CHAPTER 8

OPTICAL PROPERTIES
OF MINERALS

between successive crests (or troughs); the amplitude

The optical properties are less easily determined
than
the position of
are im- is the displacement on either side of
the other physical properties of minerals but number of waves per
characterization and identification. equilibrium; the frequency is the
portant in mineral second passing a fixed point; and the velocity is the
Because they are usually observed microscopically, Similarly
material is necessary. frequency multiplied by the wavelength.
only avery small amount of length, amplitude, fre-
with the optical light waves (Fig. 8.1) have
Most of the following discussion deals vibrations,
and velocity but their transverse

properties that can be determined in

transmitted light quency,
of propagation, take
minerals. However, perpendicular to the direction
and thus applies to nonopaque
chapter of the place in all possible directions.
brief mention is made at the end of this Visible light occupies a very small portion
of the
minerals. 7.1).
optical properties of opaque electromagnetic spectrum (see Figs.
6.12 and
color and varies from
The wavelength determines the
about
than 7000 A at the red end to
slightly more
White light is composed of
NATURE OF LIGHT 4000 A at the violet end.
whereas light of
of light it is necessary all wavelengths between these limits,
To account for all the properties a singlewavelength is called
monochromatic.

to resort to two theories:

the wave theory and the cor
is the wave theory that
puscular theory. However, it
we shall consider in explaining
the optical behavior
that visible light, as
of crystals. This theory assumes in
spectrum, travels
part of the electromagnetic it
wave motion; that is,
straight lines with a transverse of propagation.
vibrates at right angles to the direction
that generated by drop-
The wave motion is similar to
out
water with waves moving
ping a pebble into still water merely rises and
from the central point. The
moves forward. The
front that
falls, it is only the wave
the distance
wavelength (A) of such a wave motion is
Reflection and Refraction
rare medium, such as
When a light ray passes from a
such as glass, part of it is
air, into a denser medium,
inte the air and part
reflected from the surface back
enters the glass (Fig. 8.2).
The reflected ray obeys the
state: (a) that the angle of
laws of reflection, which
reflection (r'), when
incidence ) equals the angle of
from the surface normal,
both angles are measured
reflected rays lie in the
and (b) that the incident and
 290 CHAPTER8. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Wavelength

Forward motion

FIG 8.1 Wave motion

light with its longer wavelength has

a
same plane. The light that passes into the glass travels locity. Red
with a lesser velocity than in air and no longer follows greater velocity than violet light and because of the
reciprocal relation between velocity and refractive
in-
the path of the incident ray but is bent or refracted.
The amount of bending depends on the obliquity of dex, n for red light is less than n for violet light (Fig.
the incident ray and the relative velocity of light in the 8.3). A crystal thus has different refractive indices for
two media; the greater the angle of incidence and different wavelengths of light. This phenomenon is
the greater the velocity difference, the greater the known as dispersion and because of it, monochro-
matic light is used for accurate determination of re
refraction.
fractive index.

Index of Refraction
The index of refraction, n, of a material can be ex
pressed as the ratio between the
the air () and its velocity in the denser material (v),
that is, n = V/v. As a basis for comparison the velocity
of light in air is considered equal to 1,n = 1/v, or the
index of refraction is equal to the reciprocal of the
velocity.
The precise relationship of the angle of incidence
i) to the angle of refraction (r) is given by Snell's law,
which states that for two media (e.g., in going from air
into glass) the ratio of sin i : sinr is a constant. This is
n, where the con-
usually expressed as sin i/sin r
=
TOTAL REFLECTION
velocity of light in AND THE CRITICAL ANGLE
We have seen (Fig. 8.2) that light is reflected toward
the normal when it passes from a medium with a
lower refractive index to a medium with a higher re
fractive index. When the conditions are reversed, as
in Fig. 8.4, and the light moves from the higher to the
lower index medium, it is refracted away from the
normal. In Fig. 8.4, assume that lines A, B, C, and so
forth represent light rays moving through glass, and
into air at point O. The greater the obliquity of the

stant, n, is the index of refraction. incident ray, the greater the angle of refraction. Fi-
The velocity of light in glass is equal to frequency nally, an angle of incidence is reached, as at ray D
multiplied by wavelength; therefore, with fixed fre- for which the angle of refraction is 90°, and the rav
the longer the wavelength the greater the ve- then grazes the surface. The angle of incidence at
quency,
which this takes place is known as the critical angle
As a standard for comparison the velocity of light in vacuum
Rays such as E and F, striking the interface at a greater
velocities thus expressed in terms
is taken as unity. Other light are
angle, are totally retlected back into the higher index
1. Because for air, 0.9997 (almost as great as in vac-
of V v
=
=

uum), it may also be considered unity. medium.

FIG 83. Different refraction for ditferentwavelengths of light

FIG. 8.2 Reflected and refracted light.

White
ight

Glass Glass Red

Violet
 POLARIZED LIGHT 291
A B

Glass n =1 52

ED C BA C.A
E
FIG. 8.4. Light
rays moving through
glass-air intertace at angle CA, and glass and striking the Bright
reflected. greater angles, are
totallyy
FIG. 8.5. Pulfrich
refractometer and measurement of the
cal angle C.A. N =
1.90, C.A. crit
=
50°, n =
1.455.
The measurement of the
critical angle is a quick
and easy method of
determining
of both liquids and solids.
the refractive index
entation, a crystal has
The instrument used is a two indices of refraction, one
refractometer, of which there are many types. A de- associated with each polarized ray.
scription of one of these, the
will suffice to illustrate the Pulfrich refractometer,
instrument employs a polished
underlyingprinciples. This
hemisphere
fractive index glass (Fig. 8.5). A
of high re- POLARIZED LIGHT
ished surface of the mineral is crystal face or pol- We have seen that
placed on the equato- light can be considered a wave
rial plane of the motion with vibrations taking
hemisphere and, depending on the place in all directions
at right angles to the direction of
angle of incidence, is either partly refracted propagation. When
the unknown or totally reflected through the wave motion is confined to
vibrations in a single
back the through
hemisphere. If plane, the light is said to be plane polarized. The three
a
telescope is placed in a
position to principal ways of polarizing light are by double re-
receive the reflected rays, observe a sharp
one can
fraction, absorption, and reflection.
boundary between the portion of the field intensely
illuminated by the totally reflected
mainder of the field. When the
light and the re- Polarized Light by Double Refraction
that its cross hairs are
telescope is moved so It has been pointed out that when
light passes through
precisely on the contact, the an
anisotropic crystal it is divided into two polarized
critical angle is read on a scale.
Knowing this angle rays. The principle on which the first efficient polar-
and the index of refraction of the
can calculate the index of
hemisphere, N, one izer was based was the elimination of one of these
refraction of the mineral: rays. The crystalline material used was the optically
n mineral sin critical angle X N
hemisphere.
=

clear variety of calcite, Iceland spar, and the

ISOTROPIC AND
ANISOTROPIC CRYSTALS
For optical considerations all transparent substances
can be divided into two groups: isotropic and
aniso
tropic., The isotropic group includes such noncrystal-
line substances as gases, liquids, and glass, but it also
includes crystals that belong to the isometric crystal
system. them In light
moves in all directions with
equal velocity and hence each isotropic substance has
a single refractive index. In anisotropic substances,
which include all crystals except those of the isomet-
ric system, the velocity of light varies with crystallo
graphic direction and thus there is a range of refractive
index.
In general, light passing through an anisotropic
crystal is broken into two polarized rays vibrating in
mutually perpendicular planes. Thus for a given ori-
polarizer
was called the Nicol prism, after the inventor William
Nicol. Calcite has such a strong double refraction that
each ray produces a separate image when an object
is viewed through a cleavage fragment (Fig. 8.6a). In
making the Nicol prism (Fig. 8.7), an elongated cleav-
age rhombohedron of calcite is sawed at a specitied
angle and the two halves are rejoined by cementing
with Canada balsam. Faces are then ground at the
ends of the prism to make angles of 90° with the ce-
mented surface. On entering the prism, light is re-
solved into two rays O and E. Because of the greater
refraction of the O ray it ia totally reflected at the Can-
ada balsam surface. The E ray with refractive index
close to that of the balsam proceeds essentially un-
deviated through the prism and emerges as plane po
larized light.
Polarized Light by Absorption
The polarized rays intó which light is divided in ani-
sotropic crystals may be differentially absorbed. If one
 CHAPTER 8. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
292

