MICROBIAL

FOOD
CONTAMINATION
Second Edition

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
 MICROBIAL
FOOD
CONTAMINATION
Second Edition

Edited by
CHARLES L. WILSON

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Microbial food contamination / [edited by] Charles L. Wilson. -- 2nd ed.

p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8493-9076-0 (hardcover : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-8493-9076-1 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Food--Microbiology. 2. Food contamination. I. Wilson, Charles L.
[DNLM: 1. Food Contamination. 2. Food Microbiology. WA 701 M626 2008]

QR115.M456 2008
664.001’579--dc22 2007015253

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 To Miriam, my beloved wife,

whose love and warmth

sustain me

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Contents

Preface: Food—A Necessity and a Threat

Editor

Contributors

Section I Instances and Nature of Microbial Food

Contamination
1. PulseNet and Emerging Foodborne Diseases
Efrain M. Ribot, Eija Hyytia-Trees, and Kara Cooper

2. Pathogenic Mechanisms of the Enterohemorrhagic

Escherichia coli—Some New Insights
Glen D. Armstrong

3. Viruses and Protozoan Parasites in Food

Dean O. Cliver

4. Prions in the Food Chain

Rebecca J. Buckner and David M. Asher

5. Toxicity of Fumonisins, Mycotoxins from

Fusarium vertic illioides
Kenneth A. Voss, Ronald T. Riley,
and Janee B. Gelineau-van Waes

6. Molecular and Biochemical Mechanisms of Action

of Acute Toxicity and Carcinogenicity Induced by
Aflatoxin B 1, and of the Chemoprevention of
Liver Cancer
Avishay-Abraham Stark

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Section II Detecting and Monitoring Microbial Food
Contamination

7. Rapid Methods for Detecting Microbial Contaminants

in Foods: Past, Present, and Future
Daniel Y.C. Fung

8. Rapid Electrochemical Biosensors for the Identification

and Quantification of Bacteria
Judith Rishpon and Tova Neufeld

9. Applications of the Polymerase Chain Reaction

for Detection, Identification, and Typing of
Food-Borne Microorganisms
Pina M. Fratamico and Susumu Kawasaki

10. Advances in Prion Detection

Rodrigo Morales, Dennisse González, Claudio Soto,
and Joaquı́n Castilla

Section III Control of Microbial Food Contamination

11. Kosher and Halal Food Laws and Potential

Implications for Food Safety
Joe M. Regenstein, Muhammad M. Chaudry, and Carrie E. Regenstein

12. Control of Foodborne Pathogens and Spoilage

Microorganisms by Naturally Occurring Antimicrobials
Larry R. Beuchat

13. Intervention Technologies for Food Safety

and Preservation
Vijay K. Juneja, Shiowshuh Sheen, and Gaurav Tewari

14. Genetic and Biochemical Control of Aflatoxigenic Fungi

Deepak Bhatnagar, Kanniah Rajasekaran, Robert Brown,
Jeffrey W. Cary, Jiujiang Yu, and Thomas E. Cleveland

Section IV Microbial Food Contamination

and International Trade

15. Mad Cow Disease and International Trade

Robert A. LaBudde and Edward V. LaBudde

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

16. Use of Risk Assessment as a Tool for Evaluating
Microbial Food Contaminants
Michael D. McElvaine

17. Zoonotic Diseases Risk Assessment and Mitigation

Moez Sanaa and Hussni O. Mohammed

18. Codex Alimentarius: What It Is and

Why It Is Important
H. Michael Wehr

19. The International Food Safety Authorities Network

Margaret Ann Miller, Kristin Viswanathan,
and Jørgen Schlundt

Section V Bioterrorism and Microbial Food

Contamination
20. Biological Contamination of Food
Barbara Rasco and Gleyn E. Bledsoe

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Preface: Food—A Necessity and a Threat

