International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2022) 20:2103–2114

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00501-6

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Conformity Behaviors: a Qualitative Phenomenological

Exploration of Binge Drinking Among Female
College Students

Tiffany Erin Gorsuch Bainter 1 & Michelle L. Ackerman

2

Accepted: 17 February 2021 / Published online: 25 February 2021

# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
The present study explored binge drinking as a conformity behavior as it related to self-
esteem and social acceptance in young adults. The researcher gathered information
regarding the lived experience of young adults’ engagement in binge drinking to increase
self-esteem and social acceptance using a qualitative interpretative phenomenological
approach (IPA). A purposive sample of five female college students aged 22–24 meeting
the inclusion criteria via researcher-developed screening was recruited. Data was collect-
ed via face-to-face, semi-structured interviews that were then transcribed, member-
checked, and analyzed according to the IPA methodology. Themes included the follow-
ing: low self-esteem was associated with behavior, low self-esteem was associated with
binge drinking, and low relational value was associated with binge drinking. These
findings have expanded upon the existing research regarding the role of binge drinking
as a conformity behavior as it impacted self-esteem and social acceptance in attempts to
increase relational value in young adults.

Keywords Self-esteem . Relational value . Binge drinking . Conformity . Social acceptance .

Phenomenology

Humans possess a need to belong; these belongingness needs serve as a “fundamental motive”
for much of human behavior (Baumeister and Leary 1995, p. 497). Humans will actively seek
out social interactions to meet belongingness needs, and if these needs are either threatened or
unfulfilled, one’s physical and mental may deteriorate (Baumeister and Leary 1995; Lodder
et al. 2016). Negative social experiences such as failure, rejection, or embarrassment may
threaten belongingness needs (Brown et al. 2015; Leary 2005). Threats to belongingness need

* Tiffany Erin Gorsuch Bainter

TE–Bainter@wiu.edu

1
Department of Psychology, Western Illinois University, 1 University Circle, Macomb, IL 61455,
USA
2
Department of Psychology, Northcentral University, La Jolla, CA, USA
2104 International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2022) 20:2103–2114

impact mental health; threats precipitate emotional distress and drops in self-esteem that serve
to motivate the individual to seek to have those needs met via conformity behaviors to increase
chances for approval to increase relational value (Brown et al. 2015; Layden et al. 2017; Leary
2005; Lodder et al. 2016; Nikhila et al. 2016; Robinson et al. 2015, 2016).
Young adulthood is a life stage with increased social focus on one’s relational value
(Harakeh and Vollebergh 2012; Khan et al. 2014; Laghi et al. 2012; Nikhila et al. 2016;
Nikitin et al. 2014) resulting in this population’s vulnerability to peer influence (Collins and
Spelman 2013; Khan et al. 2014; Robinson et al. 2015; Scaglione et al. 2013). Maintaining
relational value guides much of behavior, and people are likely to change their behavior to
threats; therefore, behaviors that appear to have the purpose of maintaining or increasing self-
esteem are actually intended to protect or enhance relational value to increase chances of
interpersonal acceptance and avoid social rejection (Cacioppo and Cacioppo 2014; Lodder
et al. 2016; Machin and Jeffries 2016; Tyler and Branch 2015). Young adults may resort to
behaviors that are self-destructive or deviant to gain social approval to promote positive self-
feelings (Leary 2005; Machin and Jeffries 2016).
Conformity is considerably more likely to occur in those who have experienced social
rejection and are therefore more likely to seek social acceptance (Heerdink et al. 2013).
Research indicates that the conformity response to rejection persists beyond the immediate
occurrence of rejection, possibly for weeks following the experience (Heerdink et al. 2013).
Young adults report that they attempt to form social connections by synchronizing their
behavior to their peers to be perceived more positively or cope with fears of isolation
(Harakeh and Vollebergh 2012; Khan et al. 2014). Seeking out such social interactions may
lead to the engagement in maladaptive, deviant, or potentially harmful conformity behaviors in
attempts to conform to increase the likelihood of acceptance (Robinson et al. 2015, 2016).
Evidence suggests that conformity is evidenced in various behaviors, including alcohol use
(Ferrer et al. 2012).
Engagement in binge drinking is widespread within this population of young adults; this
age group that contains the largest ratio of individuals regularly engaging in binge drinking
(CDC 2013; SAMHSA 2013; Litt et al. 2015; Stern et al. 2017). On college campuses, young
adults who have experienced social rejection have an increased likelihood of consuming
alcoholic beverages at unhealthy levels (Dehart et al. 2014). Conformity is considered to be
one of the most significant predictors of alcohol use in younger populations as an attempt to
gain social acceptance of one’s peers (Kaya et al. 2016; Ferrer et al. 2012; Robinson et al.
2015, 2016; Teunissen et al. 2012).
The theoretical foundation of the study was based on the sociometer theory (SMT). SMT
posits that there is a psychological system that monitors one’s social environment to detect a
change in one’s relational value (Leary 2005). Within that psychological system, self-esteem is
a sociometer (Leary 2005). A high level of relational value increases the likelihood of social
inclusion, thus support and protection and the threat of losing this may lead to decreased self-
esteem which may serve as motivation to seek social acceptance (Leary 2005). Thus, people
are not motivated to maintain or increase self-esteem in and of itself, but to increase acceptance
and therefore their relational value (Leary 2005). Behaviors that appear to have the purpose of
maintaining or increasing self-esteem are actually intended to protect or enhance relational
value to increase chances of interpersonal acceptance and avoid social rejection (Leary 2005).
In the existing research, evidence supports a relationship between low levels of self-esteem
and behavioral and emotional problems (Leary 2005). SMT proposes that the mental health
concerns often believed to be the result of low self-esteem are actually either antecedents or
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2022) 20:2103–2114 2105

