Mechanical and Electrical Equipment For Buildings - (Chapter 6 Light Vision and Visual Comfort)

C H A P T E R 6
Light, Vision, and
FUNDAMENTALS
DESIGN
Visual Comfort
ultraviolet radiation. Both are invisible to human

LIGHT beings (but not to some animals). Neither infrared
nor ultraviolet should be called light because
these portions of the spectrum cannot be seen by
6.1 LIGHT IS RADIATION humans.
When a light source produces energy in
The Illuminating Engineering Society defines approximately equal quantities over the entire
light as visually evaluated radiant energy. Light visible spectrum, the combination of wavelengths
is a unique form of electromagnetic energy that appears white. A source with energy output over
permits us to see. If light is considered a wave, like only a small section of the spectrum produces
a radio wave or an alternating-current wave, it a colored light characteristic of its generation
Copyright © 2019. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
can be described by its frequency and wavelength. process. Examples are the blue-green of a clear
Figure 6.1 shows the position of light in the elec- mercury lamp and the yellow of a sodium lamp.
tromagnetic spectrum and its relation to other Herein, all light will be considered white
wave phenomena of various frequencies. unless specifically noted. This is a reasonable
Fig. 6.1 shows that the longest-wavelength design assumption because most (but not all)
light (red) has a much higher frequency than radio light sources generally appear white after a short
waves and radar, and that light constitutes only viewer accommodation period. Most standard
a very small part of the electromagnetic energy commercial light sources permit object colors
spectrum. What we call color is determined by to be easily and correctly identified. Only when
wavelength—starting with the longest visible sources differing widely in spectral content are
wavelengths (the lowest frequency, perceived as viewed side by side can a variation in whiteness
red) on through the shortest visible wavelengths be noticed by the effect on colored objects and on
(the highest frequency, perceived as violet). The neutral surfaces. Exceptions to this white light
visible spectrum (light) encompasses the spectrum assumption, when they occur, are critical for a
of what we recognize as red, orange, yellow, green, designer to understand.
blue, indigo, and violet (Roy G Biv). Bordering In building design, light is defined relative
the visible spectrum, on the low-frequency end, is to human occupants/users. Radiation that can
infrared radiation; at the high-frequency end lies be detected by a statistically typical young adult
177
Grondzik, Walter T., and Alison G. Kwok. Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central,
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178 CHAPTER 6 LIGHT, VISION, AND VISUAL COMFORT
FM
Ultraviolet
Gamma TV Radio
Cosmic Rays X-Rays Infrared Radar
Rays
Short
wave
1022 1020 1018 1016 1014 1012 1010 108 106 104
Frequency in hertz (cycles per second)
FUNDAMENTALS
DESIGN
Wavelength nanometers (10–9 meters)

380 400 500 600 700 780 800
Violet Green Red

Far Near
Indigo Yellow Infrared Heat
UV UV
Blue Orange
Fig. 6.1 The electromagnetic spectrum.
is deemed to be light. This is commonly under- is analogous to water flow in a hydraulic system
stood to encompass wavelengths between 380 or current in an electrical system; it is normally
and 780 nanometers (nm). Other wavelengths represented by the Greek letter ϕ.
are not visible to the general population and If we surround a 1-cd (candlepower—see (b)
are not “light.” There is no need to say “vis- below) source that radiates light equally in all
ible light” as only light is visible. Light from the directions with a transparent sphere of 1 m (ft)
sun/sky should be called daylight (never natural radius (Fig. 6.2), then by definition the luminous
light); light from an electric lamp should be called energy (flux) emanating from 1 m2 (ft2 ) of surface
electric light. on the sphere is 1 lumen. Because the surface
area of such a sphere is 4π m2 (ft2 ), it follows
that a source of 1 candela (candlepower) intensity
6.2 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS produces 4π (12.57) lumen.

In physical terms, the lumen is a unit of
An understanding of the units and terminology power, like the watt. However, unlike the watt,
associated with light in the built environment which is a radiometric unit directly convertible
is critical to lighting design. The International to other power units such as Btu/h, the lumen
System of Units (SI) is used throughout most of is a measure of photometric power. This means
the world—a major exception being the United light power as perceived by the human eye and
States. Increasingly, SI units for quantities of light therefore as a function of human physiology. Put
are being seen in the United States, although another way, lumens, or luminous flux, is the
the Inch-Pound (I-P) system still predominates. time rate of flow of perceived luminous energy.
Throughout this book dual units are presented; Because the visual response of the eye is frequency
typically I-P first, followed by SI in parentheses. dependent, perceived light power is also frequency
dependent—varying with the spectral content
of the impinging light and the spectral sensi-
(a) Luminous Flux
tivity of the eye. Figure 6.3a shows the spectral
The unit of luminous flux, in both SI and I-P units, content of the visible energy produced by a 500-W
is the lumen (lm). The lumen, a measure of the incandescent lamp. Measured radiometrically, it
quantity of light at some point in the environment, amounts to 45 W. However, when passed through
TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS 179
1m Spherical surface
radius 1 m2 in area
1 ft
radius
Spherical surface
1 ft2 in area
FUNDAMENTALS
DESIGN
Total flux
of 1 lumen
Total flux
Total flux
12.57
of 1 lumen
lumens
Light source Illuminance

1 cd 1 fc or 1 lm/ft2 Illuminance
or 10.76 lux 1 lux or 1 lm/m2
or 0.0929 fc
Fig. 6.2 A source of 1-cd intensity produces 4π (12.57) lumens of light flux. Thus, each square foot (square meter) of spherical surface
surrounding such a source receives 1 lumen of light flux. This quantity of light flux produces an illuminance of 1 fc (lux) on the spherical
surface.
a selective filter (Fig. 6.3b), which is effectively (lumens) and input (Watts) are not expressed in
what happens when the light is processed by the the same units (and thus do not cancel).
eye, the light power usefully received appears as
in Fig. 6.3c, and can no longer be measured in (b) Luminous Intensity
watts. Instead, we use the unit of eye-perceived, or
photometric, power called the lumen. If the spectral The SI unit of luminous intensity is the candela
content curve in Fig. 6.3a were differently shaped, (candlepower), abbreviated cd (cp), and normally
even if the total radiometrically measured power were represented by the letter I. Luminous inten-
the same, the resultant perceived power would be sity represents luminous flux in a specific
different. direction—with the direction being defined by
Referring to Fig. 6.3b, a correlation can be the center of a solid angle measured in steradians.
made between photometric and radiometric power Thus, luminous intensity would be expressed as
at the point of maximum response of the eye, which lumens per steradian—which is a candela. It turns
occurs at 555 nanometers (nm) wavelength— out that an ordinary wax candle has a horizontal
1 nm is 10−9 m. One watt of monochromatic luminous intensity of approximately 1 candela,
light at that wavelength produces 683 lumens. hence the name. The candela and candlepower
However, because common light sources are not have the same magnitude. Luminous intensity is
monochromatic, but produce light across many solely a characteristic of the source; it is indepen-
parts of the spectrum, there is no single factor to dent of the visual sense. Understanding luminous
convert between watts and lumens. Each source intensity can be important to point source lighting
has its own luminous efficacy (lumens/watt) deter- design efforts and to glare control.
mined by its mode of light production and by its
spectrum. For the 500-W lamp discussed above, (c) Illuminance
the luminous efficacy is 10,000 lm/500 W, or 20 One lumen of luminous flux, uniformly incident
lumens per watt (lm/W). The term efficacy is used on 1 m2 (ft2 ) of area, produces an illuminance
instead of efficiency in this situation as the output of 1 lux (lx) or 1 footcandle (fc). Illuminance is
555 nm and
lumens
1.0 footcandles =
square foot area
Relative energy
500-W lamp
0.8 incandescent
lm
0.6 fc = 2
(6.2)
0.4 ft
45 W
0.2 380 780 As an approximation (with 8% error)
0 10 lx ≅ 1 fc (6.3)
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 nm
FUNDAMENTALS
(a)
DESIGN
Yellow
UV Violet Blue Green Orange Red Infrared EXAMPLE 6.1 A fluorescent tube produces 3200
100 380 430 490 560 600 630 780 lm. What is the illuminance on the floor of a 3-m2
Relative energy
80 room, assuming 60% overall delivery efficiency and

60 uniform light distribution?
555 nm
40
SOLUTION
20
380 780
0
Delivered lumens = 0.6 × 3200 = 1920
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 nm 1920
Wavelength in nanometers lx = = 213.3 lx
3×3
(b)
fc = 213.3∕10.76 = 19.8 fc
Resultant relative energy
1.0 Calculating footcandles directly (with 3 m = 9.84 ft):

555 nm
0.8 1920
fc = = 19.8 fc
0.6 9.84 × 9.84
0.4 By approximation:
0.2 380 ~10,000 780 fc ≅ lx∕10 = 21.3
Iumens
0
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 nm Note that this calculation gives average illuminance
(c) in the space.
Fig. 6.3 Graphical demonstration of the method by which the
unit of light flux is defined. (a) The spectrum of the light produced
by a 500-W incandescent lamp amounts to approximately 45 W (d) Luminance, Exitance, and Brightness
measured radiometrically. When engaged by the human eye,
whose spectral sensitivity curve is given in (b), this light power is An object can be visually perceived when light
perceived as shown in (c). The new light power curve is from the object enters the eye. The impression we
expressed in lumens and indicates the quantity of light as
perceived by the eye. receive regarding light coming from the object
is termed brightness. Brightness is a subjective
sensation and depends upon the luminance (L) of
normally represented by the letter E. Illuminance the object (an objective variable), but also upon the
is a measure of the density of light (i.e., lumens per state of adaptation of the eye (see Section 6.6) and
unit area). If we consider a lightbulb as analogous to some extent the mental state of the receiving
to a fire sprinkler head, then the resulting coverage
person. This perception is generally referred to
of water per unit floor area would be the illumi-
as subjective brightness or apparent brightness—or
nance. The SI unit of illuminance, lux, is smaller
than the corresponding I-P unit, footcandles, by simply brightness. The measurable-by-instruments
the ratio of square meters to square feet. That is, object luminosity is termed luminance. Luminance
10.764 lux = 1 fc. Conversely, footcandles multi- is normally defined in terms of intensity; it is the
plied by 10.764 yields lux. This relationship is luminous intensity per unit of apparent (projected)
shown in Fig. 6.2. Mathematically: area of a primary (light emitting) or secondary
lumens (light reflecting) object. Luminance is expressed
lux = in candela per surface area. The SI unit of lumi-
square meter area
nance is candela per square meter (cd/m2 ). The I-P
lm
lx = (6.1) unit of luminance is the footlambert (1/π cd/ft2 ).
m2
TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS 181
TABLE 6.1 Common Lighting Units and Illuminance

Conversion Factors 100 fc or
100 lm/ft2
Unit Multiply By To Obtain Diffuse reflectance
Illuminance (E) Lux 0.0929 Footcandle 0.6 or 60%
Footcandle 10.764 Lux Reflected luminance
Luminance (L) cd/m2 0.2919 Footlambert 100 fc × 0.6 reflectance
cd/cm2 10,000 cd/m2
2 = 60 fL or 60 lm/ft2 reflected
cd/in. 1,550 cd/m2
cd/ft2 cd/m2
FUNDAMENTALS
10.76
1 ft
millilambert 3.183 cd/m2 +
Footlambert 3.4263 cd/m2
1m
DESIGN
Intensity (I) Candela 1.0 Candlepower Light source
100 candelas or
1257 lumens output
Luminance has no meaningful mechanical or Illuminance (inside surface)
electrical analogy. 100 lumens/m2 or 100 lux
Conversion factors for SI and I-P lighting Transmittance 30%
units are given in Table 6.1. The term luminance Diffuse luminous exitance =
.3(100) = 30 lm/m2
always refers to the quantitative phenomenon, Luminance (transmitted) =
while brightness refers to the human perception of Transmitted intensity
=
luminance. Projected area of sphere
Another concept the lighting designer may (0.3) (100 cd) 30
= π cd/m2
encounter is luminous exitance, or simply exitance. π m2
As the name implies, exitance describes the total
Fig. 6.4 Luminance may be the result of light that is either
luminous flux density leaving (exiting) a surface, reflected or transmitted. In the former case, it is calculated as the
irrespective of directivity or viewer position. For product of the incident lumens and the reflectance; in the latter
instance, if a 1 m2 surface emits 1 lumen, its case, it is calculated as the transmitted intensity divided by the
projected area.
luminous exitance is 1 lumen per square meter
(1 lm/m2 ) or 0.093 lm/ft2 . A surface that is
a perfect diffuser, whether in emitting light or however, is important in calculation procedures.
reflecting light, is known as a lambertian surface. See Fig. 6.4 for a graphic representation of the
The luminance of such a surface equals 1/π times basic relationships.
its exitance. This relationship is useful as a design
approximation. Although very few surfaces are
truly lambertian, many are approximately so. EXAMPLE 6.2 Consider the luminance of a
Exitance is important in detailed photometric light-emitting surface.
calculations—such as those involved in deter- 1. Calculate the luminance of an historic A-19
mining coefficients of utilization and surface standard inside-frosted, 100-W incandescent
luminance coefficients—and in detailed point illu- lightbulb with a maintained output of 1700 lm.
minance calculations. These analyses are beyond Assume (for simplicity’s sake) that the bulb is
the scope of this book because they are not usually spherical.
performed by the lighting designer. Detailed 2. Assume that an opal glass globe of 8-in.
point calculations are today almost universally (200-mm) diameter and a transmittance of
performed by computer, and the necessary math is 35% surrounds the bulb described in step 1.
built into the software. Calculate the luminance of the globe. Use
Because object luminance is a prime factor SI units.
in visibility (and glare), it is important to under-
stand basic luminance calculations. The eye SOLUTION
does not differentiate between primary sources 1. Assume that the filament is a point source (an
(those that generate/emit light) and secondary essentially valid assumption) and that the inside
sources (those that derive their luminance from frosting of the glass does not reduce the output
reflection or transmission); the differentiation, (it actually does so by about 1%). The inside
frosting acts to convert the point source filament area. Therefore, a clear 100-W lamp, whose fila-
to a uniformly emitting globe. The definition of a ment has an area of perhaps of 0.3 cm2 , would
point source tells us that 1 candela produces 4π have a luminance of:
lumens distributed spherically. 135 cd
Therefore: = 4,500, 000 cd∕m2
1 cd I cd 0.3 (0.0001) cm2
=
4π lm 1700 lm which is so severe a glare source as to be disabling
The intensity, I, of the filament, and therefore also when in the near field of vision.
FUNDAMENTALS
of the bulb (because the frosting is assumed not

to reduce output), is:
DESIGN
1 cd EXAMPLE 6.3 Calculate the luminance of a 34-W,

