❚♦ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t✳✳✳ ✷

❚♦ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t
▼❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ✐s ❛ s❝✐❡♥❝❡✳ ❏✉st ❛s t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ s❝✐❡♥t✐sts✱ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝✐❛♥s ❛r❡ tr②✐♥❣ t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❤♦✇
t❤❡ ❯♥✐✈❡rs❡ ♦♣❡r❛t❡s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r ✐ts ❧❛✇s✳ ❲❤❡♥ s✉❝❝❡ss❢✉❧✱ t❤❡② ✇r✐t❡ t❤❡s❡ ❧❛✇s ❛s s❤♦rt st❛t❡♠❡♥ts
❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏t❤❡♦r❡♠s✑✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡s❡ ❧❛✇s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐✈❡❧② ❛♥❞ ♣r❡❝✐s❡❧②✱ ❛ ❞✐❝t✐♦♥❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts
✐s ❛❧s♦ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣❡❞❀ ✐ts ❡♥tr✐❡s ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s✑✳ ❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ t❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣❛rt ♦❢ ❛♥②
♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ❜♦♦❦✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡♦r❡♠s✱ ❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ ♦t❤❡r ✐t❡♠s ❛r❡ ✉s❡❞ ❛s ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ❜❧♦❝❦s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❝✐❡♥t✐✜❝ t❤❡♦r②
✇❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t ✐♥ t❤✐s t❡①t✳

❊✈❡r② ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ✐s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ✉t♠♦st s♣❡❝✐✜❝✐t②✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✵✳✵✳✶✿ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ a ✐s ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ♦❢ a ✐s ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r
x✱ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t x2 = a✳

❚❤❡ t❡r♠ ❜❡✐♥❣ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ ✐t❛❧✐❝s✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧② r❡❢❡rr❡❞ t♦ t❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t
t❤❡ t❡①t✳

◆❡✇ s②♠❜♦❧✐s♠ ♠❛② ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞✳

❙q✉❛r❡ r♦♦t
√
a

❈♦♥s❡q✉❡♥t❧②✱ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❢r❡❡❧② ✉s❡❞ t❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t t❤❡ t❡①t✳

❲❡ ♠❛② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ✐♥st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ❡✐t❤❡r ❜❡❢♦r❡ ♦r ❛❢t❡r ✐t ✐s ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ❞❡✜♥❡❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✵✳✵✳✷✿ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ 1 × 1 sq✉❛r❡❄ ❚❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ✐s ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ✐s t❤❡✐r s❤❛r❡❞ ❤②♣♦t❡♥✉s❡✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝❛❧❧ ✐t a✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✱ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ♦❢
a ✐s 12 + 12 = 2✳ ❈♦♥s❡q✉❡♥t❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
a2 = 2 .
√
❲❡ ✐♠♠❡❞✐❛t❡❧② s❡❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t✦ ❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ✐s✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ a= 2✳

❨♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❦✐♣ s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✇✐t❤♦✉t ✈✐♦❧❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✢♦✇ ♦❢ ✐❞❡❛s✱ ❛t ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ r✐s❦✳

❆❧❧ ♥❡✇ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ✐s ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ ❜② ❛ ❢❡✇ ❧✐tt❧❡ t❛s❦s✱ ♦r q✉❡st✐♦♥s✱ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✵✳✵✳✸
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡q✉✐❧❛t❡r❛❧ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s 1✳

❚❤❡ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s ❛r❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❛tt❡♠♣t❡❞ ✭♦r ❛t ❧❡❛st ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞✮ ✐♠♠❡❞✐❛t❡❧②✳

▼♦st ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✲t❡①t ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦t ❡❧❛❜♦r❛t❡✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡♥✬t✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❡♥t✐r❡❧② r♦✉t✐♥❡ ❛s t❤❡② r❡q✉✐r❡
✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ♦❢✱ ❛t ❧❡❛st✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts t❤❛t ❤❛✈❡ ❥✉st ❜❡❡♥ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞✳ ❆❞❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡ s❡ts ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞
✐♥ t❤❡ ❛♣♣❡♥❞✐① ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦✬s ✇❡❜s✐t❡✿ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✶✷✸✳❝♦♠✳ ❉♦ ♥♦t st❛rt ②♦✉r st✉❞② ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s✦
❑❡❡♣ ✐♥ ♠✐♥❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s ❛r❡ ♠❡❛♥t t♦ t❡st ✕ ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t❧② ❛♥❞ ✐♠♣❡r❢❡❝t❧② ✕ ❤♦✇ ✇❡❧❧ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❤❛✈❡
❜❡❡♥ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞✳

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s ✇♦r❞s ♦❢ ❝❛✉t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ♠✐st❛❦❡s ♠❛❞❡ ❜② t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥ts✳
❚♦ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t✳✳✳ ✸

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

2
■♥ s♣✐t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t
√ (−1) = 1✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧②

♦♥❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ♦❢ 1✱ 1 = 1✳

❚❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❛r❡ ♣✉t ❢♦r✇❛r❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♠❛♥♥❡r✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✵✳✵✳✹✿ Pr♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❘♦♦ts

❋♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs a ❛♥❞ b✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐❞❡♥t✐t②✿

√ √ √
a· b= a·b

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧② r❡❢❡rr❡❞ t♦ t❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t t❤❡ t❡①t✳

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ♠❛② ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s❀ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠ s✉♣♣❧✐❡s ❧✐♠✐t❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡
❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❡✈❡r② ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ❛ ♣❛rt ♦❢ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ❛♥❞ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✇✐t❤♦✉t
❦♥♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s ♣❡r✐❧♦✉s✳

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♠❡♠♦r✐③❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ♦r t❤❡♦r❡♠s ✭❛♥❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✮✱ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✳ ❲✐t❤ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ t✐♠❡ s♣❡♥t ✇✐t❤
t❤❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✱ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ♦♥❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❛s t❤❡② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ r❡❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥ t❤❡ t❡①t✳ ❲❛t❝❤
❢♦r ✇♦r❞s ✏✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t✑✱ ✏❝r✉❝✐❛❧✑✱ ❡t❝✳ ❚❤♦s❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts t❤❛t ❞♦ ♥♦t r❡❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥ t❤✐s t❡①t ❛r❡ ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦ ❜❡
s❡❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ❜♦♦❦ t❤❛t ②♦✉ r❡❛❞✳ ❨♦✉ ♥❡❡❞ t♦✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❜❡ ❛✇❛r❡ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s
❛♥❞ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛♥❞ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦♥❡ ✇❤❡♥ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✳

❖❢t❡♥✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❛❧✇❛②s✱ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ ❜② ❛ t❤♦r♦✉❣❤ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t ❛s ❛ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
√ √
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ A= a ❛♥❞ B= b✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

a = A2 ❛♥❞ b = B2 .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

a · b = A2 · B 2 = A · A · B · B = (A · B) · (A · B) = (AB)2 .
√
❍❡♥❝❡✱ ab = A · B ✱ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳

❙♦♠❡ ♣r♦♦❢s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s❦✐♣♣❡❞ ❛t ✜rst r❡❛❞✐♥❣✳

■ts ❤✐❣❤❧② ❞❡t❛✐❧❡❞ ❡①♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦ ❛ ❣♦♦❞ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ❢♦r s❡❧❢✲st✉❞②✳ ■❢ t❤✐s ✐s ②♦✉r ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ♠②
s✉❣❣❡st✐♦♥s✳

❲❤✐❧❡ r❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦✱ tr② t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t ②♦✉ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❛♥❞ ✐❞❡❛s✳ ❑❡❡♣ ✐♥ ♠✐♥❞✱
❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❛t s♦♠❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦r❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t t❤❛t ♦t❤❡rs❀ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ♠❛r❦❡❞ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣❧②✳ ❈♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦ ✭♦r ❥✉♠♣
❢♦r✇❛r❞✮ ❛s ♥❡❡❞❡❞✳ ❈♦♥t❡♠♣❧❛t❡✳ ❋✐♥❞ ♦t❤❡r s♦✉r❝❡s ✐❢ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✳ ❨♦✉ s❤♦✉❧❞ ♥♦t t✉r♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡ s❡ts
✉♥t✐❧ ②♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❝♦♠❢♦rt❛❜❧❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳

❲❤❛t t♦ ❞♦ ❛❜♦✉t ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s ✇❤❡♥ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡♥✬t ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞❄ ❋✐rst✱ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✳ ▼❛♥② ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥
❛ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✕ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳ ❚r② t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✕ ❜❡❢♦r❡ ♦r ❛❢t❡r r❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳ ❨♦✉ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦
✜♥❞ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s ♦♥❧✐♥❡ ♦r ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡♠✦

■ str♦♥❣❧② s✉❣❣❡st t❤❛t ②♦✉r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤♦r♦✉❣❤❧② ✇r✐tt❡♥✳ ❨♦✉ s❤♦✉❧❞ ✇r✐t❡ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡s✱
✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ②♦✉ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❛♣♣r❡❝✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿

1+1 1+1
❲r♦♥❣✿ ❘✐❣❤t✿
2 =2
❚♦ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t✳✳✳ ✹

❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡❛❞s ✏♦♥❡ ❛❞❞❡❞ t♦ ♦♥❡ ✐s t✇♦✑✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ r❡❛❞✳ ❨♦✉ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❛❧s♦ ❥✉st✐❢② ❛❧❧ ②♦✉r
st❡♣s ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s✱ ✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ②♦✉ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❛♣♣r❡❝✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥
t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿
2x = 4 2x = 4; t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
❲r♦♥❣✿ ❘✐❣❤t✿
x=2 x = 2.
❚❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞s ♦❢ t❤♦r♦✉❣❤♥❡ss ❛r❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦✳

◆❡①t✱ ②♦✉r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤♦r♦✉❣❤❧② r❡❛❞✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ❢♦r s❡❧❢✲❝r✐t✐❝✐s♠✿ ▲♦♦❦ ❢♦r ❡rr♦rs ❛♥❞ ✇❡❛❦
s♣♦ts✳ ■t s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ r❡✲r❡❛❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ r❡✇r✐tt❡♥✳ ❖♥❝❡ ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ❝♦♥✈✐♥❝❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦rr❡❝t ❛♥❞ t❤❡
♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s♦❧✐❞✱ ②♦✉ ♠❛② s❤♦✇ ✐t t♦ ❛ ❦♥♦✇❧❡❞❣❡❛❜❧❡ ♣❡rs♦♥ ❢♦r ❛ ♦♥❝❡✲♦✈❡r✳

◆❡①t✱ ②♦✉ ♠❛② t✉r♥ t♦ ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣ ♣r♦❥❡❝ts✳ ❙♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡ts ✭▼✐❝r♦s♦❢t ❊①❝❡❧ ♦r s✐♠✐❧❛r✮ ❛r❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ t♦ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞
❢♦r ❣r❛♣❤✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣✳ ❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❝❤✐❡✈❡ ❛s ❣♦♦❞ r❡s✉❧ts ✇✐t❤ ♣❛❝❦❛❣❡s s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧② ❞❡s✐❣♥❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡s❡
♣✉r♣♦s❡s✱ ❜✉t s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡ts ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ t♦♦❧ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ✇✐❞❡r s❝♦♣❡ ♦❢ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s✳ Pr♦❣r❛♠♠✐♥❣ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r
♦♣t✐♦♥✳

●♦♦❞ ❧✉❝❦✦
❚♦ t❤❡ t❡❛❝❤❡r ✺

❚♦ t❤❡ t❡❛❝❤❡r
❚❤❡ ❜✉❧❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ ♠② ❧❡❝t✉r❡ ♥♦t❡s✳

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❧✐tt❧❡ ❡♠♣❤❛s✐s ♦♥ ❝❧♦s❡❞✲❢♦r♠ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥s✳ ■ ❞♦ t❤✐♥❦ t❤❛t ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥
✇❤♦ ❤❛s ♥❡✈❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡❞ ❜② ❤❛♥❞ ✭♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡❞✱ ♦r ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ❡t❝✳✮ ❝❛♥♥♦t ♣♦ss✐❜❧②
✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✭♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ♦r q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ❡t❝✳✮✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛ ❧❛r❣❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡
❛♥❞ ❡✛♦rt ❝❛♥ ❛♥❞ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❞✐r❡❝t❡❞ t♦✇❛r❞✿

• ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❛♥❞

• ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣ ✐♥ r❡❛❧✐st✐❝ s❡tt✐♥❣s✳

❚❤❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t❤❛t ✐t r❡q✉✐r❡s ♠♦r❡ ❛❜str❛❝t✐♦♥ r❛t❤❡r t❤❛♥ ❧❡ss✳

❱✐s✉❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ t♦♦❧ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡✳ ■❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✱
❜✐❣ ♦r s♠❛❧❧✳ ❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡ ♦✉t ❛r❡ s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s ✈❡r② ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❜✉t s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s s❡r✈❡ ❛s ♠❡r❡ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦rs
❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts t❤❡② ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❤♦♣❡ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡② ✇✐❧❧ s❡r✈❡ ❛s ✈✐s✉❛❧ ✏❛♥❝❤♦rs✑ ✐♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ✇♦r❞s
❛♥❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳

■t ✐s ✉♥❧✐❦❡❧② t❤❛t ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✇❤♦ ❤❛s ♥❡✈❡r ♣❧♦tt❡❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜② ❤❛♥❞ ❝❛♥ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❣r❛♣❤s
♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ♣❧♦t ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ ❥✉st ❛ ❢❡✇ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ❝✉r✈❡s✱
s✉r❢❛❝❡s✱ ✈❡❝t♦r ✜❡❧❞s✱ ❡t❝✳❄ ❙♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡ts ✇❡r❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ ♦✈❡r ❣r❛♣❤✐❝ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t♦rs ❢♦r ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣✉r♣♦s❡s
❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ s❤♦rt❡st st❡♣ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ ♣❡♥ ❛♥❞ ♣❛♣❡r✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ✐s ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡
s✐♠♣❧❡st ♠❛♥♥❡r ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✿ ♦♥❡ ❝❡❧❧ ✲ ♦♥❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✲ ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ❋♦r ♠♦r❡ ❛❞✈❛♥❝❡❞ t❛s❦s s✉❝❤ ❛s
♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣✱ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡ts ✇❡r❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ ♦✈❡r ♦t❤❡r s♦❢t✇❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ♣r♦❣r❛♠♠✐♥❣ ♦♣t✐♦♥s ❢♦r t❤❡✐r ✇✐❞❡ ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜✐❧✐t②
❛♥❞✱ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡✐r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t②✳ ◆✐♥❡ ♦✉t ♦❢ t❡♥✱ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t s❤♦✇♥ ✇❛s ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ s❝r❛t❝❤ ✐♥
❢r♦♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥ts ✇❤♦ ✇❡r❡ ❧❛t❡r ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ♠② ❢♦♦tst❡♣s ❛♥❞ ❝r❡❛t❡ t❤❡✐r ♦✇♥✳

❆❜♦✉t t❤❡ t❡sts✳ ❚❤❡ ❜♦♦❦ ✐s♥✬t ❞❡s✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ ♣r❡♣❛r❡ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t ❢♦r s♦♠❡ ♣r❡❡①✐st✐♥❣ ❡①❛♠❀ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥tr❛r②✱
❛ss✐❣♥♠❡♥ts s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ ✇❤❛t ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞✳ ❚❤❡ st✉❞❡♥ts✬ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ♥❡❡❞s
t♦ ❜❡ t❡st❡❞ ❜✉t✱ ♠♦st ♦❢ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✱ t❤✐s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❞♦♥❡ ♦♥❧② ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t❧②✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ s❤❛r❡ ♦❢ r♦✉t✐♥❡✱
♠❡❝❤❛♥✐❝❛❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ✐s ✐♥❡✈✐t❛❜❧❡✳ ◆♦♥❡t❤❡❧❡ss✱ ♥♦ t♦♣✐❝ ❞❡s❡r✈❡s ♠♦r❡ ❛tt❡♥t✐♦♥ ❥✉st ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t✬s ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦
❜❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ t❡st✳

■❢ ❛t ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✱ ❞♦♥✬t ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥ts ♠❡♠♦r✐③❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳

■♥ t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r ♦❢ t♦♣✐❝s✱ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛ t②♣✐❝❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s t❡①t❜♦♦❦ ✐s t❤❛t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝♦♠❡ ❜❡❢♦r❡
❡✈❡r②t❤✐♥❣ ❡❧s❡✳ ❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

• ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

• ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ s✐♠♣❧❡r t❤❛♥ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♦♥❡s ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②✮✳

• ❚❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♠❛❦❡ ♠♦r❡ s❡♥s❡ t♦ ❛ st✉❞❡♥t ✇✐t❤
❛ s♦❧✐❞ ❜❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✐♥ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

• ❆ q✉✐❝❦ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t♦ s❡r✐❡s ♦❢t❡♥ ❧❡❛❞s t♦ ❝♦♥❢✉s✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦✳

• ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ♥❡❡❞❡❞ ❢♦r ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ s❤♦✉❧❞ st❛rt ❛s ❡❛r❧② ❛s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳
❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✻

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s

■t✬s ♥♦ s❡❝r❡t t❤❛t ❛ ✈❛st ♠❛❥♦r✐t② ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s st✉❞❡♥ts ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡✈❡r ✉s❡ ✇❤❛t t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞✳ P♦♦r ❝❛r❡❡r
❝❤♦✐❝❡s ❛s✐❞❡✱ ❛ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s st✉❞❡♥t ✐s ♦❢t❡♥ ✉♥❛❜❧❡ t♦ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤❡ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s t❤❛t ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦
s✉rr♦✉♥❞ ❤✐♠✳ ❲❤② ❞♦❡s t❤✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❄

❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s t❤❡ s❝✐❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✳ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡r② ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣✱ ✐ts ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛r ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ t♦ st✉❞② ❛♥❞
♠❡❛s✉r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛❧♦♥❣ ❝✉r✈❡s✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ t❤✐s ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞
❜② ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳ ❙❦✐❧❧❢✉❧ ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ✐s ✇❤❛t s♦❧✈❡s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s✳ ❋♦r ♦✈❡r ✸✵✵ ②❡❛rs✱
t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❡①tr❡♠❡❧② s✉❝❝❡ss❢✉❧ ✐♥ s❝✐❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ ❡♥❣✐♥❡❡r✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ s✉❝❝❡ss❡s ❛r❡ ✇❡❧❧✲❦♥♦✇♥✿
♣r♦❥❡❝t✐❧❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ♣❧❛♥❡t❛r② ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ✢♦✇ ♦❢ ❧✐q✉✐❞s✱ ❤❡❛t tr❛♥s❢❡r✱ ✇❛✈❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛t✐♦♥✱ ❡t❝✳ ❚❡❛❝❤✐♥❣ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✿ ❆♥ ♦✈❡r✇❤❡❧♠✐♥❣ ♠❛❥♦r✐t② ♦❢ ✇❤❛t t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t ❞♦❡s ✐s ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♦♥
❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✳ ❇✉t t❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t ❢❛❝❡s ✇❡r❡ ✭♦r ❝♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥✮ s♦❧✈❡❞
✐♥ t❤❡ ✶✽t❤ ♦r ✶✾t❤ ❝❡♥t✉r✐❡s✦

❚❤✐s ✐s♥✬t ❣♦♦❞ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ❛♥②♠♦r❡✳ ❲❤❛t ❤❛s ❝❤❛♥❣❡❞ s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡♥❄ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡rs ❤❛✈❡ ❛♣♣❡❛r❡❞✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱
❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡rs ❞♦♥✬t ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳ ❚❤❡② ❞♦♥✬t ❤❡❧♣ ✇✐t❤ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ✕ ✐♥ t❤❡ tr❛❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ s❡♥s❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ✇♦r❞ ✕ t❤♦s❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣❛st ❝❡♥t✉r✐❡s✳ ■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡rs ❡①❝❡❧ ❛t ❤❛♥❞❧✐♥❣
✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♣r♦❝❡ss❡s✱ ❛♥❞ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❣r❡❛t ❛t ♠❛♥❛❣✐♥❣ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ✭❞✐❣✐t❛❧✮ ❞❛t❛✳ ❚♦ ✉t✐❧✐③❡
t❤❡s❡ ❛❞✈❛♥t❛❣❡s✱ s❝✐❡♥t✐sts ✏❞✐s❝r❡t✐③❡✑ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛♥❞ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠s t❤❛t ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡
❞✐❣✐t❛❧ ❞❛t❛✳ ❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❜✉t t❤❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜✐❧✐t② ✐s ✉♥❧✐♠✐t❡❞✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ✷✵t❤ ❝❡♥t✉r②✱
t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❡①tr❡♠❡❧② s✉❝❝❡ss❢✉❧ ✐♥ s❝✐❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ ❡♥❣✐♥❡❡r✐♥❣✿ ❛❡r♦❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ✭❛✐r♣❧❛♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝❛r
❞❡s✐❣♥✮✱ s♦✉♥❞ ❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss✐♥❣✱ s♣❛❝❡ ❡①♣❧♦r❛t✐♦♥✱ str✉❝t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛t♦♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❡✱ ❡t❝✳ ❚❤❡
❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦✉s✿ ❊✈❡r② ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ✐♥ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s st❛rts ✕ ♦❢t❡♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✕ ❛s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥
♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥♦♥✦

❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s t❤❡ s❝✐❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✱ ❜♦t❤ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♣❛rt ✕ t❤❡ s♦✲❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡
❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✕ ♠❛② ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✐♥❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❜② t❤❡✐r
✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❡✿ ♣❡♦♣❧❡✱ ❛♥✐♠❛❧s✱ ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ♦r❣❛♥✐s♠s✱ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s♣❛❝❡✱ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡s✱ s♦♠❡
❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t✐❡s✱ ❞✐❣✐t❛❧ ✐♠❛❣❡s ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ♠❛♥✲♠❛❞❡ ❞❛t❛✱ ❡t❝✳ ❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡r② ❝❛❧❧❡❞
✏❧✐♠✐ts✑✱ ✇❡ ✐♥✈❛r✐❛❜❧② ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♣❛rt ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❡✐t❤❡r ❜② t❤❡✐r ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦r ❜② ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥✿ t✐♠❡✱
s♣❛❝❡✱ ♠❛ss✱ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡✱ ♠♦♥❡②✱ s♦♠❡ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t✐❡s✱ ❡t❝✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛♥❞ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡
❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✕ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ❢♦r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛♠❡♥❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✐ts ♠❡t❤♦❞s✦ ■♥ t❤❡ ❝❧❛ssr♦♦♠✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛r❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞
✉♥t✐❧ t❤❡② ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ♠❛♥❛❣❡❛❜❧❡❀ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ ✇❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ✐♥ s❡❛r❝❤ ♦❢ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳

❲✐t❤✐♥ ❛ t②♣✐❝❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t s✐♠♣❧② ♥❡✈❡r ❣❡ts t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ t❤❡ ✏❝✐r❝❧❡✑✦ ▲❛t❡r ♦♥✱ t❤❡
❣r❛❞✉❛t❡ ✐s ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥ ❤❡ s❡❡s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛♥❞ r❛r❡❧② ✇❤❡♥ ❤❡ s❡❡s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❞❛t❛✳

■♥ t❤✐s ❜♦♦❦✱ ❡✈❡r② ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s ✜rst ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✐♥ ✐ts ❞✐s❝r❡t❡✱ ✏♣r❡✲❧✐♠✐t✑✱ ✐♥❝❛r♥❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ❡❧s❡✇❤❡r❡
t②♣✐❝❛❧❧② ❤✐❞❞❡♥ ✐♥s✐❞❡ ♣r♦♦❢s ✕ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✉s❡❞ ❢♦r ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✇❡❧❧ ❜❡❢♦r❡ ✐ts ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s
❝♦✉♥t❡r♣❛rt ❡♠❡r❣❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛r❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ✜rst ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❛t❝❤✐♥❣ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢
t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛r❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r✱ ❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✿
❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ∆x→0 ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s
−−−−−−−−−−→
❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❝❤❛♣t❡r r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ❢♦r ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ✼

❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❝❤❛♣t❡r r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ❢♦r ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞

❚❤✐s ❜♦♦❦ ✐s ❛ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦✈❡rs t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥❞❡r✲
❣r❛❞✉❛t❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✇✐t❤ ❛ s✉❜st❛♥t✐❛❧ r❡✈✐❡✇ ♦❢ ♣r❡❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛♥❞ ❛ ♣r❡✈✐❡✇ ♦❢ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ♦r❞✐♥❛r② ❛♥❞ ♣❛rt✐❛❧
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✱ t❤❡✐r ❝❤❛♣t❡rs✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇❛② t❤❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t
❜♦♦❦ ✭♣❛r❡♥t❤❡t✐❝❛❧❧②✮ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s t❤❡♠✳
 ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✿ Pr❡❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✶ P❈✲✶ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s
✶ P❈✲✷ ❙❡ts ❛♥❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✶ P❈✲✸ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✶ P❈✲✹ ❈❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✶ P❈✲✺ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ❛♥❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②
 ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✷ ❉❈✲✶ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s
✷ ❉❈✲✷ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②
✷ ❉❈✲✸ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
✷ ❉❈✲✹ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥
✷ ❉❈✲✺ ❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✷ ❉❈✲✻ ❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
 ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✸ ■❈✲✶ ❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
✸ ■❈✲✷ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥
✸ ■❈✲✸ ❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✸ ■❈✲✹ ❙❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
✸ ■❈✲✺ ❙❡r✐❡s
 ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹✿ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐♥ ❍✐❣❤❡r ❉✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s
✹ ❍❉✲✶ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ♠✉❧t✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ s♣❛❝❡s
✹ ❍❉✲✷ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s
✹ ❍❉✲✸ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
✹ ❍❉✲✹ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t
✹ ❍❉✲✺ ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
✹ ❍❉✲✻ ❱❡❝t♦r ✜❡❧❞s
 ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✺✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❊q✉❛t✐♦♥s
✺ ❉❊✲✶ ❖r❞✐♥❛r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
✺ ❉❊✲✷ ❱❡❝t♦r ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
✺ ❉❊✲✸ ❙②st❡♠s ♦❢ ❖❉❊s
✺ ❉❊✲✹ ❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❖❉❊s
✺ ❉❊✲✺ P❛rt✐❛❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡❛❞ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧②✳

❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❝❤❛♣t❡r r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ❢♦r ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ✽

❆ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♣t❡rs ✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❆♥ ❛rr♦✇ ❢r♦♠ ❆ t♦ ❇ ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ❝❤❛♣t❡r ❇ s❤♦✉❧❞♥✬t

❜❡ r❡❛❞ ❜❡❢♦r❡ ❝❤❛♣t❡r ❆✳

❆❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛✉t❤♦r ✾

❆❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛✉t❤♦r

P❡t❡r ❙❛✈❡❧✐❡✈ ✐s ❛ ♣r♦❢❡ss♦r ♦❢ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ❛t ▼❛rs❤❛❧❧ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✱ ❍✉♥t✲
✐♥❣t♦♥✱ ❲❡st ❱✐r❣✐♥✐❛✱ ❯❙❆✳ ❆❢t❡r ❛ P❤✳❉✳ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t② ♦❢ ■❧❧✐♥♦✐s ❛t
❯r❜❛♥❛✲❈❤❛♠♣❛✐❣♥✱ ❤❡ ❞❡✈♦t❡❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ✷✵ ②❡❛rs t♦ t❡❛❝❤✐♥❣ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s✳
P❡t❡r ✐s t❤❡ ❛✉t❤♦r ♦❢ ❛ ❣r❛❞✉❛t❡ t❡①t❜♦♦❦ ❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ♣✉❜❧✐s❤❡❞
✐♥ ✷✵✶✻✳ ❍❡ ❤❛s ❛❧s♦ ❜❡❡♥ ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡❞ ✐♥ r❡s❡❛r❝❤ ✐♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ❛♥❞
s❡✈❡r❛❧ ♦t❤❡r ✜❡❧❞s✳ ❍✐s ♥♦♥✲❛❝❛❞❡♠✐❝ ♣r♦❥❡❝ts ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥✿ ❞✐❣✐t❛❧ ✐♠❛❣❡
❛♥❛❧②s✐s✱ ❛✉t♦♠❛t❡❞ ✜♥❣❡r♣r✐♥t ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♠❛t❝❤✐♥❣ ❢♦r ♠✐s✲
s✐❧❡ ♥❛✈✐❣❛t✐♦♥✴❣✉✐❞❛♥❝❡✳
❈♦♥t❡♥ts
Pr❡❢❛❝❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷
✶✳✶ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷
✶✳✷ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶
✶✳✸ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✽
✶✳✹ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺
✶✳✺ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❙✉❜tr❛❝t❄ ❉✐✈✐❞❡❄ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧②❄ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✺
✶✳✻ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✷
✶✳✼ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✶
✶✳✽ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✾
✶✳✾ ◆✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✺
✶✳✶✵ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✵
✶✳✶✶ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵✵
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵✾
✷✳✶ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵✾
✷✳✷ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✶✺
✷✳✸ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷✼
✷✳✹ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸✽
✷✳✺ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺✶
✷✳✻ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺✼
✷✳✼ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✻✺
✷✳✽ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✼✶
✷✳✾ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✼✺
✷✳✶✵ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽✻
✷✳✶✶ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✾✹
✷✳✶✷ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✵
✷✳✶✸ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✸
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✿ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✶
✸✳✶ ❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✶
✸✳✷ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✾
✸✳✸ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✷✾
✸✳✹ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✹✵
✸✳✺ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✹✽
✸✳✻ ❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺✸
✸✳✼ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺✾
✸✳✽ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✼✹
✸✳✾ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✽✶
✸✳✶✵ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✽✾
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✾✼
✹✳✶ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✾✼
✹✳✷ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✵✹
✹✳✸ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶✵
✹✳✹ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶✾
❈♦♥t❡♥ts ✶✶