CALCITE
CALCI
AL TTE

face, showing double refraction. The dou-

normal to the rhombohedron
FIG. 86 (a) Calcite, viewed on the specimen
face cut
ble repetition of "calcite" at the top of
the photograph as seen thfough a
refraction. Viewed parallel to thecaxis
no double
parallel to the base. (b) Calcite showing
(Specimens from the Harvard Mineralogical Museum.)

the other. Polariz-

and the other emerging from one is absorbed by
ray suffers nearly complete absorption are made by aligning8
will be plane polarized. ing sheets, such as Polaroid,
very little, the emerging light absorb very
well illustrated by some tour- crystals on an acetate base. These crystals
This phenomenon is but are highly
the little light in one vibration direction,
maline crystals (Fig. 8.8). Light passed through transmitted by the
essentially absorptive in the other. The light
crystal at right angles to [0001] emerges the c axis. sheet is thus plane polarized. Because they
are thin
vibrations parallel to
plane polarized, with and can be made in large sheets,
manufactured po-
is almost
The other ray, vibrating perpendicularly it,
to
extensively used in optical equip-
placed larizing plates are
completely absorbed. When two crystals
are
ment, including many polarizing microscopes
one above the other, the polarized
ray
at right angles
Polarized Light by Reflection
nonmetallic surface is
FIG. 8.7. Nicol prism. Light reflected from a smooth,
with the vibration directions par
partially polarized
allel to the reflecting surface. The extent of polariza-
and
B tion depends on the angle of incidence (Fig. 8.9)
68 of refraction of the reflecting surface. It is
the index

90°
Optic axis FIG. 8.8. Polarized light by absorption. (a) Tourmaline (b) Po
laroid. Arrows indicate directions of maximum transmission; di
rections of maximum absorption are at right angles
C

90

68°

(a) (b)
 THE
POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 293

(a)
FIG 89 Polarized (6)
light by reflecton and refraction
most nearly polarized when the
reflected and refracted ray is 90° angle between the (high). Oculars also have different
fact that reflected (Brewster's law). The such as 5 magnifications
light is polarized can be easily dem- x, 7X, 10x. The total magnification of the
onstrated by viewing it image be determined
When the vibration through a
polarizing filter.
can
fication of the objective
by multiplying the magni-
direction of the filter is by that of the ocular as:
the
reflecting surface, the light passes parallel to 50X 10X 500X. Although in
=

with only slight through

reduction in intensity (Fig. the filter routine work the
the filter is turned 90° 8.9a); when
only a small percentage of the
light reaches the eye (Fig. 8.9b). FIG. 8.10.
Polarizing microscope,
by Nikon Inc. 1. Oculars. 2.
Labophot-Pol, manufactured
Analyzer. 3. Slot for
plate. Revolving nosepiece for objectives. 5. accessory
4.
6. Rotating
stage. 7. Lever for swinging in and out Objectives
THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE lens. 8. Rotatable condenser
polarizer. 9. Vertical adjustment of
focusing (knobs on both sides). 10. Field stage, for
The polarizing stage illuminator. 12. Intensity diaphragm. 11. Sub-
strument for
microscope is the most important in- 13. On/off switch. adjustment knob for illuminator
determining the (Courtesy of S & M
Microscopes Inc., Colo
crystals; with it more informationoptical
rado Springs, Col.)
properties of
can be obtained eas-
ily and quickly than with more
Several manufacturers each make specialized
a number of
devices.
of
polarizing microscopes that vary models ww
in
design and complexity of
dent model sophistication
and hence in
made by price. A stu-
Nikon Inc. is illustrated in
8.10 with the essential Fig.
parts named.
Although a
from an ordinarypolarizing microscope differs in detail
compound microscope, its primary
function is the same: to yield an
object placed on the stage. enlarged image of an
duced by a combination of The magnification is pro-
two sets of lenses:
jective and the ocular. The the ob-
lens, at the lower end of the function of the objective
produce image that is sharp and
an microscope tube, is to
merely enlarges this image clear. The ocular
resulting from a poor quality including any imperfection 0
ogical work it is desirable to objective.
have
For mineral-
low, medium, and high three objectives:
shown mounted pn a power. In Fig. 8.10 these are
revolving nosepiece and can be
successively rotated into
produced by an objectiveposition. The
is usually magnification B
housing, such as 2x (low), 10x indicated on its
(medium), and 50x
294 CHAPTER 8. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
three objectives are frequently
interchanged, a single
ocular usually suffices. The ocular
assembly, which
slips into the upper end'of the microscope tube, car-
ries cross hairs-one N-S (front-back) the other E-W.
These enable one to locate under high power a
par-
ticular mineral grain that has been brought to the
ter of the field under low
cen
power. They are also essen-
tial in aligning cleavage fragments for
making angular
measurements. A condenser is located below the
stage. The upper lens of the condenser, used with
high-power objectives, makes the light strongly con-
verging and can be rotated easily into or out of the
optical system. The iris diaphragm, also located below
the stage, can be openedclosed to control the
or
depth of focus and to regulate the intensity of light
striking the object.
In addition to the lenses,
condenser, and dia-
phragm mentioned above which are common to all
compound microscopes, the polarizing microscope
has several other features. The
polarizer below the
stage is apolarizing plate, or Nicol prism, that trans
mits plane polarized light vibrating in a N-S (front-
back) direction. The analyzer, fitted in the tube above
the stage, is a similar plate or prism that transmits
light
vibrating only in an E-W direction. The polarizer and
analyzer are collectively called polars.2 When both
polars are in position, they are said to be crossed and,
if no anisotropic crystal is between them, no
light
reaches the eye. The polarizer remains fixed but the
analyzer can be removed from the optical path at will.
The Bertrand lens is an accessory that is used to ob-
serve interference figures (see
page 299). In working
with crystals it is frequently necessary to change their
orientation. This is accomplished by means of a ro-
tating stage, whose axis of rotation is the same as the
microscope axis.
Microscopic Examination
of Minerals and Rocks
The polarizing microscope is also called the petro-
graphic microscope because it is used in the study of
rocks. In examining thin sections of rocks, the textural
relationships are brought out and certain optical prop-
erties can be determined. It is equally effective in
working with powdered mineral fragments. On such
loose grains all the optical properties can be deter
mined, and in most cases they characterize a mineral
sufficiently to permit its identification.
Before using a microscope the vibration directions of the po-
lars should be checked; for, although the orientation is usually as
given, in some microscopes the vibration directions of transmitted
light are reversed; that is, the polarizer is E-W, the analyzer N-S.
The optimum size of mineral grains for exami-
nation with a polarizing microscope is minus 50
mesh-plus 100 mesh, but larger or smaller sizes may
be used. To prepare a mount for examination (1)
put
a tew mineral grains on an
objectglass, a slide 40 mm
X 27 mm, (2) immerse the grains in a drop of liquid
of known refractive index, and (3)
place a cover glass
on top of the
liquid. When this type of mount is used
the refractive indices of mineral grains are determined
by the immersion method.
In using this method there should be available a
series of calibrated liquids ranging in refractive index
from 1.41 to 1.77, with a difference of 0.01 or less
between adjacent liquids. These liquids cover the re
fractive index range of most of the common minerals.
The immersion method is one of trial and error and
involves comparing the refractive index of the un-
known with that of known
a liquid.
Isotropic Crystals and the Becke Line
Because light moves in all directions through an iso
tropic substance with equal velocities, there is no
double refraction and only a single index of refraction.
With a polarizing microscope, objects are always
viewed in polarized light, which conventionally is vi
brating N-S. If the object is-an isotropic mineral, the
light passes through it and continues to vibrate in the
same plane. lf the analyzer is inserted, darkness results
for this polar permits light to pass only if it is
vibrating
in an E-W direction. Darkness remains as the
position
of the crystal is changed by rotating the
microscope
stage. This is a characteristic that distinguishes iso-
tropic from anisotropic crystals.
Let us first consider how the single reíractive in-
dex of isotropic substances is determined. The first
mount may be made by using any liquid, but if the
mineral is a complete unknown, it is wise to select a
liquid near the middle of the range. When the grains
are brought into
sharp focus using a medium-power
objective and plane polarized light, in all likelihood
they will stand in relief; that is, they will be clearly
discernible from the surrounding liquid. This is be-
cause the light is refracted as it passes from one
medium to another of different refractive index. The
farther apart the indices of refraction of mineral and
liquid, the greater is the relief.\But when the indices
of the two are the same, there îis no refraction at the
interface, and the grains are essentially invisible. Re-
lief shows that the index of refraction of the mineral
is different from that of the liquid; but is it higher or
lower? The answer to this important question çan be
found by means of the Becke line (Fig. 8.11)f the
mineral grain is thrown slightly out of focus by raising
the
microscope tube (in most modern microscopes