I = 1700 lumens × = 135 cd
4π lm T12, 4-ft white fluorescent lamp. Assume a viewing
An A-19 bulb has a diameter of 19/8 in. (60 mm). angle normal to the long axis of the lamp and that
The definition of luminance is: the lamp is a diffuse (lambertian) emitter. Use SI
(intensity) units.
I
L=
A (projected area) SOLUTION
The projected area becomes approximately a This problem can be solved in two ways: by using
circle with a diameter of 60 mm (assuming a the relationship between exitance and luminance or
spherical bulb), whose area equals π r2 or π by calculating intensity.
(0.03 m)2 . So: By exitance/luminance: Use 2770 lm at 40%
135 cd cd lamp life as an average output. The luminous length
L= = 47,750 2 is 4 ft (1200 mm), and the diameter is 12/8 in.
π(0.03 m)2 m
(38 mm). The luminous surface area of the tube is
This luminance is a potentially severe glare source
then:
if it is in the field of vision (depending on its
distance from the eye; see Section 6.7). A = L × d × π = (1200 mm) × (38 mm) × π
2. The intensity of the source (the bulb) is reduced = (1.2 m) (0.038 m)
by the 35% transmittance of the globe. The
projected area of the globe is larger than that of = 0.0456 π m2
the bulb; that is,
luminous flux 2770 lm
exitance = =
2 (0.2 m)2 area 0.0456 π m2
A proj. = π r = π
(2) I
luminance = (exitance)
Thus the luminance of the globe is: π
135 cd (0.35) 2770

L=
cd
= 1500 2 = cd∕m2 = 6155 cd∕m2
0.0456 π
π (0.10 m)2 m
By intensity: The equivalent spherical intensity of the
This is no longer likely to be a potential source
lamp can be calculated by using the relationship that
of direct glare.
1 cd produces 4π lumens. Therefore,
Note two important principles demonstrated by
this example: 2770 lm
equivalent intensity I = cd
4π
1. Intensity is neither area- nor distance-dependent;
it varies only with transmission factors. The radius of a sphere of equivalent surface area to
the fluorescent tube would be:
2. Luminance varies with both intensity and area.
4πr 2 = 0.0456 π m2
For example, if a white lamp whose inside 0.0456 2

r2 = m = 0.0114 m2
coating reduces lamp output by about 10% is 4
used in lieu of an inside frost, both intensity and r = 0.1067 m
luminance would be reduced by 10%. However,
if a clear glass lamp is used, intensity would The equivalent projected area of such a sphere is
remain the same, while luminance would increase π r2 , or
inversely with the ratio of filament area to bulb A = 0.0114 π
TRANSMITTANCE, REFLECTANCE, AND ABSORPTANCE 183
and its luminance is: transmitted is either absorbed or reflected. See

intensity cd 2770∕4 π cd Table 10.8 for typical transmittance values.
L= =
area m2 0.0114π m2 Similarly, the ratio of reflected light to incident
2770 cd light is variously called reflectance, reflectance factor,
=
0.0456 π2 m2 m2 or reflectance coefficient. If half the light incident
= 6155 cd∕m2 on a surface is bounced back, the reflectance is
50% (or 0.50). Light that is not reflected is either
A luminance this high can constitute a glare absorbed and/or transmitted. In all cases, reflec-
FUNDAMENTALS
problem, depending on the lamp’s position in the
tion plus transmission plus absorption equals
field of view. Considering a 40-W lamp with 3200
100%. The extent of absorption, reflection, and
DESIGN
lm output, the luminance would be higher in direct
proportion to the ratio of output; that is, transmission depends upon the type of material
and the angle of light incidence; light impinging
3200 cd (3200)
L3200 = L2770 × = 6155 2 on a surface at grazing angles tends to be reflected
2770 m (2770)
rather than absorbed or transmitted (Fig. 6.5). An
= 7110 cd∕m2 example of almost total reflection from an opaque
This is the origin of the frequently used average surface would be from a high-quality mirror,
of 7000 cd/m2 as the luminance of a standard whereas almost complete absorption takes place
48-in. (1200 mm) fluorescent tube. It is a borderline on an object with a matte-finish black paint. The
glare source. Lamps of similar size, but with higher effect of the material surface finish on reflection
lumen output create increasing potential for glare is shown in Fig. 6.6. (See Table 10.10 for typical
problems. reflectance values.) Reflectance measurement is
discussed in Section 6.4.
6.3 TRANSMITTANCE, REFLECTANCE, The reflection that occurs on a smooth surface
AND ABSORPTANCE such as polished glass or stone is called specular
reflection, as in Fig. 6.6a. If the surface is rough,
Lighting design is possible because light is multiple reflections take place on the many small
predictable; that is, it obeys certain laws and surface projections, and the light is diffused, as in
exhibits certain fixed characteristics. Although
some of these are so well known as to appear self-
evident, a review is in order. 100
The luminous transmittance of a material Effect of angle of incidence
90
(such as a pane of glass or a sheet of plastic) is a
on the percent of light reflected

measure of its capability to transmit incident light. 80 by clear plate glass
This quantity, known variously as transmittance, 70
Angle of Incidence
Percent reflection
Normal
transmission factor, or coefficient of transmission,

is the ratio of the total transmitted light to the 60
total incident light. When light containing several 50
Glass
spectral components passes through a material
40
with selective absorption, overall transmittance One surface of glass
is an average of the individual transmittances 30
Both surfaces of glass
for the various wavelengths—and must be used 20
cautiously. A piece of frosted glass and a piece of
10
red glass may both have a 70% transmittance, but
they affect the incident light differently. In general, 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
transmission factors should be used only when
Angle of incidence, degrees from the normal
referring to materials displaying nonselective
absorption; that is, those that transmit the various Fig. 6.5 Relation between angle of incidence and percentage of
component colors equally. A single sheet of clear reflectance. This effect is important when considering the
penetration of sunlight into interior spaces and, conversely, the
glass has a transmittance of 80–90%, frosted glass exterior glare produced by reflection of the sun from building
70–85%, and solid opal glass 15–40%. Light not windows.
100% 80%
α β
Opaque
material Polished surface Opaque
material
FUNDAMENTALS
Specular reflection Diffuse reflection

(a) (b)
DESIGN
Fig. 6.6 Reflection characteristics. (a) In specular reflection,

angle of incidence equals angle of reflection (α = β). Because
80% of light is reflected, reflectance is 80%; 20% of light is
absorbed. (b) In diffuse reflection, incident light is spread in all
directions by multiple reflections on the unpolished surface.
Such surfaces appear equally bright from all viewing angles. Opaque
(c) Most materials exhibit a combination of specular and diffuse material
reflection. Such a surface mirrors the source while producing Combined specular and diffuse reflection
a bright background. (c)
Fig. 6.6b. Reflectance is a measure of total light luminous environment. Building designers need
reflected; it may be specular or diffuse, or a combi- to be aware of, and willfully engage, both sides of
nation of both, as shown in Fig. 6.6c. lighting. This section describes a number of the
Diffuse transmission takes place through more commonly encountered quantitative lighting
any translucent material such as frosted glass, measurements.
white glass, milky Plexiglas, tissue paper, and so
on. Diffuse transmission is widely employed in (a) Illuminance
lighting fixtures (luminaires) to better spread the
Illuminance is the density of light falling upon
light generated by the lamp within the fixture.
a surface. Field measurements of illuminance,
Diffuse and nondiffuse transmission are illustrated

necessary to confirm that design criteria have
in Fig. 6.7a and Fig. 6.7b.
been met in a built project or for existing condi-
tion assessments, are most commonly made with
6.4 MEASURING LIGHT a portable illuminance meter. Two examples of
illuminance meters are shown in Figs. 6.8 and
The design of lighting systems involves both quan- 6.9. These devices contain a photoelectric sensor
titative and qualitative variables. The quantitative connected to a microammeter via electronic
aspects have great value because they can be used control circuitry and display in lux or footcandles
in calculations, be specified as enforceable design or both.
criteria, and be measured in post-occupancy eval- As shown in Fig. 6.3, the human eye is not
uations of built spaces. The benefit of the quantita- equally sensitive to the various wavelengths that
tive is that these elements are absolute. Qualitative comprise the visible spectrum. Maximum sensi-
lighting elements, on the other hand, are equally tivity at high illuminance is in the yellow–green
important—as they are how humans perceive the area (555 nm wavelength), whereas sensitivity at
MEASURING LIGHT 185
100% Incident light
Clear material Diffusing

medium
FUNDAMENTALS
DESIGN
85%
transmitted light
Nondiffuse transmission Diffuse transmission

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.7 Transmission characteristics. (a) In nondiffuse transmission, the light is refracted (bent) but emerges in the same beam as it
enters. Clear materials such as glass, water, and certain plastics exhibit this type of transmission. In the instance illustrated, the
transmittance is 85% (the remaining 15% is reflected and absorbed). The source of light is clearly visible through the transmitting
medium. (b) With diffuse transmission, the source of light is not visible and, in the case of multiple sources, the diffusing surface
exhibits generally uniform brightness if the spacing between the light sources does not exceed approximately 1 1/2 times their distance
from the material.
Fig. 6.9 Digital meter (from Li-Cor) has a variety of sensors that
measure illuminance, solar irradiance, or photosynthetic
radiation. Due to its small size, the illuminance sensor can be
Fig. 6.8 Electronic, digital, color-corrected, and cosine-corrected
easily used for architectural model measurements.
illuminance meter from Konica-Minolta.
the red and blue ends of the spectrum is quite low. 5. Vertical surface illuminance at walls and other
This effect is so pronounced that 10 units of blue major vertical planes
energy are required to produce the same visual
effect as 1 unit of yellow–green. If a light meter is It is commonly recommended that average
to be useful, its inherent sensor response, which is illuminance be determined from a reasonable
quite different from that of the human eye, must be sample of individual readings (reasonable being
corrected to correspond to the eye. For this reason, defined by the space context). This is not good
meters are “color corrected.” Illuminance meters advice. If three measurements are made and are
FUNDAMENTALS
must also be corrected for light incident at oblique found to be 100, 200, and 300 lux, the average
angles that does not enter the meter due to reflec- is 200 lux. This may match the design criteria for
DESIGN
tion from the sensor surface and the shielding of the space, but some areas of the space have half
the sensor by the meter housing. This correction is as much light as desired, while some have 50%
known as cosine correction. A good light meter will more. This is not representative of a good design.
therefore be color and cosine corrected. An individual experiences the illuminance at his
Digital illuminance meters may have consid- or her work area—occupants do not experience
erable electronic circuitry—which provides func- average illuminance.
tions such as automatic ranging, units switching,
reading hold, integration for flickering or time- (b) Luminance
varying sources, and connections for external
Luminance is more important to general appre-
data storage and transmission. Field illuminance
ciation of a visual scene, and to glare potentials,
measurements should be made using common
than is illuminance. We see luminance and
sense. Horizontal measurements should be made
contrast—not illuminance. Light, in transit and
at task height. Where no definite height is specified,
falling on a surface, is invisible. Illuminance
readings are typically taken at 30 in. (750 mm)
measurements are more widely utilized than lumi-
above the floor (approximately normal desk
nance measurements (often to the detriment of
height). The meter must be held with the sensor properly evaluating the adequacy of a lighting
parallel to the plane of the surface of concern. installation) due to two factors:
Thus, to measure wall illuminance, the meter
must be held with the sensor parallel to the wall. 1. Illuminance meters are cheaper and simpler to
If electric lighting readings are desired and the use than luminance meters.
test is being conducted during daylight hours, 2. Quantitative lighting design recommendations
readings should be taken with and without the
often focus on illuminance. Verification that

electrical illumination, and the results subtracted. such design targets have been met is commonly
Detailed instructions for conducting field surveys used to confirm the success of a lighting design,
are contained in the IES Lighting Handbook. Briefly, even though there are a number of success
a survey of an existing indoor lighting installation elements above and beyond illuminance.
should establish:
Several configurations of luminance meters are
1. Type, rating, and age of sources available, one of which is shown in Fig. 6.10.
2. Type, design, and model of luminaires Luminance meters of reasonable quality are
3. Maintenance schedule and status substantially more expensive than a comparable
illuminance meter. As a result, they are not as
It should also measure: commonly encountered or used in the field. A
lower-cost workaround for lack of a luminance
1. Mounting height of luminaires meter is discussed below.
2. Spacing and pattern of luminaires An approximation of the luminance of a
3. Reflectances of walls, floor, ceiling, and major reflecting surface or luminous source can be
items of furniture and equipment obtained using an illuminance meter of the type
4. Illuminance levels throughout the area, plus shown in Fig. 6.8. For diffuse reflecting surfaces, the
levels at all working plane elevations. cell of the meter is placed against the surface and
MEASURING LIGHT 187
FUNDAMENTALS
DESIGN
Fig. 6.10 Direct-reading, narrow-angle, spot-type luminance
meter has an acceptance angle of 1∘ , a range of 0.001 to 299,000 Fig. 6.11 When the cell of a direct-reading illuminance meter is
cd/m2 (0.001 to 87,000 fL), a variable response speed to permit held in contact with a luminous source, the surface luminance
measurement of flickering sources, and a comparison mode that can be read directly or calculated.
permits direct luminance comparison of two sources. Results are
displayed digitally.
ratio method. The sample should be no smaller
than 8 in. × 8 in. (200 mm × 200 mm). See Table
then slowly retracted 2 to 4 in. (50 to 100 mm) 10.10 for some typical reflectance values.
until a constant reading is obtained. The lumi- Those involved with lighting design should
nance, in footlamberts, is approximately 1.25 be generally aware of the reflectances of common
times the reading in footcandles—the 1.25 factor materials and paint colors; as well as the range of
compensating for wide-angle light losses (reflected luminances encountered in typical spaces. This
light not captured by the meter sensor). will enable the designer to better appreciate and
For a diffuse luminous source, the cell of visualize architectural variables that substan-
an illuminance meter is placed directly against tially affect the visual environment and visual
the surface (Fig. 6.11); the source luminance in comfort.
footlamberts is equal to the reading on the meter
in footcandles because footlamberts = lumens per
area = footcandles. When using a meter calibrated (d) Luminous Intensity
in lux, the readings must be divided by π to obtain Luminous Intensity Measurements. Lumi-
the diffuse source luminance in cd/m2 . nous intensity (candela [candlepower]) cannot
be measured directly in the field but must be
derived from its illumination effects. The simplest
(c) Reflectance
way of doing this is to use the inverse square
It is often desirable to determine the reflectance of relationship developed in the following section.
a given surface because luminance can then be Measure the illuminance produced on a plane at
readily computed (see Fig. 6.4). Two methods of right angles to a source at a known distance and
measuring diffuse (nonspecular) reflectance are apply Equation 6.6. For accurate measurement,
shown in Fig. 6.12: the known-sample method the distance should be at least 5 and preferably
and the light-ratio method. If a sample of known 10 times the maximum dimension of the source
reflectance is available, this method should be used because, for anything other than a point source,
because it provides more accurate results than the the equation is an approximation. The candela
FUNDAMENTALS 188 CHAPTER 6 LIGHT, VISION, AND VISUAL COMFORT
DESIGN
Fig. 6.12 Two simple methods of measuring the diffuse reflectance of a surface. (Drawn by Martin Lee.)
(candlepower) thus calculated is the luminous Because the same flux is spread over a larger area,
intensity in the direction being viewed. the illuminance on the larger sphere is inversely
Because luminous intensity is not uniform in proportional to the ratio of the sphere areas; that is:
all directions for anything except an ideal point lux2 area1
source, and because a single intensity value for a = (6.4)
lux1 area2
source is sometimes desirable for design purposes, or
the average of a number of intensity measurement area1
lux2 = lux1 ×
values taken from several directions is used. This area2
average figure is called the mean spherical candle- therefore,
power (mscp) and represents an equivalent point 4πr12
source that produces 4π lm for every candela. lux2 = lux1 ×
4πr22
Thus, a 10-cd lamp exhibits an average intensity
of 610 cd in all directions and produces 40π lm. r12
= lux1 × (6.5)
Inverse Square Law. By definition, a point r22
source of 1-cd intensity produces an illuminance
of 1 lux on the inside surface of a surrounding In other words, the illuminance is inversely
sphere of 1-m radius (r). Because the surface area proportional to the square of the distance from the
of this sphere is 4π m2 , a 1-cd source produces 4π source. In general terms,
lm of luminous flux. Now, assume a sphere of 2-m cd intensity
lux = (6.6)
radius surrounding this same source (Fig. 6.13). distance
2
MEASURING LIGHT 189
Area = 1 m2 Area = 4 m2 a candlepower distribution curve (CDC). Different

