L3 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 2020 All

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
A.K.C.I. Kodithuwakku
B.Sc. ENG. (RUHUNA), M.Phil. (Reading)
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering,
University of Ruhuna,
Hapugala,
Galle. 80000
SRI LANKA
Email (Office) : chanaka@mme.ruh.ac.lk

Email (Personal) : akcikodithuwakku@gmail.com
Telephone (Office): +94 (91) 2245 765/7 (Ext. 5234)
Mobile :+94(77)7 635 421
+94(71) 611 87 82
The aim of the module is to apply the fundamentals of Thermodynamic Theory in the analysis
Module Aim of Industrial Systems as well as understand the difference between ideal thermodynamic
systems and actual systems
After successful completion of the module, the learner should be able to
LO1 : compare ideal thermodynamic vapour and gas power cycles with industrial
applications
LO2 : explain the properties associated with steady flow of compressible flow and the
Module Learning Outcomes interaction among these properties
LO3 : analyse the performance and behaviour of compressing and expanding work transfer
devices
LO4 : apply the principles of combustion for different processes involving compression
combustion
20th Batch DMME, FoE, UoR 2

Marks Allocation
 Continuous assessment 50%

a. Assignment [5%]
b. Field Visit Report [5%]
c. Quiz [25%]
d. Laboratory experiments [15%]
 End Semester Examination 50%
a. Written Examination [50%]

Eligibility to Appear for  Earn at least 80% attendance for theory classes,
the End Semester  Completion of all laboratory session(s)/ field session(s)/
Evaluations design session(s)/ work camp(s)/ project(s).
 Achieve at least 50% of marks for the continuous assessments

Necessary Conditions
to Pass the Module  Achieve at least an overall mark of 40% with a minimum of
30% in end semester evaluation

2019 19th Batch Summery

2019 - 19th Batch Summery

2020/2021 - 20th Batch Summery

The first year flashback
• Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics: Fundamental Concepts,
Unit and Dimensions, Definitions of Thermodynamics Terms.
• First Law of Thermodynamics: Applications to Principal System Types
(Closed/ Open), Properties of Internal Energy and Enthalpy, Estimation of
Heat & Work Interaction Quantities.
• Pure substances and Ideal Gases: Pure Substance, Phase Rule,
Characteristics and Properties, Use of Thermodynamics Fluid, Transport
property tables.
• Second Law of Thermodynamics: Second Law and its Corollaries, Entropy,
Reversible and Irreversible Process.
• Introduction to Power and Refrigeration Plants: Steam Turbine Cycle, Gas
Turbine Cycle, Refrigeration.

First law & Second law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the conservation
of energy principle, and it asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property;
states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system.
The second law of thermodynamics asserts

that energy has quality as well as quantity, and
actual processes occur in the direction of
decreasing quality of energy.

First law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that
-energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process;
-energy can only be transferred or changed from one form to
another.
Therefore, every bit of energy should be accounted for during a
process.

Second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is a general
principle which places constraints upon the direction of
heat transfer and the attainable efficiencies of heat
engines.
The second law also asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity.
No heat engine can have an efficiency of 100 percent.
The reverse processes
discussed above violate
the second law of
thermodynamics. This
violation is easily
detected with the help of
a property, called
entropy,

Second law of thermodynamics
Kelvin–Planck statement of the second law of
thermodynamics, which is expressed as follows:
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat

from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.

Thermodynamics: Basic Terms
Thermodynamics: The branch of science that deals with the study of energy, enthalpy, entropy, Gibb's free energy.
different forms of energy and the quantitative relationships between them. Intensive properties: These properties depend only upon the amount of the
System: Quantity of matter or a region of space which is under consideration substance present in the system, for example, temperature, refractive index,
in the analysis of a problem. density, surface tension, specific heat, freezing point, and boiling point.
Surroundings: Anything outside the thermodynamic system is called the Types of thermodynamic processes: We say that a thermodynamic process
surroundings. The system is separated from the surroundings by the has occurred when the system changes from one state (initial) to another
boundary. The boundary may be either fixed or moving. state (final).
Closed system: There is no mass transfer across the system boundary. Energy Isothermal process: When the temperature of a system remains constant
transfer may be there. during a process, we call it isothermal. Heat may flow in or out of the system
Open system: There may be both matter and energy transfer across the during an isothermal process.
boundary of the system. Adiabatic process: No heat can flow from the system to the surroundings or
Isolated system: There is neither matter nor energy transfer across the vice versa.
boundary of the system. Isochoric process: It is a process during which the volume of the system is
State of the system and state variable: The state of a system means the kept constant.
conditions of the system. It is described in terms of certain observable Isobaric process: It is a process during which the pressure of the system is
properties which are called the state variables, for example, temperature (t), kept constant.
pressure (p), and volume (v). Reversible processes: A process which is carried out infinitesimally/very
State function: A physical quantity is a state function in the change in its slowly so that all changes occurring in the direct process can be exactly
value during the process depends only upon the initial state and final state of reversed and the system remains almost in a state of equilibrium with the
the system and does not depend on the path by which the change has been surroundings at every stage of the process.
brought about. Entropy: The idea of entropy comes from a principle of thermodynamics
Macroscopic system and its properties: If as system contains a large number dealing with energy. It usually refers to the idea that everything in the
of chemical species such as atoms, ions, and molecules, it is called universe eventually moves from order to disorder, and entropy is the
macroscopic system. measurement of that change. Entropy can be viewed as a measure of
Extensive properties: These properties depend upon the quantity of matter molecular disorder, or molecular randomness.
contained in the system. Examples are; mass, volume, heat capacity, internal
Steady flow of Compressible Fluids
Objectives
1. Develop the general relations for compressible flows encountered for
gases flowing at high speed
2. Introduce the concepts of stagnation state, speed of sound and Mach
Number
3. Develop and discuss the relationships between the static and stagnation
fluid properties for isentropic flow of ideal gases
4. Derive the effects of area changes for 1 - Dimensional isentropic subsonic
and supersonic flows
5. Solve problems of isentropic flow through converging and converging
diverging nozzles
6. Discuss shock waves and the variation of flow properties across the shock
Wave

This chapter will cover
 Introducing the concepts of stagnation state, speed of sound, and Mach number for
compressible flows.
 The relationships between the static and stagnation fluid properties are developed for
isentropic flows of ideal gases, and they are expressed as functions of specific-heat ratios
and the Mach number.
 The effects of area changes for one-dimensional isentropic subsonic and supersonic flows
are discussed.
 These effects are illustrated by considering the isentropic flow through converging and
converging–diverging nozzles.
 The concept of shock waves and the variation of flow properties across normal and oblique
shocks are discussed.
 Finally, we consider the effects of heat transfer on compressible flows and examine steam
nozzles.