FIG 811 The Becke Line
When thrown out of focus by rais
ng of microscope tube (or lower
ng of stage), white line moves
into medium of higher refractive
ndex (a) In focus. (b) n of
grain>n of iauid. (C) n of grain
not liquid. (a)
this is accomplished by lowering the
stage), a narrow
line of light will form at its edge and move toward the
medium of higher refractive
index.Thus
if the Becke
line moves into the mineral grain, á new mount must
be made using a liquid of
higher refractive index. After
several tries it may be found that there is no Becke
line and the mineral grains are invisible in a
given
liquid. The index of refraction of the mineral is then
the same as that of the calibrated liquid. More fre-
quently, however, the refractive index of the mineral
is found to be greater than that of one liquid but less
than that of its next higher neighbor. In such cases it
is
necessary to interpolate. If the Becke line moving
into the mineral in the lower index liquid is more in-
tense than the line moving out of the mineral into the
next higher index liquid, it can be assumed that the
refractive index of the mineral is closer to that of
the higher liquid. In this way it is usually possible to
report a refractive index to t0.003.
Frequently the Becke line can be sharpened by
restricting the light by means of the substage dia-
phragm. Most liquids have a greater dispersion than
minerals. Thus, if the refractive index of liquid and
mineral are matched for a wavelength near the center
of the spectrum, the mineral has a higher index than
the liquid for red light but a lower index for violet
light. This is evidenced, when observed in white light,
by a reddish line moving into the grain while a bluish
line moves out.
Aside from color, the single index of refraction is
the only significant optical characteristic of isotropic
minerals. It is, therefore, important in mineral identi-
fication to consider other properties such as cleavage,
fracture, color, hardness, and specific gravity.
UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS
We have seen that light moves in all directions
through an isotropic substance with equal velocity
and vibrates in all directions at right angles to the di-
UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS 295
(b) (c)
rections of propagation. In hexagonal and tetragonal
crystals, there is one and only one direction in which
light moves in this way. This is parallel to the c axis,
with vibrations in all directions in the basal plane. For
thisreason the c axis is called the
optic axis, andhex
agonal and tetragonal crystals are called optically uni
axial. This distinguishes them from orthorhombic,
monoclinic, and triclinic crystals which have two op-
tic axes and are called biaxial.
When light moves in uniaxial crystals in any
di
rection other than parallel to the c axis, it is broken
into two rays traveling with different velocities. One,
the ordinary ray, vibrates in the basal plane; the other,
the extraordinary ray, vibrates at right angles to it and
thus in a plane that includes the c axis. Such a plane,
of which there is an infinite number, is referred to as
the principal section. The nature of these two rays can
be brought out in the following way. Assume that the
direction of the incident beam is varied to make all
possible angles with the crystal axes, and that the dis-
tance traveled by the resulting rays in any instant can
be measured. We would find that:
1. One ray, with waves always vibrating in the
basal plane, traveled the same distance in the same
time. Its surface can be represented by a sphere, and
because it acts much as ordinary light does it is the
ordinary ray (O ray).
2. The other ray, with waves vibrating in the plane
that includes the c axis, traveled in the same time dif.
ferent distances depending on the orientation of the
incident beam. If the varying distances of this, the ex
traordinary ray (E ray) were plotted, they would outline
an ellipsoid of revolution, with the optic axis the axis
of revolution.
Uniaxial crystals are divided into two optical
groups: positive and negative. They are positive if the
O ray has the greater velocity, and negative if the
E ray has the greater velocity. Cross sections of the ray
velocity surfaces are shown in Fig. 8.12. Note that in
both positive and negative crystals the O and E rays
have the same velocity when traveling along the optic
296 CHAPTER 8. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Extraordinary
-Ordinary
(+) (-)
FIG. 8.12. Ray velocity surfaces of uniaxial crystals
(c) axis. But the difference in their velocities becomes
progressively greater as the direction of light propa-
gation mOves away from the optic axis, reaching a
maximum at 90°.
Because the two rays have different velocities,
there are two indices of refraction in uniaxial crystals
Each index is associated with a vibration direction.
The index related to vibration along the ordinary ray
is designated o (omega), whereas that associated with
the extraordinary ray is e (epsilon) or e'. In positive
crystals the O ray has a greater velocity than the E ray,
and o is less than e. But in negative crystals with the
E ray having the greater velocity, w is greater than e.
The two principal indices of refraction of a uniaxial
crystal are o and e and the difference between them
is the birefringence.
The uniaxial indicatrix is a geometrical figure that
is helpful in visualizing the relation of the refractive
indices and their vibration directions that are perpen-
dicular to the direction of propagation of light through
a crystal. For positive crystals the indicatrix is a prolate
spheroid of revolution; for negative crystals it is an
oblate spheroid of revolution (Fig. 8.13). In their con-
struction the direction of radial lines is proportional
to
the refractive indices. First consider light moving par
refracted but
allel to the optic axis. It is not doubly
moves through the crystal as the ordinary ray with
waves vibrating in all directions in the basal plane.
FIG. 8.13. Optical indicatrix, uniaxial crystals. (a) Positive.
(b) Negative.
(b)
(a)
This is why light moving parallel to thec axis of calcite
(Fig. 8.6b) produces a single image. There is a single
refractive index for all these vibrations, proportional
to the radius of the equatorial circle of the indicatrix.
Now consider light traveling perpendicular to the op-
tic axis. It is doubly refracted. The waves of the ordi-
nary ray vibrate, as always, in the basal plane and the
associated refractive index, o, is agin an equatorial
radius of the indicatrix. The vibration direction of
Waves of the extraordinary ray must be at right angles
to both the vibration direction of the ordinary waves
and the direction of propagation. Thus, in this special
case, it is parallel to the optic axis. The axis of revo-
lution of the indicatrix is then proportional to e, the
greatest index in (+) crystalsand the least in (-)crys-
tals. It can be seen that light moving through a crystal
in a random direction gives rise to two rays: (1) the O
ray with waves vibrating in the basal section, the as-
sociated index, o, and (2) the E ray with waves vi
brating in the principal section in a direction at.right
angles to propagation. The length' of the radial line
along this vibration direction is e', a refractive index
ying between o and e.
A study of the indicatrix shows that (1) w can be
determined on any crystal grain; and only o can be
measured when light moves parallel to the optic axis,
(2) e can be measured only when light moves normal
to the c axis, and (3) a randomly oriented grain yields,
in addition to o, an index intermediate to » and E,
called e'. The less the angle between the direction of
light propagation and the normal to the optic axis, the
closer is the value e' to true e.
Uniaxial Crystals Between
Crossed Polars
Extinction
We have seen that because isotropic crystals remain
dark in all positions between crossed polars, they can
be distinguished from anisotropic crystals. However,
there are special conditions under which uniaxial
crystals present a dark field when viewed between
crossed polars. One of these conditions is when light
moves parallel to the optic axis. Moving in this direc
tion, light from the polarizer passes through the crystal
as through an isotropic substance and is completèly
condition
cut out by the analyzer. The other special
the vibration direction of light from the po-
s
w
larizer coincides exactly with one of the vibration di-
rections of the crystal. In this situation, light passes
or the E ray to
through the crystal as either the O ray
be completely eliminated by the analyzer, and the
extinction. As the crystal is ro-
crystal is said to be at