IIIuminance = 1 lux IIIuminance = 1 sources will have different curve shapes and
4
magnitudes. The procedure for making a CDC is
straightforward. An illuminance meter is rotated
around the source in a defined plane, illuminance
is measured at multiple points, and luminous
intensity (cd) is calculated. Alternatively, the
2m
illuminance meter can be fixed and the source
FUNDAMENTALS
1m
rotated. If the source distribution is symmetrical,
P1 P2 as shown in Fig. 6.15, then only a single set of
DESIGN
values is required, and the resultant plot is valid
in all vertical planes through the source. Thus,
for pointlike sources only a single CDC is usually
required. For a nonsymmetric source, such as a
tube, CDC curves in several planes are required
Standard
candle to define the fixture distribution characteristic.
1 candela Normally, manufacturers will provide longitudinal
and crosswise candlepower distribution curves,
Fig. 6.13 Relationship among candelas, lumens, and lux defined
with reference to a standard light source of 1 mean spherical cp
plus a diagonal (45∘ plane) curve on request. This
(1 cd) located at the center of a sphere with a 1-m radius. (Drawn is illustrated in Fig. 6.16, where curves for three
by Martin Lee.) planes are shown. Note that the area of a CDC
curve is not a measure of total lumen output.
where distance is expressed in m (ft). This holds Most CDC plots are made on polar coordinates
true for surfaces normal to a source. because such a plot clearly shows directions and
This relationship can also readily be derived by magnitudes. Polar plots tend to crowd near the
using any solid angle and the area it intercepts, as nadir, however, and accurate magnitude readings
in Fig. 6.14. This figure shows that the area inter- at the cutoff angle are difficult to make. For this
cepted is proportional to the square of the distance reason, it is occasionally desirable to obtain a
from the source; therefore, the illuminance is plot on rectangular coordinates. One such plot
inversely proportional, as stated previously.
Intensity Distribution Curves. If luminous 210° 180° 150°
intensity values for a light source are plotted on
polar coordinate axes, the resultant figure is called

240° 120°
Spherical surfaces
Am2 4 Am2 9 Am2
ω = 1 steradian 270° 90°

Intensity (cd)
100
Point source D1 = 1 m 300° 200 60°

of uniform D2 = 2 m
candlepower
D3 = 3 m 300
330° 0° 30°
Fig. 6.15 Typical luminous intensity (cd) distribution curve

Fig. 6.14 Demonstration of inverse square law properties using a for a general diffuse-type luminaire. Because the unit is
solid angle of unit size. Note that the surfaces are necessarily symmetrical about its vertical axis, only one curve need be
spherical because points on a planar surface are not equidistant shown. Furthermore, only the right side of this curve need be
from the source. shown, due to symmetry.
175 165
1000
900 155
145
800
700 135
600 125
500
400 115
300
CANDLE POWER
200 105
FUNDAMENTALS
100 95
p 0 90
100
DESIGN
85
200
300 75
400
45° 500 65
Plane parallel 600
700
to the tubes 55
800
Plane 900 45
perpendicular 1000
to the tubes 1100 35
1200 25
Plane 45° 5 15 PLANE-NORMAL TO LAMPS
to the tubes PLANE-PARALLEL TO LAMPS
PLANE-45° TO LAMPS
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.16 (a) Due to the asymmetry of a fluorescent luminaire, intensity distribution curves in (at least) three planes are required.
(b) Photometric distribution for this luminaire is symmetrical in each individual plane; therefore, only one side of a curve is required.
By convention, the right side is used.
is shown in Fig. 6.17. Intensity distribution

Approximate initial luminous intensity curves are important to an understanding of
100 distribution 500–W PAR Lamps
lighting fixture performance, point-by-point illu-
90 minance calculations, and direct and reflected
glare analysis.
80
Candela–thousands
70
Narrow spot
VISION
60
50
6.5 THE EYE
Medium flood
40
Both light and the measurement of light are
30 directly related to how the human eye receives
and processes this special form of energy. The eye
20 and vision are both integral to understanding
Wide flood light in the built environment. Figure 6.18 shows
10
the structure of the eye and the parallel structure
0
of a camera. Light passes through the pupil, the
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 size of which is controlled by the iris, thereby
Degrees from beam axis controlling the amount of light entering the eye.
The lens focuses the image conveyed by the light
Fig. 6.17 Luminous intensity distribution curves plotted in
rectangular coordinates. Note that candela values near the cutoff on the retina, from which the optic nerve conveys
angles are easily read, which is not the case in polar plots. a visual message by electric impulse to the brain.
VISUAL ACUITY 191
Rod vision:
involuntary reactions,
peripheral vision Photosensitive
lacking detail
emulsion (film)
Eyelid
Aperture
Cornea
Iris Central area:
FUNDAMENTALS
Pupil Retina
cone vision;
Fovea Lens
color vision,
DESIGN
detail vision
Iris
Image Lens Shutter
Aqueous Optic nerve
humor
Rod vision
Vitreous
humor
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.18 The human eye (a) and a camera (b) operate on similar optic principles. The cornea acts as an outer refracting lens that
introduces light into the iris. The iris and pupil control the extent of opening of the eye, and correspond roughly to an f-stop range of
f2.1 to f11. The lens, which acts as a perfectly smooth automatic zoom lens, can focus from about 2 in. (50 mm) to infinity.
Light entering the eye is focused on the Figure 6.19 illustrates the angles related to the
retina, which contains in all some 150 million field of vision. Of interest is the extreme narrow-
light-sensitive cells of two types: rods and cones. ness of the cone of central (foveal) vision, in which
The central portion of the eye, near the fovea, is acute perception of detail takes place. This area is
an area of pinhead size containing about 100,000 so small that your eye must refocus on each dot in
cone cells, which accounts for the extreme preci- a colon (:) if you wish to examine each one indi-
sion of foveal (center-focus) vision. The cones vidually. Surrounding this central area is a cone
are responsible for the ability to discriminate of binocular vision of 30∘ half-angle, called the
detail; they also give us the capacity to perceive near field or surround, in which most of the coarser
color, and can detect luminances ranging from sight information is gathered. Beyond this cone
3 to 1,000,000 cd/m2 . Proceeding outward we have far-field and peripheral, primarily hori-
from the fovea, rod cells are encountered. Rods zontal, monocular vision. The far-field and periph-
can detect luminances from 1/1000 cd/m2 to eral areas largely give us our subjective reactions of
approximately 120 cd/m2 and are extremely light ambience.
sensitive, having a response to light 1/10,000 that
is required by cone cells. Rods lack color sensitivity,
however, thus accounting for the fact that in dim 6.6 VISUAL ACUITY
light (rod vision) we have no color perception and
all colors appear as varying shades of gray. Rods We encounter a wide range of visual tasks during
also lack detail discrimination, making “night a typical day. Some of these tasks occur outdoors
vision” quite coarse. Finally, rods are slower acting and many are relatively simple and undemanding.
than cones and therefore have a low degree of For most of us, however, many visual tasks are
flicker fusion; they are highly motion sensitive. conducted in buildings—and many of these
Because rods dominate at the outer portions of the indoor tasks are reasonably demanding. Visual
retina, we are best able to detect movement when acuity describes the ability to see detail (think of
looking out of the “corner of the eye.” an eye test) and in many building spaces adequate
FUNDAMENTALS 192 CHAPTER 6 LIGHT, VISION, AND VISUAL COMFORT
DESIGN
Fig. 6.19 The fields of vision of a normal pair of human eyes (a) and the subtended angles (b). Rectangles A and B superimposed on
the field of vision in (a) represent a large magazine and a small book, respectively.
visual acuity is important to the success of the primary or secondary importance. The variables
space in use. (some controllable by design and some not) are:
There are three main components to any
I. The Task
seeing task: the object or task itself, the lighting
conditions, and the observer. Several variables Primary Factors
affect each of these three components. Based upon a. Size
many investigations, they can be categorized as of b. Luminance
VISUAL ACUITY 193
c. Contrast, including color contrast eyes—visual acuity is primarily dependent upon

d. Exposure time—needed or available items Ia to Id, the interrelated effects of which have
Secondary Factors been revealed by numerous field tests. Remember
that the seeing task for visual acuity involves
e. Type of object—required mental
foveal vision (i.e., focusing and concentrating on
activity; familiarity with the object
small-area detail). This is a vastly different task
(in reading, familiarity is so important
than normal reading, where the eye rapidly scans
as to become a primary factor)
familiar images without focusing on details, and
FUNDAMENTALS
f. Degree of accuracy required
the brain immediately understands even if much
g. Task—moving or stationary
of the information is missing. The task discussed
DESIGN
h. Peripheral patterns
next is quite different and could be compared to
II. The Lighting Conditions studying mathematical equations or reading an
Primary Factors unfamiliar language or even proofreading. Such
tasks require detailed examination of each symbol
a. Illuminance
individually.
b. Disability glare (blinding glare being
rare indoors)
c. Discomfort glare (a) Size of the Visual Object
Secondary Factors Visual acuity is generally proportional to the rela-
d. Luminance ratios tive size of the object being viewed, given fixed
e. Luminance patterns luminance, contrast, and exposure time. Because
f. Chromaticity the parameter of concern is not absolute size
but subtended visual angle, visual acuity can be
III. The Observer
increased by bringing the object nearer the eye
Primary Factors (Fig. 6.20). This assumes a pair of young eyes,
a. Condition of the eyes (relative to both because at ages above 40, the accommodation
health and age) ability of the eye becomes limited and bringing the
b. Adaptation state object closer may blur the focus.
c. Fatigue state
Secondary Factors (b) Luminance
d. Subjective impressions; psychological
The sensation of vision, as explained previously,
reactions
is caused by light entering the eye. This light may
be thought of as a group of convergent rays, each
These factors are considered individually in ray coming from a different point in space and
the following discussions, but many are interre- therefore carrying different visual information.
lated. Luminance (Ib) and adaptation (IIIb) are the The composite of these rays constitutes the entire
result of illumination (IIa); subjective impressions visual picture that the eye sees and the brain
(IIId) are dependent on brightness patterns (IIe) comprehends. The individual rays differ from each
and chromaticity (IIf); fatigue (IIIc) results from a other in intensity and chromaticity, depending
combination of many of the factors, and so on. on the part of the viewed object from which they
It is common to find reference to the quan- emanate. The intensity of these cones of light
tity and quality of light—dealing generally with determines the luminance of the object being
lighting design elements that are objective and viewed.
subjective, respectively. In the above list, the quan- The human eye can detect luminance over an
tity of light connects directly to item IIa and quality astonishing range of more than 100 million to 1.
to items IIb through IIf. This range is made possible by a visual process
Assuming a good lighting situation—one called adaptation. Dark adaptation may take up to
with low glare, acceptable luminance ratios, 2 minutes (for cone vision) to up to 40 minutes
white light, and a normal pair of unfatigued (for rod vision). Light adaptation (going from dark
a
FUNDAMENTALS
DESIGN
Fig. 6.20 Relationship between object size and visibility is demonstrated by comparison of subtended angles a and b. (Drawn by
Martin Lee.)
to light) involves a lesser time lag for both types of TABLE 6.3 Example Luminances
vision. The effects of adaptation on brightness are
Item cd/m2 Footlamberts
discussed in the following section. Tables 6.2 and
Recommended road 1–2 0.3-0.6
6.3 list some measured luminances of everyday luminance, night
visual tasks. Minimum luminance for 2–3 0.6-0.9
discernible chromatic
distinctions
TABLE 6.2 Typical Luminance Valuesa Clearly discernible human 15–20 4.5-6.0
features
Luminance Preferred wall luminance 25–150 8-45
Object cd/m2 Footlamberts Preferred ceiling luminance 50–250 15-75
Black glove on a cloudy night 0.0003 0.0001 Preferred task luminance 100–500 30-150
Wall brightness in a 100 30 Permissible luminaire 1000–7000 300-2100
well-lighted office luminance (depending
A sheet of white paper in an 120 35 upon position)
office
Green electroluminescent 150 45
lamp
Asphalt paving—overcast 1300 380 An interesting characteristic of light-level
day
North sky 3500 1000 adaptation is a shift in the sensitivity curve of
Moon, candle flame 4,000–5000 1200-1500 the eye (Fig. 6.3b). For the light-adapted eye
Fluorescent tube 6,000–8000 1800-2400
Kerosene flame 8500 2500 (described as photopic vision) maximum sensitivity
Hazy sky or fog 15,000 4400 occurs at 555 nm in the yellow–green region;
Snow in sunlight 25,000 7300 for the dark-adapted eye (scotopic vision) sensi-
100-W inside-frost 50,000 14,600
incandescent lamp tivity peaks at 520 nm in the blue–green region.
Sun 2.3 E9 0.67 E9 This means that as luminance decreases, warm
a Values are rounded off. colors—yellow, orange, red—become grayed, and
VISUAL ACUITY 195
the blues and violets stand out. This phenomenon equation, we can conclude that contrast is generally
can be important in the design of restaurant independent of illuminance (ignoring specularity).
lighting, where light levels generally vary inversely High contrast is the critical factor in visual
with restaurant quality. Very few foods are blue appreciation of outline, silhouette, and size, which
or violet. are the factors involved in the task of reading.
In general, visual performance increases Thus, reasonably large black-on-white print can
with object luminance. This pattern, however, be read with ease even in moonlight (around 0.1
is affected by the background against which an lux illuminance) because the contrast is so high
FUNDAMENTALS
object is viewed and the consequent contrast in (94%). For a reading task—with high contrast
luminance between the object being viewed and (clear, legible print), visibility is essentially inde-
DESIGN
its surroundings. pendent of illuminance above a certain minimum.
Indeed, high illuminance values can be detri-
mental because they generally go hand in hand
(c) Contrast and Adaptation with high-luminance sources, and these can
The discussion that follows assumes full-spectrum potentially lead to glare.
white light and ignores the effects of chromaticity, Referring to Fig. 6.21, note that as the
which is considered separately. Many researchers contrast between the letters and the background
have concluded that contrast is the single most diminishes, the individual letters become harder
important factor in visual acuity. This is evident to read. The left-hand letters require an illu-
when we realize that, in fact, the acute eye sees minance of up to 1000 lux (90 fc), and that
only contrast. There is no detail to be seen when suffices only because we can imply the letters
viewing a large, evenly lighted, monochromatic, from the sentence. Were the left-hand letters an
diffuse-finish surface. unknown stand-alone symbol, illuminance of a
The effect of contrast (luminance ratio) on magnitude of 10,000 lux (930 fc) or more would
visibility depends upon the nature of the visual be needed. These initial letters are an example
task (more simply, exactly what it is that we are of the second type of visual task mentioned
trying to see). The basic visual tasks are detail previously—low-contrast poor copy requiring
discrimination and detection under low contrast. surface detail study.
Examples of the former are drafting, industrial The h in “helpful” in Fig. 6.21 is printed with
product inspection, or something as simple as the same density as the y in “clarity.” It exists, and
discriminating between the numbers 3, 6, and with enough light, the negative effect of lack of
8, which are similarly shaped. Detection under contrast can be overcome. This is not so with copy
low contrast includes reading faint copy, sewing a from a used-up printer cartridge or a washed-out
black fabric with black thread, and the like. photocopy. There, the data simply do not exist, and
Contrast is a dimensionless ratio, defined as: increased illuminance only makes this fact more
|L − L | evident.
LT − LB L − LT | T|
C= or B or | B | (6.7) High background luminance makes an object
LB LB | LB |
| | look darker, and therefore assists in outline detail
where LT and LB are the luminance of the task discrimination. For this reason, black-on-white is
and background, respectively, in consistent desirable for reading. Conversely, high background
units. Thus, C varies from 0 (no contrast) to luminance makes surface examination more
1.0 (maximum contrast). In most situations, the
illuminance on the task and background is the
same. Therefore, because luminance is the product
of illuminance (lux) and reflectance, contrast can
also be expressed as: Contrast can be extremely
helpful in visual clarity
|R − R |
| T|
C=| B | (6.8)
| RB |
| |
where RT and RB are the reflectances of the Fig. 6.21 High contrast is helpful when the seeing task involves
task and the background, respectively. From this detection of silhouette detail. (Martin Lee.)
difficult. A simple experiment demonstrates this Another way of understanding this is to

