Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10658-022-02599-3
Combining melon varieties with chemical fungicides
for integrated powdery mildew control in Tunisia
Abdelhak Rhouma & Mohamed Seghir Mehaoua & Imen Mougou & Hamza Rhouma & Kabita Kumari Shah &
Hanane Bedjaoui
Accepted: 20 September 2022 / Published online: 29 September 2022
# Koninklijke Nederlandse Planteziektenkundige Vereniging 2022
Abstract Powdery mildew is one of the most important
diseases that causes significant economic losses in melon.
Chemical fungicides and tolerant melon varieties, which
may reduce pathogen severity and encourage positive plant
responses, are viable techniques for controlling this disease.
The study objectives were to investigate the effectiveness
of contact fungicides, systemic fungicides and a
A. Rhouma (*)
Regional Centre of Agricultural Research of Sidi Bouzid, CRRA,
Gafsa Road Km 6, B.P. 357, 9100 Sidi Bouzid, Tunisia
e-mail: abdelhak.rhouma@gmail.com
M. S. Mehaoua
Laboratory of Genetics, Biotechnology and Valorization of
Bio-resources, Department of Agronomic Sciences, University of
Biskra, Biskra, Algeria
I. Mougou
Higher Agronomic Institute of Chott Mariem Sousse, University
of Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia
H. Rhouma
Faculty of Science of Gabes, University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
K. K. Shah
Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Gokuleshwor
College, Tribhuvan University, Baitadi, Nepal
H. Bedjaoui
Laboratory of Promotion of Innovation of Agriculture in Arid
Regions, Department of Agronomic Sciences, University of
Biskra, Biskra, Algeria
combination of both in four commercial fields at various
sampling times [30, 90 and 120 days after the first fungi-
cide application (DAFA)]. Both fungicide mixture
azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil and fungicide thiophanate-
methyl reduced the disease index of powdery mildew on
melon varieties compared to the untreated control (disease
index 1.70–2.13 and 0.83–1.75, respectively at 120
DAFA), reduced the disease severity (24.79–31.5% and
19.06–21.88%, respectively at 120 DAFA) and the per-
centage of leaf area covered by powdery mildew (27–
43.75% and 8.25–39%, respectively at 120 DAFA). Fur-
thermore, melon plants treated with azoxystrobin +
chlorothalonil showed a larger yield increase (63.31–
71.40%), polar (15.43–17.59 cm) and equatorial (24.71–
29.61 cm) diameter, yield (2.23–3.18 fruits number/plant;
27.67–52.22 t/ha) and mean weight (2411.25–3289.5 g).
Azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil and thiophanate-methyl not
only reduced the disease index and disease severity index,
but also promoted a yield increase of all melon varieties.
More attention should be given to the effectiveness of
chemical fungicide control in view of expected climate
changes. But fungicides continuous application following
a fixed schedule is unsustainable and could lead to high
resistance development in PM fungi.
Keywords Azoxystrobin . Chlorothalonil . Melon
varieties . Powdery mildew . Thiophanate-methyl
Introduction
Powdery mildew is a devastating disease that affects melon
production and fruit quality in both fields and greenhouse
190
environments (Saharan et al., 2019). This disease is caused
by two fungal species: Podosphaera xanthii (syn.
Sphaerotheca fuliginea) and Golovinomyces
cichoracearum (syn. Erysiphe cichoracearum) (Cohen
et al., 2004; Howlader et al., 2020). Romdhani and El
Mahjoub (1991) showed that P. xanthii (syn.
S. fuliginea) was the causal agent of powdery mildew
on melon and some other cucurbits in Tunisia. Their
identification was based on the occurrence of fibrosin
bodies in conidia. Powdery mildew is known for its
flour-like powder that coats the leaves of infected plants
as a result of fungal sporulation. The infection begins
with white patches on the lower surface of the leaf, then
advance to the upper side of the leaf eventually covering
the whole surface, causing the browning and wrinkling
of leaves and leaf death (Cohen et al., 2004; Rhouma
et al., 2021a). Powdery mildew may grow in practically
every season due to favorable weather conditions. The
infection may be exacerbated by hot to humid circum-