Stagnation point
In fluid dynamics, a stagnation point is a point in a flow field where the local velocity
of the fluid is zero.
Stagnation points exist at the surface of objects in the flow field, where the fluid is
brought to rest by the object.
The Bernoulli equation shows that the static pressure is highest when the velocity is
zero and hence static pressure is at its maximum value at stagnation points.

Pitot Tube

Extra…
Important effect of the location of the stagnation point
on an airfoil is icing. An airplane flies safely if it flies
within its published limit speeds.
However, the slower it flies (still within limits), the
higher the angle of attack, and so the stagnation point
moves further aft on the underside of the wing.
Now, when the plane flies through icing weather, the
ice tends to form at the stagnation point, which, in a
high-angle-of-attack situation, is not visible from the
cockpit.
Ice formation changes the shape of the airfoil; the
stalling speed increases, and the pilot is no longer safe
even when flying at handbook speeds, because those
speeds are established on a clean wing, not an iced-up
wing.
STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Stagnation mean, Inactivity of fluid; being stagnant; standing still; without
current or circulation.
When analyzing control volumes, we find it very convenient to combine the

internal energy and the flow energy of a fluid into a single term, enthalpy, defined
per unit mass as h = u + P/. Whenever the kinetic and potential energies of the
fluid are negligible, as is often the case, the enthalpy represents the total energy
of a fluid.
For high-speed flows, such as those encountered in jet engines, the potential
energy of the fluid is still negligible, but the kinetic energy is not. In such
cases, it is convenient to combine the enthalpy and the kinetic energy of the fluid
into a single term called stagnation (or total) enthalpy h0, defined per unit mass
as

When the potential energy of the fluid is negligible, the stagnation enthalpy represents the
total energy of a flowing fluid stream per unit mass. Thus it simplifies the thermodynamic
analysis of high-speed flows.
Throughout this lecture the ordinary enthalpy h is referred to as the static enthalpy,
whenever necessary, to distinguish it from the stagnation enthalpy.
Notice that the stagnation enthalpy is a combination property of a fluid, just like the static
enthalpy, and these two enthalpies are identical when the kinetic energy of the fluid is
negligible.

Consider the steady flow of a fluid through a duct such as a nozzle, diffuser, or some
other flow passage where the flow takes place adiabatically and with no shaft or electrical
work, as shown in Figure.
Assuming the fluid experiences little or no change in its elevation and its potential energy, the
energy balance relation (Ėin = Ėout) for this single-stream steady-flow device reduces to
OR
That is, in the absence of any heat and work interactions and
any changes in potential energy, the stagnation enthalpy of a
fluid remains constant during a steady-flow process. Flows
through nozzles and diffusers usually satisfy these conditions, and
any increase in fluid velocity in these devices creates an
equivalent decrease in the static enthalpy of the fluid.
If the fluid were brought to a complete stop @ state 2, then the velocity at state 2 would be zero
and Equation would become
• Thus the stagnation enthalpy represents the enthalpy of a fluid

when it is brought to rest adiabatically.
• During a stagnation process, the kinetic energy of a fluid is
converted to enthalpy (internal energy + flow energy), which
results in an increase in the fluid temperature and pressure.
• The properties of a fluid at the stagnation state are called
stagnation properties (stagnation temperature, stagnation
pressure, stagnation density, etc.). The stagnation state and the
stagnation properties are indicated by the subscript 0.

Isentropic stagnation
• The stagnation state is called the isentropic stagnation state
when the stagnation process is reversible as well as adiabatic
(i.e., isentropic).
• The entropy of a fluid remains constant during an isentropic
stagnation process.
• The actual (irreversible) and isentropic stagnation processes are
shown on an h-s diagram in Figure. Notice that the stagnation
enthalpy of the fluid (and the stagnation temperature if the
fluid is an ideal gas) is the same for both cases.
• However, the actual stagnation pressure is lower than the
isentropic stagnation pressure since entropy increases during
the actual stagnation process as a result of fluid friction.
• Many stagnation processes are approximated to be isentropic, and
isentropic stagnation properties are simply referred to as
stagnation properties.

When the fluid is approximated as an ideal gas with constant specific
heats, its enthalpy can be replaced by constant-pressure specific
heat *temperature (cpT ) and Equation is expressed as
or
Here, T0 is called the stagnation (or total) temperature, and it

represents the temperature an ideal gas attains when it is brought to
rest adiabatically.
The term V2/2cp corresponds to the temperature rise during such a

process and is called the dynamic temperature.

• For example, the dynamic temperature of air flowing at
100 m/s is (100 m/s)2/(2 1.005 kJ/kg·K) = 5.0 K.
• Therefore, when air at 300 K and 100 m/s is brought to rest
adiabatically (at the tip of a temperature probe, for
example), its temperature rises to the stagnation value of
305 K (Figure).
• Note that for low-speed flows, the stagnation and static
(or ordinary) temperatures are practically the same.
• But for high-speed flows, the temperature measured by a
stationary probe placed in the fluid (the stagnation
temperature) may be significantly higher than the static
temperature of the fluid.

Reminder: A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine
Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and P2 & P3 and P4 & P1 remains constant (if k specific heat ratio k ). Thus,

The pressure a fluid attains when brought to rest
isentropically, is called the stagnation pressure P0. For ideal
gases with constant specific heats, P0 is related to the static
pressure of the fluid by
By noting that  = 1/v and using the isentropic relation

Pvk = P0v0k, the ratio of the stagnation density to static
density is expressed as

When stagnation enthalpies are used, there is no need to refer explicitly/ clearly to kinetic
energy.
Then the energy balance Ėin = Ėout for a single-stream, steady-flow device can be expressed
as
where h01 and h02 are the stagnation enthalpies at states 1 and 2, respectively. When the fluid
is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, Equation becomes
where T01 and T02 are the stagnation temperatures

Notice that kinetic energy terms do not explicitly appear in Equations but the stagnation
enthalpy terms account for their contribution.
EXAMPLE: Compression of High-Speed Air in an Aircraft
An aircraft is flying at a cruising speed of 250 m/s at an altitude of 5000 m where the atmospheric pressure
is 54.05 kPa and the ambient air temperature is 255.7 K. The ambient air is first decelerated in a diffuser
before it enters the compressor (Figure).
Approximating both the diffuser and the compressor to be isentropic, Determine
(a) the stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet and
(b) the required compressor work per unit mass if the stagnation pressure ratio of the compressor is 8.
The constant-pressure specific heat cp and the specific heat ratio k of air at room temperature are cp =
1.005 kJ/kg·K and k = 1.4