effect. Stand near a window and hold your hand consider the adaptation characteristic of the
in front of you with the floor as background. The human eye (Fig. 6.22). The eye adapts to the
skin surface detail is perfectly clear—in rough brightness level of the overall scene and sees each
proportion to its luminance. Now hold your hand object in the scene in the framework of that
up against the window with the daytime sky as adaptation level. Thus, at an adaptation level of
background. The hand outline is clear, but the 1 fL (3.4 cd/m2 ), a measured luminance ratio
skin surface appears dark—the brighter the sky, of 1:10 (horizontal scale on Fig. 6.22) appears
FUNDAMENTALS
the darker the skin surface. The reason for this is to be approximately 1:4 (vertical scale); that is,
that the eye automatically adapts to the average the apparent ratio is smaller than the actual one.
DESIGN
luminance of the entire scene. The low state (1 fL) (3.4 cd/m2 ) of eye adapta-
When taking a photograph of a dark object tion causes the eye to diminish the difference
on a light background (such as a person in a snow between high brightnesses. This effect decreases
scene) the camera aperture should be increased to as the adaptation level rises, until at an adap-
obtain additional light to photograph the detail of tation level of 1000 fL (3400 cd/m2 ; typical of
the darker object (in doing so, the rest of the scene daylight conditions), the apparent and actual
is overexposed). Because we cannot easily control ratios correspond; that is, smaller ratios are recog-
the aperture of our eyes, the detrimental effect of nizable. Because visual acuity is the ability to
high background luminance must be compensated distinguish between different levels of luminance,
for in another way—for example, by increasing it follows that visual acuity increases with increased
the surface luminance of the visual task. This adaptation level.
method is frequently employed in lighting design. The second important conclusion that can be
Squinting can provide limited visual compensa- drawn is that at high adaptation levels, apparent
tion; doing so reduces the field of vision and the brightness is lower than actual brightness, and
overall scene brightness. For maximum visual vice versa. Thus, a shadowed object near a window
acuity, the luminance of a surface-type task should looks darker than it actually is; contrary to first
be the same as, or slightly higher than, that of the expectation, it must be better lighted than a similar
background, but ratios of 3:1 are acceptable in most object further inside the room for equal visibility.
circumstances. That this effect (high-level adaptation) is primarily
Subjective brightness; apparent luminance–fL
Subjective brightness; apparent luminance

Eye adaptation levels

1000 3400
500 1:10
200 1:4
1:10 1:2.5
100 2) 2)
340
1:2
50 1:3.5 1. 0 fL cd/m d/ m
(34 0c
(34
cd/m2
2 fL 1:2
20 d/m) 10 fL 2)
10 (3.4 c 100 1:2
d/m 34
0 0c
5 1:3
(34
L
1:4 0 0f
2 10
1 3.4
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1500 fL
0.3 3.4 34 340 3400 cd/m2

Measured luminance
Fig. 6.22 The effect of an eye’s adaptation level on perceived (subjective) brightness is shown. (Adapted from H. Cotton. 1960.
Principles of Illumination. New York: John Wiley & Sons.)
VISUAL ACUITY 197
important in daylight situations is also apparent These remarks address object color only. Most
from the curves. At a 100-fL (340-cd/m2 ) adapta- design situations assume white, full-spectrum
tion level, which is approximately that of a brightly light, such that neither object color nor visual
lit interior space, apparent and actual luminance acuity is negatively affected. The effect of
levels coincide. The reverse effect, resulting from color-unbalanced light sources (such as a
low adaptation levels, can be very important in high-pressure sodium lamp) on visual acuity
design situations where low lighting levels are is less clear—although it appears that any nega-
found, such as theaters, lecture halls, restaurants, tive effects may be most pronounced with the
FUNDAMENTALS
and storage spaces. Sources of light that would elderly and persons with visual defects. This
be entirely acceptable at a higher adaptation level impact should be considered when designing with
DESIGN
can easily become an annoying glare under low demonstrably nonwhite light sources.
level adaptation. Good examples (at night) are a
flashlight or the blinding glare of an oncoming
(d) Exposure Time
car’s headlights.
The above discussion of contrast deliber- Registering a meaningful visual image is not an
ately avoided discussion of object colors and the instantaneous process; it requires a finite amount
effect of color contrast on visual acuity for several of time. Just as a photograph can be taken in dim
reasons: light by using a longer exposure, so can the human
eye better distinguish and discriminate fine detail
• Office- and school-type tasks (paperwork) are in poor light given time (and neglecting eyestrain).
often black-on-white tasks. Of course, the time needed depends on the type
• Most work tasks involving colored objects of task, but the principle of shorter time at higher
involve unsaturated colors, where the pro- illuminance, within limits, remains the same. This
nounced effects of color contrast are minimal. is particularly true when the object being viewed is
• The effect of object color on visual acuity is very not static but in motion.
complex because it involves the color character- The effect of viewing time, however, is not
istic not only of the object, but also of the back- linear. In one experiment, increasing luminance
ground and the surround plus the chromaticity by a factor of 6 reduced the seeing time by 50%,
of the illuminating light. whereas a further six-fold increase in luminance
reduced the time only another 20%. Thus, as in
Nevertheless, several important object color the situation of improved contrast with increasing
phenomena that bear on visual acuity should be background brightness, there is a case of dimin-
mentioned. ishing returns.

With the parameter of time, as with other
• The brightness of a colored (heterochromatic) parameters of visual acuity, the same qualification
object is greater than that of an achromatic applies. When dealing with material that does not
object for the same luminance. This effect varies require detail discrimination, improved perfor-
with hue and saturation. It is more pronounced mance does not necessarily result from improved
with saturated colors than with those of low illuminance. Speed of reading and comprehen-
chroma, and more so in the blue–purple–red sion are substantially independent of illuminance
area than the yellow–green area. above a minimum, but are very much dependent
• Colored objects on a dark-to-black background on the contrast quality of the material.
appear light and desaturated. Conversely, colors
on a light-to-white background appear darker
(e) Secondary Task-Related Factors
and more saturated.
• Adjacent complementary colors produce a pale- Consider the secondary factors Ie–h in the list of
to-white border between them. This effect also visual acuity factors presented above. These factors
appears when the task and background colors essentially concern the level of concentration
are complementary, and is most pronounced required. Spray-painting a large metal object or
with saturated (high-chroma) colors. packing fruit are very different from inspecting the
painted object for defects or the fruit for bruises. (f) Observer-Related Acuity Factors
The former tasks are largely mechanical and repe-
The lighting designer must be concerned not
titious, whereas the latter tasks require continuous
only with providing adequate illuminance and
judgment based on visual information. Because
luminance, but with all the factors involved in
both inspection tasks are frequently moving (in
the process of seeing. Many are beyond his or
assembly-line type work) and both involve penal-
her control—including the state of the eye of
ties for inaccuracy (rejection at a later inspection
the observer—but must be considered when
point or complaints from a purchaser), the lighting
FUNDAMENTALS
addressing those factors that are controllable.

required for these tasks must be several orders of
Excellent visual performance may not be
magnitude better than that for related but largely
DESIGN
synonymous with maximum comfort or minimum

mechanical tasks.
fatigue. The reverse may sometimes be true. Most
There are several potential ways that a worker
experts agree that what is normally referred to
might compensate for an unsatisfactory seeing
as eyestrain is a condition of the eye muscles
condition:
resulting from extensive and intensive eye use.
Thus, excellent performance under excellent
1. Moving the work to a better viewing angle
lighting conditions can still produce fatigue
2. Moving the head and eyes to a more comfort-
because of the demanding nature of a task. As
able position
discussed later in this chapter, discomfort glare
3. Reducing the distance between the eyes and the
or even excessive light can cause fatigue without
task to the extent that the eyes can accommo-
affecting performance.
date
The visual performance of healthy eyes
4. Complaining about a poor-contrast task so that
decreases with age. This reduction is demon-
something is done about it (such as replacing
strated principally in two areas: an increase in
the toner in a photocopier)
minimum focusing distance caused by increasing
5. Taking more time to perform the seeing task
lens rigidity and a decrease in light sensitivity
(which, if it affects production, frequently spurs
caused by clouding of the cornea, lens, and
management to make appropriate alterations
vitreous humor. Both effects can be compensated
in the work environment)
for, the former with external lensing (eyeglasses)
and the latter by increased task size, luminance,
The last item in the visual acuity factor task-related contrast, and/or exposure time, as explained
list—peripheral patterns—deals with the visual above. The age of the observer is an important
surround rather than the immediate area of
parameter in lighting design, as discussed below.

the work. Glare sources will be discussed sepa- Most lighting design standards were established to
rately, but there are other items outside the meet the needs of average young adults.
central field of vision that can disturb the viewer’s
concentration and therefore task performance.
(g) The Aging Eye
These include movement (of vehicles, machines,
persons), to which peripheral vision is particu- Recent decades have seen an increase in human
larly sensitive; large variations in the brightness life expectancy in modern Western countries and
pattern of the background caused by such activ- the aging of the Baby Boomer generation, resulting
ities as periodic opening of an outside door or in a sharp increase in the elderly population. In
welding; and even nonvarying patterns that are the United States, 15.2% of the population is
disturbing because of their very nature, such 65 years of age or older (U.S. Census Bureau,
as checkerboard light-dark patterns, or devices 2016)—a proportion expected to reach 22% by
on which it is difficult to focus the eyes, such as the year 2050. As a result, lighting designers
crossed patterns of wires and bars. None of these must consider not only the special requirements
items is strictly lighting-oriented, but are noted of buildings specifically intended for use by the
here to demonstrate that a good lighting design aged but also in general-use public buildings.
will include adjustments for anticipated field A brief review of these special requirements is
conditions. presented here.
VISUAL ACUITY 199
Light enters the eye through the cornea, pressing requirement that sources of glare and
passes through the aqueous humor, and enters peripheral light be eliminated. (People with
the lens through the pupil (Fig. 6.18). After being this condition frequently wear eyeglasses and
focused by the lens, light continues through the sunglasses with large, opaque side shields to
vitreous humor and finally projects the viewed block peripheral light and thus reduce glare.)
image, reversed, onto the retina. As the eye ages, Also, because short-wavelength (blue) light inter-
numerous physiological changes may occur; some reflects and scatters more readily than does
are usual and are therefore classified as normal; long-wavelength (yellow–red) light, such persons
FUNDAMENTALS
others, such as cataracts, are less common but are more comfortable with low-color-temperature
are still considered by ophthalmologists to be lamps than with sources rich in the blue–green
DESIGN
an expected development. The nature of these spectrum. (Ophthalmologists frequently prescribe
changes, and their influence on design, are briefly yellow-tinted eyeglasses for people with this lens
described in the following subsections. condition in order to filter out blue light.)
A less common, but still prevalent, condition
The Cornea. This initially perfectly clear of the aging lens is the development of fluorescent
outer lens tends to become cloudy, with corre- particles, called fluorigens, in the vision path. In
sponding reduction of visual clarity and acuity. the presence of UV radiation (as exists in daylight,
This results in a need for more ambient light to fluorescent, and high-intensity discharge sources),
overcome the reduction in light falling on the these particles fluoresce—causing scatter, blur,
retina. The need for additional light for aging and glare. The solution to this problem is a combi-
eyes is recognized in most modern lighting design nation of yellow-tinted eyeglass lenses and a
guidelines. reduction of light from sources containing appre-
ciable quantities of UV.
The Lens. The lens, which begins life as a
very lightly yellow-tinted, flexible crystalline body,
The Pupil. The pupil controls the amount of
gradually thickens and darkens in tone. The thick-
ening reduces flexibility, leading to an inability light entering the eye and is therefore intimately
to focus on objects that are near (presbyopia or involved in the constantly changing accommo-
hyperopia). The yellowing reduces the overall dation level of the eye. The pupil muscles react
light intensity in the eye and selectively filters the more slowly as they age, thus lengthening accom-
blue portion of the spectrum. The overall effect is modation time. Dark-to-light accommodation is
again a requirement for additional light to achieve very rapid in the young eye, and is barely noticed
except for extreme changes, such as exiting a
desired visual acuity.