The first section of the book is titled ‘‘Instances and Nature of Microbial Food
Contamination.’’ Microbial contamination is the most common cause of
foodborne illnesses. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
estimates that foodborne diseases cause approximately 76 million illnesses,
325,000 hospitalizations, and 5,000 deaths in the United States each year. We
are aware of more than five times the number of foodborne pathogens now
than we were in 1942. Add to this the numerable toxins, allergens, and
carcinogens that food may contain, and it gives you pause as you sit down
to dinner. If this were not enough, we would now have to be concerned with
the deliberate microbial contamination of our food by bioterrorists.
The globalization of the world’s food supply has resulted in changing
patterns of foodborne illnesses. Following the epidemiology of traditional
and emerging foodborne pathogens has subsequently become a daunting
task. Globalization reduces traditional geographic barriers that prohibited
pathogens from spreading and increases the risk of outbreaks that stretch
over many states or even countries. Great strides in tracking foodborne
illnesses have been made, however, through the formation of the PulseNet
molecular subtyping network. Dr. Efrain Ribot and his colleagues at the
CDC show us the power of this network in Chapter 1.
Humans have been aware of potential threats accompanying their food
since ancient times. There is historical evidence that food safety has always
troubled humankind. Food safety rules can even be found in the Bible and
in passages like these in the Qur’an:

Forbidden unto you are: carrion and blood and swine flesh, and that
which hath been dedicated unto any other than Allah, and the strangled,
and the dead through beating, and the dead through falling from a
height, and that which hath been killed by the goring of horns, and the
devoured of wild beasts saving that which ye make lawful, and that
which hath been immolated to idols. And that ye swear by the divining
arrows. This is abomination. (Qur’an V:3)

The most comprehensive code of ancient laws concerning food safety can be
found in the Bible, primarily the book of Leviticus. Some animals were
described as unclean and unfit for consumption. The consumption of the
blood of slaughtered animals was totally prohibited as the blood was
considered the soul of the animal. Food safety laws of a sort can also be
found in the writings of ancient Egypt. According to Plutarch, pigs were

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

declared unhealthy animals and pork consumption was prohibited.
Although they had no concept of microbial contamination, ancient societies
did have a sense that meat could carry disease. The early admonishments
in the Bible and Qur’an not to eat certain foods are still reflected in the
kosher and halal food laws in modern societies, which are discussed in
Chapter 11.
A range of microorganisms and their toxins can inhabit our food, includ-
ing bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasitic protozoa, and helminthic parasites. All
foods generally have a load of microorganisms that accumulate during
harvest or during the postharvest period. These populations generally
go unnoticed and are normal parts of the food we eat. However, when a
‘‘bad actor’’ emerges as a foodborne human pathogen, our awareness of the
microbes in our food is heightened. Escherichia coli, for instance, is considered
a normal constituent of the microflora of animals and humans. However, in
recent years, a strain of E. coli (O157:H7) has proven to be devastating to
certain human populations. Dr. Glen D. Armstrong in Chapter 2 provides us
some new insights into this enterohemorrhagic bacterium.
Within the past 10 years, numerous outbreaks of foodborne illnesses
have been associated with fresh vegetables (i.e., sprouts, tomatoes, lettuce,
cabbage, celery, coleslaw, cucumbers, mushrooms, potatoes, radishes, green
onions), fruit (i.e., cantaloupe, watermelon, raspberries, strawberries), and
fruit juices (i.e., orange juice, apple juice). Increased demand for fresh fruits
and vegetables has expanded production areas for these commodities and
increased the importation of green vegetables from other countries. Both
these phenomena have increased the opportunities for ‘‘exotic’’ microorgan-
isms to hitch a ride on this produce. A recent example is the 2006 E. coli
(O157:H7) contamination of spinach. Expansive spinach fields were in
proximity to industrial animal farms. Researchers suspect that the E. coli
on the spinach originated from the manure of the cattle on a nearby farm.
Increased demand for fresh produce has also resulted in large-scale harvest-
ing and processing practices that increase the risk that a small amount of a
pathogen may infect a large amount of produce.
With all the publicity given to bacterial contamination of food by food-
borne pathogens, we sometimes forget that viruses are considered to be
preeminent causes of foodborne diseases in the United States. In 2006, a
norovirus caused the closing of an Olive Garden restaurant in Indianapolis;
the outbreak sickened over 400 patrons. Noroviruses and the virus causing
hepatitis A are of greatest concern among those associated with food. The
protozoan Cryptosporidium sp. in 1993 caused the largest outbreak of a
waterborne disease on record. Approximately 403,000 persons who drank
tap water processed in two water facilities in Milwaukee developed crypto-
sporidiosis. In Chapter 3, Dr. Dean O. Cliver discusses the incidence of
virus- and protozoan-caused foodborne diseases and their implications in
public health.
During the past two decades, transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
(TSEs)—otherwise known as prion diseases—have received considerable