✹✳✺ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✷✻

✹✳✻ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸✶
✹✳✼ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸✼
✹✳✽ ❘❡❧❛t❡❞ r❛t❡s✿ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹✻
✹✳✾ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✺✵
✹✳✶✵ ❘❡✈❡rs✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✺✼
✹✳✶✶ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✻✵
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✿ ❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✼✵
✺✳✶ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✼✵
✺✳✷ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✽✻
✺✳✸ ❲❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾✶
✺✳✹ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾✽
✺✳✺ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✵✸
✺✳✻ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✶✺
✺✳✼ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷✷
✺✳✽ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷✻
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✻✿ ❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹✶
✻✳✶ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹✶
✻✳✷ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✶
✻✳✸ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✷
✻✳✹ ❙♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✿ ❜✐s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✼
✻✳✺ P❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✼✶
✻✳✻ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✼✽
✻✳✼ ▼♦t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❢♦r❝❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✽✸
✻✳✽ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✽✾
✻✳✾ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✾✺
❊①❡r❝✐s❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✵✺
✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡ts✱ ❧♦❣✐❝✱ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✵✺
✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✵✾
✸ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✶✸
✹ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✶✹
✺ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✶✼
✻ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✷✵
✼ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❋❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ ❣r❛♣❤s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✷✸
✽ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✷✾
✾ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✸✵
✶✵ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✸✸
✶✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❈♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✸✺
✶✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✸✼
■♥❞❡① ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✹✷
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✶✳✶ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷
✶✳✷ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶
✶✳✸ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✽
✶✳✹ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺
✶✳✺ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❙✉❜tr❛❝t❄ ❉✐✈✐❞❡❄ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧②❄ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✺
✶✳✻ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✷
✶✳✼ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✶
✶✳✽ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✾
✶✳✾ ◆✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✺
✶✳✶✵ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✵
✶✳✶✶ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵✵

✶✳✶✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄

❖♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❡♥tr② ✇❛②s t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ r❡❧❛t❡❞ ♣✐❝t✉r❡s✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡
t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞✿

❇❡②♦♥❞ t❤✐s ❝♦♥❝❡✐✈❛❜❧❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s♣❡❡❞✳

❖♥ t❤❡ ✢✐♣ s✐❞❡✱ ✇❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿
✶✳✶✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄ ✶✸

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛r❡ s♦❧✈❡❞✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ✈❡rs✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② s❝❤♦♦❧
❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
s♣❡❡❞ = ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ / t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ = s♣❡❡❞ × t✐♠❡

❲❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦r ❢♦r t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ ✇❤❛t ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❤❛t ✐s ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✳
❲❤❛t t❛❦❡s t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❜❡②♦♥❞ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② s❝❤♦♦❧ ✐s t❤❡ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t② t❤❛t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✈❛r✐❡s ♦✈❡r t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st
❝❛s❡ ✐s ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✈❛r✐❡s ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧❧②✳
▲❡t✬s ❜❡ ♠♦r❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❢❛❝❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✈❡ ❜✉t ✇✐t❤ ♠♦r❡ ❞❛t❛ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t❡❞ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡
✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ✐t✳
❋✐rst✱ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ♦✉r s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ✐s ❜r♦❦❡♥✳ ❲❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ ❞♦ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st ✇❡ ❛r❡
❞r✐✈✐♥❣ ❞✉r✐♥❣ ♦✉r tr✐♣❄ ❲❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s ✕ s❛②✱ ❡✈❡r② ❤♦✉r ♦♥ t❤❡ ❤♦✉r ✕ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡
tr✐♣ ❛♥❞ r❡❝♦r❞ t❤❡ ♠✐❧❡❛❣❡ ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ ♦✉r ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♠✐❣❤t ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿
• ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ r❡❛❞✐♥❣✿ 10, 000 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ ✜rst ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 055 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 095 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 155 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❡t❝✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♣❧♦t ✕ ❛s ❛♥ ✐❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥ ✕ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❛❣❛✐♥st t✐♠❡✿

❇✉t ✇❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ✇❤❛t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥❄ ❲❡ ✇r✐t❡ ❛ q✉✐❝❦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ − ❧❛st ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥

s♣❡❡❞ = =
t✐♠❡ 1

❚❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇❛s ❝❤♦s❡♥ t♦ ❜❡ 1 ❤♦✉r✱ s♦ ❛❧❧ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ✐s t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡
♦♥❡✲❤♦✉r ♣❡r✐♦❞s✱ ❜② s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥ ✿
• ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 055 − 10, 000 = 55 ♠✐❧❡s❀ s♣❡❡❞ 55 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥ ❤♦✉r
• ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 095 − 10, 055 = 40 ♠✐❧❡s❀ s♣❡❡❞ 40 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥ ❤♦✉r
• ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 155 − 10, 095 = 60 ♠✐❧❡s❀ s♣❡❡❞ 60 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥ ❤♦✉r
✶✳✶✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄ ✶✹

• ❡t❝✳
❲❡ s❡❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❤♦✇ t❤❡s❡ ♥❡✇ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛♣♣❡❛r ❛s t❤❡ ❜❧♦❝❦s t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ ❡❛❝❤ st❡♣ ♦❢ ♦✉r ❧❛st ♣❧♦t ✭t♦♣✮✿

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❧♦✇❡r t❤❡s❡ ❜❧♦❝❦s t♦ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ t♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ♣❧♦t ✭❜♦tt♦♠✮✳
❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ ✇❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❞❛t❛ ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② ❛s t♦ s✉❣❣❡st t❤❛t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ r❡♠❛✐♥s ❝♦♥st❛♥t
❞✉r✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❤♦✉r✲❧♦♥❣ ♣❡r✐♦❞s✳
❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ✕ r♦✉❣❤❧② ✕ 55✱ 40✱ ❛♥❞ 60 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥
❤♦✉r ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤♦s❡ t❤r❡❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳
◆♦✇ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✢✐♣ s✐❞❡✿ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤✐s t✐♠❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s t❤❡ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r t❤❛t ✐s ❜r♦❦❡♥✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❤♦✇
❢❛r ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❣♦♥❡✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s ✕ s❛②✱ ❡✈❡r② ❤♦✉r ✕ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ tr✐♣
❛♥❞ r❡❝♦r❞ ✐ts r❡❛❞✐♥❣s ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛② ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿
• ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst ❤♦✉r✿ 35 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥ ❤♦✉r
• ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 65 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥ ❤♦✉r
• ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 50 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥ ❤♦✉r
• ❡t❝✳
▲❡t✬s ♣❧♦t ♦✉r s♣❡❡❞ ❛❣❛✐♥st t✐♠❡ t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞✿

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② ❛s t♦ s✉❣❣❡st t❤❛t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ r❡♠❛✐♥s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❞✉r✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤
♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❤♦✉r✲❧♦♥❣ ♣❡r✐♦❞s✳
◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤✐s t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t ♦✉r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥❄ ❲❡ ✇r✐t❡ ❛ q✉✐❝❦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❞✐st❛♥❝❡ = s♣❡❡❞ × t✐♠❡ = s♣❡❡❞ × 1

■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❜✐t ♦❢ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ♠✉st ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢
♦✉r tr✐♣✱ s❛②✱ t❤❡ 100✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦✳ ❚❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇❛s ❝❤♦s❡♥ t♦ ❜❡ 1 ❤♦✉r s♦ t❤❛t ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ♦♥❧② t♦ ❛❞❞✱
❛♥❞ ❦❡❡♣ ❛❞❞✐♥❣✱ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ❛t ✇❤✐❝❤ ✕ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ ✕ ✇❡ ❞r♦✈❡ ❞✉r✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♦♥❡✲❤♦✉r ♣❡r✐♦❞s✿
• t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ ✜rst ❤♦✉r✿ 100 + 35 = 135✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦
• t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ t✇♦ ❤♦✉rs✿ 135 + 65 = 200✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦
• t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❤♦✉rs✿ 200 + 50 = 250✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦
• ❡t❝✳
■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✱ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞s ❛s t❤❡s❡ ❜❧♦❝❦s ✭t♦♣✮✿
✶✳✶✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄ ✶✺

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡s❡ ❜❧♦❝❦s t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ st❡♣s ♦❢ t❤❡ st❛✐r❝❛s❡ t♦ s❤♦✇ ❤♦✇ ❤✐❣❤ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❝❧✐♠❜
✭❜♦tt♦♠✮✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss❡❞ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ r♦✉❣❤❧② 135✲✱ 200✲✱ ❛♥❞
250✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦s ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤✐s t✐♠❡✳

❲❡ ♥❡①t ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ❋✐rst✱ ❢r♦♠ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥
t♦ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ 30 ❞❛t❛ ♣♦✐♥ts ✭♠♦r❡ ✐s ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡❞ ❜② ✏✳✳✳✑✮❀ t❤❡② ❛r❡
t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t r❡❝♦r❞❡❞ ❡✈❡r② ♠✐♥✉t❡✿

t✐♠❡ ♠✐♥✉t❡s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♠✐❧❡s 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.39 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.78 0.84 ...

❚❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ✐s ❛❧s♦ s❡❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst t✇♦ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❊✈❡r② ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ✐s t❤❡♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❚❤❡ ✏s❝❛tt❡r ♣❧♦t✑ t❤❛t ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡s t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❧♦♦❦s
❧✐❦❡ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ✦
❲❤❛t ❤❛s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ❜❡ r❡❛❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡
❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ st❛✐r❝❛s❡✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✇❛s ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳

✷✳ ■t ✇❛s ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❢❛✐r❧② ❢❛st ❜✉t t❤❡♥ st❛rt❡❞ t♦ s❧♦✇ ❞♦✇♥✳

✸✳ ■t st♦♣♣❡❞ ❢♦r ❛ ✈❡r② s❤♦rt ♣❡r✐♦❞✳

✹✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✐t st❛rt❡❞ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳

✺✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✐t st❛rt❡❞ t♦ s♣❡❡❞ ✉♣ ✐♥ t❤❛t ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳

✶✳✶✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄ ✶✻

❚♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ♦✈❡r t❤❡s❡ ♦♥❡✲♠✐♥✉t❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s
❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✳

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ r♦✇ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s✉❜tr❛❝t ❡✈❡r② t✇♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡
✜rst st❡♣ ✐s ❝❛rr✐❡❞ ♦✉t✿
t✐♠❡ ♠✐♥ 0 1 ...
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♠✐❧❡s 0.00 0.10 ...
ց ↓
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ 0.10 − 0.00 ...
||
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♠✐❧❡s✴♠✐♥ 0.10 ...
❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♣❧❛❝❡ ✐t ✐♥ ❛ r♦✇ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s
t❤❛t ✇❡ ❛❞❞❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ♦❢ ♦✉r t❛❜❧❡✿

t✐♠❡ ♠✐♥ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♠✐❧❡s 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.39 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.78 ...
ց ↓ ց ↓ ց ↓ ց ↓ ց ↓ ց ↓ ց ↓ ց ↓ ց ↓ ...
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♠✐❧❡s✴♠✐♥ 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.07 ...

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✦

Pr❛❝t✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡✬❞ r❛t❤❡r ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❝❛♣❛❜✐❧✐t✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✳✶✿ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s

❲❡ ✉s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t♦ ♣✉❧❧ ❞❛t❛ ❢r♦♠ ♦t❤❡r ❝❡❧❧s✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ✇❛②s✳ ❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ✏❛❜s♦❧✉t❡✧ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡✿

❂❘✷❈✸✂✷

❆♥② ❝❡❧❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇✐❧❧ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❡❧❧ ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❛t r♦✇ 2 ❛♥❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ 3 ❛♥❞
sq✉❛r❡ ✐t✿

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ t❤❡ ✏r❡❧❛t✐✈❡✧ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡✿

❂❘❬✷❪❈❬✸❪✂✷
❆♥② ❝❡❧❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇✐❧❧ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❡❧❧ ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ 2 r♦✇s ❞♦✇♥ ❛♥❞ 3 ❝♦❧✉♠♥s
r✐❣❤t ❢r♦♠ ✐t ❛♥❞ sq✉❛r❡ ✐t✿

❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❜② ♣✉❧❧✐♥❣ ❞❛t❛ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❂❘❈❬✲✶❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪
✶✳✶✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄ ✶✼

❍❡r❡✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ ❈❬✲✶❪ ✱ s❛♠❡ r♦✇✱ ❘ ✱ ❛♥❞ ❧❛st r♦✇✱ ❘❬✲✶❪ ✳ ❇❡❧♦✇✱ ②♦✉
❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♠❛r❦❡❞ ✇✐t❤ r❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❜❧✉❡ ✭❧❡❢t✮ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ s❤♦✇♥ ✇✐t❤
t❤❡ ❛rr♦✇s ✭r✐❣❤t✮✿

❲❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐♥ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✇❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✿

❚❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❞❛t❛ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ s❝❛tt❡r ♣❧♦t✳ ❚♦ ❡♠♣❤❛s✐③❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❞❛t❛✱ ✉♥❧✐❦❡
t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐s r❡❢❡rr✐♥❣ t♦ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s r❛t❤❡r t❤❛♥ t✐♠❡ ✐♥st❛♥❝❡s✱ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t ✐t ✇✐t❤ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥ts✳
■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ t❛❜❧❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡❛rr❛♥❣❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t ❝❧❡❛r❡r✿
t✐♠❡ 0 1 2 3 4 ...
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ 0.00 − 0.10 − 0.20 − 0.30 − .39 − ...
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · 0.10 · 0.10 · 0.10 · 0.09 · 0.09 ...

❲❤❛t ❤❛s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧② r❡❛❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✜✈❡
st❛❣❡s✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇❛s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ✭✐t ✇❛s ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✮✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇❛s ❢❛✐r❧② ❤✐❣❤ ✭✐t ✇❛s ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❢❛✐r❧② ❢❛st✮ ❜✉t t❤❡♥ ✐t st❛rt❡❞ t♦ ❞❡❝❧✐♥❡ ✭s❧♦✇ ❞♦✇♥✮✳
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇❛s ③❡r♦ ✭✐t st♦♣♣❡❞✮ ❢♦r ❛ ✈❡r② s❤♦rt ♣❡r✐♦❞✳
✹✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❜❡❝❛♠❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✭✐t st❛rt❡❞ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✮✳
✺✳ ❆♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② st❛rt❡❞ t♦ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ♠♦r❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✭✐t st❛rt❡❞ t♦ s♣❡❡❞ ✉♣ ✐♥ t❤❛t ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✮✳
❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r s❡t ♦❢ ❞❛t❛ s✉❝❝✐♥❝t❧② r❡❝♦r❞s s♦♠❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳
◆♦✇✱ ❢r♦♠ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② t♦ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳
✶✳✶✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄ ✶✽

❆❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ 30 ❞❛t❛ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t
r❡❝♦r❞❡❞ ❡✈❡r② ♠✐♥✉t❡✿
t✐♠❡ ♠✐♥✉t❡s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.39 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.78 0.84 ...

❚❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ✐s ❛❧s♦ s❡❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst t✇♦ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ♦♥❡ ❜❛r ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

❚❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ✐s ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❛s ❛ s❝❛tt❡r ♣❧♦t ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳ ❆❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❡♠♣❤❛s✐③❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❞❛t❛ ✐s r❡❢❡rr✐♥❣ t♦ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❜② ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ✇✐t❤ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❜❛rs✳
❚❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ r♦❧❧✐♥❣ t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❛ tr♦✉❣❤✿

❚♦ ✜♥❞ ♦✉t ✇❤❡r❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♦♥❡✲♠✐♥✉t❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ t❤❡
✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ♦♥❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ✜rst st❡♣ ✐s ❝❛rr✐❡❞ ♦✉t✱ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s 0✿
t✐♠❡ ♠✐♥ 0 1 ...
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♠✐❧❡s 0.10 ...
↓
s✉♠ 0.00+ 0.10 ...
↑ ||
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♠✐❧❡s✴♠✐♥ 0.00 0.10 ...
❲❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ✐♥ ❛ ♥❡✇ r♦✇ ❛❞❞❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ♦❢ ♦✉r t❛❜❧❡✿
t✐♠❡ ♠✐♥ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ...
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♠✐❧❡s 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.39 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 ...
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ...
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♠✐❧❡s✴♠✐♥ 0.00 → 0.10 → 0.30 → 0.59 → 0.98 → 1.46 → 2.03 → 2.67 → 3.39 → ...

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✦

Pr❛❝t✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ s✉♠s ❜② ♣✉❧❧✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s
✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰❘❈❬✲✶❪
❍❡r❡✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✱ ❈ ✱ ♦r ❧❛st✱ ❈❬✲✶❪ ✱ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✱ ❘ ✱ ❛♥❞ ❧❛st✱ ❘❬✲✶❪ ✱
r♦✇✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
✶✳✶✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄ ✶✾

❲❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐♥ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ❢♦r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✿

❚❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ s❝❛tt❡r ♣❧♦t ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳

❲❤❛t ❤❛s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧② r❡❛❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✜rst ♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣❧♦t✳ ❚❤❡s❡
❛r❡ t❤❡ ✜✈❡ st❛❣❡s✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❧♦✇✳

✷✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❤✐❣❤✳

✸✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st✳

✹✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❤✐❣❤✳

✺✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❧♦✇✳

❲❡✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ r❡❛rr❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ t❛❜❧❡ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❞❛t❛ ❝❧❡❛r❡r✿

t✐♠❡ 0 1 2 3 4 ...
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · 0.00 · 0.10 · 0.20 · 0.30 · 0.39 ...
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ 0.00 − 0.10 − 0.30 − 0.59 − .98 − ...

❚❤✉s✱ ❛s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❞❛t❛ s❡t r❡❝♦r❞s s♦♠❡ ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤✐s
✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ t♦ r❡❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞✿

◮ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❡❧❧ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞✱ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳

■s t❤✐s ✐t t❤♦✉❣❤❄

▼♦t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥♦♥✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✐t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❄

■❢ ✐t ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ t❤❛t ♦✉r ❞❛t❛ ✐s ❥✉st ❛ s♥❛♣s❤♦t ♦❢ ❛ ✏❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✑ ♣r♦❝❡ss✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t ♠♦r❡
✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤✐s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡tt❡r✳ ❲❡✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ♠❛② ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r ❡✈❡r②
✶✳✶✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛❜♦✉t❄ ✷✵

♠✐♥✉t❡✱ ♦r ❡✈❡r② s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ❡t❝✳✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❡✈❡r② ❤♦✉r✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❞✐✈✐s✐❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡
✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ s❡ts ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❞❡♥s❡r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥s❡r ♣❛tt❡r♥s✿ ❲❡
♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ ✐♥s❡rt ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ✐♥♣✉ts✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ♦❢
t❤❡♠✱ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts st❛rt t♦ ❢♦r♠ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✿

❇♦t❤ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛r❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✦

❲❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ♥♦t t❤❡ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡ t❤❛t
✐s ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ ♠❛r❜❧❡s ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦❣❡t❤❡r✱ ❜✉t ❛ r♦♣❡✳ ❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✏❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✑ ✐s st✉❞✐❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✳

❚❤✉s✱ t❤✐s ♠❛✐♥ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s t♦ ❞❡r✐✈❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t♦♣ r♦✇ t♦ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠✮ ❛♥❞
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ r♦✇ t♦ t❤❡ t♦♣✮✿

■t ✐s ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡s✳ ■t ✐s ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✳

❲❡✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ s❡t t❤❡s❡ ✐❞❡❛s ❛s✐❞❡ ❢♦r ♥♦✇ ❛♥❞ t✉r♥ t♦ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ♠♦r❡ ✐♠♠❡❞✐❛t❡✿

◮ ❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ✇❡ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②❄

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ✜rst ❝❤❛rt ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♣❧♦tt❡❞✳ ■s t❤❡ ❢✉t✉r❡ ♣r❡❞✐❝t❛❜❧❡ ❄ ❚❤❡
♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✭t♦♣ r♦✇✮✱ ❜✉t ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t t❡❧❧ ✐❢ t❤✐s ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐t ✐s
s❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ ✭❜♦tt♦♠ r♦✇✮✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥❝❡✐✈❛❜❧❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✇✐❧❧ st♦♣ ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧②✳ ❚❤❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ✐s ❥✉st ❛s ❝❧❡❛r ✐♥
t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝❤❛rt ❛❜♦✈❡ ♦r ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛rt✿
✶✳✷✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s ✷✶

❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ s❤♦✇♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ♦♥❡ ❤❛s ❞❡✜♥✐t❡❧② st♦♣♣❡❞✿

❚❤✐s ❛♥❞ r❡❧❛t❡❞ ✐ss✉❡s ✭❧✐♠✐t❡❞ t♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✮ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳ ❇✉t ✜rst ❛ r❡✈✐❡✇✳

✶✳✷✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s

❲❡ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ✇❛② ✇❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs s✉❝❤ ❛s t❤❡ ♦♥❡s ✇❡ s❛✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✿

t✐♠❡ ♠✐♥✉t❡s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♠✐❧❡s 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.39 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.78 0.84 ...

❲❡ ✜rst ❣✐✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛ ♥❛♠❡✱ s❛②✱ a✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛ss✐❣♥ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ✈❛r✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♥❛♠❡ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠ ♦❢
t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

■♥❞✐❝❡s ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

✐♥❞❡①✿ n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ...
t❡r♠✿ an a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 ...
❚❤❡ ♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛ ❧❡tt❡r✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ s✉❜s❝r✐♣t ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡① ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s t❤❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠
✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ■t r❡❛❞s ✏ a s✉❜ 1✑✱ ✏ a s✉❜ 2✑✱ ❡t❝✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♠❡❛♥s✿

■♥❞❡① ♦❢ ❛ t❡r♠

✐♥❞❡①

a ↑
↓
n
♥❛♠❡

■♥❞✐❝❡s s❡r✈❡ ❛s t❛❣s ✿

✶✳✷✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s ✷✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✿ ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧

❲❡ ✇❛t❝❤ ❛ ♣✐♥❣✲♣♦♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ ❛♥❞ r❡❝♦r❞ ✕ ❛t ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✕ ❤♦✇ ❤✐❣❤ ✐t ✐s✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t
✐s ❛♥ ❡✈❡r✲❡①♣❛♥❞✐♥❣ str✐♥❣✱ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❢r❛♠❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈✐❞❡♦ ❛r❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✐♥t♦ ♦♥❡
✐♠❛❣❡✱ ✐t ✇✐❧❧ ❧♦♦❦ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐st ✿
36, 35, 32, 27, 20, 11, 0, ...
❲❡ ❜r✐♥❣ t❤❡♠ ❜❛❝❦ t♦❣❡t❤❡r ✐♥ ♦♥❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♣❧♦t s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✈❛r✐❡s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡
t✐♠❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss❡s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧②✿

❚❤❡ ♣❧♦t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳

❆s ❢❛r ❛s t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ✐s ❝♦♥❝❡r♥❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ♣❛✐rs✱ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛rr❛♥❣❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ t❛❜❧❡✿

♠♦♠❡♥t ❤❡✐❣❤t
1 36
2 35
3 32
♠♦♠❡♥t✿ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ...
4 27 ♦r
❤❡✐❣❤t✿ 36 35 32 27 20 11 0 ...
5 20
6 11
7 0
... ...
✶✳✷✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s ✷✸

■♥ ♦✉r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ♥❛♠❡ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ h ❢♦r ✏❤❡✐❣❤t✑✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❛❜❧❡ t❛❦❡ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✿

♠♦♠❡♥t✿ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ...
❤❡✐❣❤t✿ h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 ...
|| || || || || || || ...
❤❡✐❣❤t✿ 36 35 32 27 20 11 0 ...

❲❤❡♥ ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t❡❞✱ ✐t t❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❧✐st ✿

h1 = 36, h2 = 35, h3 = 32, h4 = 27, h5 = 20, h6 = 11, h7 = 0, ....

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

a1 = 1, a2 = 1/2, a3 = 1/3, a4 = 1/4, ...

✇❤❡r❡ a ✐s t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ ❛ s✉❜s❝r✐♣t ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s ✇❤✐❝❤ t❡r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡
❢❛❝✐♥❣✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ st✉❞② ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

❙✉❝❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡❞ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ✐ts ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠✱ ♦r ❜❡tt❡r ②❡t ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ tr❡♥❞✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ 1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 ... t❡♥❞s t♦✇❛r❞ 0.

✷✳ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ .9 .99 .999 .9999 .99999 ... t❡♥❞s t♦✇❛r❞ 1.
✸✳ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ 1 2 3 4 5 ... t❡♥❞s t♦✇❛r❞ + ∞.
✹✳ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ 0 1 0 1 0 ... ❞♦❡s♥✬t t❡♥❞ t♦ ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣✳

❙♦✱ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✇✐❧❧ s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s ❜❡ ✏❛❝❝✉♠✉❧❛t✐♥❣✑ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✐ts ✏❧✐♠✐t✑
✭★✶ ❛♥❞ ★✷✮✳ ■t✬s ❛s ✐❢ t❤❡ ❣❛♣ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❝✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ✐♥✈✐s✐❜❧❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s♥✬t
❛❧✇❛②s t❤❡ ❝❛s❡✿ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♠✐❣❤t ✏r✉♥ ❛✇❛②✑ ✭★✸✮ ♦r ❜♦✉♥❝❡ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ✇✐t❤♦✉t s❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ ✭★✹✮✳

❊✈❡r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❝r❡❛t❡s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✈✐❛ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

an = f (n) .

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛ r❛② ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs✱ {p, p + 1, ...}✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ♦r s✐♠♣❧②
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s t②♣✐❝❛❧❧② ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ✐ts ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

an = 1/n, n = 1, 2, 3, ...

■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✱ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♠♠♦♥❧② ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ✐ts t❡r♠s ✐♥ ❛ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡
♠❛♥♥❡r✱ ♦♥❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✷✿ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ✇❤❡♥ ✐ts ♥❡①t t❡r♠ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t
t❡r♠ ❜② ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ an ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡s an+1 ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✸✿ ❜❛♥❦ ❛❝❝♦✉♥t

❆ ♣❡rs♦♥ st❛rts t♦ ❞❡♣♦s✐t $20 ❡✈❡r② ♠♦♥t❤ ✐♥ ❤✐s ❜❛♥❦ ❛❝❝♦✉♥t t❤❛t ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s $1000✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r
✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
♥❡①t = ❧❛st + 20 ,
♦r ✇✐t❤ ❛ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✿
an+1 = an + 20 ,
♦r ❢♦r t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿
❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰✷✵
✶✳✷✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s ✷✹

❇❡❧♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛♠♦✉♥t ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ✐♥ ❜❧✉❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ✕ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✕ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ✐♥
r❡❞✿

P❧♦tt✐♥❣ s❡✈❡r❛❧ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛t ♦♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠s t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✿

■t ❛❧s♦ ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✳

❆♥♦t❤❡r ♣❡rs♦♥ ❞❡♣♦s✐ts $1000 ✐♥ ❤✐s ❜❛♥❦ ❛❝❝♦✉♥t t❤❛t ♣❛②s 1% ❆P❘ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❛♥♥✉❛❧❧②✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r
✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
♥❡①t = ❧❛st · 1.01 ,
♦r ✇✐t❤ ❛ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✿
bn+1 = bn · 1.01 ,
♦r ❢♦r t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿
❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✯✶✳✵✶
❲❡ ♣❧♦t ❛ t❡r♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ♦♥❡✿

❖♥❧② ❛❢t❡r r❡♣❡❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ st❡♣ 100 t✐♠❡s ❝❛♥ ♦♥❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s♥✬t ❥✉st ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✿
✶✳✷✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s ✷✺

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❞❡♣♦s✐t ♠♦♥❡② t♦ ♦✉r ❜❛♥❦ ❛❝❝♦✉♥t ❛♥❞ r❡❝❡✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❄ ❚❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡❀
❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
cn+1 = cn · 1.05 + 2000 .
❍❡r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st ✐s 5% ✇✐t❤ ❛ $2000 ❛♥♥✉❛❧ ❞❡♣♦s✐t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✳✹
n n+1
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❲❤❛t ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❄ ●✐✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢
n+1 n
✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ r♦✉t✐♥❡❧② ✉s❡❞✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✺✿ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥
❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✭r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✮ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

an+1 = an + b

✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ b ❛s ✐ts ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✻✿ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥

❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✭r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✮ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

bn+1 = bn · r

✇✐t❤ r 6= 0✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r ❛s ✐ts r❛t✐♦✳ ❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤✐s
✐s✿
• ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❣r♦✇t❤ ✇❤❡♥ r > 1✱ ❛♥❞
• ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❞❡❝❛② ✇❤❡♥ r < 1✳
❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✐t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❣r♦✇t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝❛②✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✷✳✼✿ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❆r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ Pr♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥

❚❤❡ nt❤✲t❡r♠ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❛♥ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t a ✭t❤❛t st❛rts
✇✐t❤ c✮ ✐s
an = c + an , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
✶✳✷✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s ✷✻

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✷✳✽✿ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ Pr♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ nt❤✲t❡r♠ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦ r ✭t❤❛t st❛rts ✇✐t❤
c✮ ✐s
bn = crn , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡♥✬t ✉s✉❛❧❧② t❤✐s s♣❡❝✐✜❝✳ ❲❡ ❝♦✉❧❞ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r❀ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ❛♣♣❧②✱ ❛t ❛ ❧❛t❡r t✐♠❡✱ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
❧❡❛r♥❡❞ ❛❜♦✉t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t♦ ♦✉r st✉❞② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤② ♦✉r ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇✐❧❧
✉s❡ ❛ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ❛①❡s✿

• t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛①✐s ✐s t❤❡ n✲❛①✐s✱ ❛♥❞

• t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛①✐s ✐s t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳

❚❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t ✇❛② t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✭r✐❣❤t✮ ❛s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s
♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✈✐s✐t❡❞ ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❝❧❡❛r ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts
st♦♣ ✈✐s✐❜❧② ✏♠♦✈✐♥❣✑✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✾✿ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s

❚❤❡ ❣♦✲t♦ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s✿

1
xn = .
n
■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs t♦ t❡♥❞ t♦ 0✳
✶✳✷✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ tr❡♥❞s ✷✼

❚❤✐s ❢❛❝t ✐s ❡❛s② t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✿

xn = 1.000, 0.500, 0.333, 0.250, 0.200, 0.167, 0.143, 0.125, 0.111, ...