Need of Diffuser fore and aft a compressor

Need of Diffuser before compressor
• The main purpose of a compressor is to supply high density air to the combustor.
• This increase in density is done by adding mechanical work to the fluid.
• Therefore the rotation of compressor rotor, adds pressure as well as dynamic component of
energy to the fluid.
• At the exit of rotor you have a high energy flow dominated by high velocity fluid, this is of
no use to the combustor as it cannot sustain flame at such speeds, therefore the flow
needs to be decelerated and the density of the flow needs to be adjusted as per the
combustor’s requirement.
• Therefore a stator/diffuser is used to convert the high velocity low pressure fluid to a low
velocity high pressure fluid.
• So it’s doing pressure recovery through a velocity diffusion process.
• You need both a total pressure increasing device (rotor) and the pressure conversion device
(diffuser). Because, If only a compressor is used it is difficult for hot air to get it compressed
at the exit of combustion chamber and If only a diffuser is used, proper compression doesn't
occur at the beginning of combustion entrance.
• So, neither a diffuser nor an compressor can be used for working of a engine as every
component
20th Batch has its individuality. DMME, FoE, UoR 32
An aircraft is flying at a cruising speed of 250 m/s at an altitude of 5000 m where the atmospheric pressure
is 54.05 kPa and the ambient air temperature is 255.7 K. The ambient air is first decelerated in a diffuser
before it enters the compressor (Figure).
Approximating both the diffuser and the compressor to be isentropic, Determine
(a) the stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet and
(b) the required compressor work per unit mass if the stagnation pressure ratio of the compressor is 8.
The constant-pressure specific heat cp and the specific heat ratio k of air at room temperature are cp =
1.005 kJ/kg·K and k = 1.4
Find Assumptions
and Governing
Equations first

An aircraft is flying at a
SOLUTION High-speed air enters the diffuser and the
cruising speed of 250 m/s at
compressor of an aircraft. The stagnation pressure of the
an altitude of 5000 m where
air and the compressor work input are to be determined.
the atmospheric pressure is
54.05 kPa and the ambient air Assumptions 1 Both the diffuser and the
temperature is 255.7 K. The compressor are isentropic. 2 Air is an ideal
ambient air is first decelerated
in a diffuser before it enters
gas with constant specific heats at room
the compressor (Figure). temperature.
Approximating both the Governing Equations
diffuser and the compressor to
be isentropic,
Determine
(a) the stagnation pressure at or
the compressor inlet and
(b) the required compressor
work per unit mass if the
stagnation pressure ratio of
the compressor is 8.
cp = 1.005 kJ/kg·K and k = 1.4

An aircraft is flying at a (a) Under isentropic conditions, the stagnation pressure at
cruising speed of 250 m/s at the compressor inlet (diffuser exit) can be determined
an altitude of 5000 m where from Equation. However, first we need to find the
the atmospheric pressure is stagnation temperature T01 at the compressor inlet. Under
54.05 kPa and the ambient air the stated assumptions, T01 is determined from Equation
temperature is 255.7 K. The to be
the compressor (Figure).
Approximating both the
be isentropic,
Determine
(a) the stagnation pressure at
the compressor inlet and
stagnation pressure ratio of That is, the temperature of air would increase by 31.1°C and the pressure by
the compressor is 8. 26.72 kPa as air is decelerated from 250 m/s to zero velocity. These increases in
cp = 1.005 kJ/kg·K and k = 1.4 the temperature and pressure of air are due to the conversion of the kinetic
energy into enthalpy.
An aircraft is flying at a (b) To determine the compressor work, we need to know
cruising speed of 250 m/s at the stagnation temperature of air at the compressor exit
an altitude of 5000 m where T02. The stagnation pressure ratio across the compressor
the atmospheric pressure is P02/P01 is specified to be 8. Since the compression
54.05 kPa and the ambient air process is approximated as isentropic, T02 can be
temperature is 255.7 K. The determined from the ideal-gas isentropic relation
the compressor (Figure).
Approximating both the
Disregarding potential energy changes and heat transfer, the compressor work
be isentropic, per unit mass of air is determined from
Determine
(a) the stagnation pressure at
the compressor inlet and 0 0
stagnation pressure ratio of
the compressor is 8.
cp = 1.005 kJ/kg·K and k = 1.4
Discussion Notice that using stagnation properties automatically accounts for any
changes in the kinetic energy of a fluid stream.
Home works
A high-speed aircraft is cruising in still air. How does the temperature of air at the nose of the
aircraft differ from the temperature of air at some distance from the aircraft?
What is dynamic temperature?
In air-conditioning applications, the temperature of air is measured by inserting a probe into
the flow stream. Thus, the probe actually measures the stagnation temperature. Does this
cause any significant error?
Air flows through a device such that the stagnation pressure is 0.6 MPa, the stagnation
temperature is 400 0C, and the velocity is 570 m/s. Determine the static pressure and
temperature of the air at this state. Answers: 519 K, 0.231 MPa
Air at 320 K is flowing in a duct at a velocity of (a) 1, (b) 10, (c) 100, and (d) 1000 m/s.
Determine the temperature that a stationary probe inserted into the duct will read for each
case.
Calculate the stagnation temperature and pressure for the following substances flowing
through a duct: (a) helium at 0.25 MPa, 50 0C, and 240 m/s; (b) nitrogen at 0.15 MPa, 50 0C,
and 300 m/s; and (c) steam at 0.1 MPa, 350 0C, and 480 m/s.
Determine the stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure of air that is flowing at 36 kPa,
23 0K,20thand
Batch 325 m/s DMME, FoE, UoR 37
Speed of Sound and Mach Number
An important parameter in the study of compressible flow is the
speed of sound (or the sonic speed), defined as the speed at
which an infinitesimally (infinitely small quantities) small pressure
wave travels through a medium., as shown in Figure. The
pressure wave may be caused by a small disturbance, which
creates a slight rise in local pressure. To obtain a relation for
the speed of sound in a medium, consider a duct that is filled
with a fluid at rest
A piston fitted in the duct is now moved to the right with a constant
incremental velocity dV, creating a sonic wave. The wave front
moves to the right through the fluid at the speed of sound c and
separates the moving fluid adjacent to the piston from the fluid still
at rest.
The fluid to the left of the wave front experiences an

incremental change in its thermodynamic properties, while the
fluid on the right of the wave front maintains its original
thermodynamic properties.
The relationship of the speed of
sound, its frequency, and
wavelength is the same as for all
waves: vw = fλ, where vw is the
speed of sound, f is its frequency,
and λ is its wavelength. The
wavelength of a sound is the
distance between adjacent
identical parts of a wave—for
example, between adjacent
compressions as illustrated in
Figure. The frequency is the same
as that of the source and is the
number of waves that pass a point
per unit time.
A bat uses sound echoes to find its way about and to catch prey. The time for the echo to return is
directly proportional to the distance.