consequences of relational value changes (Leary 2005). More specifically, social rejection
promotes negative social emotions and behavior and may increase attempts to gain social
acceptance, often by engaging in extreme or maladaptive behaviors which have been shown to
be related to self-esteem because those behaviors and emotions precipitate rejection (Leary
2005). It is the engagement in these devious and problematic behaviors that the proposed study
seeks to explore.
Two qualitative research questions were proposed to explore the pursuit of self-esteem via
the conformity behaviors to attempt to meet belongingness needs in young adults to further
develop SMT. The first question asked: What is the lived experience of the college students
(18–24) with low belongingness and self-perceived low relational value as it relates to attempts
to engage in behaviors to increase self-esteem by trying to increase their relational value? The
second question asked: What is the lived experience of college students (18–24) with low
belongingness and self-perceived low relational value as it relates to the engagement in binge
drinking behaviors specifically when trying to pursue increases in self-esteem by trying to
increase their relational value?

Methods

Participants

A purposive sample was drawn from a pool of individuals who volunteered to participate in
the study. Recruitment flyers were disseminated on the campus of Midwest University and
through social media. Those who contacted the researcher and expressed interest in participa-
tion were scheduled to complete screening measures. The aim in the selection of the purposive
sample was homogeneity within the sample to select participants who shared similar charac-
teristics in terms of age (identify age range requirement to participate), experiencing thwarted
belongingness, self-perceived low relational value, and alcohol consumption conformity. To
screen for inclusion criteria, interested individuals completed a five-question researcher-
developed screening based on existing research. The first segment of the researcher-
developed screened for thwarted belongingness. Based on the existing literature, humans
desire an emotional closeness to others that value them and that they can feel highly connected
to in order to escape a sense of loneliness and fulfill belongingness needs (Cacioppo et al.
2015). Negative social experiences may threaten belongingness needs, and a sense of loneli-
ness can occur if one feels they are lacking relationships in which their value is affirmed
(Brown et al. 2015; Cacioppo et al. 2015; Holwerda et al. 2014; Kashdan et al. 2014; Leary
2005). Based on this information, the researcher developed two screening questions to assess
thwarted belongingness by asking about the individual’s sense of loneliness and satisfaction in
relationships. To screen for thwarted belongingness, participants must have answered affirma-
tively to question 1 and/or negative to question 2 to indicate thwarted belongingness. The
second segment of the researcher-developed screening tool screened for self-perceived low
relational value. Based on the existing literature, perceived relational value is the estimate in
which they feel that others value them within their relationship (Leary 2005; Tyler and Branch
2015). Given this information, the researcher developed one screening question to assess for
self-perceived low relational value by asking about the individuals’ sense of being valued in
relationships. An affirmative answer for question three indicated self-perceived low relational
value. The third and final segment of the researcher-developed screening tool screened for
2106 International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2022) 20:2103–2114