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✵✿ ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❛❧♦♥❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ ❢♦r ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳ P❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡
−.01
✜rst 1000 t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn = n ❢❛✐❧s t♦ s✉❣❣❡st t❤❡ tr✉❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✐t ✐s ③❡r♦✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✶✿ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧s

❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ✉❜✐q✉✐t♦✉s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❡❛s✐❧② ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t
t❡♥❞s t♦ t❤❛t ♥✉♠❜❡r ✕ ✈✐❛ ✐ts ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱

xn = 0.3, 0.33, 0.333, 0.3333, ... t❡♥❞s t♦ 1/3 .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✷✿ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣

❲❤❡♥ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts s✐❣♥s ❛❧❧ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❡①♣❡❝t ✐t t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ❆♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s ❛♥
✏❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✑✿
an = (−1)n .
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
✶✳ ■t✬s −1 ✇❤❡♥ n ✐s ♦❞❞✳
✷✳ ■t✬s 1 ✇❤❡♥ n ✐s ❡✈❡♥✳
❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✷✽

❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ s✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤✐♥❣✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s t❤✐s ✏❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✑✿

1
bn = (−1)n ?
n
❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t❤❡ ✉❧t✐♠❛t❡ ❞❡st✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ❢r♦♠ ❜♦t❤ s✐❞❡s✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✸

❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r✲✈❛❧✉❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✹✿ ❩❡♥♦✬s ♣❛r❛❞♦①

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ s❝❡♥❛r✐♦✿ ❆s ②♦✉ ✇❛❧❦ t♦✇❛r❞ ❛ ✇❛❧❧✱ ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ ♥❡✈❡r r❡❛❝❤ ✐t ❜❡❝❛✉s❡✿
✶✳ ❖♥❝❡ ②♦✉✬✈❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❤❛❧❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s st✐❧❧ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❧❡❢t✳
✷✳ ❖♥❝❡ ②♦✉✬✈❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❛t ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s st✐❧❧ ♠♦r❡ ❧❡❢t✳
✸✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

❲❡ ♠❛r❦ t❤❡s❡ st❡♣s ❛♥❞ ❞♦ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ♦❢ t❤❡♠ t♦ ❜❡ t❛❦❡♥✦ ❍♦✇ ✐s t❤✐s
♣♦ss✐❜❧❡❄

❆ s❤♦rt ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s✿ ❏✉st ❛s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ s♣❛❝❡ ❝❛♥ ✭❛♥❞ ✐s✮ s♣❧✐t ✐♥t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ♣✐❡❝❡s✱ s♦ ❝❛♥ ❛♥
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ✭❚❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ✐s ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸■❈✲✺✳✮

✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t

❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ✐♥ ❧❛r❣❡ ♣❛rt✱ ✐s t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ❤♦✇ t♦ ♣r♦♣❡r❧② ❤❛♥❞❧❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳

✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✷✾

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✿ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣❄

▲❡t✬s ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤✐s s❡❡♠✐♥❣❧② ❧❡❣✐t✐♠❛t❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✿

❄
(1) 0 == 0 +0 +0 +0 +... ❲❡ ❛r❡ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ ✵s✳
❄
(2) == (1 −1) +(1 −1) +(1 −1) +(1 −1) +... ❲❡ ✉s❡ 0 = 1 − 1.
❄
(3) == 1 −1 +1 −1 +1 −1 +1 −1 +...
❄
(4) == 1 +(−1 +1) +(−1 +1) +(−1 +1) +(−1 +1) ... ❲❡ ✉s❡ − 1 + 1 = 0.
❄
(5) == 1 +0 +0 +0 +0 +... ❲❡ ❛r❡ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ ✵s✳
❄
(6) == 1.

❚❤❛t✬s ✐♠♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✦ ❲❤❛t✱ 0 = 1❄ ❍♦✇ ❞✐❞ t❤✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❄

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ❧✐tt❧❡ st♦r② ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs r❡❢❡r t♦ t❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢ s♦✐❧ t❛❦❡♥ ♦✉t✱ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ❝❛♥ s❛② t❤❛t ✇❡ ❣♦t s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ✦

❖✉r ♠✐st❛❦❡ ✇❛s t♦ ❜❡ t♦♦ ❝❛s✉❛❧ ❛❜♦✉t ❝❛rr②✐♥❣ ♦✉t ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✷

❲❤✐❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✏ =✑ s✐❣♥s ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s ✐♥❝♦rr❡❝t❄ ❍✐♥t✿ ❚❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ♣r♦❝❡ss✳

❚❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥✿

◮ ❲✐t❤ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❤❛t ♥✉♠❜❡r ❞♦ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❄

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ t✉r♥ t❤✐s ❛r♦✉♥❞✿

◮ ❲✐t❤ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ✇❤❛t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐t❄

✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✸✵

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r✿
(1) ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ 1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 ... ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s 0 .
(2) ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ .9 .99 .999 .9999 .99999 ... ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s 1 .
(3) ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ 1. 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001 ... ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s 1 .
(4) ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ 3. 3.1 3.14 3.141 3.1415 ... ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s π .
(5) ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ 1 2 3 4 5 ... ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s ∞ .
(6) ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ 0 1 0 1 0 ... ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛♥② ♥✉♠❜❡r.
❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s ❛♥❞ ❞♦ ✐t ✇✐t❤ ❛♥② ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✦
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿
▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

an → a

❲❡ ❝❛♥ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡✿

❧✐st nt❤✲t❡r♠ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛
(1) 1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 ... →0 1/n → 0
(2) .9 .99 .999 .9999 .99999 ... →1 1 − 10−n → 1
(3) 1. 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001 ... →1 1 + 10−n → 1
(4) 3. 3.1 3.14 3.141 3.1415 ... →π
(5) 1 2 3 4 5 ... → +∞ n → +∞
(6) 0 1 0 1 0 ... → ♥♦t❤✐♥❣

◆♦✇✱ ❧❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✸✿ tr❛❥❡❝t♦r②

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛❝❝✉♠✉❧❛t❡ t♦✇❛r❞ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ❥✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡
♦❢ ❛ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❛t ❛❢t❡r s✉✣❝✐❡♥t❧② ♠❛♥② st❡♣s✱ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ an ✱ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ✐♥❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐s❤❛❜❧❡
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ a✳ ■t s❡❡♠s t❤❛t✱ s❛②✱ t❤❡ 10t❤ ❞♦t ❤❛s ♠❡r❣❡❞ ✇✐t❤ a✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✹✿ ❣r❛♣❤

❚❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛❝❝✉♠✉❧❛t❡ t♦✇❛r❞ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♥✉♠❜❡r ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t✱ ❣❡♦♠❡t✲
r✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧✇❛②s s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❡♥❞s ✉♣ ❝❧♦s❡r ❛♥❞ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❆t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✱ t❤❡ ❞♦ts s❡❡♠ t♦ ❧❛♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✭♠✐❞❞❧❡✮✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❣❛♣ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❛s ✇❡
③♦♦♠ ✐♥ ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✸✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✺✿ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❞❛t❛

▲❡t✬s ♥♦✇ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤✐s ✏♣r♦❝❡ss✑ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

an = 1/n2 .

❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ ❞♦③❡♥s ♦❢ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛s❦✿ ❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s ✐t ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t ✐t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s a = 0❄

❋✐rst✱ ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❣❡t ✇✐t❤✐♥ .1 ❢r♦♠ a = 0❄ ▲♦♦❦ ✉♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s✿ ■t t❛❦❡s 4
st❡♣s ✭r❡❞✮✿

❲❡ ❥✉st ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✉♥t✐❧ t❤❡② ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ t❤❡ t❤r❡s❤♦❧❞ .1✳

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❣❡t ✇✐t❤✐♥ .01 ❢r♦♠ a❄ ■t t❛❦❡s 11 st❡♣s ✭❣r❡❡♥✮✳

❚❤✐r❞✱ ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❣❡t ✇✐t❤✐♥ .001 ❢r♦♠ a❄ ■t t❛❦❡s 32 st❡♣s ✭❜❧✉❡✮✳

❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ◆♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ■ ♣✐❝❦✱ ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② an ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❤❛t ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t✳

❆♥♦t❤❡r ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✐s ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✳ ❲❡ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ t❤❛t an = 1/n2
❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s a=0 ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿ ✏❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s 0✑✳
• ❋✐rst✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② t♦ ❜❡ .1❄ ▲♦♦❦ ✉♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s✿ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡
4 t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦r ♠♦r❡✳
• ❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② t♦ ❜❡ .01❄ ❆t ❧❡❛st 11 t❡r♠s✳
• ❚❤✐r❞✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② t♦ ❜❡ .001❄ ❆t ❧❡❛st 32✳
• ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳
◆♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ ♠✉❝❤ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ■ ♥❡❡❞✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ✇❛② t♦ ❛❝❝♦♠♠♦❞❛t❡ t❤✐s r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ❜② ❣❡tt✐♥❣
❢❛rt❤❡r ❛♥❞ ❢❛rt❤❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✻

❍♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❣❡t ✇✐t❤✐♥ .0003 ❢r♦♠ a = 0❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✼✿ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ❢r♦♠ ❣r❛♣❤

❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ ♥♦t ❛❧❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ❛s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛s t❤❛t✳ ❚❤❡② ♠❛② ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t❤❡✐r r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ✐♥
❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ✇❛②s✱ ❛s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥✳ ❚❤❡② ❞♦♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡✿
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✸✷

❚❤❡② ♠✐❣❤t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡✿

❖✉r q✉❡st✐♦♥s ❝❛♥ st✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛s❦❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❛♥s✇❡r❡❞✿

• ❍♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❣❡t ✇✐t❤✐♥ .4 ❢r♦♠ a = 0❄ ▲♦♦❦ ✉♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿ ■t t❛❦❡s 4 st❡♣s t♦ ❣❡t
✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❜❛♥❞ ❢r♦♠ −.4 t♦ .4✳
• ❍♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❣❡t ✇✐t❤✐♥ .2 ❢r♦♠ a = 0❄ ■t t❛❦❡s 6 st❡♣s t♦ ❣❡t ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❜❛♥❞ ❢r♦♠
−.2 t♦ .2✳
• ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✐t ✐s ❞♦♥❡✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✽

❋♦r t❤❡ ✜rst ❣r❛♣❤ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❣❡t ✇✐t❤✐♥ .4✱ .2✱ .1 ❢r♦♠ a = 0❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✾

❋♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❣❡t ✇✐t❤✐♥ .1 ❢r♦♠ a = 0❄

❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥ts ❦❡❡♣ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣❄ ■t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ♥✐❝❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝♦✉❧❞ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦♥❝❡
❛♥❞ ❢♦r ❛❧❧✦
❇❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ r❡✇r✐t❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐♥ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐✈❡❧② ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✸✸

t❡r♠s✿

n y = an

1. ❆s n → ∞, ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ y → a.

2. ❆s n ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s ∞, y ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s a.

❲❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t ✏❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✑ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✳

3. ❆s n ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❧❛r❣❡r ❛♥❞ ❧❛r❣❡r, t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ y t♦ a ❣♦❡s 0.

❚❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ y ❛♥❞ a ✐s |y − a| .

4. ❇② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ n ❧❛r❣❡r ❛♥❞ ❧❛r❣❡r, ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ |y − a| ❛s s♠❛❧❧ ❛s r❡q✉✐r❡❞.

❚❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ❢r♦♠ an t♦ a✱ ❛s s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❲❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❡✈❡♥ ♠♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡✿

n y = an

4. ❇② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ n ❧❛r❣❡r ❛♥❞ ❧❛r❣❡r, ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ |y − a| ❛s s♠❛❧❧ ❛s ♥❡❡❞❡❞.

5. ❇② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ n ❧❛r❣❡r t❤❛♥ s♦♠❡ N > 0, ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ |y − a| s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ ❛♥② ❣✐✈❡♥ ε > 0.

❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♠❡❛s✉r❡ ♦❢ ✏❝❧♦s❡♥❡ss✑✱ ❝❛❧❧ ✐t ε✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s ✈❛❧✉❡s ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② ❜❡❝♦♠❡
t❤❛t ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ε ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✳
❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

■t ✐s ε t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡s ✜rst✱ t❤❡♥ N ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✵✿ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❧❛st ✐t❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❝♦♥❝❡r♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

an = 1/n2 .
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✸✹

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ N ✬s ✇❡ ❣♦t ❢r♦♠ t❤♦s❡ ε✬s✿

❇② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ n ❧❛r❣❡r t❤❛♥ s♦♠❡ N > 0, ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ |an − a| s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ ❛♥② ❣✐✈❡♥ ε > 0.

N =4 ←− ε = .1

N = 11 ←− ε = .01

N = 32 ←− ε = .001

◆♦✇✱ ❧❡t✬s ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ❛♥② ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ε > 0 t❤❛t ♥❡❡❞s t♦ ❜❡ ❛❝❝♦♠♠♦❞❛t❡❞ ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡
s✉♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❛❤❡❛❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ n t❤❛t an ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ε ❢r♦♠ a = 0✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞
t❤✐s ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② t♦ ❜❡ s❛t✐s✜❡❞✿
1 1
|an − a| = − 0 = < ε.
n2 n2
❲❡ s♦❧✈❡ ✐t ❛♥❞ ❝❤♦♦s❡ N ✿
1
n> √ =N.
ε
❚❤✐s ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❛t t❤❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s❛t✐s✜❡❞✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② s✉❝❤ n ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ |an −a| < ε✱ ❛s r❡q✉✐r❡❞✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞ ♦♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❢♦r ❛❧❧❀ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❣✐✈❡s ✉s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛♥s✇❡rs ❢♦r t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r
❝❤♦✐❝❡s ♦❢ ε = .1, .01, .001 ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s ❢♦r ❛♥② ♦t❤❡r✦ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ♣✐❝❦
ε = .01✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s N ❄ ❇② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✐t ✐s
1 1 1
N=√ = = = 10 .
.01 (10−2 )1/2 10−1

■❢ ✇❡ ♣✐❝❦ ε = .0001✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s N ❄ ❇② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✐t ✐s

1 1 1
N=√ = 1/2
= −2 = 102 = 100 .
.0001 (10−4 ) 10

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✶
√
❈❛rr② ♦✉t s✉❝❤ ❛♥ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r an = 1/ n✳

◆♦✇ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t t❤❛t ♠♦st ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s ❜✉✐❧t ✉♣♦♥✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✸✳✶✷✿ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

❲❡ ❝❛❧❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r a t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ❤♦❧❞s✿

◮ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ε > 0✱ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r n > N ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

|an − a| < ε .

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ✜♥✐t❡✳ ■❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❤❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ❛♥❞ s❛② t❤❛t ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❀ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡ ✐t ✐s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t ❛♥❞ ✇❡
s❛② ✐t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✸✿ ✏❢♦r ❛♥② ✳✳✳ t❤❡r❡ ✐s✑

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❧♦❣✐❝❛❧❧② ❝♦♠♣❧❡①❀ ✐t ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❝♦♥str✉❝ts✳ ❚❤❡ ✜rst ♦♥❡✿
• ❚✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ f = g ✱ ✇❤❡♥ ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ x ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ f (x) = g(x)✳
• ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✐ts sq✉❛r❡ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✸✺

• ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ t✇♦ ♦❞❞ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ t❤❡✐r s✉♠ ✐s ❡✈❡♥✳

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦♥❡✿
• ❚✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✉♥❡q✉❛❧✱ f 6= g ✱ ✇❤❡♥ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ x t❤❛t f (x) 6= g(x)✳
• ❚❍❊❘❊ ❆❘❊ ♥♦ ❣❛♣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = x2 ✳
• ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❛r❡❛ ✇❤❡♥ 100 ②❛r❞s ♦❢ ❢❡♥❝✐♥❣ ✐s
❣✐✈❡♥✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡ ♦❢t❡♥ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞✿
• ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ ❧❛r❣❡r ♥✉♠❜❡r✳
• ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ t✇♦ ♥♦♥✲♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ ❧✐♥❡s✱ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✳
• ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ❛ r✉❜❜❡r ❜❛♥❞ t❤❛t ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥ ✐♥ ♣❧❛❝❡ ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢
str❡t❝❤❡s ❛♥❞ s❤r✐♥❦s✳
❚❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❡✈❡♥ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ♣❤r❛s❡s ❛♣♣❡❛r✐♥❣ t❤r❡❡
t✐♠❡s✿
◮ ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ε > 0✱ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ ♥❛t✉r❛❧
♥✉♠❜❡rn > N ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
|an − a| < ε .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✹
❘❡st❛t❡ ✏ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❛r❡❛ ✇❤❡♥ 100 ②❛r❞s ♦❢ ❢❡♥❝✐♥❣
✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✑ ❛s ✏ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡ s♦ t❤❛t ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ ✳✳✳✑✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✺
❙✉❣❣❡st ♠♦r❡ ✐♥st❛♥❝❡s ♦❢ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳

❚♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ❢♦r ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ N ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ε > 0✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✻✿ ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
▲❡t✬s ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦
(−1)n
an = 1 + .
n
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛♥ ε>0 ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ▲♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✇❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t t❤❡② ❛❝❝✉♠✉❧❛t❡ t♦✇❛r❞ 1✳ ■s
t❤✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t❄ ❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳ ▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ n t❤❛t an ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ε ❢r♦♠ a = 1✿
(−1)n (−1)n 1
|an − a| = 1 + −1 = = < ε.
n n n
❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♣❛rt✿ ❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ε✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♣♦✐♥t ♦✉t s✉❝❤ ❛♥ N t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② n>N
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
1
< ε.
n
❈❛♥ ✇❡❄ ❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛s ✇❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✳
❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

1
n> .
ε
❚❤❛t ❣✐✈❡s ✉s t❤❡ N r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥❀ ✇❡ ❧❡t

1
N= .
ε
❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② n>N ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ |an − a| < ε✱ ❛s r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ✇❛② t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ❛ tr❡♥❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s t♦ ❡♥❝❧♦s❡ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛✐❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
✐♥ ❛ ❜❛♥❞ ✿
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✸✻

■t s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ❛ ♥❛rr♦✇❡r ❛♥❞ ♥❛rr♦✇❡r ❜❛♥❞❀ ✐ts ✇✐❞t❤ ✐s 2ε✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢
t❤❡ ❜❛♥❞ ♠♦✈❡s t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t❀ t❤❛t✬s N ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❛r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✼✿ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②
❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♠❛② t❡♥❞ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s an = n✿

❚❤❡♥ ♥♦ ❜❛♥❞ ✕ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ ✇✐❞❡ ✕ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✬s t❛✐❧✳

❚❤✐s ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❤❛s ❛ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣❢✉❧ ♣❛tt❡r♥✳ ❇✉t ❤♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❡①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣
✐♥✜♥✐t②❄ ■t ✇✐❧❧ ❣❡t ♦✈❡r ❛♥② t❤r❡s❤♦❧❞ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ ❤✐❣❤✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✸✳✶✽✿ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an t❡♥❞s t♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥
❤♦❧❞s✿
◮ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r R✱ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r N s✉❝❤
t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r n > N ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an > R .

❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an t❡♥❞s t♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥

❤♦❧❞s✿
◮ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r R✱ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r N s✉❝❤
t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r n > N ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

an < R .
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✸✼

■♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✾✿ ✏❢♦r ❛♥② ✳✳✳ t❤❡r❡ ✐s✑

❚❤❡ ❧♦❣✐❝ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡✿
◮ ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r R > 0✱ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ ♥❛t✉r❛❧
♥✉♠❜❡r n > N ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
an > R .

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s r♦✉t✐♥❡❧② ✉s❡❞✿

■♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

an → ±∞

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✷✵✿ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②

▲❡t✬s ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ an = n✳ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t✿

◮ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r R✱ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❛❧
♥✉♠❜❡r n > N ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
an = n > R .
❊❛s②✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ N = R✦ ■♥❞❡❡❞✿
n > N =⇒ an = n > N = R .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✷✶
√
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿ ✭❛✮ −n ❀ ✭❜✮ n2 ❀ ✭❝✮ n✳

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♣♣❡❛r ✈❡r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r✐t② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②✳
❈♦♠♣❛r❡✿

• ❖♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s ✭❜✉t ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ♥❡✈❡r r❡❛❝❤❡s✮ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❧✐♥❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳
• ❖♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s ✭❜✉t ❞❡✜♥✐t❡❧② ♥❡✈❡r r❡❛❝❤❡s✮ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ❧✐♥❡✳
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛ t♦t❛❧ ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t✐❡s ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✦
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✸✳✷✷✿ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❆♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ s❛t✐s✜❡s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡✿

✶✳ ■t ❤❛s ❛ ✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ s❛② ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳
✷✳ ■t ❤❛s ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ s❛② ✐t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ♦r s✐♠♣❧② t❤❛t ✐t
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✸✽

❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
✸✳ ■t ❤❛s ♥❡✐t❤❡r ❛ ✜♥✐t❡ ♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t
❡①✐st ♦r s✐♠♣❧② t❤❛t ✐t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✷✸✿ ♥♦✲♣❛tt❡r♥ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❙♦♠❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s s❡❡♠ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ❛t ❛❧❧✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s an = sin n✿

❍❡r❡✱ ♥♦ ❜❛♥❞ ✕ ✉♥❧❡ss ✇✐❞❡ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ✕ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✬s t❛✐❧✳ ◆♦r ❞♦❡s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❣r♦✇
✇✐t❤♦✉t ❜♦✉♥❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✷✹✿ ♥♦✲♣❛tt❡r♥ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

■❢✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❜② n✱ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥

1
sin n ,
n
t❤❡ s✇✐♥❣s st❛rt t♦ ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤✿

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s 0✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✷✺✿ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts❄

❚❤❡ ♥❡①t ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s

1
an = 1 + (−1)n + .
n
■t s❡❡♠s t♦ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡✿
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✸✾

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ ♥❛rr♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✜♥❞ t✇♦ ❜❛♥❞s t♦ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✬s t✇♦ t❛✐❧s✳ ❇✉t t❤✐s
♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ♥♦ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❜❛♥❞ ✕ ✐❢ ♥❛rr♦✇ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ✕ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡♠✦ ❚❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r t✉r♥s ♦✉t t♦ ❜❡
✐rr❡❣✉❧❛r✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✷✻✿ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

▲❡t✬s ♣✐❝❦ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❞♦ t❤✐s ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝❛❧❧②✳ ▲❡t

(
1 ✐❢ n ✐s ❡✈❡♥✱
an = (−1)n =
−1 ✐❢ n ✐s ♦❞❞✳

■s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t a = 1❄ ■❢ ✐t ✐s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ♥❡❡❞s t♦ ❜❡ ✏s♠❛❧❧✑✿

(
0 ✐❢ n ✐s ❡✈❡♥✱
|an − a| = |(−1)n − 1| =
2 ✐❢ n ✐s ♦❞❞✳

■t✬s ♥♦t✦ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✇♦♥✬t ❜❡ ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ ε ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ✐t t♦ ❜❡✱ s❛②✱ 1✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t N
✐s✳ ❙♦✱ a=1 ✐s ♥♦t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ■s a = −1 t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t❄ ❙❛♠❡ st♦r②✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✱ ✇❡
♥❡❡❞ t♦ tr② ❡✈❡r② ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ a✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✷✼

❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✷✽✿ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s

❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s t❤❛t ♥✉♠❜❡r ✕ ✈✐❛ tr✉♥❝❛t✐♦♥s
♦❢ ✐ts ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② s❡❡♥ t❤✐s✿

xn = 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, ... t❡♥❞s t♦ 1.

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
xn = 0.3, 0.33, 0.333, 0.3333, ... t❡♥❞s t♦ 1/3 .
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✹✵

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t t❤❡♥ ❤❡❧♣s ✉s ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧s✿

• ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ .9999...❄ ■t ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, ...❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ 1 ✳
• ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ .3333...❄ ■t ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ 0.3, 0.3, 0.333, ...❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ 1/3 ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✷✾
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ nt❤✲t❡r♠ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✸✵✿ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❡✈❡♥ ♠♦r❡ ❧♦❣✐❝❛❧❧② ❝♦♠♣❧❡①✿
• ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r a s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
• ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ε > 0✱
• ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
• ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r n > N ✱
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
|an − a| < ε .

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ s♣❡❛❦s ♦❢ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✦ ■♥ ❡✈❡r② ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ♦♥❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡❞ t❤❛t ✐t
s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦t❤❡rs❄ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❥✉st✐❢② ✏t❤❡✑ ✐♥ ✏t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✑✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✸✳✸✶✿ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡

❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝❛♥ ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✭✜♥✐t❡ ♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✮✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
❚❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s ❝❧❡❛r✿ ❲❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t✇♦
♣♦t❡♥t✐❛❧ ❧✐♠✐ts ❜② t✇♦ ♥♦♥✲♦✈❡r❧❛♣♣✐♥❣ ❜❛♥❞s✱ ❛s s❤♦✇♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t❛✐❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇♦✉❧❞
❤❛✈❡ t♦ ✜t ♦♥❡ ♦r t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❜♦t❤✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❜❛♥❞s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞ t♦ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤♦s❡
t✇♦ ✏❧✐♠✐ts✑✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r ❢♦r t❤❡♠ ♥♦t t♦ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✱ t❤❡✐r ✇✐❞t❤ ✭t❤❛t✬s 2ε✦✮ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ ❤❛❧❢ t❤❡
❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿

❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s ❜② ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t✐♦♥✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ a ❛♥❞ b ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❡✐t❤❡r s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞
s✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛❧s♦ a 6= b✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❧♦ss ♦❢ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐t② ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t a < b✳ ▲❡t

b−a
ε= .
2
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❣♦✐♥❣ t♦ ✉s❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ✐s

a + ε = b − ε.

◆♦✇✱ ✇❡ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❢♦r a ❛♥❞ b s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧②✿

◮ ❚❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r L s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r n > L✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

|an − a| < ε .

◆♦✇✱ ✇❡ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❢♦r M ❛s ❧✐♠✐t✿

◮ ❚❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r M s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r n > M✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

|an − b| < ε .
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✹✶

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡♠ t♦ ❜❡ s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ n✳ ▲❡t

N = min{L, M } .

❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

• ❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥✉♠❜❡r n > N✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
|an − a| < ε .
• ❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥✉♠❜❡r n > N✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
|an − b| < ε .
■♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② n > N✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an < a + ε = b − ε < an .