stances, but it can also occur in dry weather (Baiswar
et al., 2015; Lebeda et al., 2016).
Cucurbit powdery mildew is a serious production
problem in many areas of the world, and fungicides
are a key tool for its control (Matheron & Porchas,
2013). Keinath and DuBose (2004) found that pow-
dery mildew decreased non-treated watermelon yields
by 34% compared to fungicide-treated plants. Most
systemic fungicides or those with translaminar activ-
ity have a site specific mechanism of action (Naidu
et al., 2012). Along with its fast absorption and strong
translaminar action, strobilurin and thiophanate-
methyl are recommended for the management of cu-
curbit powdery mildew (Bhat et al., 2018; Yousaf
et al., 2020; Jung et al., 2020).
In several pathosystems, integration of resistant varie-
ties and fungicide application has been advocated as an
alternative sustainable strategy for the control of cucurbit
powdery mildew (Fondevilla & Rubiales, 2012). Genetic
selection programs in several countries have resulted in
the release of numerous varieties resistant to powdery
mildew (Vielba-Fernández et al., 2020). Multiple resis-
tance genes have been reported in different melon varie-
ties (Charentais, Galia, Afamia, etc.) which increase their
resistance to powdery mildew (McCreight, 2006). Cohen
et al. (2004), and Howlader et al. (2020) noted that 43
genotypes reacted as resistant to P. xanthii (Pobeditel,
Georgia and Neon, etc.), while 19 melon genotypes were
susceptible (GL329, Delicious 51 US and BK/1–5-5,
etc.). An increase in fruit yield and a decrease in disease
Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201
severity were observed for several varietal resistance-
fungicide application combinations. Casey Barickman
et al. (2017) found that pumpkin cultivar Mustang treated
with chlorothalonil and azoxystrobin had less disease
severity and greater fruit yield. Aly et al. (2021) observed
that foliar treatment of flax (Sakha 3, Sakha 4, Giza 10
and Istro cultivars) with boscalid and pyraclostrobin
against powdery mildew reduced disease incidence and
increased straw and seed yield.
For the successful control of powdery mildew, an
integrated program comprising the above-mentioned
management strategies represents the ideal approach.
The objectives of the present work were to assess the
efficiency of contact, systemic and a combination of
both contact and systemic fungicides currently regis-
tered against cucurbit powdery mildew, to evaluate the
effect of fungicide treatments on morpho-productive
characters of melon varieties, and to determine the re-
sistance level of these treatments towards powdery mil-
dew under field conditions.
Materials and methods
Study area
All commercial field trials were conducted in Chott Sidi
Abdel Salam oasis, southeastern Tunisia. The Chott Sidi
Abdel Salam oasis with an area of approximately 100 ha
is located in in the East part of the Gabes Governorate
(Medina Gabes 33°89′ to 33°91’N and 10°10′ to 10°11′
E). The oasis has a predominantly arid Mediterranean
climate with a dry season lasting from June to August
and characterized by a hot climate with an average
annual temperature of 21.4 °C recorded in 2020
(Rhouma et al., 2020). Rhouma et al. (2020) found that
the monthly air temperature in Gabes for the period
1979–2018 show changes characterized by a decreasing
temperature from October to March followed by an
increasing temperature starting from March. Precipita-
tion is scanty, with the greatest rainfall occurring in
November and March. Rain occurs only rarely during
the dry season (June to August). Over the years, precip-
itation levels in this oasis have shown a highly erratic
pattern in which relatively moist years with more than
400 mm (1990, 1994, 1995 and 2006) of rain alternate
with dry years in which less than 100 mm (2016 and
2018) of precipitation are observed. With a negative
water balance, drought conditions are a dominant
Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201
feature of the climate (Rhouma et al., 2020). The soils
are gypsiferous and saline with a sandy texture (Rhouma
et al., 2019; Rhouma et al., 2021b).
Melon varieties and commercial fungicides
The characterizations of melon varieties used in this
research and fungicides application timings are shown