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

public attention primarily because of the TSE known popularly as ‘‘mad
cow disease.’’ The first human disease recognized to be caused by a prion
was Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CTD) and its variants. Although the inci-
dence of prion-caused diseases is relatively small in humans, the severe
neurological symptoms and fatal nature of these diseases induce fear. Since
similar TSEs have been found in a number of animal species (cattle, sheep,
goats, elk, deer, moose, and mink), there is confusion as to how consump-
tion of meat from these animals might affect human health. Buchner and
Asher sort all this out for us in Chapter 4.
Aflatoxins are powerful carcinogens that occur in our food. They are
produced primarily by mold fungi belonging to the genera Aspergillus and
Penicillium. Aflatoxins produced by these fungi have caused toxicity to
animal and human populations worldwide. Approximately 4.5 billion
people are exposed to uncontrolled amounts of aflatoxin B1 in third world
countries. Dr. Stark discusses the molecular and biochemical mechanisms of
action of acute toxicity and carcinogenicity induced by aflatoxin B1—as well
as chemoprevention of liver cancer caused by aflatoxins—in Chapter 6.
An aflatoxin produced by the fungus Fusarium verticillioides causes spor-
adic outbreaks of equine leukoencephalomalacia and porcine pulmonary
edema. The importance of F. verticillioides in human health is not clear.
However, a correlation between high esophageal cancer rates and the con-
sumption of corn contaminated with F. verticillioides has been recognized.
Dr. Kenneth Voss and his colleagues, in Chapter 5, discuss the implications of
the contamination of corn with F. verticillioides and the mycotoxin it produces.
The second section deals with the detection and monitoring of microbial
food contaminants. In order to effectively combat microbial food contamin-
ation, it is necessary to rapidly and accurately detect contaminants.
Dr. Fung, in Chapter 7, gives us an historical account of progress in this
area and brings us up to date on recent developments. With regard to
contaminant testing, Dr. Fung identifies three important epochs. The period
from 1965 to 1985 was an era of miniaturization and diagnostic kit devel-
opment. From 1985 to 1995, it was an era of genetic probes, molecular
testing systems, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) applications. Since
1995, we are in the biosensor, computer chip technology, and microarray-
system development era. These modern tests arose partly in response to
human genome projects and the evolving field of proteomics and related
fields. The chapters following Dr. Fung’s provide additional detail about the
latest tests, and suggest where microbial testing may be headed in the
future. In Chapter 9, Dr. Fratamico gives us an overview of applications of
the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detection, identification, and typing
of foodborne microorganisms. Drs. Rishpon and Neufeld tell us about rapid
electrochemical biosensors for the identification and quantification of bac-
teria in Chapter 8.
The causal agent of prion diseases or transmissible spongiform encepha-
lopathies (TSE’s)—diseases that cause neurodegenerative diseases affecting
humans and animals—are particularly difficult to detect in our food supply.