❆ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✸✷

❋♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ✐♠♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❢♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛s ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t✿ ✭❛✮ ❛ r❡❛❧
♥✉♠❜❡r ❛♥❞ ±∞✱ ♦r ✭❜✮ −∞ ❛♥❞ +∞✳

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✿

❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ −→ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ✭❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✮

❈❛♥ ✇❡ r❡✈❡rs❡ t❤✐s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡❄ ◆♦✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✿

3 + 1/n 3 − 1/n 3 + 2/n

ց ↓ ւ
3 + 1/n2 → 3 ← 3 + (−1)n /n
ր ↑√ տ
3 + 1/2n 3 − 1/ n 3 + 1/ ln n

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❛② t❤❛t ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✏✐s✑ ✐ts ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❛❧❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ ✐t✳

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♥♦ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ t♦ s♣❡❛❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ■❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✱ ✐t✬s
❡✐t❤❡r ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦r ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

▲✐♠✐t

an → a ❛s n→∞
❛♥❞
lim an = a
n→∞

■t r❡❛❞s ✏t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ an ✐s a✑

♦r ✏ an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ a✑✳

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❝❛♥ t❤❡♥ ❜❡ r❡st❛t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ✭✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ =⇒ ❢♦r ❛♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❛♥ ✏✐❢✲t❤❡♥✑ st❛t❡♠❡♥t✮✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✶✳✸✳✸✸✿ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡

■❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✳

✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✹✷

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

a = lim xn ❆◆❉ b = lim xn =⇒ a = b

n→∞ n→∞

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✸✹
❙t❛t❡ ❛s ❛♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✿ ✭❛✮ ✏❲❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s s♠♦❦❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ✜r❡✳✑ ✭❜✮ ✏❊✈❡r② sq✉❛r❡ ✐s ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✳✑

❲❡ ✉s❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ✭✐♥✜♥✐t②✮✿

■♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t

an → ±∞ ❛s n→∞

♦r
lim an = ±∞
n→∞

■t r❡❛❞s ✏t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ an ✐s ✐♥✜✲

♥✐t❡✑ ♦r ✏ an ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✲
✐t②✑✳

❚❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t② ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ tr❡♥❞✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ st❛rts ✇✐t❤ ✏ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛
♥✉♠❜❡r a✳✳✳✑✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❛② t❤❛t ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t✿

◆♦ ❧✐♠✐t
lim an , ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t
n→∞
♦r
lim an ❉◆❊
n→∞

■t r❡❛❞s ✏t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ an ❞♦❡s

♥♦t ❡①✐st✑✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✸✺✿ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✉s✐♥❣ ♦✉r ♥❡✇ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 ... → 0.

.9 .99 .999 .9999 .99999 ... → 1.
1. 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001 ... → 1.
3. 3.1 3.14 3.141 3.1415 ... → π.
1 2 3 4 5 ... → +∞ .
0 1 0 1 0 ... ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t.

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s♦♠❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧② ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛s s❤♦✇♥ ✐♥
t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✸✳✸✻✿ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡

❋♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim c = c
n→∞
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✹✸

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✸✳✸✼✿ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡

❋♦r ❛♥② ✐♥t❡❣❡r k✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿


0
 ✐❢ k<0
k
lim n = 1 ✐❢ k=0
n→∞ 

+∞ ✐❢ k>0

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ k < 0✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ε > 0 ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ N t❤❛t |nk − 0| = nk < ε
✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r n > N ✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡①♣r❡ss s✉❝❤ ❛♥ N ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤✐s ε❀ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❝❤♦♦s❡✿
√
N= 1/k
ε.

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ k > 0✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ R > 0 ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ N t❤❛t nk > R ✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r
n > N ✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡①♣r❡ss s✉❝❤ ❛♥ N ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤✐s R❀ s✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ t♦ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡✿
√
1/k
N= R.

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❛ ❢❡✇ t②♣✐❝❛❧ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥s ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✿

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜❡❧♦✇ s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡s t❤❡s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✸✳✸✽✿ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❆r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ Pr♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥

❋♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs m, b > 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿


−∞
 ✐❢ m<0
lim (b + nm) = b ✐❢ m=0
n→∞ 

+∞ ✐❢ m>0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✸✾

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❛ ❢❡✇ t②♣✐❝❛❧ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥s ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✿

✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✹✹

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜❡❧♦✇ s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡s t❤❡s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✸✳✹✵✿ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ Pr♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥

❋♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r r✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿



 ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t ✐❢ r ≤ −1

0 ✐❢ |r| < 1
lim rn =
n→∞ 

 1 ✐❢ r=1

+∞ ✐❢ r>1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✹✶

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✹✷✿ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ❣r♦✇t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝❧✐♥❡

●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ♠♦❞❡❧ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ❣r♦✇t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝❧✐♥❡✿

❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t❤❛t✿

• ■♥ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❣r♦✇t❤✱ t❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❛s ❧❛r❣❡ ❛s ✇❡ ❞❡s✐r❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✇❛✐t ❧♦♥❣ ❡♥♦✉❣❤✳

• ■♥ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❞❡❝❧✐♥❡✱ t❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❛s s♠❛❧❧ ❛s ✇❡ ❞❡s✐r❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✇❛✐t ❧♦♥❣ ❡♥♦✉❣❤✳

❚❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝❛s❡ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ ♦♥❡ ♣❡rs♦♥ ❜✉t ♥❡✈❡r ③❡r♦

✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♠♦❞❡❧✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✹✸

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦r s❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✿

✶✳ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ...

✷✳ .9, .99, .999, .9999, ...
✸✳ 1, −1, 1, −1, ...
✹✳ 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, ...
✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✹✺

✺✳ 1, 1/2, 1/4 , 1/8, ...

✻✳ 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...
✼✳ 1, −4, 9, −16, 25, ...
✽✳ 3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, ...

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✹✹✿ s❡r✐❡s

■♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ t❛❜❧❡s ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst t✇♦ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s✳ ■ts nt❤✲t❡r♠
❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥✳ ❚❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s❤♦✇s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮
♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst✿

n an sn n an s n
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 + 2 +
2 1 2 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 + + 3 + +
3 1 2 3 4 1 2 4
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
n + + + ... + n + + + ... + n−1
n 1 2 3 n 2n 1 2 4 2
❚❤❡ nt❤✲t❡r♠ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❦♥♦✇ ❤♦✇ t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡s❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✇✐t❤♦✉t ✏✳✳✳✑✳
■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r
✸■❈✲✺✮✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✹✺

●✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿ ✭❛✮ an → 0 ❛s n→∞ ❜✉t ✐t✬s ♥♦t ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦r ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣❀
✭❜✮ bn → +∞ ❛s n→∞ ❜✉t ✐t✬s ♥♦t ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✳

✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s

■❢ ❡✈❡r② r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ✉s✉❛❧ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ♥✉♠❜❡rs
♠❛t❝❤ t❤♦s❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s❄ ❨❡s✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

◮ ▲✐♠✐ts ❜❡❤❛✈❡ ✇❡❧❧ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳

❋♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t②✱ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❛t ❛❧❧ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❡t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✹✳✶✿ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❲❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ ♠❡❛♥ ❜② ❛❞❞✐♥❣✱ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧②✐♥❣✱ ❡t❝✳ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s❄ ❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❛❞❞✱
♠✉❧t✐♣❧②✱ ❡t❝✳ t❡r♠✲✇✐s❡✿

n 1 2 3 ... n ...
an 1 1/2 1/3 ... 1/n ...
bn −1 1 −1 ... (−1)n ...
an + bn 1−1 1/2 + 1 1/3 − 1 ... 1/n + (−1)n ...
an · bn 1·1 1/2 · 1 1/3 · (−1) ... 1/n · (−1)n ...

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ r❡❛❧❧② ♥❡❡❞ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ nt❤ ❝♦❧✉♠♥✳

✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✹✻

❚❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✕ ♣♦✇❡r✱ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝✱ ❛♥❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ✕ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧
s❡r✈❡ ❛s ✏s❡❡❞s✑✳ ❲❤❡♥ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✈✐❛ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡② ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ t❤❡
❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✜♥❞✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ♦✉r st✉❞② ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✐♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❝❧❛ss ♦❢ s✐♠♣❧❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

❇❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ♣❧♦tt❡❞✱ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ❢r♦♠ an t♦ a✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ bn = |an − a|✿

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜❡❧♦✇ s❤♦✇s ✇❤② t❤✐s ✐s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✭✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ ✏ ⇐⇒✑ t♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡ ❛♥ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❛♥
✏✐❢✲❛♥❞✲♦♥❧②✲✐❢ ✑ st❛t❡♠❡♥t✮✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✷✿ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦ ❩❡r♦

❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠

t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t♦ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐s ③❡r♦✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an → a ⇐⇒ |an − a| → 0

❯s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim an = a ⇐⇒ lim |an − a| = 0

n→∞ n→∞

❙♦✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ an ✐s a✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ |an − a| ✐s 0✱ ❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✳

❚❤❡♥✱ t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✐♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ✜rst t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s s♠❛❧❧❡r ❝❧❛ss✿
♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ 0✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s s✐♠♣❧❡r✦ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ 0 < an → 0
✇❤❡♥

◮ ❢♦r ❛♥② ε > 0✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t an < ε ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n > N✳
❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✸✮✱ s♦♠❡ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
♣r♦❞✉❝❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✳ ❇✉t ❤♦✇ ❞♦ t❤❡② ❛✛❡❝t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts❄ Pr❡❞✐❝t❛❜❧②✳

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✳ ■❢ t✇♦ ♣❡♦♣❧❡ ❛r❡ ✇❛❧❦✐♥❣ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣♦❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s an ❛♥❞ bn t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡✐r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ✭❧❡❢t✮✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s an + b n
✭r✐❣❤t✮❄ ❚❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠✿
✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✹✼

❚♦ ❣r❛♣❤✐❝❛❧❧② ❛❞❞ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✇❡ ✢✐♣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✉♣s✐❞❡ ❞♦✇♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t ❡❛❝❤ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ❞♦ts ✇✐t❤
❛ ❜❛r✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❜❛rs ❢♦r♠ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ◆♦✇✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❜❛rs ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤✱ t❤❡♥ s♦
❞♦ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ♦♥❡s✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✸✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❩❡r♦ ▲✐♠✐t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ s♦

❞♦❡s t❤❡✐r s✉♠✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

0 ≤ an → 0 ❆◆❉ 0 ≤ bn → 0 =⇒ an + bn → 0 .

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ε > 0 ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱

• an → 0 =⇒ t❤❡r❡ ✐s N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t an < ε/2 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n > N ✱ ❛♥❞
• bn → 0 =⇒ t❤❡r❡ ✐s M s✉❝❤ t❤❛t bn < ε/2 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n > M ✳
❚❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n > max{N, M }✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an + bn < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜② ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ an + bn → 0✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✳✹

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r m s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✭❛✮ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♥❞ ✭❜✮ ❜② ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③✐♥❣
t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✹✳✺✿ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡

1 1 1 1
→ 0 ❆◆❉ 2
→ 0 =⇒ + 2 → 0.
n n n n

❇❡❢♦r❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ❧❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t s✉❝❤ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ s✐♠♣❧② str❡t❝❤❡s t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✭❜♦t❤ ✉♣ ❛♥❞ ❞♦✇♥✱ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ n✲❛①✐s✮✳
✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✹✽

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛❧s♦ str❡t❝❤❡s✳ ❍❡r❡ ✇❡ s❡❡ an ✭r❡❞✮ ❛♥❞ 1.2 · an ✭♦r❛♥❣❡✮✿

❯♥❞❡r s✉❝❤ str❡t❝❤✱ ③❡r♦ r❡♠❛✐♥s ③❡r♦✦

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✻✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❩❡r♦ ▲✐♠✐t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s ❛♥② ♦❢ ✐ts

♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

0 ≤ an → 0 =⇒ can → 0 ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c > 0.

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ε > 0 ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

◮ 0 < an → 0 =⇒ t❤❡r❡ ✐s N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t an < ε/c ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n > N ✳
❚❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n > N ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
c · an < c · ε/c = ε .
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜② ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ can → 0✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✹✳✼✿ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡

1 5
→ 0 =⇒ → 0.
n n

❋♦r ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✷✮✿
✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✹✾

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✽✿ ❇♦✉♥❞❡❞♥❡ss ♦❢ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❆ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an → a =⇒ |an | < Q ❢♦r s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ Q.

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ t❛✐❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✜ts ✐♥t♦ ❛ ✭♥❛rr♦✇✮ ❜❛♥❞❀ ♠❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦♥❧② ✜♥✐t❡❧②
♠❛♥② t❡r♠s ❧❡❢t✦ ❈❤♦♦s❡ ε = 1✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❜② ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ N t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n > N ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

|an − a| < 1 .

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
|an | = |(an − a) + a| ❲❡ ❛❞❞ ❛♥❞ s✉❜tr❛❝t a.
≤ |an − a| + |a| ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❚r✐❛♥❣❧❡ ■♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✺✮✳
< 1 + |a|. ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❛❜♦✈❡✳
❚♦ ✜♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡✿

Q = max |a1 |, ..., |aN |, 1 + |a| .

❙♦✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✜ts ✐♥t♦ ❛ ✭♥♦t ♥❡❝❡ss❛r✐❧② ♥❛rr♦✇✮ ❜❛♥❞✳ ❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✐s♥✬t tr✉❡✿ ◆♦t ❡✈❡r② ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳ ❏✉st tr② an = sin n✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❤♦✇ ❧❛t❡r
t❤❛t✱ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❡①tr❛ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥✱ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❞♦ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✳
❆ s♠❛❧❧❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ sq✉❡❡③❡❞ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ♦♥❡ ❛♥❞ ③❡r♦✿
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✶✳✹✳✾✿ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❩❡r♦ ▲✐♠✐t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s ❛♥② ♦t❤❡r

s♠❛❧❧❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

0 < an → 0 ❆◆❉ 0 < bn < an =⇒ bn → 0 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✳✶✵

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✳

❲❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦✇ r❡❛❞② ❢♦r t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ r❡s✉❧ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts✳
✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✺✵

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✶✶✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s a n , bn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s an + bn ✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡
an → a, bn → b .
❚❤❡♥
|an − a| → 0, |bn − b| → 0 .
❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡
|(an + bn ) − (a + b)| = |(an − a) + (bn − b)| ❲❡ r❡❛rr❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ t❡r♠s✳
≤ |an − a| + |bn − b| ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❚r✐❛♥❣❧❡ ■♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✳
→0+0 ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❩❡r♦ ▲✐♠✐t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳
= 0.

❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

|(an + bn ) − (a + b)| → 0 .

❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ✜rst t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an + bn → a + b .

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✭❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✮ ❛♥❞ t✇♦ ❝♦♥✲

❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ✭❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢
t❤❡ s✉♠✮✳
✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✺✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✳✶✷

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ♦r ❜♦t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❄

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ✏s♣❧✐t✑ ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢✳

❲❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ♣✉tt✐♥❣ t✇♦ ❜❛rs t♦❣❡t❤❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❛t ❢♦r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥❄
■❢ a ❛♥❞ b ❛r❡ t❤❡ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✱ t❤❡♥ ab ✐s ✐ts ❛r❡❛✳

❙♦✱ ✇❤❡♥ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞✱ ✐t ✐s ❛s ✐❢ ✇❡ ✉s❡ ❡❛❝❤ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ✈❛❧✉❡s t♦ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ❢♦r♠ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡❛s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ✐❢ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤s ❛♥❞ t❤❡
❤❡✐❣❤ts ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✶✸✿ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s a n , bn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s an · bn ✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim (an · bn ) = lim an · lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡
an → a, bn → b.
❚❤❡♥✱
|an − a| → 0, |bn − b| → 0 .
❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿

|an · bn − a · b| = |an · bn + (−a · bn + a · bn ) − a · b| ❲❡ ❛❞❞ ❡①tr❛ t❡r♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❢❛❝t♦r✳

= |(an − a) · bn + a · (bn − b)|
≤ |(an − a) · bn | + |a · (bn − b)| ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❚r✐❛♥❣❧❡ ■♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✳
= |an − a| · |bn | + |a| · |bn − b|
≤ |an − a| · Q + |a| · |bn − b| ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❇♦✉♥❞❡❞♥❡ss ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳
→ 0 · Q + |a| · 0 ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❙❘ ❛♥❞ ❈▼❘✳
= 0.
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
an · bn → a · b .
✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✺✷

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t s♣❧✐ts ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✳✶✹

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ♦r ❜♦t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❄

❚❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✶✳✹✳✶✺✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s can ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿


lim c · an = c · lim an
n→∞ n→∞

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ✏❢❛❝t♦r❡❞✑ ♦✉t ♦❢ ❛ ✭❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✦✮ ❧✐♠✐t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✳✶✻

❉❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✿ ■❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡
❛♥❞ s♦ ❞♦ t❤❡✐r ✇✐❞t❤s✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦ t❤❡✐r ❤❡✐❣❤ts✳

❆❧s♦✱ ✇❤❡♥ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞✱ ✐t ✐s ❛s ✐❢ ✇❡ ✉s❡ ❡❛❝❤ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ✈❛❧✉❡s t♦ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛s❡ ❛♥❣❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s ❢♦r♠ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ✐❢ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤s
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✳ ❚❤✐s r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦rt❤❝♦♠✐♥❣ ♣❛rts ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✶✼✿ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s an , bn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s an /bn ✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r ❞❡✜♥❡❞✱ ❛♥❞


an
 lim an
n→∞
lim =
n→∞ bn lim bn
n→∞

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ lim bn 6= 0 .
n→∞

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♦♥❧② ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ an = 1✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ bn → b 6= 0✳ ❋✐rst✱ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ε = |b|/2 ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n > N ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

|bn − b| < |b|/2 .

✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✺✸

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
|bn | > |b|/2 .
◆❡①t✱
1 1 b − bn
− =
bn b bn b
|b − bn |
=
|bn | · |b|
|b − bn |
< ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✳
|b/2| · |b|
0
→ ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❈▼❘✳
|b/2| · |b|
= 0.

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
1 1
→ .
bn b
❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ✿
an 1 1 a
= an · →a· = .
bn bn b b

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✭❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ♥♦♥✲

③❡r♦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✮ ❛♥❞ t✇♦ ❝♦♥✲
❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ✭❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢
t❤❡ r❛t✐♦✮✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✳✶✽

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ♦r ❜♦t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❄

❚❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② r❡s✉❧t ❜❡❧♦✇ s❤♦✇s t❤❛t ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ❡✈❡r② r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✇✐t❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣✐♥❣ t♦ ✐t✱
✐t ✐s st✐❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❞♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡♠✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✶✾✿ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ an → a ❛♥❞ bn → b✳ ❚❤❡♥

❙❘✿ an + b n → a + b ❈▼❘✿ c · an → ca ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c

P❘✿ an · bn → ab ◗❘✿ an /bn → a/b ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ b 6= 0

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ ✭❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✦✮ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ s✐♠♣❧② r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡✐r ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ❚❤❡s❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇♥
❛s t❤❡ ▲✐♠✐ts ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✹✳✷✵✿ ✉s✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐ts r✉❧❡s

▲❡t
2
an = 7n−2 + + 8.
3n
❲❤❛t ✐s ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ❛s n → ∞❄ ❲❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤r❡❡ ✏s❡❡❞✑ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿ n−2 ✐s ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ 3n
✐s ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝✱ ❛♥❞ 8 ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ❚❤❡s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇✐t❤ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛r❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ❜② ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳
✶✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✺✹

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s str❛✐❣❤t❢♦r✇❛r❞✱ ❜✉t ❡✈❡r② st❡♣ ❤❛s t♦ ❜❡ ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s
♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✳ ❚♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✇❤✐❝❤ r✉❧❡ t♦ ❛♣♣❧② ✜rst✱ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s✳
■t ✐s ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✜rst✱ s✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✿

2
lim an = lim (7n−2 + + 8) ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❙❘✳
n→∞ n→∞ 3n
1
= lim (7 · n−2 ) + lim (2 · ) + lim 8 ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❈▼❘✳
n→∞ n→∞ 3n n→∞

= 7 · lim n−2 + 2 · lim 3−n + 8 ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳
n→∞ n→∞

=7·0+2·0+8

= 8.

❆s ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐st✱ ♦✉r ✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ✮ ✇❛s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
■t ✐s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ ❛ s❡r✐♦✉s ❡rr♦r ✐❢ ②♦✉ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✲
❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✭t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✮ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s ✇✐t❤♦✉t
✈❡r✐❢②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✭t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡✲
q✉❡♥❝❡s ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡❞✮✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✹✳✷✶✿ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿
lim (n2 − n) = +∞ .
n→∞

P❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❞♦❡s s✉❣❣❡st t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✜rst✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❜♦t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡
t❡r♠s ❣♦ t♦ ∞✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✐♥❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✳ ❆♥ ❛tt❡♠♣t t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✕ ♦✈❡r
t❤✐s ♦❜❥❡❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ✇♦✉❧❞ r❡s✉❧t ✐♥ ❛ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣❧❡ss ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✿
???
n2 − n −−−−−→ ∞ − ∞ .

❲❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✱ ♦r t❤❛t ✐s ❞♦❡s✦ ❲❡✬✈❡ ❥✉st ❢❛✐❧❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✳
❚❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ✐s r❡s♦❧✈❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

Pr❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✈❡r❜❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥s✿

• ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳
• ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳
• ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳
• ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s t❤❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ✭❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s♥✬t ③❡r♦✮✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s ❛s ❞✐❛❣r❛♠s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✿
lim
an, bn −−−−−→ a,
b
 
+
y SR +
y
lim
an + bn −−−−−→ lim(an + bn ) = a + b

■♥ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛t t❤❡ t♦♣ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ✐♥ t✇♦ ✇❛②s✿
✶✳✺✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❙✉❜tr❛❝t❄ ❉✐✈✐❞❡❄ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧②❄ ✺✺

• r✐❣❤t✿ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❡✐t❤❡r✱ t❤❡♥ ❞♦✇♥✿ ❛❞❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts❀ ♦r

• ❞♦✇♥✿ ❛❞❞ t❤❡♠✱ t❤❡♥ r✐❣❤t✿ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✳

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦ ❋♦r t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ✏ +✑ ✇✐t❤ ✏ ·✑ ❛♥❞ ✏ ÷✑
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ✐s ✇♦rt❤ r❡♠❡♠❜❡r✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✷✷✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐t② ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ an → a ❛♥❞ m ❛♥❞ b ❛r❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❚❤❡♥

man + b → ma + b

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❄ ■❢ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ✭♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♦r ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✮ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s ✐t✱
✇✐❧❧ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡❄

✶✳✺✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❙✉❜tr❛❝t❄ ❉✐✈✐❞❡❄ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧②❄

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡❞ t❤❛t ✐♥ ♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ❛♥❞
❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ❞♦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❚❤✐s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛♣♣❧② t♦ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✦

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

◆❡✈❡r ❢♦r❣❡t t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ ♣r❡❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✇❤❡♥ ✉s✲

✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s✳

❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t❤❛t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ❞✐✈❡r❣❡✱ t❡❝❤♥✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ❜✉t t❤❡② ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ✉s❡❢✉❧ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥
❡①❤✐❜✐t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ❙✉❝❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

1
an = m ❛♥❞ bn = .
n

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ f (x) = ax2 + bx + c ✭❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✮ ✐s
❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ a ♦♥❧②✿

❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ +∞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛s❡ ❛♥❞ −∞
✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳ ❲❡ ❡✈❡♥
p
❦♥♦✇ ♠♦r❡✿ ❚❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠ ✇✐❧❧ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡ s❝❛❧❡ s❤❛♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛♥② ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ap n +
p−1
ap−1 n + ... + a1 n + a0 ✿
✶✳✺✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❙✉❜tr❛❝t❄ ❉✐✈✐❞❡❄ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧②❄ ✺✻

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡s❡ ✐❞❡❛s ♣r❡❝✐s❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✺✳✶✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛t ■♥✜♥✐t②
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ p ✭t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ap 6= 0✮✳ ❚❤❡♥
t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s✿

  (
+∞ ✐❢ ap > 0
lim ap np + ap−1 np−1 + ... + a1 n + a0 =
n→∞ −∞ ✐❢ ap < 0

Pr♦♦❢✳
❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t♦ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦✉t t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ♣♦✇❡r ✿
ap np + ap−1 np−1 + ... + a1 n + a0 = np · (ap + ap−1 n−1 + ... + a1 n1−p + a0 n−p ) .

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ❢❛❝t♦r ✐s ∞ ❛♥❞ t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐s ap + 0 = ap ✳

❙♦✱ ❛s ❢❛r ❛s ✐ts ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛t ∞✱ ❢♦r ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠ ♠❛tt❡rs ✿
(
✐❢ ap > 0
 
+∞
lim ap np +ap−1 np−1 + ... + a1 n + a0 = lim ap np =
n→∞ n→∞ −∞ ✐❢ ap < 0

❋r♦♠ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s t♦ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✺✳✷✿ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❆❧❧ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛r❡ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t♦♦✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✳

✶✳✺✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❙✉❜tr❛❝t❄ ❉✐✈✐❞❡❄ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧②❄ ✺✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✸✿ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

❲❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ✇✐t❤ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛s t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s✿

1
an = .
n
❊✈❡♥ ✇✐t❤ s✉❝❤ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ♦♥❝❡ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①✐t② ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡s ❞r❛♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧②✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ✕ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✕ s♦♠❡ ♥❡✇ ❢❡❛t✉r❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✭y = 1/x✮✿

▲❡t✬s ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❝❛♥✬t ❝r♦ss ✐t✱ ✐t ❤❛s t♦ st❛rt t♦ ❝r❛✇❧✱ ✇✐t❤ ✈✐rt✉❛❧❧② ♥♦ ✉♣ ♦r
❞♦✇♥ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✿

❚❤❡ ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥♦♥ ✐s ❛❧s♦ s❡❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛✿

n 1 2 3 ... 100 ...

1/n 1 1/2 1/3 ... 1/100 ...

■❢ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ♦✉t✱ t❤❡ ❡♥❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♠❡r❣❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❛①✐s✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ❛s ✇❡
❦♥♦✇✿
1
→ 0 ❛s n → ∞ .
n

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✹✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿

4n2 − n + 2
lim .
n→∞ 2n2 − 1
P❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s a = 2✿
✶✳✺✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❙✉❜tr❛❝t❄ ❉✐✈✐❞❡❄ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧②❄ ✺✽

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥✱ s♦ ✇❡ ❛r❡ s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ✜rst✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❜♦t❤
t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ❣♦ t♦ ∞✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ✐s ✐♥❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✦

❆♥ ❛tt❡♠♣t t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ✕ ❛❣❛✐♥st ♦✉r ❜❡tt❡r ❥✉❞❣❡♠❡♥t ✕ ✇♦✉❧❞ r❡s✉❧t ✐♥ ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r✲
♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✿
4n2 − n + 2 ??? ∞
2
−−−−−→ .
2n − 1 ∞

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st❀ ✇❡✬✈❡ ❥✉st ❢❛✐❧❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✳ ❚❤❡
♣❛t❤ ♦✉t ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝♦♥✉♥❞r✉♠ ❧✐❡s ✐♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❣❡t r✐❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✦ ❍♦✇❄ ❚❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ t❤❛t ♦❢t❡♥ ✇♦r❦s ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
◮ ❉✐✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ❜② ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ n✳
❚❤r♦✉❣❤ tr✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❡rr♦r✱ ✇❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ✉s❡ n2 ✿

4n2 − n + 2 (4n2 − n + 2)/n2

= ❉✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② n2 .
2n2 − 1 (2n2 − 1)/n2
4 − n1 + n22
= ◆✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ❝♦♥s✐st ♦❢ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳
2 − n12
4−0+0
→ ❚❤❡✐r ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥✳
2−0
4
= ❙❘ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts✳
2
= 2.