in Table 1. A total of three fungicides were used for each
field. The active ingredients and rates, chemical families,
action, formulation and recommended dose of fungicides
are presented in Table 2.
Field assessment of melon varieties and fungicides
efficacy
The study was performed in a field with a total area of
1500 m2 [50 m (length)* 30 m (width)]. The field was
previously cultivated with tobacco (2009/2010 to
2018/2019) and cucurbitaceae (for a decade). The trial
was conducted during the growing seasons 2019/2020.
The experimental design consisted of three randomized
blocks with four melon varieties each treated separately
with three commercial fungicides. The control consisted
of spraying the melon plants only with water (untreated
control) (T0). In each block, melon varieties were treat-
ed separately with recommended doses attributed ran-
domly in sixteen (V1xT1, V1xT2, V1xT3, V1xT0,
V2xT1, V2xT2, V2xT3, V2xT0, V3xT1, V3xT2,
V3xT3, V3xT0, V4xT1, V4xT2, V4xT3, V4xT0) dif-
ferent plots (Fig. 1, Tables 1 and 2). Each plot has an
area of 60 m2 (3 m × 20 m) cultivated with 40 melon
plants for each variety, with a spacing of 0.50 m (Fig. 1).
All fungicide treatments were carried out with a
sprayer powered by a 2-cycle engine; spray pressure
was 5–6 bar and the water volume varied from 400 to
800 L/ha according to crop development stage. The
foliar treatment with fungicides on the different melon
varieties was done one day after the first symptoms of
powdery mildew and the treatments were repeated each
two weeks (the same treatment is repeated each 2 weeks)
until the end of the growing season (Horsfield et al.,
2010). The BBCH scale includes ten growth stages
beginning with germination and bud development
(stage 0), followed by leaf development (stage 1), for-
mation of side shoots (stage 2), main stem elongation
and shoot development (stage 3), development of veg-
etative plant parts (stage 4), inflorescence emergence
(stage 5), flowering (stage 6), development of fruit
191
(stage 7), fruit and seed maturation (stage 8) and ending
with senescence (stage 9) (Lancashire et al., 1991;
Jacinto et al., 2022).
Disease severity assessment
Assessments were on 30, 90 and 120 days after the first
fungicide application. For the assessments, a disease
index (DI) with a scale from 0 to 4; 0 = absence; 1 =
1–25% of the leaf surface; 2 = 26–50%; 3 = 51–75%;
4 = 76–100% of leaf surface was used (Camele et al.,
2009). McKinney’s equation was used to calculate a
disease severity index (DSI): DSI (%) = (Σvn)/(NV)
× 100, where v represents the numeric value of the
disease index scale, n is the number of plants assigned
to the disease index scale, N is the total number of the
plants and V is the numeric value of the highest disease
index scale (Matrood & Rhouma, 2021). The efficacy of
each treatment was rated based on its disease severity
index (DSI) (Wang et al., 1995): EE: Extremely effec-
tive (DSI = 0%), HE: Highly effective (DSI = 0.1 to
5%), E: effective (DSI = 5.1 to 25%), I: In-effective
(DSI = 25.1 to 50%) and HI: Highly in-effective (DSI
= 50.1 to 100%). The percentage of leaf area covered by
powdery mildew (PLA) was estimated by the following
formula: PLA (%) = (LAP/TLA) × 100, where: LAP
represents the leaf area covered by powdery mildew;
TLA represents the total leaf area (Rhouma et al.,
2021c). DI and PLA were assessed on 90 melon leaves
per treatment and per block (3 blocks). DSI were eval-
uated on 30 melon plants (5 random leaves per plant)
per treatment and per block.
Yield responses
Sampling of melon fruits was carried out in the last
10 days of August when the melon peel presented the
typical yellow colour (stage 8). The number and weight
of all mature fruits in each plot were recorded. Further-
more, on ten melon fruits per treatment per block (3
blocks), mean plant weight, equatorial and polar diame-
ter were measured. The difference in yield (t/ha) between
the plots treated and non-treated with fungicide was
determined according to the formula of Teng and
Bissonnette (1985): YI (%) = ((TP - UTP) / TP) ×
100; where: YI is the percentage yield increase; TP is
the treated plot yield; UTP is the untreated plot yield.
192 Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201