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Prions are unconventional infectious agents with extraordinary physico-
chemical features that give them the property to resist most common food
antimicrobial treatments. The long incubation period between infection and
disease expression in many prion diseases makes the detection of these
diseases in infected tissues even more critical. Dr. Morales and his col-
leagues discuss the present status of our knowledge in this area and recent
advances in prion detection in Chapter 10.
The third section deals with controlling microbial food contamination.
Worldwide educational programs are underway to educate individuals on
the prevention of foodborne illnesses. These programs emphasize certain
fundamental practices including sanitation, pasteurization, the thorough
cooking of foods, the proper storage of foods, and the avoidance of contact
between raw foods and cooked foods. A basic tenant in these programs is
the use of safe water and hand washing to prevent transference of human
pathogens to food.
The hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) system has been pro-
posed and used worldwide to prevent contamination of food with foodborne
pathogens. It is used by institutions to anticipate and prevent food safety
violations before they occur. HACCP flowcharts allow food managers to
identify the critical control points, which are operations (practice, prepar-
ation step, or procedure) in the production of a food product, and to make
corrections as needed to prevent or eliminate hazards, or reduce them to
acceptable levels. Criticism has been directed toward HACCP systems in
some instances because their implementation has been left to the food indus-
try itself with little outside supervision by independent food inspectors.
Once foods are contaminated with microorganisms, there are intervention
technologies that can be applied. Drs. Regenstein and Chaudry in Chapter 11
provide a very useful examination of the implications of the kosher and
halal food laws on food safety. Dr. Beuchat, in Chapter 12, explores how
naturally occurring antimicrobial compounds in food can be used to control
foodborne human pathogens. In Chapter 13, Dr. Juneja and his colleagues
discuss how radiation, temperature, and pressure can be used to combat
human foodborne pathogens in food. They also explore how these technolo-
gies affect the quality of food and its nutritional value.
Aflatoxins produced by several Aspergillus spp. occur in food and feed
crops. These compounds are toxic and extremely carcinogenic when intro-
duced into animal systems. A gene cluster in Aspergillus spp. has been
identified where almost all the genes involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis
reside. Deepak Bhatnagar and his colleagues discuss in Chapter 14 how
aflatoxin production might be controlled by specifically targeting sites
where aflatoxin production occurs. They also explore plant-derived meta-
bolites that inhibit aflatoxin biosynthesis along with biocontrol methods to
reduce aflatoxin production.
The fourth section is titled ‘‘Microbial Food Contamination and Inter-
national Trade.’’ Microbial food contaminants know no international bor-
ders. Although outbreaks of foodborne diseases are local, the increased

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

importation of foods from other countries means that outbreaks can have an
international origin. The interrelatedness of our food supply with that of
other countries has been dramatized by outbreaks of mad cow disease (BSE)
and the threat of avian flu. The mere threat of these diseases has caused
restrictions on the exportation of meat products and has reduced consump-
tion of beef and poultry by the public. With so much at stake economically,
agricultural produces, scientists, and politicians find themselves in conflict.
In Chapter 15, Robert and Edward LaBudde follow the history of mad cow
disease from its appearance in Great Britain to Canada and the United
States. They characterize the conflict that exists between science and eco-
nomics in policy decisions concerning this disease, and they present a
predictive model for anticipating future outbreaks.
Administrators, government officials, politicians, and business managers
are being called upon to make policy decisions that deal with food safety as
it impacts on public health and trade. Tools are being developed that will
help them weigh the various factors that need to be considered in these
decisions. Dr. Michael D. McElvaine discusses how risk assessment tools
used in other areas can be applied to evaluating microbial food contamin-
ants in Chapter 16. Human diseases that originate in animals—or zoon-
oses—have often proven particularly inscrutable when scientists try to
predict their behavior. Dr. Moez Sanaa and Hussni O. Mohammed give us
guidance on zoonotic disease risk assessment and mitigation in Chapter 17.
International institutions have been established to deal with the comple-
xities of international trade and food safety. The Codex Alimentarius—Latin
for food code or food law—is the preeminent commission in this regard. It is
an international intergovernmental food standards organization whose
importance increased substantially after the signing of the GATT Uruguay
Round Trade Agreements and the rise of the World Trade Organization
(WTO). In Chapter 18, Dr. Michael Wehr describes the history of Codex and
how it develops and adopts food safety and quality standards internation-
ally. He discusses how Codex deals with the complexities between threats
from microbial foodborne human diseases and international trade policies.
Another international organization that deals with outbreaks of microbial
foodborne human diseases is the International Food Safety Authorities
Network (IFOSAN), which is part of the World Health Organization
(WHO). IFOSAN has been set up as a global network in which participating
countries notify IFOSAN of international food safety problems and accept
shared responsibilities during food safety emergencies. Dr. Margaret Miller
and her colleagues discuss the workings of IFOSAN in Chapter 19.
The last section deals with bioterrorism and microbial food contamin-
ation. Among the most recent challenges in dealing with microbial food
contamination are the prospects that food may become deliberately contam-
inated by bioterrorists. Tommy G. Thompson, former secretary of Health
and Human Services, said before his resignation in December 2004: ‘‘I, for
the life of me, cannot understand why the terrorists have not, you know,
attacked our food supply, because it is so easy to do,’’ he said. ‘‘And we