❲❡ ♦♥❧② ✉s❡❞ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❛t t❤❡ ✈❡r② ❡♥❞✱ ❛❢t❡r ∞/∞ ✭t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❝②✮ ✇❛s r❡♠♦✈❡❞✳ ■♥
r❡tr♦s♣❡❝t✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ♥♦t ❛ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✳✺

❚r② t♦ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② x ❛♥❞ x3 ✐♥st❡❛❞✳

❚❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ❢♦r ✜♥❞✐♥❣ s✉❝❤ ❧✐♠✐ts ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✶✳✺✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❙✉❜tr❛❝t❄ ❉✐✈✐❞❡❄ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧②❄ ✺✾

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✺✳✻✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❘❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛t ■♥✜♥✐t②

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛s ❛ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦✲
♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡s p ❛♥❞ q ✭t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ap 6= 0 ❛♥❞ bq 6= 0✮✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡
❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿


±∞
 ✐❢ p > q
ap np + ap−1 np−1 + ... + a1 n + a0  ap ✐❢ p = q
lim =
n→∞ bq nq + bq−1 nq−1 + ... + b1 n + b0 
 bp
✐❢ p < q

0

Pr♦♦❢✳
❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t♦ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ♣♦✇❡r✳ ■❢ p > q✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

ap np + ap−1 np−1 + ... + a1 n + a0 ap + ap−1 n−1 + ... + a1 n−p+1 + a0 n−p ap + 0

q q−1
= q−p q−p−1 1−p −p
→ = ±∞ .
bq n + bq−1 n + ... + b1 n + b0 bq n + bq−1 n + ... + b1 n + b0 n 0

■❢ p = q✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

ap np + ap−1 np−1 + ... + a1 n + a0 ap + ap−1 n−1 + ... + a1 n−p+1 + a0 n−p ap + 0 ap

= → = .
bq nq + bq−1 nq−1 + ... + b1 n + b0 bq + bq−1 n−1 + ... + b1 n1−p + b0 n−p bp + 0 bp

■❢ p < q✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

ap np + ap−1 np−1 + ... + a1 n + a0 ap np−q + ap−1 np−q−1 + ... + a1 n1−q + a0 n−q 0

q q−1
= −1 −q+1 −q
→ = 0.
bq n + bq−1 n + ... + b1 n + b0 bq + bq−1 n + ... + b1 n + b0 n bq + 0

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡ss♦♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ r❡✲❧❡❛r♥❡❞✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡✐r ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠s✳

❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ❛ ❧❛r❣❡r ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧✇❛②s ✏♦✈❡r♣♦✇❡r✑ ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❧♦✇❡r ❞❡❣r❡❡✿ ❡✐t❤❡r t❤❡
♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r t❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ♦r t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r t❛❦❡s ✐t t♦ ③❡r♦✳ Pr❛❝t✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❞r♦♣ t❤❡
♥♦♥✲❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠s✿

ap np +ap−1 np−1 + ... + a1 n + a0 ap n p ap

lim = lim = lim np−q
n→∞ bq nq +bq−1 nq−1 + ... + b1 n + b0 n→∞ bq n q bq n→∞

❚❤✐s r❡s✉❧ts ✐♥ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✼✿ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ tr✐❝❦ ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s♥✬t ♥❡❝❡ss❛r② ❛♥②♠♦r❡✳
■♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

4n3 − 2n + 2 4n
= = 4.
n3 − 1 1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✽✿ ♥♦♥✲r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s♥✬t r❛t✐♦♥❛❧✿
1 + (−3)n
.
5n
✶✳✺✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❙✉❜tr❛❝t❄ ❉✐✈✐❞❡❄ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧②❄ ✻✵

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛♣♣❧②✳ ❇✉t t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ❞♦❡s✦ ❋✐rst ✇❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t ◗❘ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛♣♣❧②✿

1 + (−3)n
yn = ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✕ ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉✦
5n
1 (−3)n
= n+ ❚❤❡ ✇❛② ♦✉t ✐s ❛❧✇❛②s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ tr② ❙❘✳
5  5n 
 n n
1 −3
= + ❲❡ ✉s❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥ts ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥s✳
5 5
↓ ↓ ❚❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳

0 0 ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦s ❛r❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ (−1, 1) .

→ 0 ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❙❘✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦s✿ r = 1/5, −3/5✱ t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② |r| < 0✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱
♦✉r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✇❛s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐st✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✾✿ ♥♦♥✲r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s♥✬t r❛t✐♦♥❛❧✿

(−3)n + 1
.
5n + 1
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛♣♣❧②✳ ❇✉t t❤❡ tr✐❝❦ ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ∞/∞ ❞♦❡s✳ ❲❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜♦t❤
n
♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ❜② t❤❡ ✏str♦♥❣❡st✑ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t✱ 5 ✱ t❤❡♥ s✐♠♣❧✐❢②✿

(−3)n + 1 (−3/5)n + 1/5n 0+0

n
= n
→ = 0.
5 +1 1 + 1/5 1+0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✳✶✵

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = sign(x) ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ✭❛✮ 1/n✱ ✭❜✮ −1/n✱
n
✭❝✮ (−1) /n✳

❲❤❛t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t②❄
❚❤❡ ♣❧✉s ✭♦r ♠✐♥✉s✮ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ✐s ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ t❤✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳ ■♥
♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐❞❡♥t✐t② ✐s r❡❛❞ ✐♥ ❜♦t❤ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✿

lim an = +∞ .
n→+∞

◆♦✇✱ ❞♦❡s ✐t ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡ t♦ ❞♦ ❛♥② ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❚❤✐s s❡❡♠s t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡✿

∞ + ∞ = ∞.

❇✉t t❤✐s ❞♦❡s♥✬t✿

∞ − ∞ = ???
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ s❡❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ t❤♦s❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✳

❚❤❡ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❘✉❧❡s ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛❜♦✈❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❡①❝❡♣t✐♦♥s❀ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ♦♥❡ ♦r ❜♦t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s
❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ♦r t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s 0✳
❋✐rst✱ ✐❢ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡✐r s✉♠✳ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t✿
✶✳✺✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s❄ ❙✉❜tr❛❝t❄ ❉✐✈✐❞❡❄ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧②❄ ✻✶

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✺✳✶✶✿ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡

• an → ±∞✱ ❛♥❞

• bn → ±∞✳
❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

❙❘✿ an + bn → ±∞
P❘✿ an · bn → +∞

■t ✐s ❥✉st ❛s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✇❤❛t ✐s ◆❖❚ ❤❡r❡✿

❉❘❄ an − bn → ???
◗❘❄ an /bn → ???

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✶✷✿ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts

❚❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡✱ ❛s st❛t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛r❡ ✐♥❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♥❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢
t❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐sts✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s✿

n2 + 2n → ∞ ❛♥❞ n2 · 2n → ∞ .

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ✐s ♥♦t✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦r ♣r♦❞✉❝t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✺✳✶✸✿ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ❋✐♥✐t❡ ❛♥❞ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡

• an → a ✱ ❛♥❞
• bn → ±∞ ✳
❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

❙❘✿ an + bn → ±∞ ❈▼❘✿ c · bn → ±∞ ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c > 0

P❘✿ an · bn → ±∞ ◗❘✿ an /bn → 0, bn /an → ±∞
♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ a > 0 ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ a > 0

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✶✹✿ ✜♥✐t❡ ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts

❚❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡✱ ❛s st❛t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛r❡ ✐♥❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s✿
1 n
+ 2n → ∞ ❛♥❞ · 2n → ∞ .
n n+1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✳✶✺
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇❤❡♥ a < 0 ❛♥❞ a = 0✳

❏✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡s❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s✱ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❧ ❧✐st ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s ✿

♥✉♠❜❡r + (+∞) = +∞
♥✉♠❜❡r + (−∞) = −∞
+∞ + (+∞) = +∞
−∞ + (−∞) = −∞
♥✉♠❜❡r / (±∞) =0
✶✳✻✳ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✻✷

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤✐s ✐s♥✬t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐st✿

+∞ − (+∞) = ???
+∞ / (+∞) = ???

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✶✻✿ ∞−∞

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ∞−∞ ✭❥✉st ❛s t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ∞/∞✮✳ ❲❤② ♥♦t❄

❇❡❤✐♥❞ ❡❛❝❤ ∞✱ t❤❡r❡ ♠✉st ❜❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ ∞✦ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ ✐s ❛♠❜✐❣✉♦✉s✳ ❖♥

t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❤❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an = n → +∞, bn = −n → +∞ =⇒ an − bn = 0 → 0 ;

♦♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✿

an = n2 → +∞, bn = −n → +∞ =⇒ an − bn = n2 − n → +∞ ,
❜② ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳ ❚✇♦ s❡❡♠✐♥❣❧② ❧❡❣✐t✐♠❛t❡ ❛♥s✇❡rs ❢♦r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✱ ∞ − ∞ ✳✳✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✶✼✿ 1∞
❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t❄

1∞ .
❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❦❡❡♣ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧②✐♥❣ 1 ❜② ✐ts❡❧❢✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧✇❛②s ❤❛✈❡ 1✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ 1 ✐s ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t
♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡❄ ❉♦ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

1∞ = lim abnn ,
n→∞

❢♦r s♦♠❡ ✭♦r ❛♥②❄✮ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

lim an = 1, lim bn = ∞ ?
n→∞ n→∞

▲❡t✬s tr②
1
an = 1 + ❛♥❞ bn = n .
n
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❤♦✇ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♣t❡r t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✿

 n
1
1+ .
n

❙♦✱ 1∞ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✦

✶✳✻✳ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❊✈❡r② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❀ ✐t ❥✉st ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❤② ❞♦ t❤❡② ❞❡s❡r✈❡

❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛tt❡♥t✐♦♥❄
✶✳✻✳ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✻✸

❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❡❛s✐❧② ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✿ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❧✐♠✐ts

❘❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✈❡r② ❝♦♠♠♦♥❀ ❡✈❡♥ t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❜❛♥❦✐♥❣ r❡q✉✐r❡s ♦♥❡ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡♠✿
✶✳ ■❢ ②♦✉ s❛② t❤❛t ②♦✉ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉t❡ $2000 ❡✈❡r② ②❡❛r✱ ②♦✉ ❛r❡ st❛t✐♥❣ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♥❡①t ②❡❛r✬s ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡
✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ $2000 ❤✐❣❤❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st✿

an+1 = an + 2000 .

✷✳ ■❢ ②♦✉ s❛② t❤❛t ②♦✉r ❜❛♥❦ ✇✐❧❧ ♣❛② 5% ♣❡r ②❡❛r✱ ②♦✉ ❛r❡ st❛t✐♥❣ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♥❡①t ②❡❛r✬s ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ✇✐❧❧
❜❡ 1.05 t✐♠❡s ❤✐❣❤❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st✿
bn+1 = bn · 1.05 .
❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ t❤❡♥ ❞❡r✐✈❡
t❤❡ nt❤✲t❡r♠ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
✶✳ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞❡♣♦s✐ts st❛rt✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ 0✿
an = 2000 · n ;
✷✳ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r❡st st❛rt✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ $2000✿

bn = 2000 · 1.05n .

❚❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s ❝❧❡❛r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t ❜♦t❤
♦❢ t❤❡ str❛t❡❣✐❡s❄ ❚❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s st✐❧❧ ✈❡r② ❝❧❡❛r✿

cn+1 = (cn + 2000) · 1.05 .

❇✉t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ nt❤✲t❡r♠ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✦ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❡✈❡♥ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❄ ■♥❞✐r❡❝t❧②✱ ❜②
❝♦♠♣❛r✐♥❣ cn ✇✐t❤ ❡✐t❤❡r an ♦r bn ✳

❚❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❜♦✉t ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t ♣r♦♦❢s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦r ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳

❋✐rst✱ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

❚❤❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡ ❜✉t ✉s❡❢✉❧✿ ❖♥❧② t❤❡ t❛✐❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♠❛tt❡rs ❢♦r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✦
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✻✳✷✿ ❚r✉♥❝❛t✐♦♥ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❧❡

❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ ✐ts tr✉♥❝❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an → a ⇐⇒ an →a
n=p,p+1,... n=q,q+1,...

❢♦r ❛♥② ✐♥t❡❣❡r p ❛♥❞ q✳

✶✳✻✳ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✻✹

❚r✉♥❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♠♦✉♥ts t♦ ❛ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✳ ❯s✐♥❣
t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim an = lim an = lim an

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
n≥p n≥q

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✸
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ♦t❤❡r ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✇❛②s t♦ r❡str✐❝t t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✱ ❜✉t ✇❤❡♥ r❡str✐❝t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❡✈❡♥ ♦r t❤❡ ♦❞❞ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t✇♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

❚❤✐s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t ✐❞❡❛ ✐s s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✻✳✹✿ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ r❡str✐❝t❡❞ t♦ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ s✉❜s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✐ts s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ s♦♠❡ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ (−1)n ✿
2
(−1)2n , (−1)3n , (−1)n .
❚❤❡② ❜❡❤❛✈❡ ❛s ❡①♣❡❝t❡❞✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✻✳✺✿ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❙✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
❆ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛♥② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s

t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✐s ✉♥tr✉❡✿ (−1)n ✐s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t✱ ❜✉t (−1)2n = 1 ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳

◆♦♥✲str✐❝t ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s✿
a ← an ≥ bn → b,
❛r❡ ♣r❡s❡r✈❡❞ ✉♥❞❡r ❧✐♠✐ts✿
a ≥ b.
✶✳✻✳ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✻✺

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✻✳✻✿ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ an ≥ bn ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n ❣r❡❛t❡r t❤❛♥ s♦♠❡ N✱ t❤❡♥

lim an ≥ lim bn ,
n→∞ n→∞

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s ❜② ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t✐♦♥✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ a ❛♥❞ b ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ an ❛♥❞ bn r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧② ❛♥❞ s✉♣♣♦s❡
❛❧s♦ a < b✳

❚❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s ❝❧❡❛r✿ ❲❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡ t✇♦
❧✐♠✐ts ❜② t✇♦ ♥♦♥✲♦✈❡r❧❛♣♣✐♥❣ ❜❛♥❞s✱ ❥✉st ❛s ❧❛st t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✐❢ ♥❛rr♦✇ ❡♥♦✉❣❤✱ t❤❡ t❛✐❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✏❧❛r❣❡r✑
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ✜t t❤❡ ✏s♠❛❧❧❡r✑ ❜❛♥❞✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❜❛♥❞s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞ t♦ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤♦s❡
t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r ❢♦r t❤❡♠ t♦ ♥♦t ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✱ t❤❡✐r ✇✐❞t❤ ✭t❤❛t✬s 2ε✦✮ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ ❤❛❧❢ t❤❡
❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳

▲❡t
b−a
ε= .
2
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❣♦✐♥❣ t♦ ✉s❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ✐s

a + ε = b − ε.

◆♦✇✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❢♦r a ❛♥❞ b ❛s ❧✐♠✐ts✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r n > L✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

|an − a| < ε .

✷✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r K s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r n > M✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

|bn − b| < ε .

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡♠ t♦ ❜❡ s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ n✳ ▲❡t

N = max{L, M } .

❚❤❡♥✱
✶✳ ❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥✉♠❜❡r n > N✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

|an − a| < ε , ♦r a − ε < an < a + ε .

✷✳ ❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥✉♠❜❡r n > N✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

|bn − b| < ε, ♦r b − ε < bn < b + ε .

❚❛❦✐♥❣ ♦♥❡ ❢r♦♠ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an < a + ε = b − ε < bn .

❆ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t✐♦♥✳
✶✳✻✳ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✻✻

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❝❧❛✐♠ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✼

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♥♦♥✲str✐❝t ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✱ an ≥ bn ✱ ✇✐t❤ ❛ str✐❝t ♦♥❡✱ an > bn ✱ ✇♦♥✬t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛
str✐❝t ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❚❤❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

✿ ■❢ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✇❡r❡ t♦ ❤♦❧❞✱ ✇❡ ❝♦✉❧❞
✜♥❞ t✇♦ ❜❛♥❞s t♦ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✬ t❛✐❧s✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✇♦✉❧❞ ❢❛✐❧✿

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿

an ≥ b n
↓ ↓
a b
=⇒ ≥

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿

▲❡t✬s tr② ❤❛✈✐♥❣ ❛♥ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ♦♥ ❡✐t❤❡r s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡②✬❞ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ✇♦r❦ t♦❣❡t❤❡r ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝♦♥tr♦❧ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❡② ❜♦✉♥❞✦ ■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ sq✉❡❡③❡ ✿
✶✳✻✳ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✻✼

■❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ sq✉❡❡③❡ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ s❛②

s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t✳ ❙♦♠❡ ❢✉rt❤❡r r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥ts ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✻✳✽✿ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❧✐❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡

❧✐♠✐t✱ t❤❡♥ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ❛❧s♦ ❡①✐sts ❛♥❞ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❛t ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an ≤ cn ≤ bn ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n>N,

❢♦r s♦♠❡ N✱ ❛♥❞

lim an = lim bn = c ,
n→∞ n→∞

t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ cn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ ❛♥❞

lim cn = c .
n→∞

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ε>0 ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n ❧❛r❣❡r t❤❛♥ s♦♠❡ N✿

c − ε < an < c + ε ❛♥❞ c − ε < bn < c + ε .

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

c − ε < an ≤ cn ≤ bn < c + ε .

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s ❝❧❛✐♠ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t❤✐s t✐♠❡✳

✶✳✻✳ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✻✽

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✻✳✾✿ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s

❙♦♠❡t✐♠❡s t❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ sq✉❡❡③❡ ✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s✳ ▲❡t✬s ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✜rst
t✐♠❡✿ n
(−1)
cn = .
n
❊①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ r❡✈❡❛❧s t✇♦ ❜♦✉♥❞✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
1 (−1)n 1
− ≤ ≤ .
n n n

◆♦✇✱ s✐♥❝❡ ❜♦t❤ an = −

1
n
1
❛♥❞ bn = ❣♦ t♦ 0✱ ❜② t❤❡
n
❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ s♦ ❞♦❡s c n =
(−1)n
n
✳

❚❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ s❤♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ❛ ❣♦♦❞ t♦♦❧ ❢♦r ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♥❣ ❛ sq✉❡❡③❡✳ ❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ t♦
❛❧❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✶✳✻✳✶✵✿ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡

❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ③❡r♦ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ✐ts ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❞♦❡s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an → 0 ⇐⇒ |an | → 0 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✶

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✷

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✐t✬s ♥♦t 0❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✸✿ ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤✐♥❣ ♦s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱

1
lim sin n .
n→∞ n

■t ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ lim sin n ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✳ ▲❡t✬s tr② ❛ sq✉❡❡③❡✳
n→∞
❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr②✿

−1 ≤ sin n ≤ 1 .

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤✐s sq✉❡❡③❡ ♣r♦✈❡s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ♦✉r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✦
✶✳✻✳ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✻✾

▲❡t✬s tr② ❛♥♦t❤❡r sq✉❡❡③❡✿

1 1 1
− ≤ sin n ≤ .
n n n

◆♦✇✱ s✐♥❝❡  
1 1
lim − = lim = 0, ,
n→∞ n n→∞ n
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
1
lim sin n = 0 .
n→∞ n

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✹

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ an ❛♥❞ bn ❛r❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t max{an , bn } ❛♥❞ min{an , bn } ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳ ❍✐♥t✿
❙t❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ lim an > lim bn ✳

❚❤❡ sq✉❡❡③❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❚✇♦ P♦❧✐❝❡♠❡♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✿ ■❢ t✇♦ ♣♦❧✐❝❡♠❡♥ ❛r❡ ❡s❝♦rt✐♥❣ ❛ ♣r✐s♦♥❡r
❤❛♥❞❝✉✛❡❞ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠✱ ❛♥❞ ❜♦t❤ ♦✣❝❡rs ❣♦ t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✭✦✮ ♣♦❧✐❝❡ st❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥ ✕ ✐♥ s♣✐t❡ ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ❢r❡❡❞♦♠
t❤❡ ❤❛♥❞❝✉✛s ❛❧❧♦✇ ✕ t❤❡ ♣r✐s♦♥❡r ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❡♥❞ ✉♣ ✐♥ t❤❛t st❛t✐♦♥✿

❆♥♦t❤❡r ♥❛♠❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❙❛♥❞✇✐❝❤ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ■t ✐s✱ ♦♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ❛❜♦✉t ❝♦♥tr♦❧✳ ❆ s❛♥❞✇✐❝❤ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❛ ♠❡ss② ❛✛❛✐r✿
❤❛♠✱ ❝❤❡❡s❡✱ ❧❡tt✉❝❡✱ ❡t❝✳ ❖♥❡ ✇♦♥✬t ✇❛♥t t♦ t♦✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❛♥❞ ✐♥st❡❛❞ t❛❦❡s ❝♦♥tr♦❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t❡♥ts ❜② ❦❡❡♣✐♥❣
t❤❡♠ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❜✉♥s✳ ❍❡ t❤❡♥ ❜r✐♥❣s t❤❡ t✇♦ t♦ ❤✐s ♠♦✉t❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♥❞✇✐❝❤ ❛❧♦♥❣ ✇✐t❤
t❤❡♠✦
✶✳✻✳ ▼♦r❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✼✵

❲❡ s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜② ♣♦✐♥t✐♥❣ ♦✉t t❤❡ ✜✈❡ ❤②♣♦t❤❡s❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s✿

an ≤(1) cn ≤(2) bn
↓(3) ↓(4)
a = =(5) = b
=⇒ ↓(6)
a =(7) b

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✺

▲✐st t❤❡s❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts✳

❚♦ ♠❛❦❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥tr♦❧ ✐t ❢r♦♠ ♦♥❡✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✱ s✐❞❡✿

❚❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♣✉s❤ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♣✉s❤ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r t♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡
✐♥✜♥✐t②✳ ❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✻✳✶✻✿ P✉s❤ ❖✉t ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

✶✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❧✐❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s t♦

♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳
✷✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❧✐❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s t♦
♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ an ≥ bn ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n ❣r❡❛t❡r t❤❛♥ s♦♠❡ N ✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

1. lim an = −∞ =⇒ lim bn = −∞ .
n→∞ n→∞
2. lim an = +∞ ⇐= lim bn = +∞ .
n→∞ n→∞

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✼

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✽

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧② ❜②

an+1 = 2an + 1 ✇✐t❤ a0 = 1 .

❉♦❡s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ♦r ❞✐✈❡r❣❡❄

✶✳✼✳ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ✼✶

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿

an ≤ cn cn ≤ bn
↓ ↓
+∞ −∞
=⇒ ↓ =⇒ ↓
+∞ −∞

✶✳✼✳ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ✐♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ ♥❡✇ t❤❡♦r❡♠s✳ ■t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s❦✐♣♣❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✜rst r❡❛❞✐♥❣✳
❲❡ ❛❝❝❡♣t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣r♦♦❢✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✶✿ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❊✈❡r② ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❛♥❞ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✐s

• ❡✐t❤❡r ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✱ an ≤ an+1 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✱ ♦r ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✱ an ≥ an+1 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✱
❛♥❞

• ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✱ |an | ≤ Q ❢♦r s♦♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r Q✱

t❤❡♥ ✐t ❤❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✳

❙✐♠♣❧② ❦♥♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢❛❝ts ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✿

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❧❡t❡♥❡ss Pr♦♣❡rt② ♦❢ ❘❡❛❧ ◆✉♠❜❡rs✳

❆♥♦t❤❡r r❡s✉❧t ✇✐t❤ r❡❣❛r❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ♦❢ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐s ❛❜♦✉t ❛ s❤r✐♥❦✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿

I = [a, b] ⊃ I1 = [a1 , b1 ] ⊃ I2 = [a2 , b2 ] ⊃ ...

■t ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✶✳✼✳ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ✼✷

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ s✉❣❣❡st❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✷✿ ◆❡st❡❞ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

✶✳ ❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥❡st❡❞ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❤❛s ❛ ♥♦♥✲❡♠♣t② ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐❢

✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs an ❛♥❞ bn t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢②

a1 ≤ a2 ≤ ... ≤ an ≤ ... ≤ bn ≤ ... ≤ b2 ≤ b1 ,

t❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❜♦t❤ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱

an → a, bn → b ,

❛♥❞
∞
\
[an , bn ] = [a, b] .
n=1

✷✳ ■❢✱ ♠♦r❡♦✈❡r✱

bn − an → 0 ,
t❤❡♥
∞
\
[an , bn ] = {a} = {b} .
n=1

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋♦r ♣❛rt ✭✶✮✱ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t x ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ✐t s❛t✐s✜❡s✿

an ≤ x ≤ bm , ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n, m .

▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❜② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

a≤x≤b

❜② t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❋♦r ♣❛rt ✭✷✮✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r✿
0 = lim (bn − an ) = lim bn − lim an = b − a ,
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

❜② t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t a = b✳

✶✳✼✳ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ✼✸

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❛ ✏♥❡st❡❞✑ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s

I = [a, b] ⊃ I1 = [a1 , b1 ] ⊃ I2 = [a2 , b2 ] ⊃ ... ,

✇✐t❤ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ s❛② A✱ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥✳

▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ s♦♠❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✷✮✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✼✳✸✿ ✉♣♣❡r ❛♥❞ ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ s❡t

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ S ✐s ❛ s❡t ♦❢ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳
• ❆♥ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ S ✐s ❛♥② ♥✉♠❜❡r M t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s✿
x≤M ❢♦r ❛♥② x ✐♥ S.

• ❆ ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ S ✐s ❛♥② ♥✉♠❜❡r m t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s✿

x≥m ❢♦r ❛♥② x ✐♥ S.

❋♦r S = [0, 1]✱ ❛♥② ♥✉♠❜❡r M ≥1 ✐s ✐ts ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡s❡ s❡ts ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞s✿

(−∞, +∞), [0, +∞), {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} .

❲❡ ♥♦✇ t❛❦❡ t❤✐s t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧❡✈❡❧✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✼✳✹✿ s❡ts ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛♥❞ ❛❜♦✈❡

❆ s❡t t❤❛t ❤❛s ❛♥ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ❛♥❞ ❛ s❡t t❤❛t ❤❛s ❛ ❧♦✇❡r
❜♦✉♥❞ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❆ s❡t t❤❛t ❤❛s ❜♦t❤ ✉♣♣❡r ❛♥❞ ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞s ✐s
❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❀ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ ✐t✬s ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✼✳✺✿ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♠✉♠

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ S ✐s ❛ s❡t✳
• ❆♥ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ s♠❛❧❧❡r ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡
❧❡❛st ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ❀ ✐t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠✳ ■t ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
sup S
✶✳✼✳ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ✼✹

• ❆ ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❧❛r❣❡r ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❣r❡❛t❡st
❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ❀ ✐t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✜♠✉♠✳ ■t ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

inf S

❇❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ ❥✉st✐❢② t❤❡ ✉s❛❣❡ ♦❢ ✏t❤❡✑✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✻✿ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ❙✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ■♥✜♠✉♠

• ❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ s❡t✱ t❤❡r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❧❡❛st ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✳

• ❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ s❡t✱ t❤❡r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❣r❡❛t❡st ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
❚❤✉s✱ M = sup S ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t✿
M ✐s ❛♥ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ S ✳
✶✳
′ ′
✷✳ ■❢ M ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ S ✱ t❤❡♥ M ≥ M ✳
′
◆♦✇✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r M = sup S ✱ t❤❡♥✿
′
✶✳ M ✐s ❛♥ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ S ✳
′
✷✳ ■❢ M ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ S ✱ t❤❡♥ M ≥ M ✳
′
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ M = M ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✼✳✼✿ ❧❡❛st ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞

❋♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡ts✱ t❤❡ ❧❡❛st ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ✐s M = 3✿
• S = {1, 2, 3}
• S = [1, 3]
• S = (1, 3)
′
❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ M ✐s ❛♥ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ✇✐t❤ 1 < M ′ < 3✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝❤♦♦s❡
′
3+M ′
a= ✳ ❇✉t a ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ S ✦ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ M ✐s♥✬t ❛♥ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✿
2

3 + M′
❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❧✐♠✐t S t♦ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♦♥❧② ✐♥ (1, 3)❄ ❚❤❡♥ a= ✇♦♥✬t ❜❡❧♦♥❣ t♦ S ✇❤❡♥
′
2
M ✐s ✐rr❛t✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❢❛✐❧s✳

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛t ♠♦st ♦♥❡ s✉❝❤ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ❛t ❧❡❛st❄

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✽✿ ❊①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❙✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ■♥✜♠✉♠

• ❆♥② ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡ s❡t ❤❛s ❛ ❧❡❛st ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✳

• ❆♥② ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ s❡t ❤❛s ❛ ❣r❡❛t❡st ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s t♦ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ♥❡st❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ ♣♦✐♥ts ❜❡✐♥❣ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞s✳
❲❤❛t s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♣♦✐♥ts❄
✶✳✼✳ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ✼✺

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ s❡t S ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❚❤❡♥✿

✶✳ ▲❡t U ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ S✳

✷✳ ▲❡t L ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ U✳
❙✐♥❝❡ S ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

U 6= ∅ .
◆♦✇✱ ✐❢ S ✐s ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❞♦♥❡✳ ■❢ ♥♦t✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ x, y ✐♥ S s✉❝❤ t❤❛t x < y✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ x ❜❡❧♦♥❣s
t♦ L✱ ❛♥❞

L 6= ∅ .
❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤✿

◮ a1 ✐s ❛♥② ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ L✱ ❛♥❞ b1 ✐s ❛♥② ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ U✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✐♥❞✉❝t✐✈❡❧② t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs

ai , bi , i = 1, 2, 3..., n ,

s✉❝❤ t❤❛t✿
✶✳ ai ✐s ✐♥ L ❛♥❞ bi ✐s ✐♥ U ✳
✷✳ an ≤ ... ≤ a1 ≤ b1 ≤ ... ≤ bn ✳
1
✸✳ bi − ai ≤ i−1 (b1 − a1 )✳
2

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥❞✉❝t✐✈❡ st❡♣✿ ▲❡t

1
c = (bn − an ) .
2
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❝❛s❡s✳

❈❛s❡ ✶✿ c ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ U✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡

an+1 = an ❛♥❞ bn+1 = c .

❚❤❡♥✱

an+1 = an ✐♥ L ❛♥❞ bn+1 = c ✐♥ U.

❈❛s❡ ✷✿ c ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ L✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡

an+1 = c ❛♥❞ bn+1 = bn .