Table 1 Local name, hybrid or local variety, resistance to powdery mildew and fungicides application timings of the different melon
varieties used in this research

Abbreviation Local name Hybrid or local variety Resistance to powdery mildew Fungicides application timings

V1 Calipso Hybrid variety NT 08/05/2019

V2 Galia Hybrid variety NT 17/05/2019
V3 Lobnani Hybrid variety NT 28/04/2019
V4 Mekkaoui Local variety NT 03/05/2019

NT not available

Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using the mean
values of the replicates. The data were analyzed by
ANOVA using SPSS version 20.0 statistical software
(SPSS, SAS Institute, USA). Homogeneity of variances
and normality were checked by applying Duncan’s
Multiple Range Test. Differences between treatments
were determined by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
All statistical tests were performed with a significance
level of 5% (P ≤ 0.05).
Results
The evaluation of fungicide effectiveness in controlling
powdery mildew on four melon varieties treated with
fungicides showed that the powdery mildew disease
indexes were significantly lower compared to the un-
treated control plots (Table 3). For the first sample (30
DAFA), the lowest disease indexes (DI) were observed
in Mekkaoui, Calipso and Galia plots using thiophanate-
methyl and in plots cultivated with variety Lobnani and
treated with azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil. During the
second sample (90 DAFA), the lowest DI were obtained
from the varieties Makkaoui and Calipso treated with
thiophanate-methyl and for the varieties Lobnani and
Galia treated with azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil. For the
last sample, all varieties showed a small disease index
values after several applications of thiophanate-methyl
on the varieties Mekkaoui and Galia. While the highest
disease indexes were registered for untreated control
plots for all four varieties (Table 3). Thiophanate-meth-
yl was significantly more effective in reducing the
powdery mildew index at 120 days after the first
treatment than the other treatments. However the
plots treated with sulfur showed the highest DI for
varieties Galia and Calipso. It is worth noting that on
the variety Mekkaoui both the lowest (for the plots
treated with thiophanate-methyl) and the highest (for
the untreated plots) disease indexes were observed
(Table 3). Statistical analysis showed a highly signif-
icant difference (P < 0.01) between both sample periods
and fungicides treatments. The ANOVA classified the
two fungicides, azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil and
thiophanate-methyl into the same homogeneous group
for the different samples of the four varieties in compar-
ison with untreated plots and plots treated with sulfur. In
the same sense, interactions occurred between melon
variety and fungicide treatment and also between sam-
ple moments and fungicide treatment (Table 3).
ANOVA showed significant differences (P < 0.01)
in the disease severity index (DSI) observed between the
treated and control plots, for each variety at each sam-
ple (Table 4). All fungicide applications significantly
(P < 0.01) decreased the powdery mildew disease

Table 2 Fungicides evaluated to control powdery mildew on melon plant under field condition

Abbreviation Trade name Active ingredient Chemical families Action Formulation Product rate
(recommended dose)

T1 Priori Opti Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil Strobilurins + S and C SC 2.5 L/ha

400 g/L Chloronitrile
T2 Thiolux jet Sulfur 800 g/kg Chalcogen C WG 600 g/hl
T3 Aurige 70 Thiophanate-Methyl 70% Benzimidazole S WP 100 g/hl

S Systemic, C Contact, SC Suspension Concentrate, WG Water Dispersible Granule

Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201 193

Block 1
V1xT1 V1xT2 V1xT3 V1xT0
V2xT1 V2xT2 V2xT3 V2xT0
V3xT1 V3xT2 V3xT3 V3xT0
V4xT1 V4xT2 V4xT3 V4xT0
Block 2
V1xT2 V2xT2 V2xT0 V2xT1
V3xT0 V4xT1 V1xT1 V3xT3
V4xT2 V4xT3 V3xT2 V3xT1
V1xT0 V2xT3 V4xT0 V1xT3
Block 3
V4xT0 V3xT1 V3xT3 V4xT3
V2xT2 V1xT1 V3xT0 V2xT0
V3xT2 V1xT2 V4xT2 V1xT3
V2xT1 V1xT0 V4xT1 V2xT3
V2xT3

5m

0.8 m
0.5 m
3m

Melon plant

Fig. 1 Field layout for a randomized complete block design with fungicides (T0 = Untreated control; T1 = Azoxystrobin +
four melon varieties (V1 = Calipso; V2 = Galia; V3 = Lobnani; chlorothalonil; T2 = Sulfur; T3 = Thiophanate-methyl)
V4 = Mekkaoui) each treated separately with three commercial

severity index. The three samples showed a signifi-
cant reduction of the disease severity index on the
four melon varieties treated with thiophanate-methyl,
followed by azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil. Data pre-
sented in Table 4 show that the lowest severity
indexes were recorded for the variety Calipso treated
with thiophanate-methyl followed by the variety
Mekkaoui. Taking into account the disease severity
index recorded on different varieties it appears that
the repeated applications of thiophanate-methyl were
more effective than other treatments. Sulfur was the
least effective (Table 4).
The effectiveness of the treatment using fungicides
and melon varieties was variable (Table 4). The treat-
ment with thiophanate-methyl revealed its ability to
protect the four melon varieties against powdery mildew
at different sample times. The same results were obtain-
ed after several treatments with azoxystrobin +
chlorothalonil on plots cultivated with the variety Galia.
However all treatments using sulfur have shown their
ineffectiveness in reducing powdery mildew attacks at
all samples. Thus all the control plots were highly sen-
sitive to powdery mildew (Table 4).
The applications of azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil
and thiophanate-methyl reduced the percentages of the
leaf area covered by powdery mildew (Table 5).
Thiophanate-methyl was more effective on the variety
Mekkaoui than on the other varieties. This variety
proved to be the most sensitive having the highest
percentage of the leaf area infected by powdery mildew
in the control plots. The lowest percentage of PLA
(2.5%) was also observed at the first sampling moment
(30 DAFA) in plots cultivated with the variety Calipso
and treated with azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil fungi-
cide. Statistical analysis revealed a high significant dif-
ference (P < 0.01) between melon varieties (MV),
fungicide treatments (FT), sampling moments (SM),
and their interactions (MV*FT and SM*FT) for the
PLA (Table 5).
Our results showed that the number of fruits per plant
increased significantly (P < 0.01) after applications with
thiophanate-methyl and azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil.
According to Table 6, the highest number of fruits per
plant was recorded on the variety Lobnani treated with
azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil followed by the variety
Galia (Table 6). Foliar treatment with azoxystrobin +
194 Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201