P analyzer, they interfere. For monochromatic light, if
(a) (b)
O O
(c) d)
(e)
FIG
814 Quartz crystal between crossed polars.
tated from this extinction position it becomes
gressively lighter, reaching a maximum brightness at
45°. There are four extinction positions in a 360° ro-
tation, one every 90°.
Interference
Let us consider how the crystal affects the behavior of
polarized light as it is rotated from one extinction po-
sition to another. Figure 8.14 represents five positions
of a tiny quartz crystal elongated on the c axis and
lying on a prism face. In the diagrams it is assumed
that light from the polarizer is moving upward, normal
to the page, and vibrating in direction P-P. The vibra-
tion direction of the analyzer is A-A. The crystal in
(a) is at an extinction position and light moves through
it as the E ray vibrating parallel to the c axis. At 90,
position (b), the crystal is also at extinction with light
moving through it as the O ray. When the crystal is
turned as in (c), (d), and (e), polarized.light entering it
is resolved into two components. One moves through
it as the O ray, vibrating in the basal plane; the other
as the E ray, vibrating in the principal section. In
(c) most light is transmitted as the E ray but in (e) it is"
transmitted mostly as the O ray. In (d), the 45° posi-
tion, the amounts of lighi transmitted by the two rays
are equal.
When these rays from the crystal enter the ana-
lyzer, each is broken up into an O and E ray conform-
ing in vibration directions to those of the analyzer.
Only the components of the rays vibrating in an E-W
direction are permitted to pass. During their passage
through the crystal the two rays travel with different
velocities and thus on emerging there is a phase dif-
ference because one is ahead of the other. The
UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS 297
amount it is ahead depends both on the difference in
velocities and on the thickness of crystal traversed.
Because both rays vibrate in the same plane of the
one ray is an integral number of wavelengths (nA) be-
hind the other, the interference results in darkness. On
the other hand, if the path difference is A/2, 3A/2, or
in general (2n- 1)A/2, the waves reinforce one an-
other to produce maximum brightness.
Each wavelength has its own sets of critical con-
ditions when interference produces darkness. Conse-
quently, when white light is used, "darkness" for one
wavelength means its elimination from the spectrum
and its complementary color appears. The colors thus
produced are called interference colors. There are dif
ferent orders of interference depending on whether
the color results from a path difference of 1A, 21, 3A,
, n . These are called first-order, second-order,
third-order, and so forth interference colors as indi-
cated in Fig. 8.15. A color plate of this figure appears
pro- on the endpaper at the back of the book.
Interference colors depend on three factors: ori-
entation, thickness, and birefringence. With a contin-
uous change in direction of light, from parallel to per-
pendicular to the optic axis, there is a continuous
increase in interterence colors. For a given orienta-
tion, the thicker the crystal and the greater its bire-
fringence the higher the order of interference color. If
a crystal plate is of uniform thickness, as a cleavage
flake may be or a grain in a rock thin section, it will
show a single interference color. As seen in immersion
liquids, grains commonly vary in thickness and a vari-
ation in interference colors reflects this irregularity.
Accessory Plates
The gypsum plate, mica plate, and quartz wedge are
accessory plates used with the polarizing microscope;
their function is to produce interference of known
amounts and thus predetermined colors. They are all
constructed so that the fast ray (the vibration direction
of the lesser refractive index) is parallel to the long
dimension. The gypsum plate is made by cleaving a
8ypsum crystal to such a thickness that in white light
it produces a uniform red interference color: red of
the first order. The mica plate is made with a thin mica
flake, cleaved to a thickness that for yellow light it
yields a path difference of a quarter of a wavelength.
It is thus also called the quarter wave plate. The quartz
wedge is an elongated wedge-shaped piece of quartz
(see Fig. 8.16a) with the vibration direction of the fast
ray (w) parallel to its length and the slow ray (e) across
its length. As thicker portions of the wedge are placed
in the optical path, the path difference of the rays pass-
 CHAPTER 8. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
298

Thickness n Microneters (um)

0 40 -a
tiretringernce(y
Analcime Cryolite
Iron & 0 0 001 Leucie

002 Eudalyte
Lavenoe Kray

0 003 Philiipsite Apatite

Gray blue

00 0 004 Riebeck Vesuvanie

Ciear gray 218

Greenish white 234 005 Gnozgssite Nepheline

White 259- Orthocil
Raryl
Yellow white 2b Toisite Akermanite

Pale yyellow 275/

SColec t aolinite
Pale straw 2 8 1 /
yelow
Straw yellow 306/
Corungu
Bright yellow 332
uartz
400 0 009 te
f eiestite

3ronzte
Drown-yenow 430
0 010
Red-o range 505
ndaysi
Red

Purpie 565
o011 Cunoc

575 roite
VIolet
600

01 nen
Sky blue 664
KAT

Green blue 728 M220nTe

Green 4

Monticilitp
00
0 016 Hornbieng
26
o017
343
Green-yyellow 66
0 013 Glaucconare

enow 910
Orange 940
0019 Lanson
te
0 020 podume
Orange r red 1000 Varmicu
Gedrite 3ructe
0 021
GODS
0 022 Carpot Silimanit
ueviolet 1128 0 023
lue 1151

1200 Ho.024 Augite

reenish blue 1258

o.025 Tourmmaiine Tremdiste

026 Rosenbuschite

reen 1334 o O27 anaiite Actinote

Green 1376
1400 o.028 Eosomt Giauconte
Greenishn 1426 F Caicrum
0 029 Carcrne
yellow hydroxide

Pseudo
Flesh color
1495 o.030 woilassto
Red 1534 0 031 Diops:de

0 032 Ailanite
600
Dull purple 621
o 033 rehut te orsterite

Gray blue 1682

0 034
FIG. 8.15. Chart showing the Sea green 1711

relation of interference colors Bluish green 1744 3 Hum fondiate

to thickness and birefrin- O36

Path d1fterence (nm)
gence and the birefringence
of some common minerals. A
color plate of this same figure
is given on the back end-
paper of this text.

ing through increases, producing a succession

it also
of interference colors. The number of orders depends
on the wedge angle: the greater the angle the more
orders per unit of length.
When the quartz wedge is viewed between
crossed polars in monochromatic light, it is crossed
by alternating dark and light bands: dark where the
path difference is na and brightest where the path dif-
ference is (2n 1 )A/2, Fig. 8.16b. In white light a
succession of interference colors is observed that re-
semble colors seen in thin oil films on water, Fig.
8.16c. The colors result from interference phenomena
 UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS 299