alcohol consumption conformity. Based on existing data, a behavioral shift toward group
norms is often viewed as a strategic attempt to meet belongingness needs as well as gain
acceptance and social approval in young adults (Harakeh and Vollebergh 2012; Heerdink et al.
2013; Khan et al. 2014; Nikhila et al. 2016; Robinson et al. 2015; Trautmann-Lengsfeld and
Herrmann 2013). Evidence suggests that conformity is demonstrated in various behaviors,
including alcohol use (Ferrer et al. 2012). Given this information, the researcher developed two
screening questions to assess for alcohol consumption conformity in which drinking behavior
was aimed at increasing acceptance, inclusion, or to be perceived positively by others. An
affirmative answer to question 4 and/or 5 indicated alcohol consumption conformity. The
minimum qualification for inclusion was to answer accordingly on at least one item in each of
the three categories. In addition to eligibility criteria derived from the researcher-developed
screening questions, the sample also was within the appropriate age range, willing to partic-
ipate with an audio-recorded interview, and proficient in English. Individuals that did not
endorse the specified items on the screening measures were excluded as it was determined that
the individuals did not meet the sample eligibility criteria for thwarted belonging, low
relational self-esteem, and external motivation for alcohol consumption.
The sample of participants meeting the inclusion criteria consisted of five female partici-
pants. The age of participants ranged from 22 to 24, the mean age being 22.8 years old; three
participants were Caucasian, one participant was African American, and one participant was
Hispanic. All of the participants were currently enrolled in a local 4-year university. Three of
the participants were of undergraduate status with one sophomore and two juniors. Two of the
participants were of graduate status, with one in her first year of graduate school and the other
was in her second year of graduate school.
Data processing and analysis took place in four stages according to the IPA methodology
(Smith 2004). IPA is particularly suited to this application because the interpretation is
grounded in the literature but also moves beyond the existing literature to lead to interpretation
that allows the researcher to make sense of the participants’ experiences by drawing upon
psychological concepts and theory and emphasizes theoretical generalizability (Rehm et al.
2015). In the first stage of data processing and analysis, the data was processed via exploration
of the transcription of the interview. The recorded interview was transcribed and the researcher
made note of pauses, mistakes, and speech dynamics that were evident (Biggerstaff and
Thompson 2008). An idiographic analysis of each transcript was completed in conjunction
with the audio-recorded interview before the researcher moved to the subsequent transcript.
Each transcript was read multiple times as the reader made detailed notes in the margins
regarding significant points in the narrative. The researcher then interpreted the notes and the
narrative in a separate table using and identified themes across cases making notes of thoughts,
observations, and reflections that occur during the reading regarding recurring phrases,
questions, and emotions that the reader experiences and comments on the language used
(Biggerstaff and Thompson 2008). For the second stage of analysis, the researcher reread the
transcripts to identify themes that were able to sum up the important features of the interview
as search for possible connections that are evident between themes (Biggerstaff and Thompson
2008). The software program Dedoose was utilized. This program assisted the researcher in
securely storing, analyzing, coding, and managing the qualitative data. It also allowed for the
display of codes and tags, allowed for the highlighting of meaning units and context in the
narratives, and allowed the researcher to create hierarchical categories of overarching themes
as well as and higher-order and lower-order themes. Any dissonance in the themes or
transcripts alerted the researcher to revisit past transcripts to explore potential information or
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2022) 20:2103–2114 2107

themes that might have been overlooked before a contrasting theme was considered
(Biggerstaff and Thompson 2008). Upon the completion of the multiple readings of each
transcript, an additional table was be created to include superordinate themes and subthemes
from the individual transcripts in the attempt to provide structure to the overall analysis
through the identification of clusters that the themes created, for the third stage of analysis
and processing (Biggerstaff and Thompson 2008). In the final stage, the researcher created a
master table of themes that was ordered to identify main superordinate themes that included
quotes from the participants as supporting evidence (Biggerstaff and Thompson 2008). This
approach was focused on providing a structure to the process of analysis by connecting related
identified themes into common clusters in attempts to create groups of themes and then
identifying superordinate categories (Biggerstaff and Thompson 2008). To establish credibility
and for triangulation purposes, clear transcripts and tables of superordinate and subordinate
themes were given to an additional reader that possessed research expertise in the subject area
as well as qualitative methodology.