To simplify the analysis, consider a control volume that encloses the
wave front and moves with it, as shown in Figure.
To an observer traveling with the wave front, the fluid to the right
appears to be moving toward the wave front with a speed of c and the
fluid to the left to be moving away from the wave front with a speed of
c - dV. (After the wave has passed, the ﬂuid to its left is in steady
motion with a velocity of magnitude dV)
Of course, the observer sees the control volume that encloses the
wave front (and herself or himself) as stationary, and the observer is
witnessing a steady-flow process. The mass balance for this single-
stream, steady-flow process is expressed as
By canceling the cross-sectional (or flow) area A and neglecting the higher order terms, this equation reduces to

No heat or work crosses the boundaries of the control volume during

this steady-flow process, and the potential energy change can be
neglected. Then the steady-flow energy balance ein = eout becomes
where we have neglected the second-order term dV2. The amplitude of

the ordinary sonic wave is very small and does not cause any
appreciable change in the pressure and temperature of the fluid.
Therefore, the propagation of a sonic wave is not only adiabatic but
also very nearly isentropic. Then the thermodynamic relation

The T and ds relations in entropy section These relations will be
given in the examination.
And 1/v= Tds = dh - dP/ reduces to
Combining the above equations yields the desired expression for the speed of
sound as
or

or
by using thermodynamic property relations, that above equation can also

be written as
This relation will be given
in the examination.
where k = cp /cv is the specific heat ratio of the fluid.
Note that the speed of sound in a fluid is a function of the

thermodynamic properties of that fluid (ex: Lightening & Thundering).
The speed of sound in air increases with temperature. At typical outside

temperatures, c is about 340 m/s. In round numbers, therefore, the sound of
thunder from a lightning strike travels about 1 km in 3 seconds. If you see the
lightning and then hear the thunder less than 3 seconds later, you know that
the lightning is close, and it is time to go indoors!
When the fluid is an ideal gas (P = RT), the differentiation in Equation can be
performed to yield

Noting that the gas constant R has a fixed value for a specified ideal gas and the
specific heat ratio k of an ideal gas is, at most, a function of temperature, we see
that the speed of sound in a specified ideal gas is a function of temperature
alone. (Gas constant in He is 2,077 J·kg-1·K-1 and in air 286.9 J·kg-1·K-1 )
A second important parameter in the analysis of compressible

fluid flow is the Mach number (Ma), named after the Austrian
physicist Ernst Mach (1838–1916). It is the ratio of the actual
speed of the fluid (or an object in still fluid) to the speed of sound
in the same fluid at the same state:

Note that the Mach number depends on the speed of sound,

which depends on the state of the fluid. Therefore, the
Mach number of an aircraft cruising at constant velocity in
still air may be different at different locations.
Fluid flow regimes are often described in terms of the flow

Mach number. The flow is called
sonic when Ma = 1
subsonic when Ma < 1
supersonic when Ma > 1
hypersonic when Ma >>1
transonic when Ma  1
Medium v (m/s)
Gases at 0°C
Air 331
Carbon dioxide 259
Oxygen 316
Helium 965
Hydrogen 1290
Liquids at20°C20°C
Ethanol 1160
Speed of Sound in Various Media Mercury 1450
Water, fresh 1480
Sea Water 1540
Human tissue 1540
Solids (longitudinal or bulk)
Vulcanized rubber 54
Polyethylene 920
Marble 3810
Glass, Pyrex 5640
Lead 1960
Aluminum 5120
Steel 5960
EXAMPLE: Mach Number of Air Entering a Diffuser
Air enters a diffuser shown in Figure with a speed of 200 m/s. Determine
(a) the speed of sound and
(b) the Mach number at the diffuser inlet when the air temperature is 30°C.
The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kJ/kg·K, and its specific heat ratio at 30°C is 1.4.

EXAMPLE: Mach Number of Air Entering a Diffuser
SOLUTION Air enters a diffuser at high speed. The speed of sound and
Air enters a diffuser the Mach number are to be determined at the diffuser inlet.
shown in Figure with a
speed of 200 m/s. Assumption Air at the specified conditions behaves as an ideal gas.
Determine (a) The speed of sound in air at 30°C is determined from Equation to be
(a) the speed of sound
(b) the Mach number at
the diffuser inlet when
the air temperature is
30°C.
R = 0.287 kJ/kg·K, and (b) Then the Mach number becomes
k= 1.4@ 30°C
Discussion The flow at the diffuser inlet is subsonic since Ma < 1.

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
During fluid flow through many devices such as nozzles, diffusers, and
turbine blade passages, flow quantities vary primarily in the flow
direction only, and the flow can be approximated as one-dimensional
isentropic flow with good accuracy.
Therefore, it merits special consideration. Before presenting a formal

discussion of one-dimensional isentropic flow, important aspects of 1D
isentropic flow can be discussed as following example.

EXAMPLE: Gas Flow through a Converging Diverging Duct
Carbon dioxide flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional area duct such as a nozzle shown in
Figure at a mass flow rate of 3.00 kg/s. The carbon dioxide enters the duct at a pressure of 1400 kPa and
200°C with a low velocity, and it expands in the nozzle to an exit pressure of 200 kPa. The duct is
designed so that the flow can be approximated as isentropic.
Determine the density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number at each location along the duct that
corresponds to an overall pressure drop of 200 kPa.
cp = 0.846 kJ/kg·K , k = 1.289 and gas constant

of carbon dioxide is R = 0.1889 kJ/kg·K.

Carbon dioxide flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional area duct such as a nozzle shown in
Figure at a mass flow rate of 3.00 kg/s. The carbon dioxide enters the duct at a pressure of 1400 kPa and
200°C with a low velocity, and it expands in the nozzle to an exit pressure of 200 kPa. The duct is
designed so that the flow can be approximated as isentropic.
Determine the density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number at each location along the duct that
corresponds to an overall pressure drop of 200 kPa.
Governing Equations…?

Carbon dioxide flows steadily through SOLUTION Carbon dioxide enters a varying cross-sectional area duct at
a varying cross-sectional area duct specified conditions. The flow properties are to be determined along the
such as a nozzle shown in Figure at a duct.
mass flow rate of 3.00 kg/s. The
carbon dioxide enters the duct at a Assumptions 1 Carbon dioxide is an ideal gas with constant specific heats
pressure of 1400 kPa and 200°C with at room temperature. 2 Flow through the duct is steady, one-dimensional,
a low velocity, and it expands in the and isentropic.
nozzle to an exit pressure of 200 kPa. We note that the inlet temperature is nearly equal to the stagnation
The duct is designed so that the flow temperature since the inlet velocity is small. The flow is isentropic, and
can be approximated as isentropic. thus the stagnation temperature and pressure throughout the duct remain
Determine the density, velocity, flow constant. Therefore,
area, and Mach number at each
location along the duct that
corresponds to an overall pressure
drop of 200 kPa.