0.0 Black
Dark gray
Gray
Pathdiff. Bluish gray
in nm
White
Pale yellow
0.05 Yellow
Orange red
560 Red
Violet
Violet blue
Blue
Green
O.10 Yellow green
Yelliow
Orange
2A 1120 Viciet red
Violet blue
Blue
Green
0.15 OA
Yellow
Pink
Violet gray
1680
3A Bluish gray
Bluish green
0.20
Pale gray

White of
higher order

FIG. 8.16. Quartz wedge. (a) Cross section: (b) in mono- 0.25 2240
chromatic light, A = 560 nm; (c) colors in whitelight. (c)
(a) (6)

described by Sir Isaac Newton and are called New
ton's colors.
Uniaxial Crystals in Convergent
Polarized Light
What are known as interference figures are seen when
properly oriented crystal sections are examined in
convergent polarized light. To see them, the polariz
ing microscope (usually used as an orthoscope) is
converted to a conoscope by swinging in the upper
substage condensing lens, so that the section can be
observed in strongly converging light, using a high-
power objective. The interference figure then appears
as an image just above the upper lens of the objective
and can be seen between crossed polars by removing
the ocular and looking down the microscope tube. If
the Bertrand lens, an accessory lens located above the
analyzer, is inserted, an enlarged image of the figure
can be seen through the ocular.
The principal interference figure of a uniaxial
crystal, the optic axis figure, Fig. 8.17, is seen when
one views the crystal parallel to the c axis. Only for
the central rays from the converging lens is there now
double refraction; the others, traversing the crystal in
directions not parallel to the c axis, are resolved into
O and E rays having increasing path difference as the
obliquity to the c axis increases. The interference of
these rays produces concentric circles of interference
colors. The center is black with no interference but

FIG. 8.17. Uniaxial optic axis in-

terference figures. (a) Radial
lines indicate vibration directions
of E ray; tangential lines indicate X
vibration directions of O ray.
(b) and (c) show isochromatic
Curves.

(a) (b) (c)

 MINERALS
CHAPTER 8. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF
300
The cross forms be
progression from first-order rantscontaining the optic axis.
moving outward there is a
is broken into O
and E rays
to second-order to third-order, and so forth, interfer- Cause the converging light or nearly par
thick- with vibrationdirections mostly parallel
ence colors. If the crystal section is of unitorm directions of the polauizer and
noted it is moved horizon allel to the vibration
ness, no change will be
as
not only indicates the
as in a wedge- analyzer. A centered flash figure
tally. If, however, the thickness varies, vibration direction of the E ray,
but assures one that
the positions of the colors change in
shaped fragment, true value ofe can be obtained
with horizontal movement. At the thin edge there may in this direction a

is plane polarized light.

be only gray of the first-order, but as the crystal
moved so the light path through it becomes greater,
all the first-order colors may appear. And with in-
of the Determination of Optic Sign
creasing crystal thickness, the path difference and the quartz
two rays may be great enough to yield second-, third-, The mica gypsum plate,
plate, the axis figure
a uniaxial optic
and higher-order interference colors. wedge may be used with the crystal
whether
The reason for the black cross superimposed on to determine the optic sign; that is,
inserted below the
the rings of interference colors is brought out in Fig. is positive or negative. They are
so positioned
8.17a. In this drawing the radial dashes indicate the analyzer itn a slot in the microscope tube
their vibration di-
vibration directions of the E ray and those at right an- that when the plates are in place,
rections make angles of 45° with the vibration direc
gles the vibration directions of the O ray. It will be
seen that where these vibration directions are parallel tions of the polars.
From the previous discussion we have learned
or nearly parallel to the vibration directions of the po-
that in the optic axis interference figure, the E ray vi
larizer and analyzer no light passes and thus the for-
use of
mation of the dark cross. brates radially and the O ray tangentially. By of the
vibration directions
Figure 8.17 illustrates a centered optic axis figure an accessory plate in which
tell whether
as obtained on a crystal plate whose c axis coincides slow and fast rays are known, one can
the E ray of the crystal is slower (positive crystals)
or
with the axis of the microscope; as the stage is rotated,
thus de-
no movement of the figure is seen. If the optic axis of faster (negative crystals) than the O ray and
American-made
the crystal makes an angle with the axis of the micro- termine the optic sign. For most
is at right an-
scope, the black cross is no longer symmetrically
lo- equipment the vibration of the slow ray
and is marked on the
cated in the field of view (Fig. 8.18). When the stage gles to the length of the plate so

metal carrier. However, before using an accessory the

is center of the cross moves in a circular
rotated, the
path, but the bars of the cross remain parallel to the
vibration directions of the polarizer and analyzer.
Even if the inclination of the optic axis is so great that
the center of the cross does not appear, on rotation of
the crystal the bars move across the field, maintaining
their parallelism to the vibration directions of the
polars.
The flash figure is an interference figure produced
by uniaxial crystal when its optic axis is normal to
a
the axis of the microscope; that is, a hexagonal or
tetragonal crystal lying on a face in the prism
zone.
When the crystal is at an extinction position, the figure
is an ill-defined cross occupying much of the field.
On rotation of the stage, the cross breaks into two
hyperbolas that rapidly leave the field in those quad-
vibration directions should be checked. The principle
in the use of all the plates is the same: to add or sub-
tract from the difference of the O and E rays of
path
the crystal.
If the mica plate is superimposed on a uniaxial
optic axis figure in which the ordinary ray is slow
(negative crystal), the interference of the plate rein-
forces the interference colors in the SE and NW quad-
rants, causing them to shift slightly toward the center.
At the same time subtraction causes the colors in the
NE and SW quadrants to shift slightly away from the
center. The most marked effect produced by the mica
plate is the formation of two black spots near the cen-
ter of the black cross in the quadrants where subtrac
tion occurs (Fig. 8.19).

FIG. 8.18. Positions of off-centered uniaxial

optic axis figure on clockwise rotation of mi-
Croscope stage.
 UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS 301

(+) (

FIG. 8.19 Determination of dptic sign with mica P

(a) (b)
plate

of the field. In a
outward to the edge
Thegypsum plate is usually used to determine the colors move
observed, but
optic sign when low-order interference colors or no positive crystal similar phenomena are

colors at all are seen in the optic axis figure. It has the the colors move in the opposite directions, that is,
SE-NW quadrants and
effect of superimposing red of the first-order on the away from the center in the
interference figure. If the figure shows several orders toward the center in the NE-SW quadrants.
of interference colors, one should consider the color
effect on the grays of the first-order near the center. In
the quadrants where there is addition, the red plus the
the red mi- Sign of Elongation
gray gives blue; in the alternate quadrants elon-
nus the gray gives yellow. The arrangement of colors Hexagonal and tetragonal crystals are frequently
that
in positive crystals is: yellow SE-NW; blue NE-SW; gated on the c axis or have prismatic cleavage
permits them break into splintery fragments also
to
and in negative crystals, yellow NE-SW, blue orientation is
SE-NW. It is suggested that the student insert the elongated parallel to c. If such an
known, one can determine the optic sign by turning
colors in Fig. 8.20. and inserting
The quartz wedge is most effective in determining the elongated grain to the 45° position
colors rise (gray
interference colors are the gypsum plate. If the interference
optic sign when high-order of mineral plus first-order red equals blue), the slow
The wedge is usually
present in the optic axis figure. been superimposed on the slow
first. If its retardation is ray of the 8ypsum has
inserted with the thin edge mineral. If this is also the direction of elon
interference colors in ray of the
added to that of the crystal, the is the higher re-
increase progressively as gation, it means the E ray is slow (e
two opposite quadrants will
tube. If the fractive index) and the mineral has positive elongation
the wedge moves through the microscope slow ray of the
from that produced by the and is optically positive. When the
retardation is subtracted the elongation of the min-
will decrease. Thus as gypsum is plate parallel
to
colors
crystal, the order of eral grain and the interference colors
fall (gray of min
inserted over an optic axis
the quartz wedge is slowly eral minus first-order red equals yellow), the mineral
the color bands in the
figure of a negative crystal, has negative elongation and is optically negative
(Fig.
SE-NW quadrants move toward
the center and dis-
the 8.21).
same time in the NE-SW quadrants
appear. At the

with gypsum
FIG. 8.20. Determination of optic sign
plate.
Yellow

A
A
Yello

Yelio

(+)