Table 3 Effect of fungicide treatments on disease index in four melon varieties grown in open field conditions at different samples (30, 90
and 120 days after the first fungicide application)

Melon varieties Fungicide treatments Sample P value

30 DAFA 90 DAFA 120 DAFA

Calipso Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 400 g/L 0.93caCa 1.20bB 1.95cA <0.01

Sulfur 800 g/kg 1.95bC 2.58aB 3.23bA <0.01
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 0.53dC 0.93bB 1.53dA <0.01
Untreated control 2.40aB 2.95aB 3.85aA <0.01
P valueb <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd
Galia Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 400 g/L 1.03cB 1.43cB 2.13cA <0.01
Sulfur 800 g/kg 1.70bB 2.05bB 2.90bA <0.01
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 0.88cB 1.53cA 1.75cA <0.01
Untreated control 2.55aB 2.85aB 3.53aA <0.01
P value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd
Lobnani Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 400 g/L 1.05cB 1.30bB 1.70cA <0.01
Sulfur 800 g/kg 2.10bC 2.50aB 3.13bA <0.01
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 1.18cB 1.43bA 1.63cA <0.01
Untreated control 2.65aB 2.78aB 3.73aA <0.01
P value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd
Mekkaoui Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 400 g/L 1.10c 1.45c 1.93c ≥0.05
Sulfur 800 g/kg 1.88bB 2.38bB 3.05bA <0.01
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 0.35dC 0.55 dB 0.83dA <0.01
Untreated control 2.93aC 3.25aB 3.95aA <0.01
P value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd
Interactions Melon varieties (MV) ≥0.05
Fungicide treatments (FT) <0.01
Sampling moments (SM) <0.01
MV*SM ≥0.05
MV*FT <0.01
SM*FT <0.01
MV*FT*SM ≥0.05

Capital letters are for means comparison in the same row

Small letters are for comparison of means in the same column
Data are the average of 90 melon leaves per treatment and per block (3 blocks)
DAFA: days after the first fungicide application
Nd not determined
a
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test, values followed by different superscripts are significantly different at P ≤ 0.05
b
Probabilities associated with individual F tests

chlorothalonil and thiophanate-methyl significantly en-
hanced melon yield (P < 0.01) in comparison with
untreated control and sulfur. The highest percentages of
yield increase were recorded on all varieties treated with
azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil (Table 6). The same was
observed for fruit weight with a highly significant differ-
ence between the four varieties (Table 6).
The different measurements carried out on the fruits
revealed that the largest polar diameters of melon fruits
were obtained on the variety Mekkaoui, varieties Galia
and Calipso treated with azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil
and on Lobnani treated with thiophanate-methyl.
Whereas, the largest equatorial fruit diameters were
obtained in all plots subjected to several applications
Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201 195

Table 4 Effect of fungicide treatments on disease severity index and resistance level in four melon varieties grown in open field conditions
at different samples (30, 90 and 120 days after the first fungicide application)

Melon Fungicide treatments Disease severity index Efficacy

varieties
Sample P Sample
value
30 DAFA 90 120 30 90 120
DAFA DAFA DAFA DAFA DAFA

Calipso Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 23.13baBa 24cB 34.13cA <0.01 E E I

400 g/L
Sulfur 800 g/kg 34.32bB 40.46bB 55.29bA <0.05 I I HI
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 7.88cB 18.5cA 19.06dA <0.01 E E E
Untreated control 76.8a 83.58a 86.63a ≥0.05 HI HI HI
P valueb <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd Nd Nd Nd
Galia Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 17.08c 21.38c 24.79c ≥0.05 E E E
400 g/L
Sulfur 800 g/kg 37.4bB 45.1bB 54bA <0.01 I I HI
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 13.13cB 20.33cA 20.56cA <0.01 E E E
Untreated control 68aB 80.75aA 84.46aA <0.01 HI HI HI
P value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd Nd Nd Nd
Lobnani Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 22.19cB 24.13cB 29.75cA <0.05 E E I
400 g/L
Sulfur 800 g/kg 43.45bB 52.53bA 55.71bA <0.01 I HI HI
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 13dC 17.67 dB 21.88dA <0.01 E E E
Untreated control 70.67aB 75.49aB 83.81aA <0.01 HI HI HI
P value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd Nd Nd Nd
Mekkaoui Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 21.56cB 24.8cB 31.5cA <0.01 E E I
400 g/L
Sulfur 800 g/kg 41.25bB 55bA 58.5bA <0.01 I HI HI
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 10.5 dB 18.5dA 20.63dA <0.01 E E E
Untreated control 78aB 79.69aB 88.88aA <0.01 HI HI HI
P value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd Nd Nd Nd
Interactions Melon varieties (MV) <0.01 Nd
Fungicide treatments (FT) <0.01 Nd
Sampling moments (SM) <0.01 Nd
MV*SM ≥0.05 Nd
MV*FT <0.01 Nd
SM*FT <0.01 Nd
MV*FT*SM ≥0.05 Nd