Carbon dioxide flows steadily through To illustrate the solution procedure, we calculate the desired properties at
a varying cross-sectional area duct the location where the pressure is 1200 kPa, the first location that
such as a nozzle shown in Figure at a corresponds to a pressure drop of 200 kPa.
carbon dioxide enters the duct at a
pressure of 1400 kPa and 200°C with
a low velocity, and it expands in the
nozzle to an exit pressure of 200 kPa.
The duct is designed so that the flow
can be approximated as isentropic.
Determine the density, velocity, flow
drop of 200 kPa.

Carbon dioxide flows steadily through
a varying cross-sectional area duct
such as a nozzle shown in Figure at a
carbon dioxide enters the duct at a
pressure of 1400 kPa and 200°C with
a low velocity, and it expands in the
nozzle to an exit pressure of 200
kPa. The duct is designed so that the
flow can be approximated as
isentropic.
Determine the density, velocity, flow
drop of 200 kPa.
The results for the other pressure steps are summarized in Table and
are plotted in Figure.


We note from above example that the flow area decreases with decreasing pressure down to
a critical-pressure value where the Mach number is unity, and then it begins to
increase with further reductions in pressure. The Mach number is unity at the location of
smallest flow area, called the throat.
• Note that the velocity of the fluid keeps increasing after

passing the throat although the flow area increases
rapidly in that region.
• This increase in velocity past the throat is due to the rapid
decrease in the fluid density.
• The flow area of the duct considered in this example first
decreases and then increases and such ducts are called
converging–diverging nozzles.
• These nozzles are used to accelerate gases to
should not be confused
supersonic speeds and
with Venturi nozzles, which are used
strictly for incompressible flow.
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
• It is clear from the above example that the couplings among the velocity, density, and
flow areas for isentropic duct flow are rather complex.
• In the remainder of this section we investigate these couplings more thoroughly, and we
develop relations for the variation of static-to-total (stagnation) property ratios with
the Mach number for pressure, temperature, and density.
• We begin our investigation by seeking relationships among the pressure, temperature,
density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number for one-dimensional isentropic flow.
• Consider the mass balance for a steady-flow process:
Differentiating and dividing the resultant equation by the mass flow rate

Neglecting the potential energy, the energy balance for an isentropic flow with no work interactions is expressed in
differential form as
Differentiate by V,
Then, by Tds = dh - dP/ thermodynamic relation, for isentropic process
Tds = dh - dP/
0

By using above equations…

But previously it’s derived
that…
Therefore,

This is an important relation for isentropic flow in ducts since it describes
the variation of pressure with flow area. We note that A, r, and V are
positive quantities.
For subsonic flow (Ma < 1), the term (1 - Ma2) is positive; and thus dA and dP must have the
same sign. That is, the pressure of the fluid must increase as the flow area of the duct
increases and must decrease as the flow area of the duct decreases. Thus, at subsonic
velocities, the pressure decreases in converging ducts (subsonic nozzles) and increases in
diverging ducts (subsonic diffusers).
In supersonic flow (Ma > 1), the term (1 - Ma2) is negative, and thus dA and dP must have
opposite signs. That is, the pressure of the fluid must increase as the flow area of the duct
decreases and must decrease as the flow area of the duct increases. Thus, at supersonic
velocities, the pressure decreases in diverging ducts (supersonic nozzles) and increases in
converging ducts (supersonic diffusers).

Another important relation for the isentropic flow of a fluid is obtained by
substituting V = -dP/dV
This equation governs the shape of a nozzle or a diffuser in subsonic or
supersonic isentropic flow. Noting that A and V are positive quantities,
and can be concluded as the follow:

Thus the proper shape of a nozzle depends on the highest

velocity desired relative to the sonic velocity.
To accelerate a fluid, we must use a

converging nozzle at subsonic velocities Vexit= 1.7 - 3.2 km/s
and a diverging nozzle at supersonic
velocities.
Extra: NASA's InSight spacecraft (2018)
InSight was on its way to Mars, moving away from Earth at a speed of
6,200 miles per hour (10,000 kilometers per hour). It have cruised
301,223,981 miles or 301 million miles through space, (484,773,006
kilometers or 485 million km ), entered the Martian atmosphere at a top
speed of 12,300 mph (19,800 kilometers per hour).

NASA's InSight spacecraft The Atlas V first stage is the common core
booster. This main booster is 107 feet (32.5
meters) long, with a diameter of 12.5 feet (3.8
Atlas V Rocket meters). With the payload on board, the launch
vehicle is 188 feet (57.3 meters). Fully fueled,
with the spacecraft on top, it weighs about
730,000 pounds (333,000 kilograms).
Thermally stable kerosene fuel (type RP-1) and

liquid oxygen will be loaded shortly before launch
into cylindrical fuel tanks that make up about half
of the total height of the vehicle.
The common core booster can provide thrust of

up to about 850,000 pounds (3.8 million newtons)
at full throttle.
During this phase, the spacecraft accelerates to
supersonic speeds of about 4,500 meters per second
(10,000 miles per hour).

NASA's InSight spacecraft
The Centaur is 41.7 feet (12.7 meters) long and 10.2
The Upper Stage contains fuel and oxidizer, and the vehicle's feet (3.1 meters) in diameter. It has a restartable RL-
"brains." It fires twice, once to insert the vehicle-spacecraft 10C engine made by Aerojet Rocketdyne, Sacramento,
stack into low Earth orbit and then again to accelerate the California. This engine uses liquid hydrogen and liquid
spacecraft out of Earth orbit and on its way towards oxygen and can provide up to about 22,890 pounds
Mars. (101,820 newtons) of thrust.
Two interstage adapters connect the first stage of the Atlas
with its Centaur upper stage. The interstage adapter attached
to the Centaur encloses the aft bulkhead carrier while the
stages are linked.

The velocities encountered in most familiar applications are
well below the sonic velocity, and thus it is natural that we
visualize a nozzle as a converging duct.
However, the highest velocity we can achieve by a

converging nozzle is the sonic velocity, which occurs at the
exit of the nozzle.
If we extend the converging nozzle by further decreasing the

flow area, in hopes of accelerating the fluid to supersonic
velocities, as shown in Figure, we are up for
disappointment.
Now the sonic velocity will occur at the exit of the

converging extension, instead of the exit of the original
nozzle, and the mass flow rate through the nozzle will
decrease because of the reduced exit area.
Based on this equation, which is an expression of the
conservation of mass and energy principles, we must add a
diverging section to a converging nozzle to accelerate a fluid
to supersonic velocities. The result is a converging–
diverging nozzle. 𝑚1
The fluid first passes through a subsonic (converging) section,

where the Mach number increases as the flow area of the
nozzle decreases, and then reaches the value of unity at the
nozzle throat.
𝑚2
The fluid continues to accelerate as it passes through a

supersonic (diverging) section. Noting that ṁ = AV for
steady flow, we see that the large decrease in density makes
acceleration in the diverging section possible. An example of
this type of flow is the flow of hot combustion gases
through a nozzle in a gas turbine.
 The opposite process occurs in the engine inlet of a supersonic aircraft.
 The fluid is decelerated by passing it first through a supersonic diffuser, which has a flow area
that decreases in the flow direction.
 Ideally, the flow reaches a Mach number of unity at the diffuser throat.
 The fluid is further decelerated in a subsonic diffuser, which has a flow area that increases in
the flow direction, as shown in Figure.