A second and more important degener- movie theater into sunlight. With an aging eye,
ative phenomenon of the lens is its gradual the slower pupil response results in severe glare
clouding (increasing opacity). When such opacity sensations with even small brightness changes.
is confined to the perimeter, its effect is negligible The net result of all the normal changes taking
because vision is unaffected. When small, opaque place in the aging eye is a heightened sensitivity
areas appear within the visual axis of the lens, to glare, intolerance to the blue–UV end of the
however, vision is affected in two ways: spectrum, and an overall requirement for higher
illuminance levels. For the lighting designer, these
1. The viewed image is dimmed and blurred due to needs translate into requirements for very careful
opacities in the field of view. selection and placement of luminaires, increased
2. Light entering the lens is scattered by inter- use of indirect lighting, and attention to the spec-
reflections from the opaque particles, resulting trum of the light sources used. Because some of
in a subjective impression of glare. This effect is these requirements are not only mutually incom-
particularly severe outdoors, where light enters patible but also contrary to energy-efficient design
the lens from all angles. practices, it may be particularly difficult to satisfy
all the requirements in spaces occupied by persons
The net result of these reactions is a require- with a wide range of ages. In spaces of this type, it
ment for more ambient light, but an even more may be wise to provide for the possibility of readily
changing lighting conditions in a limited area to

accommodate older occupants, keeping in mind
40° direct
the glare and color factors discussed previously. glare zone
Direct glare 45°

reflected
glare zone
6.7 GLARE
90˚ field
Excessive luminances and/or excessive lumi- Reflected glare
FUNDAMENTALS
of view
nance ratios in the field of vision are commonly
referred to as glare. Glare, however, is a human
DESIGN
perception—an opinion—regarding a particular

aspect of the luminous environment. Glare is the
potential subjective result of an objective condition
(excessive luminance). Glare cannot be measured
with any device; it can only be declared by an
Fig. 6.23 Glare zones. Direct glare assumes a head-up position,
observer. As with many aspects of building design, whereas reflected glare assumes eyes down at a reading angle.
we use quantifiable values during analysis as a (Drawn by Martin Lee.)
surrogate for qualitative responses by users. Thus,
luminance is a good predictor for glare.
Glare that is caused by a light source seen eye adapts rapidly to the average brightness of the
by the users of a space is termed direct glare; glare overall visual scene; second, the eye is attracted to
that is caused by the reflection of a light source the highest luminance in that scene. (This fact is
in a viewed surface is known as reflected glare or, used effectively in merchandising displays.) Thus,
when the surface involves a visual task, as a veiling if an area of high brightness, such as a window or
reflection (see Fig. 6.23). The severity of glare is a light fixture, is in the visual scene, and we are
usually expressed through the classifications of looking at an area of lower brightness, such as a
discomfort, disability, and blinding glare. Blinding work task, three visually disturbing things occur:
glare, with effects as per its name, should never
be encountered in a building. Disability glare will 1. The eye adapts to a higher luminance level,
measurably decrease visual acuity and should be thus effectively reducing the subjective bright-
absent from most buildings. Discomfort glare will ness of the task—essentially making it harder
not measurably decrease visual acuity, but does to see what we are looking at (see Fig. 6.22).
enter the consciousness or subconsciousness of This can be experienced by alternately blocking

an occupant—with a range of potential negative and unblocking a direct glare source while
consequences. Factors affecting the severity of trying to perform a moderately difficult visual
glare are the adaptation level of the eyes, the task—there will be an immediate improvement
apprehended size of the glare source, luminance in visibility when the glare source is obscured.
ratios, room size, surface finishes, and the size and 2. The eye is drawn simultaneously in two direc-
location of lighting fixtures and windows. Light tions: involuntarily to the source of high lumi-
sources in the far-field and peripheral-vision areas nance, and intentionally to the object we are
beyond the central 90∘ cone are less troublesome looking at. The resulting tension causes consid-
as glare sources. erable visual discomfort.
3. Adaptation is continuously varying as the eye is
drawn to the glare source and away again.
(a) Direct Glare
The factors that contribute to the perception of Glare potential is proportional to source lumi-
direct glare are the luminance, size, and position of nance and its apprehended solid angle. Therefore,
a source within the field of vision, plus the adap- a small but bright source is usually not a visual
tation of the eye. The discomfort resulting from problem, whereas a large, low-brightness source
direct glare stems from two conditions. First, the (such as a highly illuminated ceiling) may be.
GLARE 201
A small, bright source may add sparkle to the field Considering the dependence of direct glare
of vision, which many observers may find to be a on eye adaptation, a useful design recommen-
pleasant addition to a monotonous lighting envi- dation is that the luminance of large sources
ronment. Although discomfort glare from a scene should not exceed 2500 cd/m2 (730 fL) and that
is cumulative (multiple sources can contribute), of small sources should not exceed 7500 cd/m2
luminance of the sources is more important than (2190 fL). The first value is roughly the lumi-
the number of sources. For instance, if the luminance of blue sky; the second is roughly that of a
nance of several sources is halved, the reduction fluorescent lamp. The terms “large” and “small”
FUNDAMENTALS
in glare potential is greater than is achieved by are relative—depending on the source distance
reducing the number of sources by half. In fact, from the observer as well as the actual dimensions
DESIGN
the latter has little effect on discomfort glare. of the source. The determining characteristic is
Factors 2 and 3 are less evident. Glare poten- apprehended size, or subtended visual angle, as
tial decreases rapidly as a bright source is moved shown in Fig. 6.24.
away from the direct line of vision; it depends The statistically likely cumulative effect
on the source position in the field of view. The of several direct glare sources (in an interior
likelihood of direct discomfort glare from a source space) can be quantified by visual comfort proba-
is inversely proportional to the background lumi- bility (VCP). VCP is defined as the percentage of
nance (which establishes eye adaptation level). normal-vision observers who would not express
Thus, a ceiling fixture with a luminance of 4000 direct-glare discomfort in that specific visual envi-
cd/m2 (1167 fL) at a 65∘ view angle would likely ronment. IESNA has established (Committee
constitute a source of discomfort glare to a user Report, 1966) a set of standard conditions
with eyes adapted to 150 cd/m2 (44 fL). The same for which VCP of sources can be calculated.
fixture would not be objectionable in a daylight These include a 1000-lux (93-fc) illuminance,
condition, where the eye might be adapted to 1500 representative room dimensions, fixture height,
cd/m2 (438 fL). A common example is automobile observer position, and a head-up field of view
headlights, which at night present such a severe limited to 53∘ above and directly forward from the
contrast as to constitute disabling or blinding observer (Fig. 6.24). Unified glare rating (UGR)
glare—whereas in daylight, with its high eye is a CIE (International Commission on Illumina-
adaptation level, headlights, although noticeable, tion) design index that can be used for similar
are not usually disturbing. purpose.
Small bright source
85°
53° glare zone per
IES VCP criteria
45°
45°– 85°
Apprehended glare zone
(subtended) angle
Horizontal
Angle
from nadir
0°
Fig. 6.24 Evaluation of direct glare potential. The glare contribution of each source depends upon its size (subtended solid angle),
luminance, and location in the field of view. Note that the solid angle of a small source is such that even with high luminance, it is not
generally objectionable. Such sources are normally called sparkle. Glare is much more likely when a bright source is seen against a
darker background; therefore, light-colored ceilings and upper walls are recommended. (Drawn by Martin Lee.)
Direct glare should not be a problem if all three ceiling-mounted fluorescent fixture with four
of these conditions are satisfied: 40WT12 lamps. Note that all VCP values are
considerably above the minimum criterion of 70. If
1. The VCP is 70 or more. full VCP data of this type are not available, they can
2. The ratio of maximum-to-average luminaire be calculated with almost any lighting calculation
luminance does not exceed 5:1 (preferably 3:1) program, given the luminaire luminance data.
at 45∘ , 55∘ , 65∘ , 75∘ , and 85∘ from the nadir, Despite the usefulness of the VCP criterion in
crosswise, and lengthwise. designing to reduce glare potential, it is inherently
FUNDAMENTALS
3. Maximum luminaire luminances crosswise limited by its standard conditions, which are not
and lengthwise do not exceed the following: easily applied to other situations. Thus:
DESIGN
Angle Above Maximum Luminance 1. In small spaces, VCP has little significance.
Nadir (degrees) cd/m2 (fL)
2. Tabulated VCP figures are given for the worst
45 7710 2250 viewing position in the room. Because VCP
55 5500 1605
65 3860 1126 varies dramatically with observer position, the
75 2570 750 VCP values given are always lower than the
85 1695 495
space’s average VCP. (Then again, no individual
space user can experience the average VCP.
A typical set of manufacturer’s luminance This issue speaks directly to how design criteria
and VCP data is shown in Fig. 6.25 for a for buildings are established.)
Fig. 6.25 A typical set of a manufacturer’s published VCP and luminance data.
GLARE 203
Given these considerations (which tend to

make the direct glare situation better in a built
1
space than predicted by VCP calculations), a
2
proposed lighting design with a VCP somewhat
below 70 should not be immediately discarded. 3
Light from various sources
This is not a recommendation to accept bad

design solutions, but rather to evaluate designs
holistically using well-developed owner’s project
FUNDAMENTALS
requirements that appropriately balance intended (a)
outcomes.
DESIGN
Sum of specular
and diffuse reflections
from all sources in
(b) Reflected Glare direction of eyes
Principal source
No formal definition distinguishes reflected glare illumination
Lesser Sources
from veiling reflection. Both terms refer to the
introduction of luminance to the eye through
the action of a reflection. Herein, veiling reflec-
tion will be used to describe a situation where (b)
a source reflection decreases visibility of a
specific task (such as reading a computer screen).
Reflected glare will be used to describe the broader Perfect absorber
situation. RF = 0
Nature of the Problem. Designing to control

reflected glare is a more complex problem than
that of direct glare control. Reflected glare involves
both a primary source (say a light fixture) and a
secondary source (such as a computer screen), (c)
which are connected by sometimes complex and
varying geometry (Fig. 6.26). Vision is made
possible by light reflected from the majority of the
objects we see. If a mirror replaced the object being
No other sources
viewed, we would see the source of illuminating
light clearly (Fig. 6.26a). Perfect reflector

RF = 1.0
In commercial/institutional spaces there are
usually one or more lighting fixtures near the
observer that furnish most of the light required to (d)
see. These principal sources are the main contribu-
Fig. 6.26 (a) The nature of the seeing process requires that light
tors to reflected glare. Other, more remote fixtures from a source or sources be reflected by the task into the eye.
in the room are lesser sources (Fig. 6.26b). (b) The light entering the eye is the sum of all the reflected light,
specular and diffuse, from all sources in the direction of the eye.
Reflected glare exists to the extent that light
If the task is specular, all the sources will be seen reflected in the
sources can be seen in the task being viewed. The task. (c) A perfectly absorptive object is jet black because it
reflection characteristics of the object being viewed reflects nothing. (d) A perfectly reflective object positioned as
shown is also seen as black because geometrically it cannot
are important to an understanding of this type
reflect light into the eyes. (Drawn by Martin Lee.)
of glare. If an object is perfectly absorbent—with
a reflectance of 0%—it would appear completely
black, as no light would be reflected into the due to task surface specularity, whereas object
eye (Fig. 6.26c). If the object is perfectly spec- definition (the ability to see the task itself) is due to
ular, like a clean mirror, and there was no light task surface diffuseness. Veiling reflections, which
source within the geometry of reflection, it too are caused by the mirroring of a source in the
would appear black (Fig. 6.26d). Reflected glare is task, are proportional to source luminance and
Luminaires
Ceiling
Any portion of the

lighting system within
this area is a source Offending zone
of reflected
FUNDAMENTALS
glare
r
ula
dic
DESIGN
en
rp
40°
Pe
20°
Fig. 6.27 Geometry of reflected glare. Because normal desktop, head-down viewing angles vary from 20∘ to 40∘ from the vertical, the
offending zone (wherein light sources are likely to be reflected from tasks) is the area on the ceiling corresponding to specular
reflection between these two angles. Note that the higher the ceiling, the larger this area becomes. Also note that the offending zone
will move as the table tilt changes. (Drawn by Martin Lee.)
substantially independent of illuminance—the Vertical
Inc
ine
ide
brighter the source, the more troublesome its
ine
ht l
Incident light
nt l
reflection.
ht l
Sig
igh
Sig
Glare sources within the geometry of reflected
t 25
25°
25° 25°
vision are shown in Fig. 6.27, and the effects
°
25°
are shown in Fig. 6.28. Figure 6.27 shows that
although large sources are difficult to avoid,
small sources can usually be easily avoided by a (a) (b)
small change in the source-task-eye geometry (for
instance, by moving the head or tilting the task).