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

are importing a lot of food from the Middle East, and it would be easy to
tamper with that.’’
In Chapter 20, Drs. Barbara Rasco and Gleyn E. Bledsoe explore the
different chemical, radiological, and biological agents that could be
employed by individuals intent on deliberately contaminating our food.
They take a critical look at present food protection strategies and present a
food defense plan that would reduce the vulnerabilities of our food supply
to bioterrorism.
Keeping our food supply safe from microbial food contamination is a
daunting task. Fortunately, as this book bears witness, important advances
are being made in the detection and control of microbial food contamin-
ation. The establishment of national and international organizations such as
PulseNet, Codex, and the International Food Safety Authorities Network is
facilitating the rapid flow of information concerning food contamination
and the implementation of appropriate responses. The editor is grateful to
the authors of this volume for all they have done—and continue to do—to
insure the safety of our food from microbial contamination.

ß 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Editor

Charles L. Wilson, PhD, is currently president and CEO of Wilson Associ-

ates International LLC, an international consulting group advising on the
development of biologically-based technologies to preserve food. He
recently retired from the USDA ARS Appalachian Fruit Research Station,
in Kearneysville, West Virginia, after 37 years of service with the Federal
government. Dr. Wilson’s research and teaching career spans over 47 years,
during which he has been at the forefront of research and thinking on the
use of biological technologies to control plant diseases and weeds, and for
the postharvest preservation of food.
In the early part of his career, Dr. Wilson was a professor at the University
of Arkansas (1958–1968) where he received the Arkansas Alumni’s award
for distinguished teaching and research. He subsequently served on the
faculty at Ohio State University from 1970 to 1979. Dr. Wilson joined the
USDA ARS Appalachian Fruit Research Station in 1980, where he initiated a
research program to find biologically-based alternatives to synthetic pesti-
cides for the control of fruit diseases. This internationally recognized
research program yielded a variety of innovative technologies for the
control of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables, which include the
use of antagonistic microorganisms, natural plant-derived fungicides, and
the use of induced resistance.
Dr. Wilson and the Associates of Wilson Associates LLC are presently
advising companies on the use of natural plant-derived and animal-
derived antimicrobials for the control of plant diseases, weeds, and insect
and foodborne human pathogens. His company is also advising other
companies on the incorporation of natural antimicrobials into food pack-
aging to extend the freshness of commodities placed in the package. In
conjunction with investigators worldwide, Dr. Wilson has authored a series
of international patents involving the use of antagonistic yeast and natural
compounds to control postharvest diseases. Dr. Wilson has worked closely
with industry to bring about the large-scale testing and commercialization
of this technology and is presently consulting in this area.
In 1984, Dr. Wilson received the Washington Academy of Sciences Dis-
tinguished Service Award in the biological sciences for ‘‘pioneering research
in understanding and manipulating plant diseases.’’ He was also elected a
fellow of the academy. In 1988, he received the ARS-NAA Scientist of the
Year Award for ‘‘innovative research on biological control of postharvest
diseases of fruit.’’ In 1994, Dr. Wilson was named a fellow of the American

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Phytopathology Society, and in 1996 he received the Award of Excellence
from the Federal Laboratory Consortium for Technology Transfer for his
role in developing the first EPA-registered antagonistic yeast biofungicide
for the control of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables.
Dr. Wilson has authored or coauthored over 200 scientific publications, 18
patents, and 2 books on gardening. He has previously coedited books for
Academic Press (Exotic Plant Pests and North American Agriculture) and CRC
Press (Biological Control of Postharvest Diseases—Theory and Practice; Microbial
Food Contamination).