Home work: Self Study Questions
• What is sound? How is it generated? How does it travel? Can sound waves travel in a vacuum?
• In which medium does a sound wave travel faster: in cool air or in warm air?
• In which medium will sound travel fastest for a given temperature: air, helium, or argon?
• In which medium does a sound wave travel faster: in air at 20°C and 1 atm or in air at 20°C and 5 atm?
• Does the Mach number of a gas flowing at a constant velocity remain constant? Explain.
• Is it realistic to approximate that the propagation of sound waves is an isentropic process? Explain.
• Is the sonic velocity in a specified medium a fixed quantity, or does it change as the properties of the
medium change? Explain.
• The Airbus A-340 passenger plane has a maximum takeoff weight of about 260,000 kg, a length of 64
m, a wing span of 60 m, a maximum cruising speed of 945 km/h, a seating capacity of 271 passengers,
a maximum cruising altitude of 14,000 m, and a maximum range of 12,000 km. The air temperature at
the cruising altitude is about 260°C. Determine the Mach number of this plane for the stated limiting
conditions.

Answers for the Home work: Self Study
Questions
• What is sound? How is it generated? How does it travel? Can sound waves travel in a vacuum?
 Sound is an infinitesimally small pressure wave. It is generated by a small disturbance inamedium.
It travels by wave propagation. Sound waves cannot travel in a vacuum. Electromagnetic waves,
like light and radio waves, can travel in a vacuum, but sound cannot.
• In which medium does a sound wave travel faster: in cool air or in warm air?
 Sound travels faster in warm (higher temperature) air since c= (kRT)^0.5. On the microscopic scale,
we can imagine the air molecules moving around at higher speed in warmer air, leading to higher
propagation of disturbances.
• In which medium will sound travel fastest for a given temperature: air, helium, or argon?
 Sound travels fastest in helium, since c= (kRT)^0.5 and helium has the highest kR value. It is about
0.40 for air, 0.35 for argon, and 3.46 for helium. We are assuming, of course, that these gases
behave as ideal gases – a good approximation at room temperature.

Answers for the Home work: Self Study Questions
• In which medium does a sound wave travel faster: in air at 20°C and 1 atm or in air at 20°C and 5 atm?
 Air at specified conditions will behave like an ideal gas, and the speed of sound in an ideal gas
depends on temperature only. Therefore, the speed of sound is the same in both mediums. If the
temperature were different, however, the speed of sound would be different.
• Does the Mach number of a gas flowing at a constant velocity remain constant? Explain.
 In general, no, because the Mach number also depends on the speed of sound in gas, which
depends on the temperature of the gas. The Mach number remains constant only if the temperature
and the velocity are constant. It turns out that the speed of sound is not a strong function of
pressure. In fact, it is not a function of pressure at all for an ideal gas.
• Is it realistic to approximate that the propagation of sound waves is an isentropic process? Explain.
 Yes, the propagation of sound waves is nearly isentropic. Because the amplitude of an ordinary
sound wave is very small, and it does not cause any significant change in temperature and
pressure. No process is truly isentropic, but the increase of entropy due to sound propagation is
negligibly small.

Answers for the Home work: Self Study Questions
• Is the sonic velocity in a specified medium a fixed quantity, or does it change as the properties of the
medium change? Explain.
 The sonic speed in a medium depends on the properties of the medium, and it changes as the
properties of the medium change. The most common example is the change in speed of sound due
to temperature change.
• The Airbus A-340 passenger plane has a maximum takeoff weight of about 260,000 kg, a length of 64
m, a wing span of 60 m, a maximum cruising speed of 945 km/h, a seating capacity of 271 passengers,
a maximum cruising altitude of 14,000 m, and a maximum range of 12,000 km. The air temperature at
the cruising altitude is about 260°C. Determine the Mach number of this plane for the stated limiting
conditions.
Assumptions: Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats at room temperature.
Properties: The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kJ/kg·K. Its specific heat ratio at room temperature is k = 1.4.
Analysis: From the speed of sound relation
Thus, the Mach number corresponding to the maximum cruising speed of the plane is
Note that this is a subsonic flight since Ma < 1. Also, using a k value at -60C would give
practically the same result.
The temperature T of an ideal gas anywhere in the flow is related to the stagnation temperature T0
Noting that cp = kR/(k - 1), c2 = kRT, and Ma = V/c, we see that
Substitution yields
The ratio of the stagnation to static pressure and density are obtained by

The properties of a fluid at a location where the Mach number is unity (the throat) are called critical properties,
and the ratios in previous equations are called critical ratios when Ma = 1. It is standard practice in the analysis
of compressible flow to let the superscript asterisk (*) represent the critical values. Setting Ma = 1 in equations,

These ratios are evaluated for various values of k and are listed in the table. The critical properties of
compressible flow should not be confused with the thermodynamic properties of substances at the critical point
(such as the critical temperature Tc and critical pressure Pc).

Numerical values of T/T0, P/P0, and /0 are listed versus the Mach number in Table A–32 for k = 1.4,
which are very useful for practical compressible flow calculations involving air.

EXAMPLE: Critical Temperature and Pressure in Gas Flow
Calculate the critical pressure and temperature of carbon dioxide for the flow conditions described in previous Example
if k = 1.289 for CO2.
SOLUTION For the flow discussed in that example, the critical pressure and
temperature are to be calculated.
Assumptions
1 The flow is steady, adiabatic, and one-dimensional.
2 Carbon dioxide is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Properties The specific heat ratio of carbon dioxide at room temperature is k = 1.289.
Governing equations…?

EXAMPLE: Critical Temperature and Pressure in Gas Flow
Calculate the critical pressure and temperature of carbon dioxide for the flow conditions described in previous
Example.
Noting that the stagnation temperature and pressure are, T0 = 473 K and P0 = 1400 kPa, we
see that the critical temperature and pressure in this case are

ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Converging or converging–diverging nozzles are found in many engineering applications
including
 steam and gas turbines
 aircraft and spacecraft propulsion systems
 industrial blasting nozzles and torch nozzles.
In this section we consider the effects of back pressure (i.e., the pressure applied at the
nozzle discharge region) on the exit velocity, the mass flow rate, and the pressure distribution
along the nozzle.

back pressure of Converging Nozzles
Consider the subsonic flow through a converging nozzle as

shown in Figure. The nozzle inlet is attached to a reservoir at
pressure Pr and temperature Tr.
The reservoir is sufficiently large so that the nozzle inlet

velocity is negligible.
Since the fluid velocity in the reservoir is zero and the flow
through the nozzle is approximated as isentropic, the stagnation
pressure and stagnation temperature of the fluid at any cross
section through the nozzle are equal to the reservoir pressure
and temperature, respectively.