Capital letters are for means comparison in the same row

Small letters are for comparison of means in the same column
Data are the average of 30 melon plants (5 random leaves per plant) per treatment and per block (3 blocks)
DAFA: days after the first fungicide application; E: Effective; I: Ineffective; HI: Highly ineffective
Nd not determined
a
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test, values followed by different superscripts are significantly different at P ≤ 0.05
b
Probabilities associated with individual F tests
196 Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201

Table 5 Effect of fungicide treatments on percentage of leaf area covered by powdery mildew in four melon varieties grown in open field
conditions at different sampling moments (30, 90 and 120 days after the first fungicide application)

Melon varieties Fungicide treatments Sample P value

30 DAFA 90 DAFA 120 DAFA

Calipso Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 400 g/L 2.5caCa 14.5bB 27bA <0.01

Sulfur 800 g/kg 34.25bC 57.75aB 78aA <0.01
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 4cB 8.5bB 29.25bA <0.01
Untreated control 53aB 62aB 90.25aA <0.05
P valueb <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd
Galia Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 400 g/L 15.25c 30c 35.75b ≥0.05
Sulfur 800 g/kg 35bC 50bB 67.75aA <0.01
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 10.5cC 24cB 39bA <0.01
Untreated control 66.75aB 70.5aB 83aA <0.01
P value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd
Lobnani Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 400 g/L 22.25cB 32bB 43.75cA <0.01
Sulfur 800 g/kg 43bC 54.5aB 76.75bA <0.01
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 21.75cB 23.25bB 35.25cA <0.01
Untreated control 56.25aB 60.25aB 88.5aA <0.01
P value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd
Mekkaoui Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+chlorothalonil 400 g/L 11.25cB 34.25cA 38cA <0.01
Sulfur 800 g/kg 43.75bB 53bB 69.25bA <0.01
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 2.75cB 3.75 dB 8.25dA <0.01
Untreated control 63.75aC 75.75aB 95.5aA <0.01
P value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nd
Interactions Melon varieties (MV) <0.01
Fungicide treatments (FT) <0.01
Sampling moments (SM) <0.01
MV*SM ≥0.05
MV*FT <0.01
SM*FT <0.01
MV*FT*SM ≥0.05

Capital letters are for means comparison in the same row

Small letters are for comparison of means in the same column
Data are the average of 90 melon leaves per treatment and per block (3 blocks)
DAFA: days after the first fungicide application
Nd not determined
a
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test, values followed by different superscripts are significantly different at P ≤ 0.05
b
Probabilities associated with individual F tests

of azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil. ANOVA of polar and Discussion

equatorial diameters melon fruits revealed a highly sig-
nificant difference (P < 0.01) between the fungicide
treatments and the four studied varieties. Furthermore,
interactions were observed between melon variety and
fungicide treatment (Table 6).
Fungicide treatment of all 4 melon varieties showed a
highly significant reduction of the disease index, disease
severity index and the percentage of leaf area covered by
powdery mildew. Fungicide treatment also improved
Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201 197

Table 6 Effect of fungicide treatments on morpho-productive and qualitative characters in four melon varieties grown in open field
conditions

Melon Fungicide treatments Yielda YIa (%) Fruits

varieties
Fruits number / T/Ha Mean Polar diameter Equatorial
plant weight (g) (cm) diameter (cm)