P
(b)
(a)
 OF MINERALS
302 CHAPTER 8. OPTICAL PROPERTIES

as Y. For biaxial
plane defined by X and Z is designated retraction ree
Crystals there thus three indices of
are
each of these principa
sulting from rays vibrating in
numerical difference between
optical directions. The the bire-
refractive indices is
the greatest and least
used
and symbols have been
tringence Various letters
to designate the refractive
indices, but the most gen
SIoW letters as follows:
Slow erally accepted are the Greek
(+) )
Direction
Ray Velocity
(a) b) Index
lowest
highest
with gypsum (aipha)
FIG 821 Determination of sign of elongation
intermediate

B blue (a) Positive elonga (beta) Bmiddle

plate In diagrams Y yellow,
= =
lowest
(gamma) y highest
tion, (b) negative elongation
nX, n, N, NB
Other equivalent designations are
a

nyN. Nm Yn~, n, N, Ng

commonly the interference colors of small

Very
on superim-
grains are grays of the first order. Thus, The Biaxial Indicatrix
the first order, addition gives a blue color
posing red of The biaxial indicatrix is a triaxial ellipsoid with its
and subtraction a yellow color.
three axes the mutually perpendicular optical direcC
semiaxes are pro-
tions X, Y, and Z. The lengths of the
X, B along
portional to the refractive indices: along
a
Absorption and Dichroism
the three principa
it was Y, and y along Z. Figure 8.22 shows
In the discussion of polarized light (page 291) indicatrix; these are the planes
of sections through the
pointed out that in some tourmaline the absorption and each has the
it is XY, YZ, and XZ. They all are ellipses
one nearly complete but for the other ray
ray is
show
negligible. Although less striking, many crystals
similar phenomenon: more absorbed in one
light is
a biaxial indicatrix of a
other. In tourmaline FIG. 8.22. Principal sections through the
vibration direction than in the
it is ex- positive crystal.
where absorption of the O ray is greatest,
>e. In other crys-
pressed as, absorption: O > E or w
be absorbed in one di-
tals certain wavelengths may
are transmitted.
rection and the complementary colors
different colors in different vibra-
Thus the crystal has
be dichroic. Dichroism
tion directions and is said to
X
is expressed by giving the colors, for example, O or w
= yellow, E or e = pink. Absorption is independent
as are refractive
of other properties and is considered,
indices, a fundamental optical property crystals.
of

XY section
YZ section
BIAXIAL CRYSTALS Z = 1Bra

triclinic crystals are

Orthorhombic, monoclinic, and
called optically biaxial because they have two direc-
birefringence. In
tions in which light travels with zero

uniaxial crystals there is only one such direction.

Circular section C i r c u l a rs e c t

Light moving through a biaxial crystal, except X = Bao

along an optic axis, travels as two rays with mutually

perpendicular vibrations. The velocities of the rays
differ from each other and change with changing crys-
tallographic direction. The vibration directions of the
fastest ray, X, and the slowest ray, Z, are at right angles
the
to each other. The direction perpendicular to

length of its semimajor and semiminor axes
tional to refractive indices as shown. Of most propor
interest
is the XZ section. WVith its
semimajor axisproportional
to y and its semiminor axis
proportional to a, there
must be points on the ellipse between these extremes
where the radius is proportional to the intermediate
index, B. In Fig. 8.22 this radius is marked S. With two
exceptions every section passing through the center
of a triaxial ellipsoid is an ellipse. The
exceptions are
circular sections of which S is the radius. The two di-
rections normal to these sections are the
optic axes;
and the XZ plane in which they lie is called the
optic
plane. The Y direction perpendicular to this plane is
the optic normal. Light moving along the optic axes
and vibrating in the circular sections shows no bire-
fringence and gives the constant refractive index, B.
The optic axis of a uniaxial crystal is analogous to
these directions, because light moving parallel to it
also vibrates in a circular section with constant re-
fractive index.
With variation in refractive indices there is a cor-
responding variation in the axial lengths of the biaxial
indicatrix. Some crystals are nearly uniaxial and in
these the intermediate index, B, is very close to either
a or y. lf B is close to a, the circular sections make
only a small angle with the XY plane and the optic
axes make the same angle with the Z direction. This
is angle V and the angle between the two optic axes,
known as the optic angle, is 2V. The optic angle is
always acute and because, in this case, it is bisected
by Z, Z is called the acute bisectrix (Bxa); X is the ob-
tuse bisectrix (Bxo) because it bisects the obtuse angle
between the optic axes. When Z is the Bxa, the crystal
is optically positive.
If B is closer to y than to a, the acute angle be-
tween the optic axes is bisected by X and the obtuse
angle bisected by Z. In this case, with X the Bxa, the
crystal is negative. When B lies exactly halfway be-
tween a and y, the optic angle is 90°.
The relation between the optic angle and the in-
dices of refraction is expressed by formula (a) below.
A close approximation to the optic angle can be made
using formula (b).
(a) cos, = Y B-a)
B2(y a)
b) cosV, =
Y
The error using the simplified formula increases with
increase of both birefringence and Vand always yields
values for V less than true V. It should be noted that
BIAXIAL CRYSTALS 303
in using either formula half the optic angle is calcu-
lated, and that it is determined with X the bisectrix.
Thus, when V< 45°, the crystal is negative but when
V> 45°,
the crystal is positive.
Biaxial Crystals in
Convergent Polarized Light
Biaxial interference figures are obtained and observed
in the same manner as uniaxial figures, that is, with
converging light, high-power objective, and Bertrand
lens. Although interference figures can be observed
on random sections of biaxial crystals, the most sym-
metrical and informative are obtained on sections nor
mal to the optical directions X, Y, and Z and to an optic
axis.
The acute bisectrix figure is observed on a crystal
plate cut normal to the acute bisectrix. If 2V is very
small, there are four positions during a 360° rotation
at which the figure resembles the uniaxial optic axis
figure. That is, a black cross is surrounded by circular
bands of interference colors. However, as the stage is
turned, the black cross breaks into two hyperbolas
that have a slight but maximum separation at a 45°
rotation; and the color bands, known as isochromatic
curves, assume an oval shape. The hyperbolas are
called isogyres and the dark spots, called melatopes,
at their vertices in the 45° position result from light
rays that traveled along the optic axes in the crystal.
Thus with increasing optic angle the separation of the
isogyres increases, and the isochromatic curves are
arranged symmetrically about the melatopes as showvn
in Fig. 8.23. For most crystals when 2V exceeds 60°
the isogyres leave the field at the 45° position; the
larger the optic angle, the faster they leave.
The portion of the interference figure occupied
by the isogyres is dark, for here, Ilight as it emerges
from the section has vibration directions parallel to
those of the polarizer and analyzer. The dark cross is
thus present when the obtuse bisectrix and optic nor-
mal coincide with the vibration directions of the po-
lars. The bar of the cross parallel to the optic plane is
narrower and better defined than the other bar (Fig.
8.23). Because light travels along the optic axes with
no birefringence, their points of emergence are, of
course, dark in all positions of the figure.
The Apparent Optic Angle
The distance between the points of emergence of the
optic axes is dependent not only on 2V but on B as
well. The refractive index of the crystals is B for light
rays moving along the optic axes. These rays are re-
fracted on leaving the crystal, giving an apparent optic
 304 CHAPTER 8. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