Converging Nozzles
Now we begin to reduce the back pressure and observe the
resulting effects on the pressure distribution along the length of the
nozzle, as shown in Figure.
 If the back pressure Pb is equal to P1, which is equal to Pr, there is
no flow and the pressure distribution is uniform along the nozzle.
 When the back pressure is reduced to P2, the exit plane pressure Pe
also drops to P2. This causes the pressure along the nozzle to
decrease in the flow direction.
 When the back pressure is reduced to P3 (= P*, which is the pressure
required to increase the fluid velocity to the speed of sound at the
exit plane or throat), the mass flow reaches a maximum value and
the flow is said to be choked or limited.
 Further reduction of the back pressure to level P4 or below does not
result in additional changes in the pressure distribution, or
anything else along the nozzle length.
Choked flow is a limiting condition where the mass flow will not increase with a further decrease in the downstream pressure
environment for a fixed upstream pressure and temperature. (The maximum mass flow rate has been attained for the given
stagnation conditions.)
Converging Nozzles
Under steady-flow conditions, the mass flow rate through the nozzle is constant
and is expressed as
the mass flow rate through a nozzle is a maximum when Ma = 1 at the throat
Choked flow
Choked flow is a limiting condition where the mass flow will not increase
with a further decrease in the downstream pressure environment for a
fixed upstream pressure and temperature. (The maximum mass flow rate ***No need to keep the equation in mind but
has been attained for the given stagnation conditions. )
20th Batch DMME, FoE, UoR should have ability to derive. 90
Converging Nozzles
Thus, for a particular ideal gas, the maximum mass flow rate through a nozzle with a given throat area is
fixed by the stagnation pressure and temperature of the inlet flow. The flow rate can be controlled by
changing the stagnation pressure or temperature, and thus a converging nozzle can be used as a flow
meter. The flow rate can also be controlled, of course, by varying the throat area.
• This principle is very important for chemical processes, medical devices, flow meters, and anywhere
the mass flux of a gas must be known and controlled.
• A plot of ṁ versus Pb/P0 for a converging nozzle is shown in Figure.
• Notice that the mass flow rate increases with decreasing Pb/P0, reaches a maximum at Pb = P*, and
remains constant for Pb/P0 values less than this critical ratio.
Ma

Converging Nozzles
Also illustrated on this figure is the effect of back pressure on the nozzle exit pressure Pe. We observe that
To summarize, for all back pressures lower than the critical pressure P*
 the pressure at the exit plane of the converging nozzle Pe is
equal to P*,
 the Mach number at the exit plane is unity, and
 the mass flow rate is the maximum (or choked) flow rate.
Because the velocity of the flow is sonic at the throat for the maximum
flow rate, a back pressure lower than the critical pressure cannot be sensed
in the nozzle upstream flow and does not affect the flow rate.

Converging–Diverging Nozzles

When we think of nozzles, we ordinarily think of
flow passages whose cross-sectional area decreases
in the flow direction. However, the highest velocity
to which a fluid can be accelerated in a
converging nozzle is limited to the sonic velocity
(Ma = 1), which occurs at the exit plane (throat) of
the nozzle.
Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (Ma
> 1) can be accomplished only by attaching a
diverging flow section to the subsonic nozzle at
the throat.
The resulting combined flow section is a
converging– diverging nozzle, which is standard
equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket
propulsion. (commonly used in rocket engines to
provide20thhigh
Batch
thrust) DMME, FoE, UoR 94
 When Pb = P0 (case A), there is no flow through the
nozzle. This is expected since the flow in a nozzle is
driven by the pressure difference between the nozzle
inlet and the exit. Now let us examine what happens as
the back pressure is lowered.
 When P0 > Pb > PC, the flow remains subsonic
throughout the nozzle, and the mass flow is less than
that for choked flow. The fluid velocity increases in
the first (converging) section and reaches a maximum
at the throat (but Ma < 1). However, most of the gain in
velocity is lost in the second (diverging) section of the
nozzle, which acts as a diffuser. The pressure decreases
in the converging section, reaches a minimum at the
throat, and increases at the expense of velocity in the
diverging section.

 When Pb = PC, the throat pressure becomes P* and
the fluid achieves sonic velocity at the throat. But the
diverging section of the nozzle still acts as a diffuser,
slowing the fluid to subsonic velocities. The mass flow
rate that was increasing with decreasing Pb also reaches
its maximum value.
 Recall that P* is the lowest pressure that can be
obtained at the throat, and the sonic velocity is the
highest velocity that can be achieved with a converging
nozzle. Thus, lowering Pb further has no influence on
the fluid flow in the converging part of the nozzle or the
mass flow rate through the nozzle. However, it does
influence the character of the flow in the diverging
section.

 When PC > Pb > PE, the fluid that achieved a sonic
velocity at the throat continues accelerating to
supersonic velocities in the diverging section as the
pressure decreases. This acceleration comes to a
sudden/ abrupt stop, however, as a normal shock
develops at a section between the throat and the exit
plane, which causes a sudden drop in velocity to
subsonic levels and a sudden increase in pressure.
The fluid then continues to decelerate further in the
remaining part of the converging–diverging nozzle.
Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus
it cannot be approximated as isentropic. The normal
shock moves downstream away from the throat as Pb is
decreased, and it approaches the nozzle exit plane as Pb
approaches PE. When Pb = PE, the normal shock forms
at the exit plane of the nozzle.

 The shock will locate itself in a position such that the
pressure changes that occur ahead of the shock,
across the shock, and downstream of the shock will
produce a pressure that exactly matches the
outlet pressure.
 In other words, the operating pressure ratio determines
the location and strength of the shock.

 When PE > Pb > 0, the flow in the diverging section is
supersonic, and the fluid expands to PF at the nozzle
exit with no normal shock forming within the
nozzle. Thus, the flow through the nozzle can be
approximated as isentropic. When Pb = PF, no shocks
occur within or outside the nozzle. When Pb < PF,
irreversible mixing and expansion waves occur
downstream of the exit plane of the nozzle.

oblique shock waves @ outside of the nozzle

Real Shock waves:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EZHDUFucc-g

A simplified diagram of a liquid-fuel rocket.
1. Liquid rocket fuel.
2. Oxidizer.
3. Pumps carry the fuel and oxidizer.
4. The combustion chamber mixes and
burns the two liquids.
5. The hot exhaust is choked at the throat,
which, among other things, dictates the
amount of thrust produced.
6. Exhaust exits the rocket.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine
A simplified diagram of a solid-fuel
rocket.
1. A solid fuel-oxidizer
mixture (propellant) is packed into the
rocket, with a cylindrical hole in the
middle.
2. An igniter combusts the surface of the
propellant.
3. The cylindrical hole in the propellant
acts as a combustion chamber.
4. The hot exhaust is choked at the
throat, which, among other things,
dictates the amount of thrust produced.
5. Exhaust exits the rocket.