✶✳✼✳ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ✼✻

❚❤❡♥✱
an+1 = c ✐♥ L ❛♥❞ bn+1 = bn ✐♥ U.
❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱
1 1 1 1
bn+1 − an+1 = (bn − an ) ≤ (b 1 − a1 ) = (b1 − a1 ) .
2 2 2n−1 2n
❚❤✉s✱ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ s❛t✐s✜❡❞✱ ❛♥❞ ♦✉r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥❡st❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ✐♥❞✉❝t✐✈❡❧② ❜✉✐❧t✳
❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ◆❡st❡❞ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t
an → d ← bn .

❲❤② ✐s c ❛ ❧❡❛st ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ S❄

❋✐rst✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ c ✐s ♥♦t ❛♥ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s x ✐♥ S ✇✐t❤ x > c✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ε = x − c✱ t❤❡♥
❢r♦♠ bn → c ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t bn < x ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n>N ❢♦r s♦♠❡ N✳ ❚❤✐s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝ts t❤❡ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ t❤❛t
bn ✐♥ U ✳

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ c ✐s ♥♦t ❛ ❧❡❛st ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ y < c✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡
ε = c − y✱ t❤❡♥ ❢r♦♠ an → c ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t an > y ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n>N ❢♦r s♦♠❡ N✳ ❚❤✐s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝ts t❤❡
❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ t❤❛t an ✐♥ L✳

❇❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✇❤❛t ✐t ♠❡❛♥s ❢♦r ❛ s❡t t♦ ❜❡ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✾✿ ■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ P♦✐♥t ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❆ s✉❜s❡t J ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧s ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦r ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ✐t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s

❛❧❧ ♦❢ ✐ts ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

y1 , y2 ✐♥ J ❆◆❉ y1 < c < y2 =⇒ c ✐♥ J.

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ✏✐❢ ✑ ♣❛rt ✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s✳ ◆♦✇ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❢♦r s❡t J✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t J ✐s
❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡s❡ ❡①✐st ❜② t❤❡ ❊①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❙✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✿
a = inf S, b = sup J .

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡s❡ ♠✐❣❤t ♥♦t ❜❡❧♦♥❣ t♦ J✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐❢ c s❛t✐s✜❡s a ≤ c ≤ b✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿
✶✳ y1 ✐♥ J s✉❝❤ t❤❛t a < y1 < c✱ ❛♥❞
✷✳ y2 ✐♥ J s✉❝❤ t❤❛t c < y2 < b✳
❇② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt②✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ c ✐♥ J ✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ J ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇✐t❤ a, b ❛s ✐ts ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✼✳✶✵

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❝❛s❡✳

✶✳✼✳ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ✼✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✼✳✶✶✿ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❢❛❧s❡✿ ❚❤❡ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ s❡✲
q✉❡♥❝❡ cn = (−1)n ✐s ❜♦t❤ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✭✐t ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ [−1, 1]✮ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t✳ ❲❡✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❝❛♥✬t ❤❡❧♣
♥♦t✐❝✐♥❣ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
n ❡✈❡♥ cn = 1 an
n ♦❞❞ cn = −1 bn

❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ cn✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧✇❛②s ❡①tr❛❝t ❛ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ✐s ❡✐t❤❡r ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦r ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧✇❛②s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② t❡r♠s ❡✐t❤❡r ❜❡❧♦✇ ♦r ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡✈❡r② t❡r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ r❡❛❝❤❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✶✷✿ ❇♦❧③❛♥♦✲❲❡✐❡rstr❛ss ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❊✈❡r② ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❤❛s ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ xn ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥t❛✐♥❡❞ ✐♥ s♦♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡ ✜rst ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡
❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ ❝✉t ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢ ❛♥❞ ♣✐❝❦ t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥②
❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡t {xn : n = 1, 2, 3...}✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ♣r♦♦❢s✱ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
ai , bi , i = 1, 2, 3..., n ,

s✉❝❤ t❤❛t✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [ai , bi ] ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ {xn : n = 1, 2, 3...} .
✷✳ an ≤ ... ≤ a1 ≤ b1 ≤ ... ≤ bn .
1
✸✳ bi − ai ≤ (b1 − a1 ) .
2i−1
✶✳✼✳ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ✼✽

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥❞✉❝t✐✈❡ st❡♣✿ ▲❡t

1
c = (bn − an ) .
2
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❝❛s❡s✳

❈❛s❡ ✶✿ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧ [an , c] ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ {xn : n = 1, 2, 3...}✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡

an+1 = an ❛♥❞ bn+1 = c .

❈❛s❡ ✷✿ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧ [an , c] ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ {xn : n = 1, 2, 3...}✱ t❤❡♥ [c, bn ]
❞♦❡s✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡
an+1 = c ❛♥❞ bn+1 = bn .
❆s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱
1 1 1 1
bn+1 − an+1 = (bn − an ) ≤ n−1
(b1 − a1 ) = n (b1 − a1 ) .
2 22 2
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ ❛s ❞❡s✐r❡❞❀ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛r❡ ③♦♦♠✐♥❣ ✐♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐✈❡❧② ❞❡♥s❡r ❛♥❞
❞❡♥s❡r ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ◆❡st❡❞ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t

an → d ← bn .

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ yk ♦❢ xn ✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳
❲❡ ❥✉st ♣✐❝❦ ❛s yk ❛♥② ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡t {xn : n = 1, 2, 3, ...} ✐♥ [ak , bk ] t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡s ❧❛t❡r ✐♥ t❤❡
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦♥❡s ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❛❞❞❡❞✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ y1 , y2 , ..., yk−1 ✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❛❧✇❛②s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✇❡ ❛❧✇❛②s
❤❛✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ❧❡❢t t♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❢r♦♠✳ ❖♥❝❡ t❤❡ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ yk ✐s ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
yk → d ❜② t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳
✶✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✼✾

✶✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s

❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s❄

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡t ♦❢ ❜♦②s ❛♥❞ ❛ s❡t ♦❢ ❜❛❧❧s ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❜♦②s✬ ♣r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ✐♥ ❜❛❧❧s✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ♦♥❡

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ♥♦t❡ t❤❡ ❝♦❧♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧s✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❉♦ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡✐r ♣r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ✐♥
❝♦❧♦rs ❄ ■t✬s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

■❢ ✇❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s ❜❧❛❝❦ ❜♦①❡s ✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✇✐r❡ t❤❡♠ t♦❣❡t❤❡r✿

✐♥♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t

x → F → y
↓
✐♥♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t

y → G → z

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ✭♦r ♠♦r❡✮ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧②✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✽✳✶✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♠❛t❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡

❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✮✿

F :X→Y ❛♥❞ G:Y →Z.

✶✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✽✵

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r t♦ t❤❡
❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✮
H :X →Z,
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x ✐♥ X ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦✲st❡♣ ♣r♦❝❡✲
❞✉r❡✿
x → F (x) = y → G(y) = z .

❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

♥❛♠❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❛♥❞ ✜rst ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

↓ ↓

G ◦ F (x) = G F (x)
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✷✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❚❤✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✐s ❥✉st ❛s ✐♠♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ❢♦r ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱

3
◮ y = x2 ✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t❡❞ ✐♥t♦ z = y 3 ✱ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥ z = x2 ✳
❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✸✮✿ ■♥s❡rt t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐♥ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❜♦①❡s✳
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ✐s ✉♥❞❡rst♦♦❞ ❛♥❞ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✿

2y 2 − 3y + 7 22 − 3 + 7
f (y) = , f () = .
y 3 + 2y + 1 3 + 2 + 1
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ y = sin x✿
2
2 (sin x) − 3 (sin x) + 7
f (sin x) = 3 .
(sin x) + 2 (sin x) + 1

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
2(sin x)2 − 3(sin x) + 7
f (sin x) = .
(sin x)3 + 2(sin x) + 1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✸✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❚❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✕ ✉♥❞❡rst♦♦❞ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ❝♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❛♥② r❡❛❧
♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❝❛♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

✐♥t❡❣❡r ✐♥♣✉t, n → s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ → r❡❛❧ ♦✉t♣✉t, an

↓?
✐♥t❡❣❡r ✐♥♣✉t, m → s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ → r❡❛❧ ♦✉t♣✉t, bm

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ♠✐s♠❛t❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✦ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

an = 1/n ❛♥❞ bn = (−1)n ?!

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ✜rst s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✐s ✐♥t❡❣❡r✲✈❛❧✉❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✳

✐♥t❡❣❡r ✐♥♣✉t, n → s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ → ✐♥t❡❣❡r ♦✉t♣✉t, mn

↓
✐♥t❡❣❡r ✐♥♣✉t, m → s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ → r❡❛❧ ♦✉t♣✉t, bm

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an = 2n ❛♥❞ bk = (−1)k ,
✶✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✽✶

t❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s

cn = b2n = (−1)2n .
■t✬s ❛ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ bn ✦

■❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦♥❡ ✐s ❥✉st ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ r❡❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥
♦❢
xn = 1/n ❛♥❞ f (x) = x2
✐s
yn = (1/n)2 .
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ✢♦✇❝❤❛rt ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿

✐♥t❡❣❡r ✐♥♣✉t, n → s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ → r❡❛❧ ♦✉t♣✉t, xn

↓
r❡❛❧ ✐♥♣✉t, x → ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ → r❡❛❧ ♦✉t♣✉t, y

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽✳✹

❙t❛t❡ ❛s ❛♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✿ ✏❊✈❡r② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳✑ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❄

❋♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡✿

yn = f (xn )

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡❄ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ s❛②✱ s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢
t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts❄
❚❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✐s✿

◮ ❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞♦ t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡❄

▲❡t✬s ❧♦♦❦ ❛t s♦♠❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✺✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r

❙♦♠❡t✐♠❡s t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ x n → a✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦✲
♠✐❛❧✿
f (x) = mx + b .
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ yn = f (xn )❄ ▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿

lim yn = lim f (xn )

n→∞ n→∞
= lim (mxn + b)
n→∞
= m lim xn + b ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐t② ❘✉❧❡✳
n→∞
= ma + b
= f (a) .

❚❤✐s ✐s ❥✉st t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f ❛t a✦ ■♥ r❡tr♦s♣❡❝t✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳ ❋♦r
❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱      
n+1 n+1
lim 3 + 7 = 3 · lim + 7 = 3 · 1 + 7 = 10 .
n→∞ n−1 n→∞ n−1

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✦
✶✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✽✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✻✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s tr② f (x) = x2 ❛♥❞ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ s❡❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

• ❜♦tt♦♠✿ ❤♦✇ x ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ n✱

• ♠✐❞❞❧❡✿ ❤♦✇ y ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ x✱

• r✐❣❤t✿ ❤♦✇ y ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ n✳

❈❛♥ ✇❡ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ s❡❡❄ ❆♥ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ✐♥ t❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥

r❡✈❡❛❧s✿

2
lim xn = lim (xn · xn )
n→∞ n→∞
= lim xn · lim xn
n→∞
 n→∞
2
= lim xn ,
n→∞

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❛t ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✳

❆ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿ ■❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ s♦

❞♦❡s (xn )p ❢♦r ❛♥② ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r p✱ ❛♥❞

h ip
lim [(xn )p ] = lim xn .
n→∞ n→∞

❈♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ t❤✐s ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✽✳✼✿ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s

■❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s f (xn ) ❢♦r ❛♥② ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ f ✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱

✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
 
lim f (xn ) = f lim xn
n→∞ n→∞

❙✉❝❤ ❛ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t❡❞ ✐♥t♦ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ✐ts

✐♥♣✉t✳ ■t ✐s ❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐t② ❘✉❧❡ ✳

✶✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✽✸

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✽✿ ❢r♦♠ ❜♦t❤ s✐❞❡s

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s 0 ✇❤✐❧❡ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ s✐❞❡s✿
1
xn = (−1)n ❛♥❞ f (x) = − sin 5x .
n.8

❲❡ s❡❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥✦

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿

xn → a =⇒ f (xn ) → f (a)

Pr♦✈❡♥ ♦♥❧② ❢♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✾✿ ❧✐♠✐ts ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

■t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✈❡r② ❡❛s② t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ s♦♠❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♥♦✇❀ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

 2   !
1 1

lim 3· −2· +5 = 3 · 02 − 2 · 0 + 5 = 5
n→∞ n n
 2   !
3 3

lim 3· 2+ −2· 2+ +5 = 3 · 22 − 2 · 2 + 5 = 13
n→∞ n n

❲❡ ❛r❡ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❤❡r❡✿

f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 5 .

❲❡ s✐♠♣❧② s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ 0 ❛♥❞ 2 r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ❧✐♠✐ts ❜❡❤❛✈❡ ✇❡❧❧ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ s♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✈✐❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ●✐✈❡♥ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ❛♥❞ ❛
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)✱ ❞❡✜♥❡
yn = f (xn ) .
▲❡t✬s ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❊❛❝❤ ♣♦✐♥t xn ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ♣♦✐♥t yn ♦♥ t❤❡
y ✲❛①✐s ✈✐❛ f ✿
✶✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✽✹

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ xn t♦ a ❧❡❛❞s t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ yn t♦ f (a)✳

■t ✐s ❡❛s②✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤✐s ❝❛✉s❛t✐♦♥ ❢❛✐❧s✳ ❇❡❧♦✇✱ ♦♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱

❡❛❝❤ ♣♦✐♥t xn ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ♣♦✐♥t yn ♦♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ✈✐❛ f✿

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣❛♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱ yn ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ f (a)✦ ❚❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ✐s ✇✐t❤ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✈s✳

❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✶✵✿ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡
1 1
xn = ❛♥❞ f (x) = ?
n x
❚❤❡♥✱ ♦❜✈✐♦✉s❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
1
yn = = n → ∞!
1/n
✶✳✾✳ ◆✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ✽✺

❚❤❡ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢❛✐❧s ❢♦r t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦♦✦

■♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ st✉❞② t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s r❛t❤❡r t❤❛♥ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳
❆ ❢❡✇ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❛t ❛r❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡❝t✐♦♥s✿ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❛❝ts
t❤❛t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦✳

✶✳✾✳ ◆✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♠✐ts

❙♦✱ ❧✐♠✐ts ✭✇❤❡♥ ✜♥✐t❡✮ ❛r❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✳

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛s ✇❡ ❥✉st s❛✇✱ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❝❛♥ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ♠❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

.9 .99 .999 .9999 .99999 ... → 1

1. 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001 ... → 1

■♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥②✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✿

a + 1/n a + 1/(2n) a + 1/(3n)
ց ↓ ւ
2
a + 1/n → a ← a + 1/n3
√ ր ↑
n
տ
a + 1/ n a + 1/2 a + 1/(ln n)

❲❡✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛❝t ✐♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✿

◮ ■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r
✇❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞ ✐♥✳

❲❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ ❛s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✾✳✶✿ π
▲❡t✬s ❜✉✐❧❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②✿
◮ ❲❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ r❡❣✉❧❛r ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s✿ ❡q✉❛❧ s✐❞❡s ❛♥❞ ❛♥❣❧❡s✳
❲❡ ♣✉t s✉❝❤ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ s♦ t❤❛t ✐t t♦✉❝❤❡s t❤❡♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡ ✭✏❝✐r❝✉♠s❝r✐❜✐♥❣✑
♣♦❧②❣♦♥s✮✿
✶✳✾✳ ◆✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ✽✻

❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ n = 3, 4, 5, ...✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝❛❧❧ ✐t An ✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛✿

n 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
An 5.196 4.000 3.633 3.464 3.371 3.314 3.276 3.249 3.230 3.215 3.204 3.195 3.188

■s t❤❡r❡ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t ❄ ❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② 0✳ ❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✐t ❛♣♣❡❛rs t♦ ❜❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡✳
❚❤❡♥ ✐t ♠✉st ❜❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ❜② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ❲❡ ❝❛❧❧ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t π✦ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦
♣✉t s✉❝❤ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ s♦ t❤❛t ✐t t♦✉❝❤❡s t❤❡♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦✉ts✐❞❡ ✭✏✐♥s❝r✐❜✐♥❣✑ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s✮✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡❛s Bn ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ π✳ ❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❤❛✈❡✿

An → π ← Bn .

▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮ ❤♦✇ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞✳

❚❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✭✉s❡❞ ❢♦r ❝♦✉♥t✐♥❣✮✿

0, 1, 2, 3, ...

❚❤❡ ♥❡①t st❡♣ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs ✿

..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
❚❤❡② ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ ❢♦r ❦❡❡♣✐♥❣ r❡❝♦r❞ ♦❢ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ ❢❛❝✐♥❣ ❛ ❢❡♥❝❡ s♦ ❧♦♥❣ t❤❛t ②♦✉ ❝❛♥✬t
s❡❡ ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ❡♥❞s✳ ❲❡ st❡♣ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢❡♥❝❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ t✐♠❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡ ✐s st✐❧❧ ♠♦r❡ t♦ s❡❡✿

■s t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❦s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❄ ❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s✳ ❲❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡s❡ ❛s ♠❛r❦✐♥❣s ♦♥ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✱
❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❦s✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t✦

✶✳✾✳ ◆✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ✽✼

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠❡❞ ♦✉t t♦ s❡❡ t❤❡ ❢❡♥❝❡✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♥♦✇ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ✐♥ ♦♥ ❛ s♣♦t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢❡♥❝❡✳ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛
s❤♦rt❡r ♣❧❛♥❦ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❡✈❡r② t✇♦ ♣❧❛♥❦s❄ ❲❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❝❧♦s❡r ❛♥❞ ✇❡ s❡❡ ♠♦r❡✿

■❢ ✇❡ ❦❡❡♣ ③♦♦♠✐♥❣ ✐♥✱ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐❧❧ ❧♦♦❦ s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ❛ r✉❧❡r ✿

■t✬s ❛s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ♦♥❡ ♠❛r❦ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❛♥② t✇♦ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛❞❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♦♥❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛✐rs ✇❡
❤❛✈❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞✳ ❲❡ ❦❡❡♣ r❡♣❡❛t✐♥❣ t❤✐s st❡♣✳ ■❣♥♦r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤✐s r✉❧❡r ❣♦❡s ♦♥❧② t♦ 1/16 ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥❝❤✱
❧❡t✬s ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡s ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐t❡❧②✿

■s t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❄ ❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ♣✐❝❦ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ❢r♦♠ ❡❛❝❤ r✉♥❣✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✾✳✷

❲❤❡♥ ❞♦❡s s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡❄

■❢ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ♥✐♥❡ ♠❛r❦s ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ ♠❡tr✐❝ r✉❧❡r ✿

✶✳✾✳ ◆✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ✽✽

❚♦ s❡❡ ✐t ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛②✱ ✇❡ ❛❧❧♦✇ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧s ✐♥ ♦✉r ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿

1.55 : 1. 1.5 1.55 1.550 1.5500 ...

1/3 : .3 .33 .333 .3333 .33333 ...
1: 1. 1.0 1.00 1.000 1.0000 ...
π: 3. 3.1 3.14 3.141 3.1415 ...
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✦

❙♦✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs ❛s ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✕ ❜② ❝✉tt✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❢✉rt❤❡r ❛♥❞ ❢✉rt❤❡r ✕ ❛❧s♦ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡
❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ t❤❡♥ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦ ❝♦✉♥t❡r♣❛rts ❛♠♦♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱
√
2 ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ 1 × 1 sq✉❛r❡ ✭❛♥❞ ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ x2 = 2✮❀ ✐t✬s ♥♦t r❛t✐♦♥❛❧✳
❲✐t❤♦✉t t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✐s ✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡✦ ❆s ❛♥ ✐❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥ ✏✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡✑ r♦♣❡ ✇♦♥✬t ❤❛♥❣✿

❲❤❛t t♦ ❞♦❄ ❲❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❡✈❡r② s✉❝❤ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✇✐t❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳

❚♦❣❡t❤❡r✱ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✐rr❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❧✐♥❡✳ ❲❡ t❤✐♥❦
♦❢ t❤✐s ❧✐♥❡ ❛s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ ❀ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❚❤❡❈♦♠♣❧❡t❡♥❡ss Pr♦♣❡rt② ♦❢ ❘❡❛❧ ◆✉♠❜❡rs ♣r♦✈❡♥
❛❜♦✈❡ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡s t❤✐s✳

❚❤✐s s❡t✉♣ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ P ←→ ♥✉♠❜❡r x

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤✐s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡ ✐♥ ❜♦t❤ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

✶✳✾✳ ◆✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ✽✾

• ❋✐rst✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ P ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ♠❛r❦ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✳ ❚❤❛t✬s
✐s ❛
t❤❡ ✏❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✑ ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r x✳
P✿
• ❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ x ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❲❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ✐t ❛s ❛ ✏❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✑ ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ ✐ts ♠❛r❦ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✳
❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✿ s♦♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t P ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✳

❖♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ✐♥ ♣❧❛❝❡✱ ✐t ✐s ❛❝❝❡♣t❛❜❧❡ t♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡
✈❡rs❛✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇❡ ♦❢t❡♥ ✇r✐t❡✿
P = x.

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛② ❜❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ✏ 1✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠✑✳ ■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❧✐♥❡
♦r s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❧✐♥❡✳
❇✉t ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇❡ r♦✉t✐♥❡❧② ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs❄

❖✉r r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts s❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ❡✈❡r② r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✇✐t❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣✐♥❣ t♦ ✐t✱ ✐t ✐s st✐❧❧
♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❞♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts✳ ❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r②✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✾✳✸✿ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ an → a ❛♥❞ bn → b✳ ❚❤❡♥

❙❘✿ an + b n → a + b ❈▼❘✿ c · an → ca ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c

P❘✿ an · bn → ab ◗❘✿ an /bn → a/b ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ b 6= 0

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✾✳✹✿ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s s❤♦✇ ✇❤② ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✇♦r❦✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ❛
♥✉♠❜❡r ❛s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❜❡tt❡r ❛♥❞ ❜❡tt❡r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❝❛rr②✐♥❣ ♦✉t ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤
t❤❡s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t ❛s t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♠❡❛♥t t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡✦ ❋♦r
❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

(1) + (2) = 3
   
1 5 4
1+ + 2− =3− → 3
 n  n n
3 2
1− + 2+ 2 → 3
n n
...
√
❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ 2 + π✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t✇♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✭♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤✐❝❤
♦♥❡s✮✿
√
an → 2 ❛♥❞ bn → π .
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠✿

√
an + b n → 2+π.

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✾✳✺✿ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧s

❚❤❡s❡ ❧❛✇s ❤❡❧♣ ✉s ❥✉st✐❢② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ tr✐❝❦ ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧s✳
✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✾✵

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ x = .3333...✿

x = 0.3333...
−
10x = 3.3333...
−9x = −3.0000... ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✦
=⇒ x = 1/3

❇❡❤✐♥❞ t❤✐s tr✐❝❦ ✐s ❛ ♣r♦♣❡r ♠❡t❤♦❞✳

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ♥♦t❡ t❤❛t ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✲
✈❡r❣❡s✿
0 0.3 0.33 0.333 0.3333 ... → x
❲❡ ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t x✳

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❘✉❧❡ t♦ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

an : 0 0.3 0.33 0.333 0.3333 ... → x

−
10an : 3 3.3 3.33 3.333 3.3333 ... → 10x
−9an : −3 −3 −3 −3 −3 ... → −9x
❙♦❧✈❡✿ − 3 = −9x =⇒ x = 1/3

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❤✐❢t❡❞ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳

❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦♥❧② r❡q✉✐r❡s t❤❡ ✜rst t❤r❡❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❛t ✐s ✇❤② ✇❡ ❝❛♥
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ f ❢r♦♠ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts✿

an → a =⇒ f (an ) → f (a) .

❚❤✐s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ ✐s ❥✉st ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts
♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳ ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt② ❢♦r r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t♦♦ ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s
✇❡ ❛✈♦✐❞ ❞✐✈✐❞✐♥❣ ❜② 0✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄

✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ ✜rst ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥ts ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✸✮✳

■t st❛rts ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿

◮ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✿ 2 + 2 + 2 = 2 · 3 ✳

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❛t✬s ❤♦✇ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇❛s ✏✐♥✈❡♥t❡❞✑ ✕ ❛s r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✳ ◆❡①t✿

◮ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♣♦✇❡r ✿ 2 · 2 · 2 = 23 ✳

❆♥❞ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✇❡ ✉s❡✿
✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✾✶

❇❛s❡ ❛♥❞ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t

❡①♣♦♥❡♥t
↓
x

↑
b
❜❛s❡

❙♦✱ t❤✐s ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡♥t✐♦♥✳

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t ❛s ❛ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r✉❧❡s ✭❢♦r ❛r❜✐tr❛r②
a, b > 0✮✿
❆♥❛❧♦❣②✿ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ✈s✳ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥

▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✿ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿

x = 1, 2, ... a + ... + a} = a · x
|a + a + {z a · ... · a} = ax
|a · a · {z
x t✐♠❡s x t✐♠❡s

x=0 a·0 =0 a0 = 1
 −x
x 1 1
x = −1, −2, ... ax = (−a)(−x) a = = −x
a a
❘✉❧❡s✿ 1. a(x + y) = ax + ay ax+y
=a ax y

2. (a + b)x = ax + bx (ab)x = ax bx
3. a(xy) = (ax)y axy = (ax )y

■♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❜❛s❡ a > 0 ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥✿

f (x) = bx

✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs✿

Z = {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} .

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♠✐ss❡s s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs t❤❛t ✐♥t❡r❡st ✉s✦
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✶✿ ❜❛❝t❡r✐❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧②✐♥❣

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❜❛❝t❡r✐❛ t❤❛t ❞♦✉❜❧❡s ❡✈❡r② ❞❛②✿

pn+1 =2· pn =⇒ pn = p0 2n .
|{z} |{z}
♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥✿ ❛t t✐♠❡ n+1 ❛t t✐♠❡ n

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❞✐s❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ ♣♦✐♥ts✿

✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✾✷

▲❡t✬s t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ✐t ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ■t ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇✐t❤ x✬s st✐❧❧ ❧✐♠✐t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs✿
p(x) = p0 2x .

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ♦❢ √ t❤❡ ✜rst ❞❛②❄ ❚♦ ❛♥s✇❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t
♠✉❧t✐♣❧②✐♥❣ ❜② 2 ✐s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧②✐♥❣ 2 t✇✐❝❡✿
√ √
2· 2 = 2.

❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t √
p(1/2) = 2.

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✷✿ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r❡st

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ❛ $1000 ❞❡♣♦s✐t ✇✐t❤ 10% ❛♥♥✉❛❧ ✐♥t❡r❡st✱ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ②❡❛r❧②✳ ■t✬s ❛
❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥❀ ❛❢t❡r x ②❡❛rs ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (x) = 1000 · 1.1x .

