HISTORY OF INDIA-V ASSIGNMENT

NAME: SHIVANI JAMLOKI

ROLL NO- 1072
CLASS- 2-A

Q: Analyse the role of gunpowder and firearms, military technology, and

strategy, in the establishment and consolidation of the Mughal Empire.

Answer:

The history of the Mughal Empire can be traced back to 1526, when Ziahuddin Babur defeated
Ibrahim Lodi, and established the empire known throughout the history of the Indian
subcontinent- ‘the Mughal Empire.’ Many scholars regard the significance of the Mughal Empire
to numerous factors, and the foremost amongst them was their centralized aspect of bringing
almost the entire Indian subcontinent under one domain. Historians like Karl A. Wittfogel and
S.N. Eisenstadt have seen the Mughal empire as a centralized bureaucracy.

As Satish Chandra notes that the Mughals would have not been able to expand and consolidate
their empire without a strong army, and vital tactics and technology followed by them. Thus, the
Mughal army and military tactics and technology played a vital role in the establishment and
consolidation of the empire.

Jos Gommans in his book, ‘‘Mughal Warfare, Indian Frontiers and Highroads to
Empire,1500-1700’’ has written on the military expansion by the Mughal state and the tactics
followed by them, wherein he emphasizes the role of technology and the use of gunpowder by
the Mughals that gave them an edge in their conquests. Furthermore, Douglas E. Streusand in his
book,’’ The Formation of the Mughal Empire’’ has also highlighted the importance of firearms
and artillery, by the Mughal army.

Even Iqtidar Alam Khan in his article on ‘’Gunpowder and Empire: Indian Case’’ draws our
attention to the significance of firearms and the introduction of gunpowder in the Indian
subcontinent, and how it shaped the conquests and tactics of the Mughal state.

Having briefly discussed the significance of military technology in the consolidation of the
Mughal empire, in my essay I’ll begin by exploring the ‘gunpowder hypothesis’ and the role
played by firearms and gunpowder technology in the initial establishment of the Mughal empire.
Subsequently, I’ll try to discuss the technological improvements brought by Akbar, and certain
limitations of the use of firearms as pointed out by various scholars, and in this regard, I’ll also
try to throw light upon the other key aspect of the Mughal military tactics formations, elephants,
warhorses, and fortresses. In all, this essay will be an attempt to understand the role of military
tactics and technology in formulating and consolidating the Mughal Empire.

THE GUNPOWDER HYPOTHESIS AND THE ROLE PLAYED BY GUNPOWDER

AND FIREARMS TECHNOLOGY

Iqtidar Alam Khan notes that the increasing use of firearms from the middle of the fifteenth
century in various areas has been seen as a crucial factor in the rise of several empires, including
the Mughals. There has been evidence in various sources regarding the use of gunpowder in the
Indian subcontinent by the mid-fifteenth century. Khan, notes that in sources such as Ma’asir-i
Mahmud Shahi (1468) and Riyazu’l insha’ (1470) usage of some form of cannon in the regions
of Malwa has been observed.

According to G.S. Hodgson and Marshall, the centralized empires of the sixteenth century like
that of the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire have been
characterized as ‘gunpowder empires’, according to them the centralized character as well as
the growth of these empires owed to their effective use of the firearms and the gunpowder
technology. M. Athar Ali in his essay,’’ Towards an integration of the Mughal Empire’’ notes
that the Mughal Empire shared its existence when modern technology was brewing in parts of
Europe, he argues that this technology might have had a vital impact on the introduction of
gunpowder in the Indian subcontinent, thus believing that the gunpowder technology was
introduced in the subcontinent in the battle of Panipat by Babur, whose army was well-versed
with the firearms technology opted by the Ottomans.

The first battle of Panipat (1526) fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodhi is regarded as a
turning point in the history of the Indian subcontinent, as it laid the foundation of the Mughal
empire.Jos Gommans notes that the first clear evidence of the use of true gunpowder weaponry
on the battlefield comes from the Baburnama. Jadunath Sarkar in his ‘Military History of
India’’, examines the use of firearms by the Mughals. He notes that while Lodhi’s army was
equipped with state cavalry and foot soldiers; Babur’s forces on the other hand were deployed
with firearms as well. Babur had the expertise of Ustad Ali Quli who coached the military with
Ottoman techniques. which played a key role in the victory of the Mughals during the battle.

Sarkar notes that despite strong resistance by Lodhi’s forces; Babur’s army was armed with
carted guns, which provided them an edge, which led to Babur’s victory as well as the
foundation of the empire. Furthermore, even in the battle of Khanwa, the use of gunfire by the
Mughals kept the Rajput forces intact. Douglas E. Streusand notes that during the first battle of
Panipat and Khanwa, Babur opted for the same tactics as the Ottomans used against the Safavis
at Chaldiran in 1514 and against the Hungarians at Mohacs in 1526.

Even though we do not find many references regarding the military tactics opted by Humayun,
Gommans argue that the evidence has also been found during the reign of Humayun, where he is
said to have employed as many as 700 zarbzan at Kanauj(1540). These guns had a 4.75-pound
caliber of stone shot and were mounted on simple carriages drawn by four pairs of bullocks.
But, as noted by various sources and scholars, the expansion of the Mughal empire reached its
peak during Akbar’s reign.