T
Rocket thrust is caused
 By pressures acting in the combustion chamber and nozzle.
 By Newton's third law, equal and opposite pressures act on the exhaust,
and this accelerates it to high speeds.

Rocket engines are reaction engines, producing thrust by ejecting mass rearward, in accordance with Newton's third
law.
Below is an approximate equation for calculating the net thrust of a rocket engine

The four expansion regimes of a
de Laval nozzle:
• under-expanded
• perfectly expanded
• over-expanded
• completely over-expanded

Back pressure and optimal expansion
For optimal performance, the pressure of the gas at the end of the nozzle should just
equal the ambient pressure (Back Pressure).
If the exhaust's pressure is lower than the ambient pressure, then the vehicle will be slowed by
the difference in pressure between the top of the engine and the exit;
on the other hand, if the exhaust's pressure is higher, then exhaust pressure that could have
been converted into thrust is not converted, and energy is wasted.
To maintain this ideal of equality between the exhaust's exit pressure and the
ambient pressure, the diameter of the nozzle would need to increase with altitude,
giving the pressure a longer nozzle to act on (and reducing the exit pressure and
temperature).
This increase is difficult to arrange in a lightweight fashion, although is normally done

with other forms of jet engines.

Changing the exit nozzle diameter
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x5ccK94Iv
sA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3SH5953i
Q6w

Back pressure and optimal expansion
Typical temperature (T), pressure (p), and velocity (v)

profiles in a de Laval Nozzle

EXAMPLE: Airflow through a Converging–Diverging Nozzle
Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle, shown in Figure, at 1.0 MPa and 800 K with negligible velocity.
The flow is steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic with k = 1.4. For an exit Mach number of Ma = 2 and a
throat area of 20 cm2.
Determine
(a) the throat conditions,
(b) the exit plane conditions, including the exit area, and
(c) the mass flow rate through the nozzle.
SOLUTION Air flows through a converging–diverging nozzle.

The throat and the exit conditions and the mass flow rate are to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats at
room temperature. 2 Flow through the nozzle is steady, one-
dimensional, and isentropic.
Properties The specific heat ratio of air is given to be k = 1.4. The
gas constant of air is 0.287 kJ/kg.K.

Air enters a converging– The exit Mach number is given to be 2. Therefore, the flow must be
diverging nozzle, shown in sonic at the throat and supersonic in the diverging section of the
Figure, at 1.0 MPa and 800 K nozzle. Since the inlet velocity is negligible, the stagnation pressure
with negligible velocity. The and stagnation temperature are the same as the inlet temperature and
flow is steady, one-dimensional, pressure, P0 = 1.0 Mpa and T0 = 800 K.
and isentropic with k = 1.4. For
an exit Mach number of Ma = 2
and a throat area of 20 cm2, Before starting
determine (a) the throat
conditions, (b) the exit plane
conditions, including the exit Summarize the Governing Equations…
area, and (c) the mass flow rate
through the nozzle.

Air enters a converging– The exit Mach number is given to be 2. Therefore, the flow must be
diverging nozzle, shown in sonic at the throat and supersonic in the diverging section of the
Figure, at 1.0 MPa and 800 K nozzle. Since the inlet velocity is negligible, the stagnation pressure
with negligible velocity. The and stagnation temperature are the same as the inlet temperature and
flow is steady, one-dimensional, pressure, P0 = 1.0 Mpa and T0 = 800 K. Assuming ideal-gas behavior,
and isentropic with k = 1.4. For the stagnation density is
and a throat area of 20 cm2,
conditions, including the exit (a) At the throat of the nozzle Ma = 1,
through the nozzle.

Air enters a converging–
diverging nozzle, shown in
Figure, at 1.0 MPa and 800 K
with negligible velocity. The
flow is steady, one-dimensional,
conditions, including the exit
through the nozzle.

Another parameter sometimes used
in the analysis of one-dimensional
isentropic flow of ideal gases is Ma*,
which is the ratio of the local
velocity to the local speed of sound
at the throat:

Air enters a converging– (b) Since the flow is isentropic, the properties at the exit plane can also be
diverging nozzle, shown in calculated by using data from Table A–32. For Ma = 2 we read
Figure, at 1.0 MPa and 800 K
conditions, including the exit
through the nozzle.
or

Air enters a converging– (b) Since the flow is isentropic, the properties at the exit plane can also be
diverging nozzle, shown in calculated by using data from Table A–32. For Ma = 2 we read
Figure, at 1.0 MPa and 800 K The nozzle exit velocity could also be determined from Ve = Maece, where ce
is the speed of sound at the exit conditions:
determine (a) the throat (c) Since the flow is steady, the mass flow rate of the fluid is the same at all
sections of the nozzle. Thus it may be calculated by using properties at any
conditions, (b) the exit plane cross section of the nozzle. Using the properties at the throat, we find that
conditions, including the exit the mass flow rate is
through the nozzle.
Discussion Note that this is the highest possible mass flow rate that can flow
through this nozzle for the specified inlet conditions.

END


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After successful completion of the module, the learner should be able to

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 Continuous assessment 50%

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 Achieve at least 50% of marks for the continuous assessments

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The second law of thermodynamics asserts

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It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat

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When analyzing control volumes, we find it very convenient to combine the

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• Thus the stagnation enthalpy represents the enthalpy of a fluid

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Here, T0 is called the stagnation (or total) temperature, and it

The term V2/2cp corresponds to the temperature rise during such a

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By noting that  = 1/v and using the isentropic relation

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where T01 and T02 are the stagnation temperatures

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The fluid to the left of the wave front experiences an

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No heat or work crosses the boundaries of the control volume during

where we have neglected the second-order term dV2. The amplitude of

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And 1/v= Tds = dh - dP/ reduces to

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by using thermodynamic property relations, that above equation can also

where k = cp /cv is the specific heat ratio of the fluid.

Note that the speed of sound in a fluid is a function of the

The speed of sound in air increases with temperature. At typical outside

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A second important parameter in the analysis of compressible

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Note that the Mach number depends on the speed of sound,

Fluid flow regimes are often described in terms of the flow

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Discussion The flow at the diffuser inlet is subsonic since Ma < 1.

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Therefore, it merits special consideration. Before presenting a formal

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cp = 0.846 kJ/kg·K , k = 1.289 and gas constant

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