Procedure

IRB approval was obtained prior to any data being collected. Any participants known by the
researcher were excluded from participation to avoid any undue influence on the participants.
The participants gave informed consent for screening measures, and if the participant met the
qualification requirements, the individual then was scheduled and took part in an interview
with the researcher. The interview location was selected by the researcher. The interviews took
place in a small meeting room located at a library centrally located on the campus of the 4-year
university that the participants attended. Upon arrival for the interview, participants gave
informed consent prior to beginning the interview.
Qualifying participants took part in a recorded in-person semi-structured interview, which
used a small number of standard questions as main themes for discussion. Questions regarding
the context of social experience, experience of self-esteem, experience of relational value,
associated affect, thoughts and behaviors, behavior, and reflection on the function of the
behavior were included. Questions were field-tested by three experts to ensure the questions
were appropriate. Within the interview, the participants were provided definitions of a binge
drinking episode, self-esteem, and relational value. The participants were told that for the
purpose of this research, a binge drinking episode would be one in which uncontrolled or
excessive indulgence in alcohol has occurred (Laghi et al. 2012); self-esteem would be defined
as a person’s evaluation of one’s own personal value reflecting one’s relational value to others
(Reitz et al. 2016), and relational value was defined as one’s perceived social worth or value to
other people (Brown et al. 2015). The interview was conducted according to specifications by
Smith and Osborn (2003). The format of the interview was flexible as the researcher probed
into interesting topics arose within the meeting allowing the interview to follow the path of the
participant’s concerns and interests. The researcher began the interview with the most general
possible question to enable the participation to freely discuss the topic; however, if the
participant had a difficult time, did not understand, or provided only a short response, the
researcher moved to a more specific prompt. The researcher encouraged participants to speak
in regard to the topic with the least amount of prompting from the researcher as possible,
avoided leading questions or value-laden terms or phrases. Each interview was audio-recorded
to protect the anonymity of the participants, and the interviewer kept field notes of observa-
tions during the interviews. The researcher conducted preliminary analyses to determine if data
2108 International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2022) 20:2103–2114

saturation has been reached after each interview was conducted. Upon the fifth interview, thick
and rich information had been collected via the interviews so that no new information or
themes were uncovered and no additional coding was possible; it was determined that data
saturation was reached. At this point, the researcher utilized synthesized member checking by
emailing the research conclusions to the participants to assess accuracy for descriptive
triangulation (Birt et al. 2016; Hadi and José Closs 2016; Morse 2015). The participants had
the opportunity to respond regarding the accuracy of the narrative via email. Sixty percent of
the participants from the purposive sample responded to the member checking correspon-
dence; all supported the accuracy of the narrative and chose not to add any further comments
to the outcome findings.

Results

Through data analysis and interpretation, the following three themes emerged. The first being
that low self-esteem was associated with behavior; suggesting that low levels of self-esteem
were associated with behavioral attempts to increase self-esteem. The two remaining themes
that become evident were as follows: low self-esteem was associated with binge drinking, and
low relational value was associated with binge drinking, suggesting that low levels of
relational value were associated with behavioral attempts to increase self-esteem.