✇❤❡r❡ x ✐s ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r✳

❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ■ ✇❛♥t t♦ ✇✐t❤❞r❛✇ ♠② ♠♦♥❡② ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ②❡❛r❄ ■t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❢❛✐r t♦ ❛s❦ t❤❡ ❜❛♥❦
❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♥♦✇✳ ■t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ❢❛✐r ❢♦r t❤❡ ❜❛♥❦ t♦ ❞♦ ✐t ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t
t❤❡ ❛♥♥✉❛❧ r❡t✉r♥ r❡♠❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞ t✇✐❝❡✳ ❲❤❛t s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡♠✐✲❛♥♥✉❛❧
✐♥t❡r❡st r❛t❡❄

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ✐s t♦ ❣r♦✇ ❜② ❛ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥✱ r✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✐❢ ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ✐t ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ ♠❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
t❡♥ ♣❡r❝❡♥t ❣r♦✇t❤✦ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (.5) = 1000 · r ❛♥❞ r · r = 1.1 .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

√
r= 1.1 ≈ 1.0488 ,

♦r ❛❜♦✉t 4.9 ♣❡r❝❡♥t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✸

■❢ ②♦✉r ❜❛♥❦ ♣r♦♠✐s❡s t♦ ♣❛② ②♦✉ 1% ❢♦r t❤❡ ✜rst ②❡❛r ❛♥❞ 2% ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇❤❛t s✐♥❣❧❡ ✭❛♥♥✉❛❧✮
✐♥t❡r❡st ❝❛♥ ✐t ♦✛❡r ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♣❛② ②♦✉ ❛s ♠✉❝❤ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♥❡①t t✇♦ ②❡❛rs❄ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡
❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st r❛t❡✳
✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✾✸

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✹✿ r❛❞✐♦❛❝t✐✈❡ ❞❡❝❛② ❛♥❞ r❛❞✐♦❝❛r❜♦♥ ❞❛t✐♥❣

❚❤❡ r❛❞✐♦❛❝t✐✈❡ ❝❛r❜♦♥ ❧♦s❡s ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ ✐ts ♠❛ss ♦✈❡r ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ♣❡r✐♦❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢✲❧✐❢❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❡❧❡♠❡♥t✳ ■t✬s ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛❣❛✐♥✿
1
an+1 = an · .
2
❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ n ✐s ♥♦t t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ②❡❛rs ❜✉t t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❤❛❧❢✲❧✐✈❡s✦ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ♣❡r❝❡♥t❛❣❡
♦❢ t❤✐s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t✱ 14 ❈✱ ❧❡❢t ✐s ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛❣❛✐♥st t✐♠❡✿

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ❦♥♦✇ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✦ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢✲❧✐❢❡ ✐s 5730 ②❡❛rs ✭✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐t
t❛❦❡s t♦ ❣♦ ❢r♦♠ 100% t♦ 50%✮✳ ❚❤❡ ♠♦❞❡❧ ♠❡❛s✉r❡s t✐♠❡ ✐♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢✲❧✐❢❡✱ 5730 ②❡❛rs✱ ❛♥❞
❛♥② ♣❡r✐♦❞ s❤♦rt❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❛t ✇✐❧❧ r❡q✉✐r❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✐♥s✐❣❤t✳ ❍♦✇ ♠✉❝❤ ✐s ❧❡❢t ❛❢t❡r 5730/2 = 2865 ②❡❛rs❄
❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇ 75%✿ r
1
≈ .707 .
2

❲❡ ✜❧❧ t❤❡ ❣❛♣s ✐♥ t❤✐s ♠❛♥♥❡r✿

❋♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs a ❛♥❞ b✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❤❛❧❢✲✇❛② ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠✳
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
a+b √
x= =⇒ 2x = 2a · 2b .
2
❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜② ❞✐✈✐❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢❄ ❚❤❡
♥❡✇ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧✇❛②s ❧✐❡ s❧✐❣❤t❧② ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❤❛t ❝♦♥♥❡❝ts t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ❛s t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✱ ✐s ❜❡❝♦♠✐♥❣ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ❞❡♥s❡❧② ❝♦✈❡r❡❞✳ ❚❤❡s❡
✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ❧♦♦s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts st❛rt t♦ ❢♦r♠ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✿
✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✾✹

❚❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❧✐❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛♥② ❝❤♦r❞ t❤❛t ❝♦♥♥❡❝ts t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ❙✉❝❤ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏❝♦♥❝❛✈❡
✉♣✑ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✮✳

m
▼♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❧②✱ ✐❢ x= ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ m, n ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs ✇✐t❤ n > 0✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ s❡t t❤❡ xt❤ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ b>0 t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡
n
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

m √
n
bn = bm

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥ts t❤❛t ✇✐❧❧ r❡❛♣♣❡❛r ♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✶✵✳✺✿ ❘✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥ts

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐t✐❡s ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛r❡ s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ a > 0 ❛♥❞ ❡✈❡r② r❡❛❧ x ❛♥❞ y ✿

1. bx+y = bx by
2. bx cx = (bc)x
3. bxy = (bx )y

❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡❄ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ t❤❛t✱ ❛s t❤❡s❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s ❣❡t ❧❛r❣❡r ❛♥❞
❧❛r❣❡r ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦rs✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❞❡♥s❡r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥s❡r✱ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛♥❞✱ ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧②✱ ✐t ❜❡❝♦♠❡s
❛ ❝✉r✈❡✦ ❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ❛❧❧ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs Q ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ s♦ ❞❡♥s❡ t❤❛t
❛♥② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧✱ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ✭✐♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✐❢ p ❛♥❞ q ❛r❡ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧✱ t❤❡♥
s♦ ✐s (p + q)/2✮✳ ♥♦ ❣❛♣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✦
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐ts ♣♦✐♥ts r❡♠❛✐♥ ❞✐s❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r❀ ❛ ❧✐tt❧❡ ❜❧♦✇ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❢❛❧❧s ❛♣❛rt✿

❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✇✐t❤ ✐rr❛t✐♦♥❛❧ x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ❛r❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣✿

√ √
x= 2, 3, π .

❆♥❞ t❤❡ ✐rr❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ s♦ ❞❡♥s❡ t❤❛t ❛♥② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧✱ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧②
♠❛♥② ♦❢ t❤❡♠✳ ❙♦✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ❣❛♣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ✏❝✉ts✑ ❡✈❡r②✇❤❡r❡✦

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♠❛❦❡ ❛ st❡♣ t♦✇❛r❞ ❞❡✜♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐rr❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥ts ❜② ✏❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♥❣✑ t❤❡♠ ✇✐t❤
r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳
✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✾✺

❚❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ✇❤❛t ✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣ ❛r♦✉♥❞ x = 0✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s
t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 1✿

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ❥✉♠♣s✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✶✵✳✻✿ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❆r♦✉♥❞ 0
❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ r❡❛❧ b > 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim bxn = 1
n→∞

❢♦r ❡✈❡r② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs xn → 0 ✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t✿

lim a1/qn = 1 ,
n→∞

✇❤❡r❡ qn ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs ✇✐t❤ qn → ∞✳ ❚♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ ♦✉t ❢♦r ✇❤❛t
✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ n t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❣✐✈❡♥ ε > 0✿
√
qn
| b − 1| < ε .

❋♦r b > 1✱ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐s ❢✉rt❤❡r s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞✿

√
qn
√
qn
b − 1 < ε ⇐⇒ b < 1 + ε ⇐⇒ b < (1 + ε)qn .

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t✿

qn → ∞ =⇒ (1 + ε)qn → ∞ .

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛♥ N t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❛st ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n > N ✳ ❚❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s t❤❡
♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✼

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✳

❏✉st ❛s ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ y = x2 ✱ ❛s ❛ t❡♠♣❧❛t❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ r❡st✱ ✇❡ r❡❛❧❧② ♦♥❧② ♥❡❡❞ ♦♥❡
❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦
✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✾✻

❲❤✐❝❤ ♦♥❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✽✿ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r❡st

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♠♦♥❡② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜❛♥❦ ❛t 10% ❆P❘ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❛♥♥✉❛❧❧②✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❛❢t❡r ❛ ②❡❛r✱ ❣✐✈❡♥

$1, 000 ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❞❡♣♦s✐t✱ ②♦✉ ❤❛✈❡✿

1000 + 1000 · 0.10 = 1000(1 + 0.1)

= 1000 · 1.1 .

❙❛♠❡ ❡✈❡r② ②❡❛r✳ ❆❢t❡r t ②❡❛rs✱ ✐t✬s 1000 · 1.1t ✳

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ♦❢t❡♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❣♦❛❧ ♦❢ r❡❝❡✐✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢

t❤❡ ②❡❛r❄ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡s✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✳

1
❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❛❝❝♦✉♥t ✐s ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ s❡♠✐✲❛♥♥✉❛❧❧②✱ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❆P❘ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❆❢t❡r ②❡❛r✱ ✐t✬s
2
1000 · 0.05✱ ♦r ❛ t♦t❛❧ ♦❢✿

1000 + 1000 · 0.05 = 1000 · 1.05 .

1
❆❢t❡r ❛♥♦t❤❡r ②❡❛r✱ ✐t ✐s
2
(1000 · 1.05) · 1.05 = 1000 · 1.052 .
❆❢t❡r t ②❡❛rs✱

1000 · (1.052 )t = 1000 · 1.052t .

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ♠♦r❡ ♠♦♥❡② t❤❛♥ ❜❡❢♦r❡✿ 1.052 = 1.1025 > 1.1 ✦

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ tr② t♦ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞ q✉❛rt❡r❧②✱

1000 · 1.0254t .
❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ❇❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ s❡❡ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿ 5% ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ 1 t✐♠❡❀ 5/2 = 2.5% ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ 2 t✐♠❡s❀

5/4 = 1.25% ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ 4 t✐♠❡s❀ 5/8 = .635% ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ 8 t✐♠❡s✿

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st ✐s ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ n t✐♠❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

 nt
1
1000 · 1 + ,
n
1
✇❤❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st ✐♥ ♦♥❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞✳ ■s t❤❡r❡ ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞ t♦ t❤✐s ❣r♦✇t❤❄
n

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✾

❲❤✐❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❛r❡❛s ✐s t❤❡ ❜✐❣❣❡st❄

●❡♥❡r❛❧❧②✱ ❢♦r ❆P❘ r ✭❣✐✈❡♥ ❛s ❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✮ ❛♥❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❞❡♣♦s✐t A0 ✱ ❛❢t❡r t ②❡❛rs✱ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛♠♦✉♥t ✐s

 r nt
A(t) = A0 1 + ,
n
✐❢ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ n t✐♠❡s ♣❡r ②❡❛r✳
✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✾✼

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ❢r❡q✉❡♥t❧②❄ ❲✐❧❧ ✇❡ ❜❡ ♣❛✐❞ ✉♥❧✐♠✐t❡❞ ❛♠♦✉♥ts❄

▲❡t✬s ♣✐❝❦ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ r=1 ✭✐✳❡✳✱ 100% ❆P❘✮ ❛♥❞ ♣❧♦t t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r♦✇t❤ s❧♦✇s ❞♦✇♥✿

❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r t♦ t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✐s ◆♦✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✶✵✳✶✵✿ ❡ ❛s ▲✐♠✐t

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❜❡❧♦✇ ❡①✐sts✿

 n
1
lim 1+
n→∞ n

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r✿

e
 n
1
e = lim 1+
n→∞ n
■t ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s t❤❡ ✏❊✉❧❡r ♥✉♠✲
❜❡r✑✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

 n
1
an = 1+
n
✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

1

n+1

n+2 n+1
an+1 1 + n+1 n+1
=
n = n+1
n
an 1 + n1 n
 n+1  n+1  1
n+2 n n+1
=
n+1 n+1 n
 2 n+1
n + 2n + 1 − 1 n+1
= 2
n + 2n + 1 n
 n+1
1 n+1
= 1− .
(n + 1)2 n
❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❇✐♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮✱ ✐t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t
(1 + b)m > 1 + mb ,

❢♦r ❛♥② b✳ ❲❡ ❥✉st ❝❤♦♦s❡✿

−1
b= ❛♥❞ m = n + 1,
(n + 1)2
✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✾✽

❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ✜rst t❡r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

an+1 n+1
= (1 + b)m ·
an n
n+1
> (1 + mb) ·
 n n+1
1 n+1
= 1− 2
 (n + 1)
 n
1 n+1
= 1−
n+1 n
n n+1
=
n+1 n
= 1.

■♥ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❢❛s❤✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

 n+1
1
bn = 1+
n

✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ an < bn ✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ❢♦r♠❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❜♦t❤ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✳
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❜② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❧② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

e ≈ 2.71828 .

■❢ ②♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ 100% ❆P❘✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♠♦st ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ ❣❡t ❢♦r ②♦✉r ❞♦❧❧❛r ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ ❢r❡q✉❡♥t❧② t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st
✐s ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡❞ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✶✵✳✶✶✿ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ex ✇✐t❤ ❜❛s❡ e✱ t❤❡ ❊✉❧❡r ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❛❧
❜❛s❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✳

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡s✉❧t t❤❛t ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❝❝❡♣t ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣r♦♦❢✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✶✵✳✶✷✿ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ▲✐♠✐t
 x n
ex = lim 1+
n→∞ n

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✶✸✿ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡r❡st

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st ✐s ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ n t✐♠❡s ❛♥❞ n → ∞❄ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡
❤❛✈❡✿
 r nt
lim A(x) = lim A0 1 +
n→∞ n→∞ n
 r nt
= A0 lim 1 + ❚❤✐s ✐s ❜② ❈▼❘✳
n→∞ n
h  r n it
= A0 lim 1 + ❚❤✐s ✐s ❜② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳
n→∞ n
= A0 (er )t .
✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✾✾

❚❤✉s✱ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❆P❘ ♦❢ r ❛♥❞ ❛♥ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❞❡♣♦s✐t A0 ✱ ❛❢t❡r t ②❡❛rs ②♦✉ ❤❛✈❡✿

A(t) = A0 ert .

❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st ✐s ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❆P❘ ✐s 10%✱ ❛♥❞ A0 = 1000✱ x = 1✳ ❚❤❡♥✿

A(1) = 1000 · e1.1 = 1000 · e0.1 ≈ $1, 105 .

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st ✐s $105 > $100✳

❍♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ tr✐♣❧❡ ②♦✉r ♠♦♥❡② ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❆P❘❂ 5%✱ ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②❄ ❙❡t A0 = 1
❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r t✿
3 = 1 · e0.05t =⇒
ln 3 = 0.05t =⇒
ln 3
t = ≈ 22 ②❡❛rs✳
0.05

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ♠♦r❡ s✉❜t❧❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❲❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s e s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ✐s t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt②✿ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = ex ❛❧♠♦st ♠❡r❣❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ y = x + 1 ❛r♦✉♥❞ 0✿

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts (1/n, e1/n ) r❡✈❡❛❧s ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 1✿

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ st❛t❡ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✿

✶✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✵✵

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✶✵✳✶✹✿ ❋❛♠♦✉s ▲✐♠✐t✿ ex

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
e xn − 1
lim =1
n→∞ xn
❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → 0 ✳

❙♦✱ y = ex ❝✉ts✱ ✐♥ ❛ s❡♥s❡✱ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥t♦ t✇♦ ❤❛❧✈❡s✿ t❤❡ ✏st❡❡♣✑ ♦♥❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✏s❤❛❧❧♦✇✑
♦♥❡s✿

✶✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✳

❖♥❡ ❡♥❝♦✉♥t❡rs ♥✉♠❡r♦✉s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝ ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥❛✳ ❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❝❛s❡ ✐s t❤❛t ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛♥t✐t② t❤❛t
❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❜✉t t❤❡♥ ❝♦♠❡s ❜❛❝❦ t♦ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♠❛♥♥❡r✿

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✶✳✶✿ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r

❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ✐s ♦s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ♦♥ ❛ s♣r✐♥❣ ♦r ❛ str✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✉s✐❝❛❧ ✐♥str✉♠❡♥t✿

❆ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ tr✐♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦♦♥ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ s✉♥✳

❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ ♣❧❛♥❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ✿

✶✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✵✶

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ s✐❞❡s a, b, c✱ ✇✐t❤ c ❜❡✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧♦♥❣❡st ♦♥❡ ❢❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❛♥❣❧❡✳ ■❢ α
✐s t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t t♦ s✐❞❡ a✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❛♥❣❧❡ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

a
cos α =
c
b
sin α =
c
b sin α
tan α = =
a cos α

❚❤❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ✐s s❡❡♥ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

b r✐s❡
tan α = = = s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤②♣♦t❡♥✉s❡ c ,
a r✉♥
✐❢ s✐❞❡ a ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✿

❙❧♦♣❡s ❛r❡ ❢✉rt❤❡r ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✳

❲❡ ❛❞♦♣t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡♥t✐♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ s✐③❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢✲t✉r♥ ❛♥❣❧❡ ✕ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢✲❝✐r❝❧❡ ✕ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧
t♦ π r❛❞✐❛♥s ✿
180 ❞❡❣r❡❡s = π r❛❞✐❛♥s
❲❡✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡s❡ ✉♥✐ts✿

180
# ❞❡❣r❡❡s = # ♦❢ r❛❞✐❛♥s ·
π

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✶✳✷✿ s❤❛❞♦✇

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♦t❤❡r ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ ❛ st✐❝❦ ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ 1 ❛t t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ α
✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✳
✶✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✵✷

❚❤❡♥✿
• ❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ cos α ❛s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ✐ts s❤❛❞♦✇ ✕ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ❛t ♥♦♦♥ ✭❧❡❢t✮✳
• ❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ sin α ❛s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ✐ts s❤❛❞♦✇ ✕ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧ ❛t s✉♥s❡t ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳
❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱ t❤❡ st✐❝❦ ✐s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ st✐❧❧ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ s✉♥ t❤❛t ✐s ♠♦✈✐♥❣✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✶✳✸✿ r♦t❛t✐♥❣ r♦❞

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ r♦❞ ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ R ✐s r♦t❛t❡❞ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ✐ts ❡♥❞✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥tr♦❧ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡✱ θ✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡
❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐ts ♦t❤❡r ❡♥❞ ✐♥ s♣❛❝❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐ts x ❛♥❞ y ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s❄

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✿

x y
cos θ = ❛♥❞ sin θ = .
R R
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ♦✉r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡s❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

x = R cos θ ❛♥❞ y = R sin θ .

❚❤❡ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❞✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ tr❛❝❡s ♦✉t ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R✿

❚❤✐s ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ ❛s ❛ ❜❛s✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸■❈✲✹✮✳

■♥ ❛ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛♥❣❧❡ α ❝❛♥♥♦t ❣♦ ❜❡②♦♥❞ 90 ❞❡❣r❡❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛❜♦✈❡ ❣✐✈❡ ✉s 1/4 ♦❢ t❤❡
✇❤♦❧❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳ ❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ❜❡②♦♥❞ 90 ❞❡❣r❡❡s✿
◮ ❚❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s♥✬t ❛♥ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ❜✉t t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ r♦t❛t✐♦♥✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1✳
❇❡❧♦✇✱ t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ❛♥❞ r✉♥s ✇✐t❤✐♥ (−∞, +∞) ✐s x✳
❚❤❡ ♦✉t❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✶✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✵✸

❲❡ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐③❡ t❤✐s ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✶✶✳✹✿ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r x ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ ❧✐♥❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ 1 ♦♥
t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✭✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛①✐s ♥♦t ♠❛r❦❡❞ x✮ st❛rt✐♥❣ ❛t 0 ✇✐t❤
❛♥❣❧❡ x r❛❞✐❛♥s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✱ ❝♦✉♥t❡r❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡✳ ❚❤❡♥✿
• ❚❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ♦❢ x ✐s t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t✳
• ❚❤❡ s✐♥❡ ♦❢ x ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t✳

❚❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s x✱ ✐s ❝♦✉♥t❡r❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡ ✭✜rst r♦✇✮✿

x −2π −3π/2 −π −π/2 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π ...
y 0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0 ...

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ❛r❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇✳ ❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = sin x ✕ ♣♦✐♥t ❜② ♣♦✐♥t ✕
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤✐s t❛❜❧❡✿

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r t❛❜❧❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜❧❧ t❤❡ ❣❛♣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤❄ ❲❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢ ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝
❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✺✮✿

  r
α+β 1 − cos α cos β − sin α sin β
sin =±
2 2

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❝♦s✐♥❡✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ❤❛❧❢✇❛② ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ 0 ❛♥❞ π/2✿
  r r r
π 0 + π/2 1 − cos 0 cos π/2 − sin 0 sin π/2 1 − cos 0 cos π/2 − sin 0 sin π/2 1
sin = sin = = = .
4 2 2 2 2

❆t t❤❡ ♥❡①t st❛❣❡✱ ✇❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❝♦s✐♥❡✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ❤❛❧❢ ✇❛②
❜❡t✇❡❡♥ 0 ❛♥❞ π/4✿  
π 0 + π/4
sin = sin = ...
8 2
❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿
✶✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✵✹

❚❤❡ st❡♣s ❛❜♦✈❡✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ ❛r❡✿ π/2✱ π/4✱ π/8✱ ❛♥❞ π/16✳
❲✐t❤ ♠♦r❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❢♦✉♥❞✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡✿

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡s❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t✇♦ ❝✉r✈❡s✱ ♥♦t ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ✜❧❧❡❞✦

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❛❦❡♥ ❝❛r❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❜② 2 st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ π✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ s♦
❝❧♦s❡ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r t❤❛t ✇❤❛t ✐s ❧❡❢t ✐s ❥✉st ✐♥✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ✏❝✉ts✑✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐s sin 1❄
❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ♠❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst st❡♣ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t
sin 0 = 0 ❛♥❞ cos 0 = 1 .
◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s s❡❡♠ t♦ ❝r♦ss t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛t t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ y✳ ▲❡t✬s ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦
❥✉♠♣s✳ ❏✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ 0✿

❲❤❛t ✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ y ✬s❄ ❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t t❤❡② ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ 0✳ ❆♥❞ t❤❡r❡
✐s ♠♦r❡✿
✶✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✵✺

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✶✶✳✺✿ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡ ❆r♦✉♥❞ 0

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim sin xn = 0 ❛♥❞ lim cos xn = 1

n→∞ n→∞

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → 0 ✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❢❛❝ts ❢r♦♠ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr② ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✿

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t s s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1 ✇✐t❤ ❛♥❣❧❡ x✿
• ❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐s sin x✳
• ❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡❞ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐s x✳
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
0 < sin x < x .
■❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ❜② t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡
❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ st✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ♦✉r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥

♦❢ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ✏❧❡♥❣t❤✑ t♦ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s ✈❛❧✐❞ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡
✸✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸■❈✲✸✮✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✶✳✻

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦r❡ s✉❜t❧❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = sin x ❛❧♠♦st ♠❡r❣❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ y=x ❛r♦✉♥❞ 0✿

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts (1/n, sin 1/n) r❡✈❡❛❧s ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 1✿
✶✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✵✻

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ st❛t❡ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✶✶✳✼✿ ❋❛♠♦✉s ▲✐♠✐t ❢♦r ❙✐♥❡

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

sin xn
lim =1
n→∞ xn

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → 0 ✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr② ❢❛❝ts ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤r❡❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡✐r ❛r❡❛s✿

r❡❞ < ♣✉r♣❧❡ < ♦r❛♥❣❡

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ ❢❛❝ts✿

• ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ❜❛s❡ 1 ❛♥❞ ❤❡✐❣❤t h ✐s h/2✳
• ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ s❡❝t♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1 ✇✐t❤ ❛♥❣❧❡ x ✐s x/2✳
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
1 1 1
sin x < x < tan x ,
2 2 2
♦r
sin x < x < tan x .
❲❡ ✢✐♣ ✐t ❛♥❞ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❜② sin x✿
sin x
1> > cos x .
x
❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t cos xn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 1 ✇❤❡♥ xn → 0 ❜② t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ s♦ ❞♦❡s
t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ❜② t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳
✶✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✵✼

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ st✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ♦✉r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥

♦❢ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ✏❛r❡❛✑ t♦ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✐s ✈❛❧✐❞
✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸■❈✲✶✮✳

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = cos x ❛❧♠♦st ♠❡r❣❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ y=1 ✇❤❡♥ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✿

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts (1/n, cos 1/n) s❤♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0✿

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✶✳✶✶✳✽✿ ❋❛♠♦✉s ▲✐♠✐t ❢♦r ❈♦s✐♥❡

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

cos xn − 1
lim =0
n→∞ xn

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → 0 ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✶✳✾

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✶✳✶✵

❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s❄

❆♥ ❛♥❛❧♦❣♦✉s r❡s✉❧t ✐s tr✉❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t✿

✶✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✵✽

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✶✳✶✶✳✶✶✿ ❋❛♠♦✉s ▲✐♠✐t ❢♦r ❚❛♥❣❡♥t

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

tan xn
lim =1
n→∞ xn

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → 0 ✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t cos xn → 1 ❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → 0✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t
❘✉❧❡✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥✜r♠❛t✐♦♥✿
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✷✳✶ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵✾
✷✳✷ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✶✺
✷✳✸ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷✼
✷✳✹ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸✽
✷✳✺ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺✶
✷✳✻ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺✼
✷✳✼ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✻✺
✷✳✽ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✼✶
✷✳✾ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✼✺
✷✳✶✵ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽✻
✷✳✶✶ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✾✹
✷✳✶✷ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✵
✷✳✶✸ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✸

✷✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

■♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✱ ✇❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛ ✈❡r② ❜r✐❡❢ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✳ ❲❡ ❝❤♦s❡ t♦ ❡♥t❡r t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢
♠♦t✐♦♥✳
❆s ✇❡ ❝♦♠♠♦♥❧② t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♣r♦❣r❡ss t❤r♦✉❣❤ ♣❤②s✐❝❛❧ s♣❛❝❡✱ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ s♣❛❝❡ ❛s
✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✮✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♣r♦❣r❡ss
t❤r♦✉❣❤ t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❛s ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs✮✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r
✐s t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛❧❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✦
❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

❇✉t ❤♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ tr❡❛t ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✈❛r✐❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②❄ ❚❤✐s r❡q✉✐r❡s ✉s t♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❛s t❤❡
r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ t♦♦✳ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❝❧❛ss ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✿ r❡❛❧ ✐♥♣✉t ❛♥❞ r❡❛❧ ♦✉t♣✉t✦
✷✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✶✵

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
■♥ t❤❡ ❧♦♥❣ r✉♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❞❡❝✐❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❝✲

❝❛s✐♦♥s ✇❤❛t ❦✐♥❞s ♦❢ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛♥❞ ♦✉t♣✉ts ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ♦✉r ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✈✐❡✇ ♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❆s ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ♠✉st ❜❡ ❛ y ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t ♥❡❝❡ss❛r✐❧② ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✳ ❚❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s ❜✉✐❧t ♦♥
t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ❛s ❛ ❢♦✉♥❞❛t✐♦♥✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✶✳✶✿ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ r✉❧❡ ♦r ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ f t❤❛t ❛ss✐❣♥s t♦ ❛♥② ❡❧❡♠❡♥t x ✐♥ ❛ s❡t X ✱
❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t s❡t ♦r t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ f ✱ ❡①❛❝t❧② ♦♥❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t y ✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡♥
❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❜②
y = f (x)
✐♥ ❛♥♦t❤❡r s❡t Y✳ ♦✉t♣✉t s❡t ♦r t❤❡ ❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢
❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r s❡t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡
f✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛r❡ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐✈❡❧② ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❀ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts ❛r❡
❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐✈❡❧② ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x ✉♥❞❡r
f ✐s y✳

❚❤❡ t❡r♠ ✏✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✑ ✐s ❡①♣❧❛✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✈❛r② t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts x ✇✐t❤✐♥ s❡t X✱ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts y
✇✐❧❧ ✈❛r② ✇✐t❤✐♥ s❡t Y✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ❤❛s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡ ❛rr♦✇s ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡ ✇❤❛t s♣♦rt ❡❛❝❤ ❜♦② ♣r❡❢❡rs✱ ❛♥❞ ❛s ✇❡ ❣♦ ❞♦✇♥ t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ ❜♦②s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✱ t❤❡ ❛rr♦✇
❛✉t♦♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② tr❛❝❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧s ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ s❡t t♦ s❡t

f :X→Y
♦r

f
X −−−−→ Y

■t r❡❛❞s ✏❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❢r♦♠ X t♦

Y ✑✳
✷✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✶✶

■♥ t❤✐s ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ ♣r✐♠❛r✐❧② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✶✳✷✿ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

• ❆ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ❛ s✉❜s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱

X ⊂ R✱ t♦ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿

f : X → R.

• ❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ X ❝♦♥s✐st✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✲

s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣❛r❡✿

• ❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an : X → R✳
✕ ❚❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐s n✱ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ✭ X ⊂ Z✮✳
✕ ❚❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐s y = an ✱ ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

• ❆ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f : X → R✳
✕ ❚❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐s x✱ ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✭ X ⊂ R✮✳
✕ ❚❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐s y = f (x)✱ ❛♥♦t❤❡r r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝❧❛ss ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳

❲❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥s t♦♦✱ s✐❞❡ ❜② s✐❞❡✿

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✈s✳ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

↓
↓
f x ✈s✳ a n
↑ ↑
♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

↓
↓
f 3 =5 ✈s✳ a 3 =5
↑ ↑
✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

●r❛♣❤s ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ✇❛② t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❜✐r❞✬s ❡②❡ ✈✐❡✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ xy✲♣❧❛♥❡ t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② ty = f (x)✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡①♣r❡ss

t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ t❤❡ s❡t✲❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✷✮✿

❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f = {(x, y) : y = f (x)}

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ (x, f (x))✳
❲❡ ✐♥s❡rt ♠♦r❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛s ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡♠✱ t❤❡② st❛rt t♦ ❢♦r♠ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✦
✷✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✶✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✳✸✿ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛s ❝✉r✈❡s

■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ♠♦r❡ ❞❛t❛✱ ✐t ✐s ❝♦♠♠♦♥ t♦ ✜❧❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣❛♣s ✐♥ ❛ ❣r❛♣❤ ✇✐t❤ ❛ str♦❦❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❡♥✿

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡r ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ♠❛❦❡ ❛ ❣✉❡ss✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✳✹✿ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✇❛②s t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛♥❞ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞✿

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ♠♦✈❡ ❢r❡❡❧② ❛♠♦♥❣ t❤❡s❡ tr❡❛t♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❢♦r♠✉❧❛
ց
l ❧✐st ←→ ❣r❛♣❤
ր
♣r♦❣r❛♠

❲❤❡♥ ❛ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ t♦ ✉s ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❛♥② ♣r✐♦r ❜❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ st✐❧❧ s✉♣♣❧② ✐t
✇✐t❤ ❛ t❛♥❣✐❜❧❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ✿
• ❲❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ✐❢ ✐t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✭x t✐♠❡✱ y ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✮✳
• ❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✳
• ❲❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ❧✐♥❡✳
▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ❧❛st ✐t❡♠ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✸✮✿
◮ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❧✐♥❡✳✳✳ ❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✳
✷✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✶✸

❲❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ x✲ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✿

■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ r❛t❤❡r t❤❛♥ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r t♦ ❡❛❝❤

♦t❤❡r✦

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②

y =x+s ❛♥❞ x 7→ x + s

s❤✐❢ts t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ s > 0✱ ❛♥❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ s < 0✿

■t✬s ❛ r✐❣✐❞ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②

y = −x ❛♥❞ x 7→ −x
✐♥t❡r❝❤❛♥❣❡s t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✿

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛ r✐❣✐❞ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳ ❲❤❛t t❤❡s❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ❡❛❝❤ t❛❦❡s t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❜②

t✇♦ s♣♦ts ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❜r✐♥❣ t❤♦s❡ t✇♦ t♦ t❤❡ ❛ss✐❣♥❡❞ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✳
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ✇✐r❡✿
✷✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✶✹

❚❤✐s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

y = |x| ❛♥❞ x 7→ |x| .