Table 6.4 lists a few sample reflectance figures Vertical
ine
ine
to demonstrate that most materials exhibit both

ht l
ht l
specular and diffuse reflectance. In Fig. 6.27, it is In

Sig
Sig
ci
25°
25°
de
important to note that most visual work is done nt
25°
25°
lig
in the zone of 20∘ to 40∘ from the vertical, below ht Inciden
the eye, with a maximum at the 25∘ reading angle 45°
t light
(Fig. 6.29). 5°
Printed material
Contrast Reduction. The principal effect of
the reflection of a light source in a visual object (c) (d)
is a reduction in contrast between the object and Fig. 6.28 The usual viewing angle to a horizontal surface is
its background—and hence, a reduction in the between 20∘ and 40∘ from the vertical—25∘ is the most common
object’s visibility. It is as if a bright veil were spread viewing angle. With vertical incident light on a diffuse surface
(such as a textbook page) (a), the print can appear dark and clear.
over the object being viewed, which accounts When the angle of light incidence is equal to the viewing angle
for the term veiling reflection. As the angle of the (b), a mirrorlike reflection can make the page illegible. Even with a
incident light approaches the viewing angle, diffuse paper, the print is light at best and almost invisible at
worst. As the angle of incidence becomes larger (c), reflected
the specularly reflected component of the light glare decreases. When the incident light is at a very low angle
becomes more and more pronounced, and task (d), there is little reflected glare, and the print appears lighter.
GLARE 205
TABLE 6.4 Typical Reflectances forth. Reworking the calculation of contrast from
Section 6.12, by including specularity, the result is
Reflectance
much different.
Material Specular Diffuse
Matte black paper 0.0005 0.04
Matte white paper 0.0030 0.77
Newspaper 0.0065 0.68 EXAMPLE 6.4 Assume an interior space lit to an
Very glossy white photo paper 0.048 0.83 average illuminance of 75 fc (750 lux) using bare
Metallic paper—copper 0.11 0.28 bulb fluorescent fixtures (with luminance = 7000
Dull black ink 0.006 0.045 cd/m2 [2000 fL]). The task is drawing with ink on
FUNDAMENTALS
Super gloss black ink 0.039 0.016 paper. Reflectances are:
DESIGN
Source: Courtesy of IESNA.
Specular Diffuse
Ink 0.021 0.038
Paper 0.018 0.71
contrast drops. This is illustrated in Figs. 6.28
and 6.29. The worst situation occurs when the
incident angle equals the viewing angle. When the Calculate the task contrast without and with reflec-
specular reflectance of the task and background tion of the 2000 fL source on the work.
is high, as with a glass computer or tablet screen,
an image of the source is superimposed on the SOLUTION
object, making viewing impossible (Fig. 6.29).
1. Without specularity, using Equation 6.7 for
Even with the highly specular finish of “slick” diffuse reflection only:
magazine paper, however, vision is still possible
RB − RT 0.71 − 0.038
because of the very high contrast between black C= = = 0.947
ink and white paper, although with much reduced RB 0.71
clarity and considerable annoyance. 2. With specularity, using Equation 6.9,
When considering specular and diffuse (LBD + LBS ) − (LTD + LTS )
reflectance, the relationship for contrast given C=
LBD + LBS
in Equation 6.7 must be rewritten as:
(LBD + LBS ) − (LTD + LTS ) where
C= (6.9) LBD = 75 fc × 0.71 = 53.25
LBD + LBS
where LB and LT are background and task LBS = 2000 fL × 0.018 = 36.0
luminances caused by diffuse (D) and specular LTD = 75 fc × 0.038 = 2.85
(S) reflectance; that is, LBS is the background

luminance due to specular reflectance, and so LTS = 2000 fL × 0.021 = 42.0
+1
+0.8
+0.6
Contrast
25° +0.4
20° +0.2
40° –0
–0.2
(a) 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Degrees
Angle between incident light
and normal to task surface
(b)
Fig. 6.29 (a) Typical viewing angles for a task on a horizontal surface. (b) Graph showing contrast reduction of a task with a specular
background (such as a sheet of glossy paper) as a function of the angle between incident light and a line normal to the task surface.
Viewing angle is assumed to be 25∘ from normal. Note that between 22∘ and 27∘ the contrast is negative. This indicates that
background luminance exceeds that of the task, making the task essentially invisible. What will be visible is a reflected (mirrored)
image of the source.
and A lighting system almost free of reflected glare

(53.25 + 36) − (2.85 + 42) will emulate daylight from a fully overcast sky.
C= = 0.497
53.25 + 36 Figure 6.31 shows an integrating sphere that
which is roughly half of the previous contrast. If the simulates such a condition. Light is introduced
contrast is normalized to the maximum contrast (as from the outside, split by a deflector, and evenly
is usually done), the contrast reduction R can be distributed throughout the sphere by the multiple
expressed as: reflections from the white-painted walls. The
C
R=1− (6.10) result is an evenly illuminated volume. When a
FUNDAMENTALS
CMAX
task is introduced, the illumination falling on it
Thus, in this case, contrast reduction would be: is entirely uniform; there are no high-luminance
DESIGN
0.497 sources reflected in it. The task is said to be spher-

R=1− = 0.47 or 47%
0.947 ically illuminated. The extent to which another
illumination system can duplicate this glare-free
A similar calculation for black printed text on environment is that system’s equivalent spherical
good white bond paper yields a contrast reduction illumination (ESI), representing the portion of its
from 94% to 77%, or R = 17%. This suggests total illumination that is spherical—that is, diffuse
that with high task-to-background contrast, and glare-free. ESI is determined by comparing
effective seeing is possible almost regardless of contrast rendition produced by the spherical and
the lighting condition. This does not, however, alternative systems.
relieve the lighting designer of the responsibility An investigation of school lighting options
to provide a comfortable and effective lighting (Fig. 6.32) provided ESI results for four viewing
environment that minimizes veiling reflections. In positions in a classroom lit with ceiling-mounted
general, a contrast reduction of more than 15% is continuous rows of 2-ft × 4-ft (0.6 by 0.6 m),
undesirable. 4-lamp, 40-W fluorescent fixtures with lens-type
Because both specular and diffuse reflectances wraparound diffusers on 10-ft (3.0 m) centers.
frequently vary with the angle of view, and exact Note that:
values are rarely available, accurate calculations
are difficult. If a lighting system exists or a mock-up 1. ESI depends entirely on the viewing position
can be made, measurements of contrast reduction and viewing angle, other factors in the space
can be made accurately with a contrast/luminance being equal.
meter of the type shown in Fig. 6.30. In such an 2. In an ostensibly well-lit (215 fc [2314 lx])
experiment, a standard contrast device that corre- position (M1), the glare-free illuminance is
sponds to a normal office task (e.g., reading black only 28 fc (301 lx). This does not mean that
typeface on a white paper background) is posi- visual work in this position is impossible. It
tioned on the work surface, and exposed to ambient does mean that in position M1, a pronounced
illumination. The task contrast is measured at the veiling reflection exists on all specular objects.
same angle at which it would normally be viewed. (Because of the size, orientation, and location of
Contrast reduction is automatically calculated and the glare source, this reflected glare is difficult
displayed. to avoid.) It further means that a large amount
of energy is being used (effectively wasted) to
Equivalent Spherical Illumination. Another produce negative results.
approach to addressing contrast reduction is to
define a reference lighting system that is effectively These results can be qualitatively antici-
free of veiling reflections, and compare an actual pated by an examination of the observer positions
lighting system to this “ideal” system. This is the in Fig. 6.31. Positions M1 and M3 have bright
basis of the concept of equivalent spherical illumina- sources in the offending zone—M1 more so than
tion (ESI). M3. M2 is an excellent position that receives light
GLARE 207
Constrast meter
Slid
e
Work surface
Luminance
contrast
standard
FUNDAMENTALS
DESIGN
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.30 Precision meter for measuring luminance and contrast. (a) Able to accommodate up to four sensor heads, the luminance
contrast meter is suitable for measuring the luminance, luminance ratio, contrast, and contrast reduction. (b) A typical assembly will
include a light source, a luminance lens attached to the sensor head, and a luminance contrast meter. Measurement outputs can be
adjusted utilizing the touchscreen on the front of the meter. (c) With a lighting fixture directly in the offending zone—that is, above and
in front of the viewer—a severe loss of contrast occurs over much of the work surface. (d) By shifting the relative position of the viewer
and the source so that there is no source in the offending zone, contrast reduction is held to 3% to 4% over most of the work surface.
(a: Courtesy of Gamma Scientific; b, c, d: Courtesy of Brüel & Kjær.)
Integrating sphere 1. ESI is critically dependent on observer position

Observer and viewing angle. Although position is gener-
ally fixed by chair location, observers can and
do change their viewing angle and head aspect
Light to correct for glare situations.
Task 2. The nature of the task (i.e., its specularity) is
source
assumed to be fixed and unique. In some situa-
tions, the task varies, and thus also the contrast.
FUNDAMENTALS
When tasks are constant, severe veiling reflec-

White finish tions frequently lead to measures being taken
DESIGN
Fig. 6.31 Spherical illumination is produced by illuminating an that improve the task, the lighting, or both. This
object by diffuse reflection from the inside walls of an integrating should not be taken as license to design systems
sphere. The light source and observer are normally external. that users will need to fix.
3. The lighting distribution characteristic of
the fixture involved is a critical factor in glare
contributions from the two sides, its illuminance production. The characteristic of a wraparound
being lower than the others due to wide fixture lens diffuser is such that considerable light falls
row spacing. M4 is ideally placed; no glare sources in the glare zone. Other diffuser characteristics
are in the offending zone, and a row of fixtures is yield different results.
positioned behind it, which makes it geometrically
impossible for the fixtures to act as a glare source. The concept and use of ESI have seen consid-
The ESI analysis gives quantitative value to quali- erable question in the lighting design professions
tative judgment, which makes it a valuable design for several technical reasons. The ESI procedure,
tool. Note particularly that the ESI results shown however, does exactly what it is designed to do:
in Fig. 6.32 correspond to the results of a similar point out locations with poor lighting geometry
test made with the contrast meter, as shown in the and identify luminaires with unsuitable distribu-
charts of Fig. 6.30. tion characteristics for the intended application.
As with VCP criteria for direct glare, there are As stated in the 1981 IES Lighting Handbook (from
ameliorating factors with ESI that generally make the heyday of ESI), it is “a tool in determining the
a given lighting system better than these values effectiveness of controlling veiling reflections and
would indicate. Some of these factors are: as part of the evaluation of lighting systems.”
Observer Position
M1 M2 M3 M4
TI 2L 108 92 125 118

4L 215 185 250 235
M3 M4 CRF 2L 0.75 1.00 0.82 1.01

4L 0.76 1.00 0.83 1.03
ESI 2L 17.8 91.9 31.5 127.8

4L 28.4 185.3 58.1 308.3
M1 M2 TI–Task illuminance
2L–2 lamps (inside pair)
4L–4 lamps
CRF–Contrast Rendition Factors
Fig. 6.32 A test classroom illuminated by three widely spaced rows of four-lamp fixtures with lens-type wraparound diffusers.
Observer positions are shown by arrows. The row of fixtures in front of position M4 is too far forward to be in the offending zone. (From
Sampson, 1970.)
GLARE 209
Relative Visual Performance. Relative visual TABLE 6.5 Recommended Maximum

performance (RVP) has gained considerable accep- Luminance Ratiosa
tance as a tool for lighting system evaluation. It
Note: To achieve a comfortable brightness balance, limit
examines (via computer calculation) the effec- luminance ratios between areas of appreciable size as seen
tiveness (relative to ideal visual performance) of a from normal viewing positions as follows:
given visual environment in terms of task accom- 1 to one-third Between task and adjacent surroundings
1 to one-tenth Between task and more remote darker
plishment (measured by speed and accuracy). Like surfaces
ESI, it is based on luminance and contrast. Unlike 1 to 10 Between task and more remote lighter
FUNDAMENTALS
ESI, it considers the performance of a task rather surfaces
20 to 1 Between luminaires (or fenestration) and
than simply contrast reduction. It seems to ignore
DESIGN
surfaces adjacent to them
discomfort from veiling reflections if the task 40 to 1 Anywhere within the normal field of view
can be performed effectively. A study computed a These ratios are recommended as maximums; lesser ratios are
RVP for several common lighting layouts with generally beneficial.
various types of lighting fixtures. The results gave
uniformly values for RVP varying between 0.95
and 0.99—which suggests that using RVP as a sole
criterion for glare situations questionable. Lighting
designers are encouraged to use lighting design
software to calculate ESI and RVP for proposed
lighting layouts and, where possible, to compare
the results to post-occupancy evaluations of the
performance of the installed system.
Luminance Ratios. Other factors being equal,

visual performance increases with contrast—that
is, with the difference in luminance between the
object being viewed and its immediate surround-
ings. Conversely, however, the difference between
the average luminance of the visual field (task) and Fig. 6.33 The reflected glare from luminaires disappears when a
piece of light, diffuse linoleum is placed over the dark, polished
the remainder of the field of vision should be low, to desktop. Light-colored desktops with 35% to 50% reflectance
avoid the discomfort of large, rapid changes in eye result in task-to-background ratios within the 3:1 recommended
adaptation level. As a rule, contrast is desirable in the range. Before the linoleum was placed, a reflection like the one
seen on the right also existed on the left of the desk due to
object of view but undesirable in the wider surrounding another luminaire. (Courtesy of IESNA.)
field of view.
Providing reflectances of 50%, 30%, and 80%
for walls, floors, and ceilings, respectively, and between a background with proper reflectance and
35% for furniture, establishes a fairly high eye one with excessive brightness ratios caused by low
adaptation level so that direct glare (which results surrounding reflectances is shown in Fig. 6.33.
from excessive luminances in the field of view)
is minimized. Maximum luminance ratio recom-
mendations to achieve a comfortable environment
are presented in Table 6.5. Effective visual perfor- LIGHT AND COLOR
mance is entirely possible in environments with
much higher ratios—they are not as visually
comfortable and may be fatiguing. The use of color in design is a vast subject. Only
Careful control of the reflectances of the those aspects of color that are fundamentally
major surfaces in a room is necessary to achieve important to the design of lighting systems are
these recommended luminance ratios. The surface presented herein. We perceive what we call color
reflectance values given above are reasonable for because of the wavelength mix of light received
commercial and educational spaces. The difference by the eye. Quantitatively, this wavelength mix
can be very precisely described (as discussed in operating rooms. The eyes of surgeons and
below). Qualitatively, our descriptions of color nurses, when diverted from the redness of the
are usually limited to the colors of the rainbow surgical area, are more comfortable with a green
(e.g., red)—plus hybrids (red-orange) and creative background than with a white one.
adjectives (flaming red) often used for marketing By a process known as lateral adaptation,
purposes (paint, fabrics, carpets). The use of the apparent color of an object changes when
qualitative color descriptors is adequate for early the background color is changed. Thus, a green
design to ensure that parties to the process are object looks somewhat blue–green on a yellow
FUNDAMENTALS
in the same ballpark. Descriptions of colors in background because the eye is supplying the
final design documents typically must be quan- complementary color to yellow—that is, blue.
DESIGN
titative to ensure that what is truly wanted is Similarly, the same green object looks slightly
actually installed. A specification that calls for yellow–green when on a blue background, due to
green paint in a bathroom is not tight enough for the eye supplying the yellow.
most projects. The apparent brightness of a color is a func-
tion of its hue, in that light colors appear lighter
than dark colors even when luminance is the
6.8 RESPONSES TO COLOR same. Thus, spaces may be defined by color within
an area of equal illumination. Also, all colors tend
Colored light (other than white) is rarely used to appear less saturated—that is, they appear
for general illumination—other than to create a “washed out”—when illumination is high. Colors
special atmosphere. When a space is lighted with with high saturation (chroma) must be used in
colored light, the eye adapts by a phenomenon well-lit spaces if they are to be effective, although
known as color constancy so that it can, to a consid- extensive use of saturated colors is generally best
erable degree (depending on the chromaticity avoided.
of the light), recognize colors of objects despite Other well-known psychological effects of
the effect of the colored illuminant. Thus, even colors are the perceived coolness of blues and
when wearing tinted sunglasses, we can still greens, and the perceived warmth of reds and
easily distinguish the color of objects. After only yellows. Thus, cool colors might well be used in
a short while, we no longer notice the green, a display of winter wear, and warm colors in a
yellow, amber, or other color cast caused by the display of summer wear. Red and yellow are also
tinted lenses. The eyes do, however, become more considered “advancing” colors because objects lit
sensitive to the missing colors that would make up with them are perceived as advancing toward the
white light. This phenomenon can be used to make observer—giving the appearance that they are
meat look redder in a display by using blue-rich, becoming larger. The opposite effect is noted with
red-poor, cool white lighting in the remainder blue and green, accounting for their being known
of the store. as “receding” colors.
A similar phenomenon occurs when the eye In an atmosphere designed to be calm and
is exposed to a monochromatic scene, where the restful, greens should generally predominate either
chromaticity is due to the coloration of the objects in illuminant color, object color, or both—except
rather than the illumination. The eye in such a in eating areas, which should be illuminated
situation becomes sensitized to the complemen- with reds and yellows because cool colors are
tary color; thus, if after looking at a green surface generally unappetizing. Yellows and browns
one shifts one’s gaze to a white surface, one sees encourage motion sickness, whereas blues and
the complementary red color. Returning to our greens tend toward the reverse. Warm, saturated
meat display, the use of green paint on the walls colors encourage activity; conversely, cool, unsat-
can enhance the redness of the meat. This effect urated colors are conducive to meditation. Cool
in reverse also partly accounts for the extensive colors also seem to shorten time passage and are
use of green for paints, linens, gowns, and so on, often applied in areas of dull, repetitive work.
LIGHT SOURCE COLOR 211
6.9 LIGHT SOURCE COLOR °Kelvin
The term light source color is used to describe 25000°

