrogen can be produced from various renewable sources, so ultimately, its price will
stabilize in the long run. For the many benefits hydrogen provides, there are still a few cons and
challenges that need to be addressed. Despite hydrogen being the most abundant element on
earth, it does not exist on its own and needs to be extracted from either water using the water
electrolysis technique or fossil fuels. Both of which demand a substantial amount of energy to be
achieved. Given how highly flammable hydrogen is as a fuel, there are legitimate safety concerns
about its widespread utilization.

Based on the goal of hydrogen economies, the benefits of hydrogen far outweigh the cons.
Hydrogen has a great potential to become the ideal solution for the future of our energy
requirements, but this will require massive investments and political decisions. However, as
fossil fuels become scarce, hydrogen could be the best solution for our global energy needs.

8.0 CONCLUSION
Hydrogen offers a major potential to solve the energy landscape’s biggest challenge, which is to
decarbonize heat. Ongoing research shows that hydrogen is the leading choice for decarbonizing
heat without jeopardizing the safety of the general public. However, in order to produce
hydrogen on a large scale, government policy measures and targets will be required. At the
energy system level, hydrogen can facilitate a wider incorporation of renewable energy sources

11
into the grid while transporting energy to all sectors without requiring the need for the creation of
costly extra grid capacity. Geological storage alternatives and the suitability of gas pipes for
transmitting hydrogen must be well evaluated for each region in order for hydrogen to be utilized
in the gas network. Such assessments would show the most economical methods of utilizing
hydrogen and what changes need to be made to the infrastructure. The buoyancy, permeability,
and flammability of hydrogen pose issues for its safe usage that are different from but not
invariably more difficult than the conventional energy sources. Hydrogen as a fuel merits more
attention from governments, academia, and industries in order to mutually appraise its place
within the future energy system and continue taking the necessary steps to demonstrate its
overall benefits. Decarbonization of global economies is crucially needed to reduce climate
change. A massive and concerted effort is required to drive such a significant transformation
across the energy systems. Government stakeholders have to ensure that the decisions made
today do not inflict the energy systems with sub-optimal technologies in the future. Hydrogen's
synergies with other low-carbon alternatives have the potential to minimize long-term costs
while generating thousands of green jobs. Being able to produce hydrogen on a large scale from
readily available renewable energy sources such as water shows that hydrogen will indeed be
very sustainable as a reliable fuel. The absence of pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions from
the production, storage, transportation, and end use or utilization of hydrogen proves how green
hydrogen will be if employed globally.

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568.
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 Bockris, J. (1999) Hydrogen economy in the future. International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy, 24 (1), 1-15.
 Brandon, N. P. & Kurban, Z. (2017) Clean energy and the hydrogen
economy. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and
Engineering Sciences, 375 (2098), 20160400.

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