Low Self-Esteem Was Associated with Behavior

A theme of low self-esteem being associated with behavior emerged as evidence for the
conclusion that low self-esteem was associated with behavioral attempts to increase self-
esteem in that all participants reported that experiencing low self-esteem led them to engage
in behaviors to attempt to increase their level self-esteem. This was supported in that all five
participants that were interviewed reported that experiencing low self-esteem led them to
engage in behaviors with the purpose of increasing their level self-esteem. All five of the
participants expressed that the binge consumption of alcohol was one common behavior that
they engaged in with the aim of increasing their self-esteem. One participant reported that she
felt that when she was lacking self-esteem that she indicated that she tried to compensate with
alcohol. She disclosed: “it’s encouraged it, my lack of self-esteem has definitely encouraged
me to just I don’t know, fill that empty void with alcohol.” She went on to share: “people turn
to a bottle like then that’s their friend, that’s their self-esteem booster.” Another participant also
reported that she had consciously decided to binge drink alcohol in order to increase her level
of self-esteem when it was low and that when she did binge, she felt accepted by others which
led to an increased level of self-esteem as well. She shared:
I went through those moments that binge drinking in order to like boost myself esteem
so I wasn’t thinking about it so much when other people were around me and also to
gain that acceptance from them… I think when it comes to drinking, or binge drinking,
the um, like the more drunk you are, the more you’re not overthinking what you’re
saying or contemplating the decisions you make, you just kinda go with it, so it’s more
um, your just, you have higher self-esteem because you’re not thinking of all the things
that could go wrong that are making you second guess yourself… it was when I drank I
was more accepted by the people around me and that made me feel better about myself.
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2022) 20:2103–2114 2109

Low Self-Esteem Was Associated with Binge Drinking

Outcomes indicated that low self-esteem was associated with binge drinking. This was
supported by the finding that all five of the participants reported that a low level of self-
esteem was associated with their likelihood of binge drinking. Four of those five participants
reported that their low self-esteem led them to engage in binge drinking and also that they
consciously chose to binge drink with the aim of increasing their sense of self-esteem. One
participant shared “I feel like my self-esteem gets like higher like I get more confidence once I,
um, like, once I’m drunk and stuff so like if I want to feel confident I’ll drink.” While another
stated: “I went through those moments that binge drinking in order to like boost my self-
esteem”. In regard to an interview question exploring how her binging has impacted her self-
esteem, one participant shared: “Oh it’s definitely, um, I would say it’s definitely lowered it.”
Another shared: “I think I usually had a lot of regret after I drank. Probably also things I did or,
you know some things I may have said.” The third participant disclosed:
I feel like my self-esteem got lower since I’ve been, like, I guess, with drinking I’ve been
gaining a lot of weight I haven’t felt like I look my best and it makes me very self-critical
about myself so it lowers my self-esteem.

Low Relational Value Was Associated with Binge Drinking

The lived experience of the young adults as reported within the interviews also seems to
indicate a connection between self-perceived low relational value and a conscious choice
to engage in binge drinking. Three participants reported that their experience of low
relational value led them to binge drink while a fourth indicated that she had chosen to
binge drink to avoid experiencing low relational value. One young adult reported that she
felt that isolation led to binge drinking and that she reported having consumed alcohol in
excessive amounts because she felt similarly isolated she shared: “people feel more
isolated and people turn to a bottle like then that’s their friend.” She further expressed:
“Like with the whole loneliness thing, you turn to the bottle because you are lonely.”
Another participant indicated that she felt that binge drinking helped to feel more social
which led to increased interaction with others which led to her to feel her relational value
had increased. She shared:
I drank, I was more accepted by the people around me and that made me feel better about
myself because I knew that they, they valued my friendship and they found me to be enticing
and entertaining when I was around them at parties and drinking um, so then they were more
apt to talk to me and have those conversations with me when I was sober so it made you feel
like, at least in my sense, it made me feel like I was more accepted and I was valued more by
the people around me.
Yet another participant disclosed that if she perceived her relational value to be low, namely
if she had disappointed someone or was “not in a good place” with a friend that she would
choose to binge to feel better. She also reflected that if young adults feel that they “don’t matter
to people, they will drink to feel better” but that this could actually lead them to feel worse. A
fourth participant expressed that she had consciously choose to binge drink alcohol at times
even when she did not want to in order to avoid the experience of low relational value
reflecting that she would binge to feel accepted by those around her and to avoid being judged
negatively by them.
2110 International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2022) 20:2103–2114