the wavelength characteristics of a source of
Blue sky
light—independent of its interactions with objects
Clear blue sky 10000°
in a space being illuminated. There are several
means of expressing light source color, as discussed
below.
FUNDAMENTALS
“Macbeth” light
North light 8000°
DESIGN
(a) Color Names
7000° Overcast sky
The simplest, and least accurate, means of Overcast sky
describing the color of a light source is through 6500° Daylight
Clear sky 5800 fluorescent
names. For example, cool-white, warm-white, 6000°
daylight, deluxe warm-white. The use of such
names is not regulated and is at best an approxi- 5500° Noon sunlight
mate way of expressing design intent or criteria.
5000°
Nevertheless, color names are often used to “Daylight”
describe the output of electric lamps, and can 4500° incandescent lamp
be a convenient means of conveying a general Standard Cool white
fluorescent 4000°
preference for wavelength mix. White
lamps
3000-4200 3500° Tungsten halogen
Warm white lamps
(b) Color Temperature “Standard” Lamp 3000° Photoflood lamps
Incandescent lamp
Light sources are often designated by color 2600-3000 2500°
temperature—for example, 3400 K for halogen
lamps, 4200 K for certain fluorescent lamps. This Sunrise 2000°
Candle flame
nomenclature is derived from the fact that when 1500°
a light-emitting body (specifically, a blackbody
with essentially zero reflectivity) is progressively
Fig. 6.34 Approximate color temperatures of common
heated, it first glows deep red, then cherry red, illuminants.
then orange, until it finally becomes blue–white
hot. The color of the light radiated from such

an object is related to its temperature. Thus,
a blackbody temperature scale can be used to temperature (CCT). CCT is the temperature of
express the color of a light source through its color a blackbody whose chromaticity most nearly
temperature—that is, the temperature to which a matches that of the light source in question.
blackbody must be heated to radiate a light similar Under CCT there is no relationship between the
in color to the color of the source in question. Color lamp operating temperature and correlated color
temperature is measured in Kelvin (a scale with its temperature.
zero point at −459.67∘ F). Figure 6.34 shows the
assigned color temperature of some common light
(c) Chromaticity
sources.
Strictly speaking, a color temperature can The CIE (International Commission on Illumina-
be assigned only to a light source that produces tion) chromaticity system is a globally accepted
light by heating a solid, such as an incandescent standard for designating illuminant color. Under
lamp. Light sources that operate on a different chromaticity, the relative proportions of each of
principle, such as gaseous discharge and LED the three primary additive colors (red, green, and
lamps, are described via use of correlated color blue) required to produce a given illuminant color
are determined. These three values are called the considered to be white light. Compared to color
tristimulus values for that color and are designated names, chromaticity provides a very precise
by capital letters: X (red), Y (green), and Z (blue). means of specifying the color of a light source.
See Fig. 6.35 for an example of a chromaticity A reasonably low-cost meter (similar in appear-
diagram. It is possible to show X, Y, and Z values ance to an illuminance meter) can be used to
on a two-dimensional diagram because X + Y + determine chromaticity coordinates in the field
Z = 1.0—such that knowing any two of the chro- (Fig. 6.36). Such a meter measures the X and Y
maticity coordinates leads to the third. coordinates of an illuminant, which can then be
FUNDAMENTALS
The chromaticity diagram represents all plotted on a standard CIE color diagram to graphi-
colors that can be perceived by humans. Light cally determine chromaticity. This is very useful in
DESIGN
with roughly equal X, Y, and Z coordinates is comparing illuminants to predict color responses.
Fig. 6.35 Portion of a chromaticity diagram showing the relation of common illuminant chromaticities to that of the blackbody locus.
Illuminants whose coordinates fall on the same line crossing the blackbody locus have the same CCT but may have entirely different
component colors.
more pronounced with a standard high-pressure

sodium lamp (Fig. 6.38c), compared to a clear
metal-halide lamp (Fig. 6.38b). A blue object will
appear gray under the sodium lamp, whereas
under the metal-halide lamp its blue color will
show clearly. Spectral distribution plots can be
useful in understanding where in the range of
wavelengths energy from a lamp lies and thus
FUNDAMENTALS
likely color rendering effects. Graphs as shown
in Figs. 6.37 and 6.38 are available from electric
DESIGN
lamps manufacturers, and these resources should
be considered whenever rendition of colors is an
important project requirement.
An interesting way to explore the effect of
illuminant color is to expose a dull white surface
to two illuminants—side by side, but separated by
an opaque divider—to get an impression of the
illuminant color. Then expose a series of colored
samples—again, side by side—to see which colors
are brightened and which are grayed by the light
sources. The intensity of illumination also influ-
ences the appearance of colors, and it must be
considered in choosing object colors. As inten-
Fig. 6.36 Handheld chromaticity meter. Developed specifically
for LED, organic LED, or other electroluminescent sources, this sity is increased, reflection increases, particularly
meter can provide simultaneous readings of illuminance, color with pale tints (high value) that contain much
temperature, excitation purity, dominant wavelengths, and white pigment and thus tend to wash out color.
chromaticity. (Courtesy of Konica Minolta, Inc.)
Therefore, with high-intensity lighting, saturation
of colors should be high for true, brilliant color
rendition.
(d) Spectral Distribution
In Fig. 6.39, note in b, c, and d that the spec-
The relative energy content of light produced by trum of a light source that produces light as a
a source can be plotted across the wavelengths of result of heating is continuous. Sunlight is equal
the visible spectrum. The result is a graph that in spectrum to a blackbody radiator at 5500 K;
shows the content of the light in a form similar to north light is equal to one at about 8000 K to
the way a mass spectrometer (think CSI) displays 10,000 K; a 500-W incandescent lamp is approxi-
the chemical composition of a substance. As an mately equal to one at 2850 K. If the spectrum of
example, the relative spectral energy distributions a blackbody radiator is plotted on a chromaticity
of a few common light sources have been plotted as diagram, its locus is a continuous curved line,
a function of wavelength in Fig. 6.37. Figs. 6.37a as seen in Fig. 6.35. The chromaticity of all true
and 6.37c show the spectral distribution for two blackbody radiators falls exactly on this line, with
common light sources—cool white and warm the location depending on temperature. Daylight
white fluorescent lamps, respectively. Note that generally falls on this locus, although because
the principal difference lies in the amount of blue of selective atmospheric absorption and other
in the spectrum. As a result, a blue object will be phenomena, it is slightly off. Incandescent lamp
bright under cool white light, and dull (grayed) chromaticity is very close to this locus because it is
under warm white light. The color situation is also a heat-based radiator.
Fluorescent Lamps
Cool white Cool white deluxe

Relative Energy V B G Y O R V B G Y O R
Relative Energy
FUNDAMENTALS
DESIGN
0 0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
CCT-4200 K; CRI-62 CCT-4050 K; CRI-77
(a) (b)
Warm white Triphospor

V B G Y O R V B G Y O R
Relative Energy
Relative Energy
0 0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
CCT-3050 K; CRI-52 CCT-3500 K; CRI-80
(c) (d)
Fig. 6.37 Spectral energy distribution of several fluorescent lamp types with their correlated color temperatures (CCT) and color
rendering indices (CRI). The curves are not truly continuous, but consist of individual color lines; they are shown connected for
simplicity. These graphs are generic and show patterns of wavelength distribution; consult manufacturers’ data for the output
spectrum of a specific lamp.
A source that produces light by means of blackbody locus. For other sources, the CCT
individual phosphors can also have chromaticity is established by their chromaticity locus in
on this locus if the phosphors are selected to relation to the diagonal lines crossing the black-
produce a continuous spectrum like that of a body locus, as seen in Fig. 6.35. Each of these
blackbody radiator. Thus, we see in Figs. 6.37 lines is isothermal—that is, all chromaticities
and 6.38 that triphosphor fluorescent lamps on it have the same CCT. Thus, two sources
(Fig. 6.37d) and metal-halide lamps (Fig. 6.38d) with widely differing spectral content, and
have spectral components over the entire spec- therefore object color rendering, can have the
trum, yielding chromaticities fairly close to the same CCT.
High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps
Color-improved mercury Standard metal halide

Relative Energy V B G Y O R V B G Y O R
Relative Energy
FUNDAMENTALS
DESIGN
0 0
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
CCT-3600 K; CRI-45 CCT-4100 K; CRI-65
(a) (b)
High-pressure sodium Color-improved HPS

V B G Y O R V B G Y O R
Relative Energy
Relative Energy
0 0
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
CCT-2100 K; CRI-21 CCT-2200 K; CRI-60
(c) (d)
Fig. 6.38 Spectral energy distribution of typical high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps with their CCT and CRI. These graphs are generic
and show patterns of wavelength distribution; consult manufacturers’ data for the output spectrum of a specific lamp.
approaches the standard. The standard is always

(e) Color Rendering Index
daylight at the defined color temperature. Therefore,
Color rendering is defined as the degree to which the CRI of a lamp is really a measure of how
perceived colors of objects, illuminated by a closely it approximates daylight of the same color
light source, conform to the colors of the same temperature. Two sources cannot be compared
objects as illuminated by a reference source. unless their color temperatures are equal or quite
The color rendering index (CRI) of a source is a close. A CRI of 100 indicates an illuminant whose
two-part concept, comprising a color temperature spectral content is equal to daylight of that temper-
that establishes the reference standard, and a ature. CRIs for typical common lamps are given in
number that indicates how closely the illuminant Figs. 6.37 through 6.39.
Standard eye sensitivity curve Average daylight

V B G YO R V B G Y O R
Spectral luminous efficiency

North light
Relative energy
FUNDAMENTALS
*Spectral energy distribution

DESIGN
of daylight at noon on a
clear day in June
0 0
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Wavelength (nanometers) Wavelength (nm)
(a) (b)
Incandescent Lamps
Quartz-iodine tungsten-halogen lamps 500-W tungsten lamp

V B G YO R V B G YO R
100 100
9
I8
CR 9
80 I8 80
CR 9
Relative energy
Relative energy
CCT 2850 K
I8
60
CCT 3400 K CR 60
CRI 97
CCT 3200 K I 91
CR
40 40
CCT 3000 K
20 20
CCT 2800 K
0 0
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
(c) (d)
Fig. 6.39 (a) Standard photopic (cone-based) eye sensitivity curve. Note that maximum sensitivity occurs in the daylight range of
500–750 nm. (b) Spectral energy distribution of two specific types of daylight. North light, with a color temperature of 8000 K to 10,000
K, peaks in the blue range, whereas noon daylight contains all spectral colors in roughly equal proportions. (c) Tungsten-halogen lamps
are incandescent sources and therefore contain all spectral colors. As wattages increase, the color changes from orange-red to white,
and the CRI drops slightly. (d) A simple filament-type incandescent lamp is very close to being a blackbody radiator (i.e., its actual
temperature and CCT are almost the same). This is reflected in its high CRI (97).
Table 6.6 lists color descriptors and effects for change in spectral content changes an object’s
a few common light sources. Note especially the appearance. Two sources of the same color
wide range of CRI values. CRI provides a quick, temperature—and, therefore, apparent source
if not absolute, means of comparing the color whiteness—can have quite different spectral
rendering capabilities of light sources. It would be content and subsequently render object colors
reasonable to find CRI targets as part of the project differently. An example would be a 3000-K
requirements for many space types. warm-white fluorescent tube versus an incandes-
All considerations of color—comparison, cent lamp (500-W photoflood) of approximately
matching, and rendering—must remember that the same color temperature. Color temperature
object color depends on the spectral energy is an expression of dominant color, not spectral
distribution of the light source and that any distribution.
OBJECT COLOR 217
TABLE 6.6 Effect of Illuminant on Object Colors
Colors
CRI
Lamp (approximate) CCT (K) Whiteness Enhanced Grayed Notes
FLUORESCENT
Warm white 52 3050 Yellowish Orange, yellow Red, blue, green
Cool white 62 4200 White Yellow Red
Orange
Blue
FUNDAMENTALS
Cool white 77 4050 White Green Red
deluxe Orange
DESIGN
Yellow
Triphosphor 75 2800 Yellowish Red Orange Deep red, blue

80 3000 Pale yellowish Red Deep red
Orange
Green
MERCURY
Clear 20 7000 Blue–Green Blue Red Poor overall color
Green Orange rendering
Deluxe 45 3700 Pale purplish Deep blue, red Blue– green Shift over life to
greenish
METAL–HALIDE
Clear 65 4000 White Blue Red May shift to
Green pinkish over life
Yellow
Phosphor- 80 4200 White Blue None Shifts to pinkish
coated Green over life
Yellow
HIGH-PRESSURE SODIUM
Standard 21 2100 Yellowish Yellow Red, blue
Green
Color- 60 2200 Yellowish-white Red Blue CRI decreases
corrected Green slightly over life
Yellow
INCANDESCENT
Incandescent 99+ 2900 Yellowish Red, orange, Blue, green
yellow
LED
High-CRI LED 99 4990 All colors Blue
Mid-CRI LED 80 5000 Orange,