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Contributors

Glen D. Armstrong Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases,

Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada

David M. Asher Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food
and Drug Administration, Rockville, Maryland

Larry R. Beuchat Center for Food Safety, University of Georgia, Griffin,

Georgia

Deepak Bhatnagar Food and Food Safety Research Unit, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans,
Louisiana

Gleyn E. Bledsoe Institute of International Agriculture, Michigan State

University, East Lansing, Michigan

Robert Brown Food and Food Safety Research Unit, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans,
Louisiana

Rebecca J. Buckner Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland

Jeffrey W. Cary Food and Food Safety Research Unit, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans,
Louisiana

Joaquı́n Castilla Department of Neurology, University of Texas Medical

Branch, Galveston, Texas

Muhammad M. Chaudry Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America,

Chicago, Illinois

Thomas E. Cleveland Food and Food Safety Research Unit, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans,
Louisiana

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Dean O. Cliver Food Safety Laboratory and WHO Collaborating Center
for Food Virology, Department of Population Health and Reproduction,
University of California, Davis, California

Kara Cooper Division of Foodborne, Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases,

PulseNet Methods Development Laboratory, Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia

Pina M. Fratamico U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural

Research Service—Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor,
Pennsylvania

Daniel Y.C. Fung Department of Animal Sciences and Industry and Food
Science Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Dennisse González Department of Neurology, University of Texas

Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas

Eija Hyytia-Trees Division of Foodborne, Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases,

PulseNet Methods Development Laboratory, Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia

Vijay K. Juneja Microbial Food Safety Research Unit, U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research
Center, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania

Susumu Kawasaki National Food Research Institute, Food Hygiene

Team, Kannondai, Tsukuba, Japan

Edward V. LaBudde Middle Thompson Lake, Libby, Montana

Robert A. LaBudde Least Cost Formulations, Ltd., Virginia Beach, Virginia

Michael D. McElvaine USDA, Office of Risk Assessment and Cost-Benefit

Analysis, Washington, DC

Margaret Ann Miller Department of Food Safety, Zoonoses and Food-

borne Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

Hussni O. Mohammed College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell Univer-

sity, Ithaca, New York

Rodrigo Morales Department of Neurology, University of Texas Medical

Branch, Galveston, Texas

Tova Neufeld Department of Molecular Microbiology, Tel Aviv University,

Tel Aviv, Israel

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Kanniah Rajasekaran Food and Food Safety Research Unit, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans,
Louisiana

Barbara Rasco Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition,

Washington State University, Pullman, Washington

Carrie E. Regenstein Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Joe M. Regenstein Cornell Kosher Food Initiative, Cornell University,

Ithaca, New York

Efrain M. Ribot Division of Foodborne, Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases,

PulseNet Methods Development Laboratory, Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia

Ronald T. Riley Toxicology and Mycotoxin Research Unit, USDA Agri-

cultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia

Judith Rishpon Department of Molecular Microbiology, Tel Aviv Uni-

versity, Tel Aviv, Israel

Moez Sanaa National Veterinary School of Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France

Jørgen Schlundt Department of Food Safety, Zoonoses and Foodborne

Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

Shiowshuh Sheen Microbial Food Safety Research Unit, U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research
Center, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania

Claudio Soto Department of Neurology, University of Texas Medical

Branch, Galveston, Texas

Avishay-Abraham Stark Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life

Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Israel

Gaurav Tewari Tewari De-Ox Systems, Inc., San Antonio, Texas

Kristin Viswanathan Department of Food Safety, Zoonoses and Food-

borne Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

Kenneth A. Voss Toxicology and Mycotoxin Research Unit, USDA

Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia

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Janee B. Gelineau-van Waes Department of Genetics, Cell Biology &
Anatomy, University of Nebraska, Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha,
Nebraska

H. Michael Wehr U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food
Safety and Applied Nutrition, College Park, Maryland

Jiujiang Yu Food and Food Safety Research Unit, U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana

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