Discussion

In regard to the research question exploring the lived experience of the young adults’ attempts
to engage in behaviors to increase their self-esteem by trying to increase their relational value,
the results of the present study parallel existing literature and theory. The existing literature
suggests that young adults are responsive to peer influence which can lead to behavior
synchronization to fulfill belongingness needs (Collins and Spelman 2013; DeHart et al.
2014; Harakeh and Vollebergh 2012; Khan et al. 2014; Laghi et al. 2012; Leary 2005;
Machin and Jeffries 2016; Nikhila et al. 2016; Nikitin et al. 2014; Robinson et al. 2015,
2016; Scaglione et al. 2013). This suggested a connection between behavioral activation and
declining levels of self-esteem. Existing research in the field also supports the notion that peer
influence has a strong and significant impact on the behaviors that young adults choose to
engage in (Collins and Spelman 2013; Khan et al. 2014; Robinson et al. 2015). The present
study supports this in that all five of the young adults who participated in the present study
reported the use of binge drinking as a behavior aimed at conforming and synchronizing their
behavior to their peers. Additionally, SMT indicates that much of human behavior is aimed at
maintaining relational value and one indication of this is that people are likely to change their
behavior in response to threats to their belongingness needs (Cacioppo and Cacioppo 2014;
Lodder et al. 2016). The present study supports this as well in that three of the five young
adults indicated that they engaged in binging behavior as a result of low relational value, and
another participant indicated that she engaged in excessive alcohol consumption to avoid the
experience of having low relational value. Moreover, four of the five participants indicated that
they had engaged in binging behavior due to concerns associated with their perceived
relational value. Existing literature on SMT indicates that behaviors that may appear to be
aimed at increasing self-esteem are actually intended to protect or enhance relational value
(Cacioppo and Cacioppo 2014; Lodder et al. 2016; Machin and Jeffries 2016; Tyler and
Branch 2015). The present study supports this; all of the participants indicated that they had
consumed excessive amounts of alcohol as a result of their decreased self-esteem, and four of
the five participants reported binging specifically with the intention of increasing self-esteem.
There also seems to be support for the assertion of SMT that behaviors that appear to be aimed
at increasing self-esteem are actually intended to improve relational value. Within the present
study, four of the participants reported that their binges were related to their perceived
relational value, and two of the participants expressed an awareness of the relationship
between their perceived relational value and their level of self-esteem. Therefore, the present
study is consistent with and expands upon existing research regarding SMT by having
gathered information regarding the role of conformity behaviors in general as they impact
self-esteem and social acceptance in attempts to increase one’s relational value in young adults.
So, in response to research question one, the results of the present study contributed to theory
by indicating that young adults engage in conformity behaviors for what may appear to be to
maintain or increase self-esteem, but may actually be attempts to protect or enhance their
relational value.
In regard to the second research question, two themes emerged: low self-esteem was
associated with binge drinking and low relational value was associated with binge drinking.
These themes suggest that low levels of relational value were associated with behavioral
attempts to increase self-esteem. Existing literature on SMT indicates that when people
experience decreased relational value, it is reflected by decreases in their level of self-esteem
that may urge them to take part in conformity behaviors to increase self-esteem which will in
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2022) 20:2103–2114 2111