THE DEVELOPMENTS AND EXPANSION IN THE REIGN OF AKBAR

Irfan Habib notes that Akbar’s deep interest in technology has been cited in the A'in-i Akbari
wherein a long passage tells us how the gun was submitted to Akbar by the Imperial gunsmiths
for testing and instructions in all stages of manufacture.
However, the significant aspect for our understanding is the changes and improvements in
technology brought by Akbar and how it evolved the existing firearms technology. Habib notes
that Akbar is said to have introduced a new method of making the gun barrel, by (a) twisting a
flat iron sheet, continuously firing, folding round and round in an elongated fashion with its
edges overlapping one another, and then (b) joining such twisted fired pieces over an iron rod to
create a barrel. This evolvement of the Gunpowder technology did help in strengthening the
military forces of the Mughals.
Sarkar notes that the use of handguns in the Battle of Haldighati did lead to the victory of the
Mughals. Furthermore, firearms also played a keen role in the conquests of Chitor and
Ranthambore. Douglas E. Streusand emphasizes that the expansion of the conquests of the
Chitor, Ranthambore, from 1568 to 1569 played a key role in the expansion of the establishment
of the Mughal Empire.

Streustand notes that Chitor was a fortified city, therefore it was quite difficult for Akbar’s forces
to conquer it. Their initial attacks didn’t prove to be useful, eventually, two mines and a sabat or
trench were excavated along with the casting of a twenty-five-pounder gun in the camp, and
these were exploded amongst the walls of the fort, leading to the creation of a large breach in the
walls of the fort.
Akbar ordered a massacre the next day for which three hundred elephants were used, leading to a
huge massacre of the Rajput forces and Akbar’s victory at Chitor. Similarly, in the case of
Ranthambore, it followed nearly a similar siege pattern as that of Chitor. They had guns and
fired balls weighing three hundred pounds, which made it easier for them to breach the walls.
Thus, all these battles do imply the role of firearms in strengthening the Mughal army, however,
we also need to keep in mind that firearms did have limitations, for instance, Streusand argues
that it was difficult to maintain sieges as carrying heavy guns overland became a problem.
Furthermore, Khan argues that while firearms did aid the process of centralization, they also
played a role in undermining the Mughal's authority, as due to the affordability of matchlocks
and the relative simplicity of gaining expertise with them, one did not have to train for years to
be a warrior. Ultimately this led to the diffusion of firearms into the general populace and
resistance to a central authority.

MILITARY TACTICS AND OTHER KEY PLAYERS

Having discussed the role and limitations of firearms, we also need to keep in mind the other key
players and tactics which supported the Mughal army in its consolidation.

The tactics deployed by the Mughal forces were indeed notable, however, they varied from battle
to battle as Jos Gommans rightly points out that the geography of the region, and the differences
amongst the terrains also impact the tactics followed by the Mughal military forces.

One of the key tactics adopted by them was in the battle of Panipat, the technique of tabur jangi,
which was basically an arrangement of carts, joined by rows of rawhide. The other one was the
tactic called taulqama, which was used to wear out the enemy’s troops and to make them easy
targets for the oncoming charge of the cavalry. In this regard, Streustand emphasizes the use of
Mughal artillery and Horsemen that played a keen role in the battles.

Mughal horsemen were one of the key players in the battle, Jos Gommans highlighting the
importance of the horsemen argues that the strength of the Mughal cavalry on the battlefield lay
in the combined employment of heavy cavalry in the center and light-mounted archers on the
flanks.

Apart from the horsemen, elephants were also symbolic in the Mughal army. According to
Hawkins, there were about 40,000 elephants in the Mughal army. These elephants, for instance in
the case of the conquest of Chitor by Akbar, did provide assistance to the forces. However,
historians like Gommans have argued that the introduction of gunpowder did lead to a decline in
the military use of elephants.

To conclude, through this essay, I have tried to bring out the importance of gunpowder and
firearms technology in the establishment of the Mughal empire, for instance in the Battle of
Panipat, Khanwa and the battles fought by Akbar, however at the same time I have discussed
certain limitations that came up with these technologies, as pointed out by various scholars that
that the gunpowder hypothesis provided by McNeill and Hodgson can only fit in the Mughal
Empire’s framework when seen with other aspects of the empire as well. In this regard, J.F.
Richards has emphasized certain policies such as ‘sulh-i-kul’ followed by Akbar also aided in
consolidating. D.H.A. Kolff has stated the importance of the policy of forging marriage alliances
as a vital player in the expansion of the empire under Akbar’s reign, thus implying that the
establishment and expansion of the empire were not only limited to the use of firearms,
military tactics, other key elements like treaties and negotiations as Douglas Streustand
argues, also played a vital role.
Thus, the excellent use of firearms, notable military tactics as well as the use of the other key
players like warhorses, archers, and elephants as well as certain policies opted by different
emperors helped in the establishment of one of the largest empires in the history of the Indian
subcontinent.

BIBLIOGRAPHY-

● Douglas E. Streusand, The Formation of the Mughal Empire, OUP, 1989

● Jos J L Gommons, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500-
1700, Routledge,2002
● Irfan Habib, ‘Akbar and Technology’ in Irfan Habib (ed), Akbar and his India, OUP,
2000
● M. Athar Ali,’’ Towards an integration of the Mughal Empire’
● Iqtidar Alam Khan, Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India, OUP,2004
● Satish Chandra – Medieval India: From Sultanate to The Mughals, Part Two: Delhi
Sultanate (1206-1526 A.D.)
● Jos J L Gommons and Dirk H Kolff, Warfare and Weaponry in South Asia 1000-1800,
● OUP, 2001