A-
A A

P
FIG. 8.23. Acute bisectrix interference figure P
(b)
(a)
(a) Parallel position. (b) 45° position.
as an
bisectrix. Although not as informative
2V (Fig. 8.24). the acute
fig-
angle, 2E, greater than the real angle, the re- acute bisectrix figure, a centered obtuse bisectrix
The higher the B refractive index, the greater determination of B and
indicates that an accurate
same 2V, the ure
fraction. Thus if two crystals have the can be made on the mineral section
of either a or y
one with the higher B
index has the larger apparent
producing it.
and the farther apart the optic axes emerge in is obtained on sections
angle The optic normal figure
the interference figure. the optic axes and resem-

mineral grains Cut parallel to the plane of

The optic axis figure is observed on bles the flash figure of a uniaxial crystal. When the X
cut normal to an optic axis.
Such grains are easy to vibration
to the
dark between and Z optical directions are parallel
select for they remain essentially is a poorly defined
directions of the polars, the figure
crossed polars on complete
rotation. The figure con rotation of the stage it splits
into hy-
which is the cross. On slight
of the quad-
sists of a single isogyre at the out of the field in
center
the optic plane is perbolas that move rapidly normal
axis. VWhen An optic
emergence of the optic
bisectrix.
rants containing the
acute
direction of either polar, the bire-
parallel to the vibration is obtained on sections with maximum
of the field as a straight bar. tigure can be deter
the center indicates that a and y
isogyre crosses across the field form-
fringence and
On rotation of the stage it swings mined on this section.
the 45° position. In this position
ing a hyperbola in bisectrix
as half an acute
the figure can be pictured
side of the isogyre pointing
figure with the convex As 2V increases, the cur-
Determination of Optic Sign
toward the acute bisectrix. of a Biaxial Crystal
decreases and when 2V 90°, best be deter-
vature of the isogyre The optic sign of biaxial crystals can

8.25). with the

the isogyre is straight (Fig. mined on acute bisectrix or optic axis figures
a crystal
The obtuse bisectrix figure is obtained onWhen the aid of accessory plates. Let us assume that a in Fig.
bisectrix.
section cut normal to the
obtuse
di- 8.26 represents an acute bisectrix figure of a negative
to the vibration
plane of the optic
axes is parallel
On ro- crystal in the 45° position. By definition, X is the acute
there is a black cross. bisectrix. OP is the trace of
rection of either polar, bisectrix and Z the obtuse
two isogyres
cross breaks into vibration direction of B, at
tation of the stage the
the direction of the optic plane and Y the
out of the field
in
that move rapidly

axis figure from 0° to

FIG. 8.25. Curvature of isogyre optic
in
2E.
FIG. 8.24. Relation of 2Vto 90° 2V.

5 0

V=r
E=i
 BIAXIAL CRYSTALS 305

Fast

Slo
Y
Bx
0
/Blue
Blue
Telow

FIG 8 26 Optic Yellow

sign determination of negative crystal Blue
with gypsum plate.
(a) Acute bisectrix figure. (b) Optic P
y
axis tigure.
Bxa
(a)
(b)

right angles. The velocity is constant for all

ing along the rays mov- the mineral are far removed from
the refractive index
optic axes, and for them the refractive of the liquid. It is time
index of the crystal is B, saving, particularly in working
including those
optic plane. Consider the velocities ofvibrating
the in with biaxial minerals, to first match as
other rays, closely as
sible the refractive indices of the unknown with pos-
vibrating in the optic plane. In anegative crystal, those the liquid. An interference
n of

emerging between the isogyres of an acute bisectrix figure, then, in addition to

the optic sign, will yield other useful
figure have lesser velocity, those
a
emerging outside information. Us-
ing a grain giving an optic axis figure, B can be com-
the isogyres have a
greater velocity. If the gypsum pared with n of the liquid. On a grain
plate is superimposed over such a figure, the slow ray acute bisectrix figure, Band either a or can
yielding an
of the plate combines with the fast y be com-
ray of the crystal pared with the refractive index of the liquid. The in
and subtraction of interference colors
low color on the convex side of the
produces a yel- dices of a grain showing
highest interference
colors
isogyres. On the are most likelybe close to a and y. Therefore, in
to
concave sides of the
isogyres a blue color is produced the same mount, one should check such a
by addition, the slow ray of the plate the slow
over grain to
estimate how far a and y are from the refractive index
ray of the crystal. In a positive crystal the reverse color
of the liquid.
effect is seen, for here Z is the acute bisectrix.
An optic axis
figure in the 45° position can be
used in a manner similar to the acute bisectrix
in determining optic
figure Optical Orientation in Biaxial Crystals
sign. Insertion of the gypsum The orientation of the optical indicatrix
is one of the
plate yields for (-) crystal: convex side yellow, con fundamental optical properties. It is given by express-
cave side blue (Fig. 8.26b), for (+)
crystal: convex ing the relationship of X, Y, and Z optical directions to
side blue, concave side yellow. the crystallographic axes, a, b, and c.
The quartz wedge may be used to determine In orthorhombic
op- crystals each of the crystallo-
tic sign if several isochromatic bands are
present. As graphic axes is coincident with one of the principal
the wedge is inserted the colors move out in those
optical directions. For example, the optical orienta-
portions of the figure where there is subtraction and tion of anhydrite is: X C, Y b, Z
move in where there is addition. In other words, in
=
=a. Usually the
=