Calipso Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+ 2.23ab 27.67a 62.62a 2486.50a 15.75a 24.71a

chlorothalonil 400 g/L
Sulfur 800 g/kg 1.50bc 15.12b 23.81b 2035.50c 13.58bc 20.21b
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 2.03ab 22.22a 53.51a 2200.50b 14.55b 23.37a
Untreated control 1.18c 10.29b Nd 1780d 12.63c 17.37c
P valuec <0.05 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Galia Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+ 2.85a 34.37a 64.44a 2411.25a 15.93a 25.71a
chlorothalonil 400 g/L
Sulfur 800 g/kg 2.03c 20.87c 41.10c 2058.5b 13.63b 22.89b
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 2.55b 27.34b 54.96b 2140.5b 15.43a 25.50a
Untreated control 1.50d 12.19d Nd 1631.75c 10.75c 20.56c
P value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Lobnani Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+ 3.18a 52.22a 63.31a 3289.5a 15.43a 25.66a
chlorothalonil 400 g/L
Sulfur 800 g/kg 2.53ab 31.24bc 37.31b 2501.75bc 12.70b 20.64b
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 2.90a 41.32ab 48.02ab 2852b 15.66a 25.16a
Untreated control 1.78b 19.12c Nd 2150.75c 10.25c 20.62b
P value <0.05 <0.01 <0.05 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Mekkaoui Azoxystrobin 80 g/L+ 2.58a 37.70a 71.40a 2922a 17.59a 29.61a
chlorothalonil 400 g/L
Sulfur 800 g/kg 1.43c 17.60c 33.02b 2425.75bc 14.29c 25.68c
Thiophanate-Methyl 70% 1.85b 24.47b 56.24a 2650.25ab 15.63b 27.77b
Untreated control 1.03d 10.69d Nd 2101c 12.33c 22.23d
P-value <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.05 <0.01 <0.01
Interactions Melon varieties (MV) <0.01 <0.01 ≥0.05 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Fungicide treatments (FT) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
MV*FT <0.01 <0.01 ≥0.05 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01

Small letters are for comparison of means in the same column

Data are the average of ten melon fruits per treatment and per block (3 blocks) (for the fruit parameters)
Data are the average of all mature fruits per treatment and per block (3 blocks) (for the yield parameters)
nd not determined
a
YI = the difference percent of yield (T/Ha). YI (%) = ((TP - UTP) / TP) × 100; where: YI is the percentage yield increase; TP is the treated
plot yield; UTP is the untreated plot yield
b
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test, values followed by different superscripts are significantly different at P ≤ 0.05
c
Probabilities associated with individual F tests