turn increase perceived relational value (Cacioppo and Cacioppo 2014; Jiang et al. 2016; Leary
2005; Lodder et al. 2016; Machin and Jefries 2016; Orth et al. 2012; Reitz et al. 2016;
Robinson et al. 2015, 2016; Wagner et al. 2013). The present study supports these findings in
that all of the participants viewed binging as a conformity behavior and four of the five
participants reported that their low self-esteem led them to binge drink with the goal of
increasing levels of self-esteem. Leary goes on to posit that according to SMT, young adults
are likely to engage in maladaptive conformity behaviors with the intention of increasing
relational value (2005). The present study also supports this claim in that four of the
participants indicated that their binging behavior was associated with their low relational
value; three of whom felt their low relational value led them to engage in a binge while the
fourth reported that she had engaged in binging behavior to avoid having low relational value.
In response to the second research question, the present research served to support and expands
upon the existing research regarding SMT by gathering information about the lived experience
of young adults as it relates to their engagement in binge drinking as a specific conformity
behavior as it impacts both self-esteem and relational value.
As a result of the nature of the present study, the interpretation of the results could
potentially be influenced by various factors. The use of a purposive sample, made up entirely
of females living in the same geographic location and attending the same university, assumed
that the participants were representative of the greater population of young adults with
thwarted belongingness needs and self-perceived low relational value. However, it is important
to consider is that the purposive sample was composed of all females, which could potentially
impact the results. Existing literature indicates that female college students tend to show a
tendency for increased conformity in alcohol consumption than males (Dallas et al. 2014;
Scaglione et al. 2013). It is also important to note that the purposive sample was made up of
young adults who were toward the older side of the age range and included only those over the
legal drinking age of 21. It is possible that an opportunity for more anonymous disclosures
within the screening and interview process could have allowed for younger or underage young
adults to participate in the research which could have impacted the outcome results. Also, the
use of researcher-developed screening questions may have impacted the sample. Had the
researcher utilized existing previously developed measures, the qualifying sample may have
been potentially different. Several of the previously developed screening tools were signifi-
cantly longer and would have taken substantially more time for interested parties to complete
which could have deterred individuals from participating. Additionally, the use of existing
screening tools could have impacted the qualifying sample in that fewer individuals may have
qualified for the interview, thus limiting the sample even more, making the results less
transferable.
The present research design contains some potential limitations. The credibility of the
results may be limited due to the use of interviews to gather information as the
participants may feel compelled to respond in socially desirable ways (Miller 2017).
Though the researcher reassured the participants that all information was confidential,
that there were no correct or incorrect answers, and that there were no consequences
based on their answer to increase the likelihood of honesty, this remains a potential
limitation (Miller 2017). There were also some specific factors that may have limited the
transferability of the results of the current study in regard to the sample (Hadi and José
Closs 2016; Mayoh and Onwuegbuzie 2015). In particular, the participants were chosen
in a purposive sample, consisting of individuals from the same geographic location and
on the campus of the same educational institution.
2112 International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2022) 20:2103–2114

Conclusion

It has been established that young adulthood is a life stage with an increased focus on one’s
relational value, resulting in increased vulnerability to peer influence (Collins and Spelman 2013;
Khan et al. 2014; Robinson et al. 2015; Scaglione et al. 2013). Young adults are more likely to
engage in maladaptive conformity behaviors with the intention of increasing relational value
(Collins and Spelman 2013; Harakeh and Vollebergh 2012; Khan et al. 2014; Laghi et al. 2012;
Nikhila et al. 2016; Nikitin et al. 2014; Robinson et al. 2015; Scaglione et al. 2013). Binge
drinking is a social problem in this life stage (Ferrer et al. 2012; Kaya et al. 2016; Stern et al.
2017), and SMT proposes that it is a behavior aimed at increasing relational value (Cacioppo and
Cacioppo 2014; Lodder et al. 2016; Machin and Jeffries 2016; Tyler and Branch 2015). The
findings of the present study have expanded upon the existing research regarding SMT by
investigating the role of binge drinking as it impacted self-esteem and social acceptance in
attempts to increase one’s relational value in young adults.
This study further developed the SMT as it provided a deeper understanding of the conformity
behavior of binge drinking as it was related to self-esteem and social acceptance in young adults.
Currently, SMT offers an explanation for the mechanism of the sociometer and how this impacts
one’s self-esteem (Leary 2005). Therefore, an examination of the role of the conformity behavior
of binge drinking as it relates to self-esteem and social acceptance was necessary to help
understand attempts to increase self-esteem and ultimately relational value in the young adult
population (Reitz et al. 2016; Strandell 2016). The findings suggest that young adults with
thwarted belongingness and self-perceived low relational value engage in the conformity behavior
of binge drinking to increase self-esteem by trying to increase their relational value. In addition to
theoretical contribution, the results of this study extended to practical applications in the field of
mental health and substance use treatment to assist in developing prevention and interventions to
help prevent the engagement in binge drinking for conformity purposes.

Declarations

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical
standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the
Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000 (5). Informed consent was obtained from all patients for being
included in the study.

Conflict of Interest The authors declare no competing interests.

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