optical directions coinciding with only two axes are

the areas that a gypsum plate would render blue, the
colors move in; in those that it would render yellow,
they move out.
There is a tendency for students learning optical
techniques to search for interference figures in the ini-
tial immersion when, in all probability, the indices of
given, for this completely fixes the position of the
indicatrix.
It is difficult or impossible to determine the axial
directions on microscopic grains of some minerals. To
do it one must use a fragment oriented by
X-ray study
or broken from a faced crystal. However, even in
306 CHAPTER 8. OPTICAL PROPERTIS OF MINERALS
(001)
FIG. 8.27. Optical orientation. (a) Barite on
001) showing symmetrical extinction
(b) Barite on 1210) showing parallel extinction
(C) Gypsum on {010} showing extinction angle
small particles, orientation can be expressed relative
to cleavages. Powdered fragments tend to lie on
cleavages, which in orthorhombic crystals are com-
monly pinacoidal or prismatic. For example, barite
has (001} and {210} cleavage and most grains lie on
faces ofthese forms. Those lying on (001) will be dia-
mond shaped (Fig. 8.27a) and have symmetrical ex-
tinction. That is, the extinction position makes equal
angles with the bounding cleavage faces. Fragments
lying on (210} will have parallel extinction (Fig.
8.27b). Symmetrical and parallel extinction are char
acteristic of orthorhombic crystals.
Barite is (+), X = c, Y = b, Z = a. Thus, grains
lying on (001) yield a centered Bxo figure and one
can determine B in the b direction and y in the a di
rection. Grains showing parallel extinction do not
give a centered interference figure, but a can be
measured parallel to c.
In monoclinic crystals one of the principal optical
directions (X, Y, or Z) of the indicatrix coincides with
the b axis; the other two lie in the a-c plane of the
crystal. The orientation is given by stating which opti-
cal direction equals b and indicating the éxtinction
of the
angle, the angle between thec axis andliesonebetween
other optical directions. If the extinction
the + ends of the a and c axes, the angle is positive;
between +c and -a, the angle is negative. In gypsum
Y =
b and Z Ac 53°. Thus a fragment lying on the
= appears. In this case the red fringe would appear on
normal interfer
010) cleavage would yield an optic
ence figure and a and y could be determined; y at the
extinction position +53°; a at extinction position
the {100)
lying on
-37 (see Fig. 8.27c). A grain
extinction and ß could
cleavage would show parallel
be measured at right angles to the trace of {010). Crys-
the [001]
on any other face in
tal fragments lying
on {110), will show an
extinction angle, but
zone, as
maximum
the angle to be recorded, usually that of
extinction
extinction, is observed on {0101. Parallel
indicates the grain is lying on a face in the [010]
zone
b be
to
and the index of the ray vibrating parallel
measured.
In triclinic crystals the optic indicatrix can occupy
axes. Thus
any position relative to the crystallographic
(00)
z
53
Yb
Y-b
(210)
(210 (010)
(a) (b) (c)
a complete optical orientation necessitates giving d
and p angles of the principal optical directions. But in
most cases it suffices to give the extinction angles ob-
served on grains lying on known cleavage faces.
Dispersion of the Optic Axees
We have seen that the refractive indices of a mineral
(of
vary with the wavelength of light. This dispersion
the indices) means that, with a variation in the color
of light, there is a variation in the indicatrix. The re
sulting change in the positions of the optic axes, and
the accompanying change in 2V, is known as disper
sion of the optic axes. Instead of giving different values
for 2V for different wavelengths of light, this phenom-
enon is usually expressed by stating whether 2V is
greater or lesser for red light than for violet light.
Using white light, dispersion can be observed in
acute bisectrix figures and optic axis figures and is
evidenced as a red fringe on one side of an isogyre
and a blue fringe on the other side. Let us assume that
2V is greater for red than for violet light. Red light
moving along the "red" optic axis has zero path dif-
ference. Thus where this axis energes, red has been
removed from the white light and a blue color ap-
pears. Similarly, violet light has been removed at the
point of emergence of the "violet' axis and a red color
the convex side of the isogyre, the blue fringe on
the concave side and the dispersion is expressed as:
r>v. If the positions of the color fringes were re-
versed, the dispersion would be: r<v. In most inter-
ference figures the color fringes are subtle and the is
ogyre is essentially black.
The foregoing explanation of dispersion is strictly
true only for orthorhombic crystals, where the plane
of the optic axis is an axial plane of the crystal and
the acute bisectrix a crystal axis. In monoclinic crys-
tals there is dispersion of the bisectrices as well as of
the optic axes giving rise to three types of dispersion.
can
The dispersion is called: crossed when Bxa = b; hor
izontal when Bxo b; and inclined when the optic
normal b. The distribution of the color fringes in-
 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF OPAQUE MINERALS 307

also possess optical properties by which they are char-

acterized. Specially built microscopes are used for
viewing polished sections of these minerals in re-
Ocular flected light. Because most of the ore minerals are
opaque, the techniques for polished section study
with the ore microscope (or reflecting light micro-
Scope) have been largely developed and used by the
student of ores (see ig. 8.28 for an illustration of the
light path in a reflecting light microscope). In a pol-
ished section, color is the first and frequently the most
important property observed, and the skilled micros-
copist is able to distinguish one mineral from another
Analyzer by a subtle color difference. Figure 8.29 illustrates the
mi-
appearance of some opaque minerals in the ore
uminator lluminator
eld aperture croscope. Using polarized light many nonisometric
diaphragm diaphragm minerals show a bireflectance, a property analogous
to pleochroism in nonopaque minerals. That is, there
is a change in brightness or color as the mineral is
Light
source rotated on the microscope stage. Different minerals
Glass plate show this property in varying degrees. When viewed
reflector lluminator
lens Polarizer between crossed polars, nonisometric opaque min
Collector erals will show, as do nonopaque minerals, four p0-
Objective
Free lens sitions of extinction in a 360° rotation. Isotropic min-
Working
distance erals show neither bireflectance nor extinction
Polished
Specimen positions and thus can be distinguished from aniso-
Microscope
tage
tropic minerals.
FIG. 8.28. Schematic cross sectiorn through a reflecting light The microscopic study of polished sections of
microscope showing the light path and some of the compo-
opaque minerals gives important clues to the para-
nents of the microscope.
genesis and origin of mineral deposits. From the tex-
tural relationship of the minerals one can determine
dicating these special types of dispersion is rarely their order of deposition and their subsequent replace-
seen, and monoclinic dispersion is usually expressed
as r>or <v. FIG. 8.29. Photomicrograph of a polished section of opaque
minerals from Balmat, New York, as obtained with a reflecting

light microscope. The minerals are: white, pyrite; light gray with
Absorption and Pleochroism triangular pits, galena,; dark gray, sphalerite. (Courtesy of
The absorption of light in biaxial crystals may differ in Charles Grocetti, Harvard University.)
the X, Y, and Z optical directions. If the difference is
only in intensity and X has the greatest absorption and O. 10 mm
Z the least, it is expressed as X>Y>Z. If different
wavelengths are absorbed in different directions, the
mineral is said to be pleochroic and the color of the
transmitted light is given. For example, in hypersthene
the pleochroism is: X = brownish red, Y = reddish
is
yellow, Z =green. The term pleochroism com-
monly used to denote all differential absorption in
both uniaxial and biaxial crystals.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES
OF OPAQUE MINERALS
The discussion in this chapter has dealt entirely with
the optical properties of nonopaque minerals. It
should be mentioned, however, that opaque minerals
 308
308 CHAPTER 8. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
ment and exsolution phenomena. There is a large lit-
erature on ore microscopy, but even a brief discussion
of the methods and techniques is beyond the scope
of this book.
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
Nonopaque Minerals
Ehlers, E. G.. 1987. Optical Mineralogy, v. 1, Theory and
Techniques, v. 2, Mineral Descriptions. Blackwell Sci-
entific Publications, Palo Alto, Calif.. 158 pp. and
286 pp.
Heinrich, E. W., 1965, Microscopic ldentification of Min-
erals. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 414 pp.
Larsen, E. S. and Berman, H., 1934, The Microscopic Deter-
mination of the Nonopaque Minerals, 2nd ed. U.S.
Ceological Survey Bulletin no. 848. U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 266 pp.
MacKenzie, W. S. and Guilford, C., 1980, Atlas of Rock
Forming Minerals in Thin Section. john Wiley & Sons,
New York, 98 pp.
Nesse, W. D., 1991, Introduction to Optical Mineralogy,
335 pp.
2nd ed. Cxiord University Press, New York,
Phillips, W. R., 1971, Minerals Optics: Principles and Tech-
niques. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, 249 pp.
Phillips, W. R. and Griffen, D. T., 1981, Optical Mineralogy
The Nonopaque Minerals. W. H. Freeman & Co., San
Francisco, 677 pp.
Shelley. D. 1985, Optical Mineralogy. 2nd ed. Elsevier Sci
ence Publishers, New York, 321 pp.
Stoiber, R. E. and Morse, S. A., 1981, Microscopic ldentifi-
cation of Cystals, rev. ed. Robert E. Krieger Publishing
Co., Melbourne, Fla., 286 pp.
Wahlstrom. E. E.. 1979, Optical Cystallography, 5th ed.
John Wiley &Sons, New York, 488 pp.
Opaque Minerals
Craig. . R. and Vaughan, D. J., 1981, Ore Microscopy and
York.
Ore Petrography. John Wiley & Sons, New
406 pp.
Study
Galopin, R. and Heny, N. F. M.. 1972, Microscopic
of OpaqueMinerals. McCrone Research Associates
Ltd, London, 322 pp.
Ramdohr, P., 1969. The Ore Minerais and Their Inter
1174 pp.
growths. Pergamon Press, New York, Book Co.,
Petrology. McGraw-Hill
R. L., 1972,
Stanton, Ore
New York, 697 pp.
Tables for
Uytenbogaardt, W. and Burke, E. A. J., 1971,
of Ore Minerals, 2nd ed.
Microscopic Identitication
Elsevier-North Holland, New York. 430 pp.