mopho-production characteristics in comparison to the
untreated control. Our results supported those of
Matheron and Porchas (2008) who found that fungicide
treatments of melon varieties reduce the percentage of
leaf area covered by powdery mildew compared to
untreated control. Conventional fungicides were more
effective than all other non-conventional treatments
(Candido et al., 2014).
Both azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil and thiophanate-
methyl controlled the disease index comparing to the
untreated plots by 70–90%. Our results are close to
those obtained by Matheron and Porchas (2008), who
198
gave an average reduction of disease index of 90% in
experiments on cantaloupe treated by fungicides such as
azoxystrobin, chlorothalonil, sulfur and thiophanate-
methyl. The same authors confirmed a maximal reduc-
tion of the disease severity index of powdery mildew on
cantaloupe by 69.5 and 44.2% after spraying of
azoxystrobin and thiophanate-methyl, respectively
(Matheron & Porchas, 2013).
Leaf application on cucumber plants with thiophanate-
methyl, reduced significantly the severity index of pow-
dery mildew significantly compared to non treated plants
(El-Wahab et al., 2016) and mango cultivars (Nasir et al.,
2017b). These results are in agreement with our data after
the application with thiophanate-methyl. Preventive
sprays of thiophanate-methyl against powdery mildew
of apple showed a reduction of 76.88% of disease. When
applied curatively, the treatment led to a reduction of
68.51% (Nasir et al., 2017a). As a broad-spectrum fun-
gicide, thiophanate-methyl acts as a contact and as a
systemic fungicide. It binds with ß-tubulin and prevents
the production of microtubules during cell division (ß-
tubulin assembly in mitosis). This action will lead to a
morphological alteration of the fungal hyphae (Vielba-
Fernández et al., 2020).
The use of azoxystrobin against powdery mildew
of cucumber by Anand et al. (2008) showed that this
fungicide stopped disease progression successfully.
Similarly, Anesiadis et al. (2003) found that
azoxystrobin gave an excellent protection against
both Cercospora leaf-spot and powdery mildew of
sugar beet. El-Mougy et al. (2014) found a very low
disease severity index after four applications of
azoxystrobin in association with difenoconazole on
cantaloupe. On the other hand, on pumpkin, the
combination of the fungicides chlorothalonil and
difenconazole reduced powdery mildew incidence
by 60% (Maryam et al., 2020). While, on apple trees
Abo Ogiela and El-Shoraky (2020) found that the
application of azoxystrobin and metalaxy-m
inhibited powdery mildew completely. These results
show that fungicides containing strobilurins reduce
the powdery mildew severity index considerably
(Keinath & DuBose, 2004).
In this present study, the efficacy of azoxystrobin +
chlorothalonil and thiophanate-methyl fungicides to
powdery mildew on melon varieties is probably due to
their systemic and translaminar action, which ensure a
long protection of the leaves that emerge after the appli-
cation of the fungicides. The use of systemic fungicides
Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201
is therefore necessary to delay the development of pow-
dery mildew (Keinath & DuBose, 2004).
In cucumber plants, Anand et al. (2007) confirmed
that azoxystrobin increased the activity of defense en-
zymes such as peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, phenyl-
alanine ammonia lyase and chitinase. Furthermore,
thiophanate-methyl treatment increased peroxydase ac-
tivity and the total phenolic contains (El-Wahab et al.,
2016). They also reported that the reduction in the
disease severity index was positively correlated to
peroxydase activity and the total phenolic content. All
these pieces of evidence agree with the effectiveness of
the two fungicides in the control of melon powdery
mildew in the present study. Thiophanate-methyl ap-
pears to have an active role, possibly as a signal to
induce defense reactions (Fawe et al., 1998).
The low efficacy of sulfur observed in this study is
probably due to the long-time interval between treat-
ments (15 days) which enable powdery mildew spores
to germinate and aggravate disease proliferation. In tests
aiming to control melon powdery mildew using sulfur
applications, Abo Ogiela and El-Shoraky (2020) found
a high efficacy whatever the applied sulfur dose. The
studies of Konstantinidou-Doltsinis and Schmit (1998),
and Keinath and Dubose (2012) found that the applica-
tion of sulfur on cucurbit plants infected with powdery
mildew significantly reduces the average percentage of
leave area covered by powdery mildew. In addition,
Abo Ogiela and El-Shoraky (2020), reported that fungi-
cides containing sulfur, thiophanate-methyl could re-
duce up to 90% the powdery mildew in tree apples.
Sulphur is a natural mineral substance often used as a
fungicide in organic farming. It acts by contact and
vapor on the respiratory system of the fungus and pre-
vents fungal spores from germinating (Cohen et al.,
2004).
The current results revealed that the powdery mildew
treatments affected all productivity parameters of the
four melon varieties. The variety factor determined sig-
nificant changes in quantitative yield parameters. How-
ever, it is clear that the highest morpho-productive traits
(average number of fruits per plant, average yield per
hectare, percentage yield increase and average fruit
weight) were recorded in the plots treated with
azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil. From our comparison of
the three applied fungicides and taking into account the
considerable variation in their effectiveness and in the
varietal sensitivity, it appears that the two fungicides to
be recommended against melon powdery mildew in
Eur J Plant Pathol (2023) 165:189–201
Tunisia are azoxystrobin + chlorothalonil and
thiophanate-methyl. Indeed, according to our findings,
we found a very valuable reduction of more than 90% of
the disease severity index and a more than 70% increase
in yield. Our results are comparable to Candido et al.
(2014). Many studies highlights the effect of powdery
mildew on the primary metabolism in different crops by
reducing the green leaf area and the contents of chloro-
phyll in infected parts (Swarbrick et al., 2006). As a
result of the reduction in organic matter synthesis and
accumulation, the yield is reduced (Xin et al., 2012;
Zhang et al., 2014; Yang & Luo, 2021). Studies carried
out by Abo Ogiela and El-Shoraky (2020), on apple
powdery mildew, indicated that the application of
azoxystrobin, sulphur and thiophanate-methyl against
powdery mildew resulted in a significant increase in
fruit setting, number of fruits and yield, compared to
the untreated control. The work of Keinath and DuBose
(2004), highlighted the efficacy of azoxystrobin as a tool
for powdery mildew control and its positive influence
on the weight of marketable watermelon fruits com-
pared to the untreated control. The effect of
azoxystrobin was observed on cucumber plants with a
maximum yield of 14.46 tons/ha (Anand et al., 2008). It
was also noted that the application of thiophanate-
methyl led to a significant increase in yield components
(number of fruits/plant and average weight of fruits/
plant) (El-Wahab et al., 2016). It was also noted that
the application of thiophanate-methyl resulted in a sig-
nificant rise in yield components (number of fruit/plant
and average fruit/plant weight) (El-Wahab et al., 2016).
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the review editor
and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and
suggestions to improve the clarity of the research paper.
Funding We did not receive financial support; we used our
facilities available.
Data availability All data and materials are available.
Declarations
Human participants and/or animals This article does not con-
tain any studies with human participants or animals performed by
any of the authors.
Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all in-
dividual participants included in the study.All authors have ap-
proved the manuscript for submission.
199
Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable.
Consent for publication Not applicable.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no con-
flict of interest.
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