Green, blue Red
RGB LED 73 5090
DAYLIGHT
Daylight 99+ 5000 All colors
6.10 OBJECT COLOR of color names in day-to-day commerce. As with

light source color, the use of names is informal and
(a) Color Names nontechnical. On the other hand, when propri-
As with light source color, names can be used to etary specifications are allowable as part of the
describe object color. In fact, the use of names to project contract documents, there is no easier way
identify colors is more often and more creatively to get the precise color of paint or finish intended
applied to objects than to sources. A quick look than by product name. Names become more of
at the website for a paint company or automobile a challenge when open bidding across manufac-
manufacturer will give a sense of the importance turers is required or desired.
In theory, chromaticity coordinates could be a reddish light because the other spectral compo-
used as an accurate means of specifying object nents are absorbed in much greater proportions
color—with light leaving an object being captured than the red. This phenomenon is illustrated in
by a meter. This is not commonly done in architec- Fig. 6.40b. An individual object’s pigmentation, by
tural design. absorbing other colors of light, reflects or transmits
to the eye its own hue in a greater concentration
than existed in the incident light.
(b) Object-Light Interactions
The color of the illuminant and the inherent
FUNDAMENTALS
Light source color, discussed above, is a property color of the objects within a space constitute
of the source and is independent of the environ- important facets of lighting quality. These two
DESIGN
ment in which the source is used. Object color is design variables, however, cannot be considered
not an independent property of an object—but separately. The color of an object is its ability to
represents the effect of a light source interacting modify the color of light incident on it by selective
with an object. The effect of light source on object absorption—the color reflected or transmitted by
color is well within the realm of architectural the object is experienced by the eye as the color of
concern—which makes studio presentations of the object. An object, therefore, is technically said
materials palettes with no reference to a lighting to be “colorless” (not transparent) when it does
system problematic. We see only what light permits not exhibit selective absorption—that is, when
us to see. an object reflects and absorbs the various compo-
In addition to providing sufficient illuminance nents of incident light nonselectively. Thus, white,
and minimizing glare potential, a lighting designer black, and all shades of gray are colorless, neutral,
must be concerned with the spectral content of achromatic—or more precisely, lacking in hue.
light sources, because the object color experienced
by an observer depends heavily upon the illumi-
(c) Classification Schemes
nant. The object color experienced by a person
is the result of selective absorption and reflection Hue is defined as that attribute by which we recog-
of components of the illuminating light by the nize and therefore describe colors as red, yellow,
pigments of the object being viewed. An illuminant green, blue, and so on. Just as it is possible to form
must contain the inherent color of the object for us a gradient from white to black with intermediate
to see the object’s actual color (let’s say “actual” grays, it is possible to do the same with a hue.
is the color that would be seen under daylight). In The difference between the resultant colors of
addition, the relative energy of an illuminant at a the same hue, when arranged in this manner, is
particular wavelength determines the saturation called brilliance or value. White is the most brilliant
and brilliance with which we see a color. of the neutral colors, and black the least; pink is
Most architectural light sources emit several a more brilliant red hue than ruby; and golden
component color illuminants. When such yellow is a more brilliant (lighter) yellow hue than
composite light—for example, white light—falls raw umber.
on a surface other than black or white, selective Colors of the same hue and brilliance may
absorption occurs. The component colors of the still differ from each other in saturation, which is
light are absorbed in different proportions so that an indication of the vividness of the hue, or the
the light reflected or transmitted is composed difference of the color from gray. Thus, pure gray
of a new combination of the same colors that (black plus white) has no hue; as color is added,
first impinged on the surface. Thus, a white light the saturation changes without changing the bril-
reflected from a red wall acquires a red tint because liance. The three characteristics, then, that define
the component colors of the white light other than a particular color are: hue, brilliance, and satura-
red were absorbed in greater proportion than the tion. Using these terms, “bay” can be defined as a
red. When reflected, the red light takes promi- color red-yellow in hue, of low brilliance and low
nence, thus giving the reflected light a red tint. saturation; whereas “carmine” can be defined as
This is illustrated in Fig. 6.40a. Similarly, a white a color red in hue, of low brilliance and very high
light passed through a piece of red glass emerges as saturation.
OBJECT COLOR 219
Incident white light; Reddish light;

equal color components red component predominates
Re nge
O ello n
d
ra w
Bl igo t
In iole
Y ree
V
G ue
d
G ue
O ello n
Bl igo t
Y ee
In iole
ra w
r
d
Re ge
V
FUNDAMENTALS
d
DESIGN
Red surface
(a)
Incident white light
equal color components
Orange
Indigo
Green
Violet
Yellow
Blue
Red
Red glass
(b)
Reddish light, red

component predominates
Fig. 6.40 Selective absorption of materials relative to (a) reflected light and (b) transmitted light.
Various systems of color classification with gray, or the purity of the color. Spectral colors have
a focus on object color have been devised. The 100% purity and therefore maximum chroma.
Munsell Color System and the Ostwald Color
System are two that are commonly encoun-
(d) Mixing Colors
tered. In the widely used Munsell Color System
(Fig. 6.41), brilliance is referred to as value and When white is added to a pigment, it produces
saturation as chroma; thus, a color is defined by a tint; adding black produces a shade. When
hue, value, and chroma. The brilliance (value) of pigments are mixed to produce a particular color,
a pigment or coloration is related to its reflectance the color that results is created by a subtractive
to white light—that is, the higher the brilliance process. Each pigment absorbs certain wave-
or value, the higher the reflectance (as might be lengths of the illuminating light. With a mix of
expected when one considers that white and black pigments, these absorptions combine to subtract
are the poles of brilliance). Chroma or saturation various colors from the reflected light—leaving
may be thought of as either the difference from only those colors that will constitute the hue,
White
10
VALUE
8
FUNDAMENTALS
Variations 7
in hue Red Yellow-red
DESIGN
6
Red-purple Yellow
5
4
Purple Yellow-green
CHROMA
3
2
Purple-blue Green
HUE Blue 1 Blue-green
Black
Fig. 6.41 The Munsell Color System defines a color by three characteristics: hue (color), chroma (saturation), and value (grayness).
value, and chroma of the pigment. This subtrac- The additive and subtractive primary colors
tive effect is also utilized when producing colors by are complementary; they combine to give a white
filtering white light. Each filter selectively absorbs or neutral gray, respectively. Red and blue-green,
component colors, transmitting only the compo- blue and yellow, and green and magenta are
nent desired. Thus, a red filter transmits only complementary. Therefore, if a red object is
red, and so on (see Fig. 6.40b). Conversely, when illuminated with blue-green light, the object’s
lights of the three primary colors—red, green, color appears gray because the red pigment
and blue—are combined, they form white by an absorbs the blue-green and reflects nothing—
additive process (Fig. 6.42). hence, gray.
Additive Primary Colors Subtractive

(light) (pigments)
Red Blue-green
Y M G B
Complementary
White
Color pairs
Green Blue Yellow Magenta

BG R
Fig. 6.42 Primary and complementary colors. Complementary color pairs are shown by arrows. Pigments form color by a subtractive
process; colored lights form colors by an additive process.
OBJECT COLOR 221
during a post-occupancy evaluation (POE); but

VISUAL COMFORT provides little guidance to design efforts. Lack of
a well-established linkage between design moves
and occupant responses is not ideal, but also not
This book historically looked at lighting design unusual in building design.
from a quantity and quality perspective. The quan- Lacking a unified theory of visual comfort, it is
tity element was primarily illuminance (adequate recommended that lighting design be approached
for task completion). The quality element was through owner’s project requirements (OPR). OPR
FUNDAMENTALS
mainly glare control (both direct and reflected). are statements of objectives coupled with verifiable
This was not an unreasonable approach, although criteria that will define a successful solution for a
DESIGN
it might suggest that adequate quantity of light is building owner. Typically, an owner will need input
independent of acceptable quality of light. A more from design professionals to fully understand the
holistic view of the luminous environment would nuances of lighting OPR—but this should not be a
look at designing for visual comfort—which in any problem on a well-structured project.
given building situation would include several Typical lighting OPR for a commer-
variables of substantial importance to a successful cial/institutional building might include:
space.
As opposed to the thermal environment, • Adequate illuminance
however, there is little resource material to help • Acceptable direct glare
the design team define (or even engage) visual • Acceptable reflected glare
comfort as a design objective. There is no unified • Appropriate control options
theory of visual comfort as there is for thermal • Appropriate color rendering
comfort. A unified theory enables designers to • Appropriate energy efficiency
identify the key design variables for comfort—but • Excellent aesthetics
beyond that to understand how an increase in • Adequate concern for circadian rhythms
one variable might allow for a decrease in another
variable. In the absence of a unifying theory, it is The words “appropriate” and “adequate” can
not possible to state that an increase in CRI of 5% become design criterion in the context of a specific
will result in an increase in viewer satisfaction of project (owner, occupants, budget, greenness,
3%; or that an increase in contrast rendition will etc.). Depending upon the project, “adequate”
permit a known decrease in illuminance for equal may become “best practice” or “world-class” or
occupant satisfaction. This makes design of the “0.375.” Guidance on setting criteria for several
luminous environment more of a challenge than of these potential OPR can be found in lighting
design of the thermal environment. There have handbooks and green certification program
been attempts to consolidate aspects of the lumi- requirements.
nous environment—most notably by Flynn and Not all objectives for lighting will be captured
Mills (Architectural Lighting Graphics, 1962)—but in an occupant visual comfort evaluation—energy
these efforts have not led to easily actionable efficiency, for example, will normally be opaque
design guidance. to a space user. Thus, lighting design will engage
Neither the IES nor the CIE defines visual some elements (energy, task performance) outside
comfort. There is no IES or CIE standard on visual of visual comfort, but a number of lighting design
comfort. An ISO standard (ISO 16817:2017) decisions will squarely impact occupant opinions
addresses visual comfort but does not define regarding the visual environment.
it. In the absence of an existing definition of The WELL Building Standard (International
visual comfort, it seems reasonable to appro- WELL Building Institute) is bringing attention to
priate the definition of thermal comfort. Thus, a lighting issue just slightly outside of the realm
let’s state that “visual comfort is that condition of of comfort—the melanopic effects of radiation.
mind that expresses satisfaction with the visual The eye has a melanopic response that differs
environment.” This is a definition that allows from the photopic (light-adapted) and scotopic
for easy verification of visual comfort status (dark-adapted) responses. The melanopic response
curve is slightly to the left of the scotopic response International WELL Building Institute. 2018. WELL
curve (see Fig. 6.3 for the photopic and scotopic Building Standard (vol. 2). New York:
curves). Melanopic illuminance will better address International WELL Building Institute.
the wavelengths of light represented by this Lighting Design Lab (Seattle). http://
response curve than will conventional illumi- lightingdesignlab.com/
nance. Lamps with improved melanopic spectrum Lighting Research Center. http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/
coverage are available. Murdoch, J. B. 1985. Illumination Engineering.
New York: Macmillan.
FUNDAMENTALS
Ross and Baruzzini, Inc. 1975. “Energy

References and Resources Conservation Applied to Office Lighting”
DESIGN
Cotton, H. 1960. Principles of Illumination. New York: (Conservation Paper No. 18). Washington, DC:
John Wiley & Sons. Federal Energy Administration.
Franklin Institute. Light and Color. http://www.fi Ryer, A. 1997. The Light Measurement Handbook.
.edu/color/ Peabody, MA: International Light Technologies.
Flynn, J., and S. Mills. 1962. Architectural Lighting http://www.intl-lighttech.com/services/light-
Graphics. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. measurement-handbook/
IESNA. 1966. “Outline of a Standard Procedure for Sampson, F. K. 1970. Contrast Rendition in School
Computing Visual Comfort Ratings for Interior Lighting. New York: Educational Facilities
Lighting.” Committee Report, Illuminating Laboratory.
Engineering 61, p. 643 (Oct). United States Census Bureau—QuickFacts,
IESNA. 2011. IESNA Lighting Handbook (10th ed.). Population, 2016 estimate. https://www.census
New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of .gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US#viewtop
North America.

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment For Buildings - (Chapter 6 Light Vision and Visual Comfort)

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C H A P T E R 6

Light, Vision, and

ultraviolet radiation. Both are invisible to human

Wavelength nanometers (10–9 meters)

Violet Green Red

Fig. 6.1 The electromagnetic spectrum.

6.2 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS produces 4π (12.57) lumen.

Light source Illuminance

80 room, assuming 60% overall delivery efﬁciency and

1.0 Calculating footcandles directly (with 3 m = 9.84 ft):

TABLE 6.1 Common Lighting Units and Illuminance

of the bulb (because the frosting is assumed not

1 cd EXAMPLE 6.3 Calculate the luminance of a 34-W,

135 cd (0.35) 2770

For example, if a white lamp whose inside 0.0456 2

and its luminance is: transmitted is either absorbed or reflected. See

on the percent of light reflected

transmission factor, or coefficient of transmission,

Specular reflection Diffuse reflection

Fig. 6.6 Reﬂection characteristics. (a) In specular reﬂection,

Diffuse and nondiffuse transmission are illustrated

100% Incident light

Clear material Diffusing

Nondiffuse transmission Diffuse transmission

often focus on illuminance. Verification that

Area = 1 m2 Area = 4 m2 a candlepower distribution curve (CDC). Different

polar coordinate axes, the resultant figure is called

Am2 4 Am2 9 Am2

ω = 1 steradian 270° 90°

Point source D1 = 1 m 300° 200 60°

Fig. 6.15 Typical luminous intensity (cd) distribution curve

is shown in Fig. 6.17. Intensity distribution

c. Contrast, including color contrast eyes—visual acuity is primarily dependent upon

difficult. A simple experiment demonstrates this Another way of understanding this is to

Subjective brightness; apparent luminance

Eye adaptation levels

0.3 3.4 34 340 3400 cd/m2

mentioned. ishing returns.

addressing those factors that are controllable.

synonymous with maximum comfort or minimum

parameter in lighting design, as discussed below.

desired visual acuity.

changing lighting conditions in a limited area to

Direct glare 45°

perception—an opinion—regarding a particular

enter the consciousness or subconsciousness of This can be experienced by alternately blocking

Small bright source

Given these considerations (which tend to

This is not a recommendation to accept bad

Nature of the Problem. Designing to control

light clearly (Fig. 6.26a). Perfect reflector

Any portion of the

substantially independent of illuminance—the Vertical

Glare sources within the geometry of reflected

instance, by moving the head or tilting the task).

to demonstrate that most materials exhibit both

specular and diffuse reflectance. In Fig. 6.27, it is In

(S) reflectance; that is, LBS is the background

and A lighting system almost free of reflected glare

0.497 sources reflected in it. The task is said to be spher-

Integrating sphere 1. ESI is critically dependent on observer position

When tasks are constant, severe veiling reflec-

TI 2L 108 92 125 118