❆♥♦t❤❡r t②♣❡ ♦❢ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ str❡t❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ x ❛①✐s ❛s ✐❢ ✐t✬s ❛ r✉❜❜❡r str✐♥❣✱ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②

y =x·k ❛♥❞ x → x·k.

❲❡ ❣r❛❜ ✐t ❜② t❤❡ ❡♥❞s ❛♥❞ ♣✉❧❧ t❤❡♠ ❛♣❛rt✿

❚❤✐s ✐s ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❛ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ str❡t❝❤ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❛♥② t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ❞♦✉❜❧❡s✳ ❲❡ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞
✏str❡t❝❤❡❞ ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r k✑ ❛s ✏s❤r✉♥❦ ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r 1/k ✑✳
❆ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②
f (x) = c ❛♥❞ x 7→ c ,
✐s s❡❡♥ ❛s ❛ ❝♦❧❧❛♣s❡✳

■t s❤r✐♥❦s t♦ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳

❚❤❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♣❡r❢♦r♠❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ✐ts
❣r❛♣❤✿
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✶✺

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛s ✐❢ ✐t ✐s ❛ r♦♣❡ ❛♥❞ ❧✐❢t ✐t ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♣✉s❤
✐t ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② t♦ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✳✺

❈❧❛ss✐❢② t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❞❞ ❡✈❡♥ ♦♥t♦ ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡
f (x) = 2x − 1
g(x) = −x + 2
h(x) = 3

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✳✻

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

r √
x−1 x−1
❛♥❞ √ .
x+1 x+1

✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②

■❢ ♦♥❡ st❛♥❞s ❛t t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝❧✐✛✱ ♦♥❡ s♠❛❧❧ st❡♣ ♠❛② ❧❡❛❞ t♦ ❝❛t❛str♦♣❤✐❝ ❝♦♥s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

❙t❛♥❞✐♥❣ ♦✛ t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥♦t✳ ❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❛♣t✉r❡ t❤✐s ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
(
1 ✐❢ x ≤ 0 ,
f (x) =
0 ✐❢ x > 0 .
❍❡r❡ x ✐s t❤❡ ♣❡rs♦♥✬s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ f (x) ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✶✻

◆♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧ ❛ st❡♣ ✭✐♥ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✮ ✐s ✕ 1, 1/2, 1/3, ..., 1/n, ... ✕ ✐t ✐s ❢❛t❛❧✳
■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✳
■♥ t❤✐s ✈♦❧✉♠❡✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ st✉❞② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♥ ❛ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡✳ ❚❤❛t ✐s ✇❤② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ♠❛② ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛
❞r❛♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♦✉t♣✉t ✐♥ r❡s♣♦♥s❡ t♦ ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✇✐❧❧ ♥♦t ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ❜❡ ❛ s✉❜❥❡❝t ♦❢ ♦✉r
st✉❞②✳ ■♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ t✉r♥ t♦ t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♥ ❛ ❧❛r❣❡ s❝❛❧❡ ❛♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇♦♥✬t ❜❡ ❛s
❜✐❣ ❛ ❝♦♥❝❡r♥✳
❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ❤♦✇ ❛ t✐♥② ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛❦❡ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✈✐✈✐❞ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ✿

❚❤❡ ❛rr♦✇s ♥♦t ♦♥❧② t❡❧❧ ✉s ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❜✉t t❤❡② ❛❧s♦ s✉❣❣❡st ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡
x✲❛①✐s✦
❍❡r❡ ✇❡ s❡❡ ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ s❤✐❢t✐♥❣✱ str❡t❝❤✐♥❣✱ ❛♥❞ s❤r✐♥❦✐♥❣ ❛t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✿

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ t❡❛r✐♥❣ t❤♦✉❣❤✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✶✿ ✐♥t❛❝t x✲❛①✐s
❚❤❡ ❜❛s✐❝ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡✿ s❤✐❢t✐♥❣✱ str❡t❝❤✐♥❣✱ ✢✐♣♣✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛r❡ ♠♦✈❡❞
✐♥ ✉♥✐s♦♥✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛❦❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ♠♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡✳

■♥ ❛ s❤✐❢t✱ ✐❢ x ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❜② p✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s y ✿

✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✶✼

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ str❡t❝❤ ❜② 2 ❛♥❞ ❛ s❤r✐♥❦ ❜② 2✿

■❢ x ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❜② p✱ t❤❡♥ y ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❜② 2p✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✷✿ t❡❛r✐♥❣ ♦❢ x✲❛①✐s

❚❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ t♦r♥ ❜② t❤❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❝♦❧♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❛❜r✉♣t❧② ❛t ♦♥❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✦ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❣❛♣
✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✕ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳

▲❡t✬s ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿ (

x+8 ✇❤❡♥ x > −5 ,
f (x) =
x ✇❤❡♥ x ≤ −5 .
❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ♣♦✐♥t✿ ◆♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧ ❛ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x ❢r♦♠ a = −5 ✐s✱ ✐t ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡
❛ ❧❛r❣❡ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ❢r♦♠ b = f (a) t♦ y = f (x)✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✸✿ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦❧❧❛♣s❡s t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s t♦ t❤r❡❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✿

❚❤✐s ♠❛② ❜❡ ♦✉r ♠❛✐♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ ❊✈❡♥ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡st st❡♣ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ 0 ✇✐❧❧ ❝❤❛♥❣❡
t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ f (0) = 0 t♦ y = f (x) = ±1 ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✳✹

❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ✈❛❧✉❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ s♦♠❡ ✏♣♦♦r❧② ❜❡❤❛✈❡❞✑✱ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❙✉❝❤ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ ❛t ❧❡❛st
♦♥❡ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ♣♦✐♥t✿

◮ ◆♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧ ❛ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t x ❢r♦♠ a ✐s✱ ✐t ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ ❧❛r❣❡ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢
t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t y = f (x) ❢r♦♠ b = f (a)✳
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✶✽

❙♦✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡❄ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ♠❡❛♥ ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ y ♦♥ x ✉♥❞❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f✿
◮ ❆ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t x ❢r♦♠ a ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t y = f (x)
❢r♦♠ b = f (a)✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✺✿ ❜❛s✐❝ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡ ❝♦❧♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♥❡✈❡r ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❛❜r✉♣t❧②✦

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ❣❛♣s✦

❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❡s ❛r❡ ✉❜✐q✉✐t♦✉s ✐♥ ♥❛t✉r❡✿

• ❚❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t✐♠❡✳

• ❚❤❡ ♣r❡ss✉r❡ ✐♥ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥❡r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡✳

• ❚❤❡ ❛✐r r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜ ❥❡❝t✱ ❡t❝✳

■t ✐s ♦✉r ❣♦❛❧ t♦ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ✐♥ ❢✉❧❧ ❛♥❞ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t ♦✉r ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ t♦♦❧s ♠❛t❝❤ t❤❡ ♣❡r❝❡✐✈❡❞

r❡❛❧✐t②✳

❲❡ t❛❦❡ ❛ ❜❡tt❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ✳

❲❡ ♠❛❦❡ ✈✐s✐❜❧❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ t❤❛t ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x ❢r♦♠ a ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦❢ y = f (x)
❢r♦♠ b = f (a)✿
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✶✾

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✭s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r✮ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ x ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ y ✭❛❧s♦ s♠❛❧❧❡r
❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r✮✳

■t ✐s r❡✈❡❛❧❡❞ t❤❛t ♦✉r ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ t♦♦❧ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✻✿ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = sign(x) ❤❛s ❛ ✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❣❛♣ ❛t x = 0✿

❚❤✐s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ s❤♦✇s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ y ♦♥ x ❢❛✐❧s✿ ❙t❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ x = 0✱ ❡✈❡♥
t❤❡ t✐♥✐❡st ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✱ s❛②✱ x = .0001✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ❥✉♠♣ ✐♥ y ❢r♦♠ sign(0) = 0 t♦ sign(.0001) = 1✳
❲❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤✐s ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s
t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ 0✿
lim xn = 0 .
n→∞

❋✐rst✱ tr② xn = 1/n✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

 
1
lim sign = lim 1 = 1 .
n→∞ n n→∞

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t xn = −1/n❄ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

 
1
lim sign − = lim (−1) = −1 .
n→∞ n n→∞

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❞♦♥✬t ♠❛t❝❤✦ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡✈❡♥ ❡①✐st ❛s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r
✶✿  
(−1)n
lim sign = lim (−1)n , ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t.
n→∞ n n→∞

❆❧❧ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥ts ❛t ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✼✿ ❥✉♠♣ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②

❆ ♠♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✈✐❡✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✏❥✉♠♣ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✑ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❖♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡s❡ x✬s t❤❛t ❛r❡ ✏❝❧♦s❡✑ t♦ a ❞♦♥✬t ❛❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ y ✬s ✏❝❧♦s❡✑ t♦ f (a)✳
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✷✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✽✿ r♦♣❡

❖♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❧ ✇❛②s t♦ s♣❡❛❦ ❛❜♦✉t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✐s t♦ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✏♠❛❞❡
♦❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣✐❡❝❡✑✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛s ❛ r♦♣❡✿

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✐t ❧♦♦❦s ✐♥t❛❝t✱ t❤❡r❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❛♥ ✐♥✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❝✉t t❤❛t ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ ♣✉❧❧ ✐t ❛♣❛rt✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✾✿ ❝✉ts ✐♥ ❣r❛♣❤s

▲❡t✬s ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r♦✉♥❞ a = 1✿

x2 − 1
f (x) = ❛♥❞ g(x) = x + 1 .
x−1
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → 1 ❛s n→∞ ✭s✉❝❤ ❛s 1 + 1/n✮✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ x✬s✳ ❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s
t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ y ✬s❄

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② t❤✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✿

x2n − 1 0
lim f (xn ) = lim → ? ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉
n→∞ x→1 xn − 1 0
(xn − 1)(xn + 1)
= lim
n→∞ xn − 1
= lim (xn + 1)
n→∞

= lim xn + 1
n→∞

= 2.

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ t♦♦✿

lim g(xn ) = lim (xn + 1) = lim xn + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 .

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❛❧♠♦st t❤❡ s❛♠❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s s❡❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡✐r ❣r❛♣❤s ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❚♦ ❡♠♣❤❛s✐③❡
t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ ❛ ❧✐tt❧❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ t♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡ t❤❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t✿
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✷✶

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❣r❛♣❤✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❛s ❛ r♦♣❡✱ ✇❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❣r❛♣❤ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ t✇♦ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ♣✐❡❝❡s✦ ❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❝✉t ✐s
✐♥✈✐s✐❜❧② t❤✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣✉❧❧ t❤❡ ♣✐❡❝❡s ❛♣❛rt✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣✐❡❝❡❀ ✐t ✐s ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ✏❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✑✳
❆ ❧✐❣❤t ❜r❡❡③❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❧♦✇ ❛♣❛rt t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ♠♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿

❚❤❡ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❣r❛♣❤ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s ❡❛s② t♦ ✏r❡♣❛✐r✑ ✭❣❧✉❡✱ s♦❧❞❡r✱ ✇❡❧❞✱ ❡t❝✳✮ ❜② ❛❞❞✐♥❣ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡
♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡ ❥✉♠♣ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✐s ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❡①tr❡♠❡✱ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②❀ ✐t ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ✜①❡❞✳

❚❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s t❡❛❝❤ ✉s ❛ ❧❡ss♦♥✳ ●✐✈❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛♥❞ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t a✱ ✇❤❡r❡ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ❝♦♥s✐sts
♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ♣❛rts✿

✶✳ t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ x < a✱

✷✳ t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ x=a ✭♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t✮✱ ❛♥❞

✸✳ t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ x > a✳

❋♦r t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣❛rts ✭t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣✐❡❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦♣❡ ❛♥❞ ❛ ❞r♦♣ ♦❢ ❣❧✉❡✮ ❤❛✈❡ t♦
✜t t♦❣❡t❤❡r✿

❍♦✇❄ ❲❡ r❡q✉✐r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐st ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ♣❧❛❝❡✿

xn < a
lim f (xn ) = f (a) ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a ✇✐t❤ .
n→∞ xn > a

❆♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t a✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❣✉❡ss t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t❤❛t ❛❧t❡r♥❛t❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ s✐❞❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡ t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt②✳ ❙♦✱ ❢♦r
s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t②✱ ✇❡ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❛❧❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ a ✐♥ ❛♥② ♠❛♥♥❡r✿
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✷✷

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✷✳✶✵✿ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t x=a ✇❤❡♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t x=a
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❜❡❧♦✇ ❡①✐sts ❛♥❞ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t a✿

lim f (xn ) = f (a)

n→∞

❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞
❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳
❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✏s❛♠♣❧❡❞✑ ❜② ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♥♣✉ts t♦ s❡❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts✿

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✐s ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✶✶✿ ❧♦❣✐❝

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣❤r❛s❡✿
◮ ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✳
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✇✐❧❧ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
◮ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ◆❖❚ s❛t✐s✜❡❞✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❛ ✏t❡st✑ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥ ❛♥❞ s✉❜❥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳ ■❢ ✐t
❢❛✐❧s✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ■❢ ✐t ♣❛ss❡❞✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ tr② ❛♥♦t❤❡r✱ ❛♥❞ ♠❛②❜❡ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡♠✳

❲❤❡r❡ ❞♦ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠❄

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❡♠ ✐♥ ♥❛t✉r❡ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ✉s✿

• ❲❡ ✇❛❧❦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ✕ ✉♥t✐❧ ✇❡ ❢❛❧❧ ♦✛ ❛ ❝❧✐✛✳

• ❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ ♣r❡ss✉r❡ ✐♥ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥❡r ✕ ✉♥t✐❧ ✐t ❡①♣❧♦❞❡s✳

• ❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ✐❝❡ ✕ ✉♥t✐❧ ✐t ♠❡❧ts✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② r♦✉t✐♥❡❧② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ ❤✉♠❛♥ ❛✛❛✐rs ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡s ❛r❡ ♦❢t❡♥ ❞❡s✐❣♥❡❞ t♦
❜❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ✿ ❨❡s ♦r ◆♦✱ ❛❧❧ ♦r ♥♦t❤✐♥❣✱ ❡t❝✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✶✷✿ ❣r❛❞❡s

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡s ✐♥ ❛ ✉♥✐✈❡rs✐t② ❡♥✈✐r♦♥♠❡♥t✳ ❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ♣❛ss✴❢❛✐❧✳ ❚❤❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡
❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ ②♦✉r t♦t❛❧ ✭♦r ❛✈❡r❛❣❡✮ s❝♦r❡✳ ❆ t❤r❡s❤♦❧❞ ✐s t②♣✐❝❛❧❧② ❛ss✐❣♥❡❞✿ ■❢ t❤❡ s❝♦r❡ ✐s ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐t✱
②♦✉ ♣❛ss❀ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡ ②♦✉ ❢❛✐❧ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ ❝❧♦s❡ ②♦✉ ❛r❡✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✦

❯s✐♥❣ ❧❡tt❡r ❣r❛❞❡s r❡❧✐❡✈❡ t❤✐s s♦♠❡✇❤❛t✱ ❜✉t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ st✐❧❧ t❤r❡s❤♦❧❞s✦ ❚❤❡② ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✷✸

❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ✉s❡ A−✱ B+✱ ❡t❝✳

●❡♥❡r❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦♥❧② ❛ ❢❡✇ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts ✭t❤❡ ❧❡tt❡r ❣r❛❞❡s✮ ❜✉t t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✭t❤❡ s❝♦r❡✮ ✐s ❛♥

❛r❜✐tr❛r② r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❚♦ tr② t♦ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❝♦r❡✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✇

❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s t❤❛t ♠✉st ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

✇✐t❤ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❣r❛♣❤✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✶✸✿ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ❛♥❞ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥❛❧ ♣❛rt

❆ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ✉s❡❢✉❧ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦✳ ❋✐rst ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ♣❛rt ✿

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐s t❤❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥❛❧ ♣❛rt ✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✶✹✿ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ t❛①

❆ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❝❛r❡ ❤❛s t♦ ❜❡ t❛❦❡♥ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❡♥s✉r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ t❤❛t ❞❡❛❧s

✇✐t❤ t❛①❡s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✳ ❍②♣♦t❤❡t✐❝❛❧❧②✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ t❛① ❝♦❞❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡

❜r❛❝❦❡ts ♦❢ ✐♥❝♦♠❡✿

• ■❢ ②♦✉r ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ✐s ❧❡ss t❤❛♥$10000✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ t❛①✳

• ■❢ ②♦✉r ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ✐s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ $10000 ❛♥❞ $20000✱ t❤❡ t❛① r❛t❡ ✐s 10%✳
• ■❢ ②♦✉r ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ✐s ♦✈❡r $20000✱ t❤❡ t❛① r❛t❡ ✐s 20%✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡①♣r❡ss t❤✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ x ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ❛♥❞ y = f (x) ✐s t❤❡ t❛① r❛t❡✱ t❤❡♥


0
 ✐❢ x ≤ 10000 ,

f (x) = .10 ✐❢ 10000 < x ≤ 20000 ,



.20 ✐❢ 20000 < x .
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✷✹

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❲❡ s❡❡ ✇❤② t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦♥❝❡ ✇❡ tr② t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ②♦✉r ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ❤❛s r✐s❡♥
❢r♦♠ $10, 000 t♦ $10, 001✳ ❚❤❡♥ ②♦✉r t❛① ❜✐❧❧ r✐s❡s ❢r♦♠ $0 t♦ $1, 000✦

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜① t❤✐s❄ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❛ss✉r❡ t❤❛t ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝❛✉s❡ ♦♥❧② ❛ s♠❛❧❧❡r
✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛① ❜✐❧❧✳ ❚❤✐s r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞✿ ❆ ✏s♠❛❧❧✑ ❝❤❛♥❣❡
✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✭t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡✮ ✇✐❧❧ ❝❛✉s❡ ♦♥❧② ❛ ✏s♠❛❧❧✑ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✭t❤❡ t❛① ❜✐❧❧✮✳

❲❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ st❛②s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❜r❛❝❦❡ts✳ ❚❤❡
✐ss✉❡ ❛r✐s❡s ♦♥❧② ❛t t❤❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✇❛② s❤♦✇♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳ ❚❤❡
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛✇ ❝♦rr❡❝t❧②✳ ❚❤❡ t❛① r❛t❡ ✐s ✏♠❛r❣✐♥❛❧✑❀
✐✳❡✳✱ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ t❛① r❛t❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ t❤❛t ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❜r❛❝❦❡t ❛♥❞ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡
♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ♠❡❛♥t t♦ ❜❡ ❛❞❞❡❞ t♦❣❡t❤❡r t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ②♦✉r t❛① ❜✐❧❧ ❧✐❛❜✐❧✐t②✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ t❛① ❜✐❧❧ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥❝♦♠❡✿


0
 ✐❢ x ≤ 10000 ,
g(x) = .10 · (x − 10000) ✐❢ 10000 < x ≤ 20000 ,


.10 · (x − 10000) + .20 · (x − 20000) ✐❢ 20000 < x .

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

• ■❢ xn → 10000 ❛♥❞ x ≤ 10000✱ t❤❡♥ g(xn ) = 0 → 0 ✳
• ■❢ xn → 10000 ❛♥❞ x > 10000✱ t❤❡♥ g(xn ) = .1(xn − 10000) → 0 ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✳✶✺

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛❜♦✈❡ s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥ts✳ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢
❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✳✶✻

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ✇❡❧❢❛r❡ ♣❛②♠❡♥t ♦❢ $1000 t♦ ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ✐♥❝♦♠❡
❜❡❧♦✇ $5000✳

❊✈❡♥ ♠♦r❡ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ❛r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✶✼✿ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ❛t 0

❚❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
1
g(x) =
x
❤❛s ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❣❛♣ ❛t x = 0✿
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✷✺

❍❡r❡✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ x ❢r♦♠ 0 ❞✐✛❡r ✐♥ s✐❣♥✱ t❤❡ ❥✉♠♣ ✐♥ y ♠❛② ❜❡ ✈❡r② ❧❛r❣❡✿
1 1
❢r♦♠ = −10000 t♦ = 10000 .
−.0001 .0001
❆ s✐♠♣❧❡ t❡st s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s xn = 1/n✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
yn = g(xn ) = 1/xn = 1/(1/n) = n → +∞ .

❚❤❡ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✐s ♣r♦✈❡♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✶✽✿ sin(1/x) ❛t 0

❚❤❡ s✐♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧  
1
g(x) = sin
x
♦s❝✐❧❧❛t❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s ❛s x ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s 0✿

❍❡r❡✱ ❛ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x ❢r♦♠ 0 ♠❛② ✉♥♣r❡❞✐❝t❛❜❧② ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛♥② ♥✉♠❜❡r ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ −1 ❛♥❞ 1✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥
❣✉❡ss t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t 0✦

❚♦ ❛♣♣r❡❝✐❛t❡ t❤✐s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✈✐❡✇✱ ✐t ✐s ✐♠♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❛tt❛❝❤ t❤✐s ❣r❛♣❤
t♦ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t ♠❛② ❜❡✳ ❆ s✐♠♣❧❡ t❡st s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s xn = 1/n✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
 
1
lim yn = lim g(xn ) = lim sin = lim sin n ❉◆❊.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ 1/n n→∞

❚❤❡ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✐s ♣r♦✈❡♥✳

■♥ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

h(x) = x sin (1/x)
❛❧s♦ ♦s❝✐❧❧❛t❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s ❛s ✇❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ 0✳ ❨❡t✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♦s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥s
❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤❡s✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥② t❡st s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❡①✐sts ✭✐t✬s 0✦✮✿
✷✳✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✶✷✻

❉♦❡s t❤✐s ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❄ ◆♦✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s st✐❧❧ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ❛t 0✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡
t✇♦ ♦s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♥❣ ❜r❛♥❝❤❡s ❛r❡ ❞❡t❛❝❤❡❞✳ ▲❡t✬s ❣❧✉❡ t❤❡♠ t♦❣❡t❤❡r✳ ❲❡ s✐♠♣❧② ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
(
x sin (1/x) ✐❢ x 6= 0 ,
f (x) =
0 ✐❢ x = 0 .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✷✳✶✾✿ ♥♦✇❤❡r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s

❚❤❡ ❉✐r✐❝❤❧❡t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦✇❤❡r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✦ ■t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜②✿

(
1 ✐❢ x ✐s ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r,
IQ (x) =
0 ✐❢ x ✐s ❛♥ ✐rr❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r.

■♥ ❛♥ ❛tt❡♠♣t t♦ ♣❧♦t ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❞r❛✇ t✇♦ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ s✐♠♣❧② ♣♦✐♥t ♦✉t s♦♠❡
♦❢ t❤❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ ❡✐t❤❡r✿

■❢ ✇❡ ✇❡r❡ t♦ ♣❧♦t ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts✱ ✇❡✬❞ ❤❛✈❡ ✇❤❛t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛ ❧✐❣❤t
❜r❡❡③❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❧♦✇ t❤❡♠ ❛♣❛rt✿
✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✷✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✳✷✵

❉✐s❝✉ss ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t❡①t✿

✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s

❚❤❡ s✉❜❥❡❝t ♦❢ ♦✉r st✉❞② ✐s ❝❧❡❛r ♥♦✇✿ ■t ✐s s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❲❡ ❛s❦✱ ✇❤❛t ❢❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ✇♦♥✬t ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛r ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ ♠✉❝❤ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ✐♥❄

❖♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦st ❝r✉❝✐❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r✐t② ♦❢ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✿ ■s t❤❡r❡ ❛ ❜r❡❛❦ ♦r ❛ ❝✉t❄

■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✱ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ st✉❞② ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ t②♣✐❝❛❧❧② ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t♦ ❣❡t ❢r♦♠ ♣♦✐♥t A t♦ ♣♦✐♥t B✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦
✈✐s✐t ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ A ❛♥❞ B✿

■❢ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❥✉♠♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐t ❝❛♥✬t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ♠♦t✐♦♥✦

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✐❢ ✐t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s t❡❛r✐♥❣✳

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✇❤❛t ✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣ t♦ y = f (x) ✇❤❡♥ x ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ❝❤♦s❡♥ ♣♦✐♥t
x = a✳
❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ t♦♦❧ ✇✐t❤ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ t❡st t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡✿

◮ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ xn → a ✱ ❜✉t ♥❡✈❡r ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ✐t✱ an 6= a✳

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ f ♦♥ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ✏❧✐❢t✑ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s
t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❧♦♦❦ ❢♦r ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ♦❢ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿
✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✷✽

◮ ❉♦ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛❝❝✉♠✉❧❛t❡ t♦ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤❄

❙✐♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❞♦ ❛❝❝✉♠✉❧❛t❡ ✭t♦ x = a✮✱ t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥

❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ y ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✿ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✕ t❤r❡❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦rs

▲❡t✬s st✉❞② t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t a = 0✿
1
f (x) = sin x, g(x) = , h(x) = sin(1/x) .
x
❚❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ❢♦r ❛ t❡st s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

1
xn = → 0.
n
❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ x✬s ❣✐✈❡s ✉s ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ y ✬s✳ ❲❡

❤❛✈❡ t❤r❡❡✱ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

 
1 1
an = cos(1/n), bn = , cn = sin .
1/n 1/n

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞✳ ❲❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s t♦ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ t♦ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿ ❲❡ ♣❧♦t xn ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ t❤❡♥ (xn , yn ) ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱ ❛♥❞ yn ♦♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✳

❍❡r❡ ✐s f (x) = sin x✿

❲❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s xn ❛♥❞ yn ❧♦♦❦ ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r✳

❍❡r❡ ✐s g(x) = 1/x✿

✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✷✾

❲❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t xn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0 ❜✉t yn ❣♦❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳

❍❡r❡ ✐s h(x) = sin (1/x)✿

❲❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t xn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0 ❜✉t yn ❧♦♦❦s r❛♥❞♦♠❧② s♣r❡❛❞ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [−1, 1]✳

❆♥❞ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡s❡ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❡①♣❧♦r❡ t❤❡♠ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✿

an = sin(1/n) → 0, bn = n → ∞, cn = sin(n) ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t.

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❤♦✇ t♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❛t ✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣ t♦ y = f (x) ❛s x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ a ✐s t♦ ♣✐❝❦ ❛
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s a✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ xn → a✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿
lim f (xn ) = ?
n→∞

■❢ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✱

yn = f (xn ) ,

❛s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛s ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✳

❆ s✐♥❣❧❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♠✐❣❤t ♥♦t ❜❡ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ t❤♦✉❣❤✦
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✷✿ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❏✉st ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛✐❧✉r❡ ♦❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t♦ t❡❧❧ ✉s ✇❤❛t ✐s ❣♦✐♥❣ ♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
sign ❛r♦✉♥❞ 0✳

❲❡ tr② xn = −1/n ❛♥❞ xn = 1/n✿

lim sign(−1/n) = −1, ❜✉t lim sign(1/n) = 1 ,

n→∞ n→∞

❛s ✇❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ 0 ❢r♦♠ ♦♥❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❞♦♥✬t ♠❛t❝❤✦ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t s✉❣❣❡sts
t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ sign(x) s✐♠♣❧② ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st ❛t t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ tr❡♥❞✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✸

❲❤❛t t❡st s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄
✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✸✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✹✿ s✐♥❡ ♦❢ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧

❆♥♦t❤❡r ❢❛✐❧✉r❡ ✐s ♦❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❡st ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
 
1
lim sin = lim sin n ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✱
n→∞ 1/n n→∞

❜✉t
1
lim sin = lim sin(πn) = lim 0 = 0 ❞♦❡s✳
n→∞ πn n→∞ n→∞

❍❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✜✈❡ t❤❛t ♣❛ss ✭❧❡❢t✮ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ t❤❛t ❢❛✐❧s ✭r✐❣❤t✮✿

❲❡ tr② t♦ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ ❛❧❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ a ❛♥❞ ❡♥s✉r❡ t❤❡② ❛❧❧ ✐♥❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r
❢r♦♠ f ✳

❲❡ ✜♥❛❧❧② s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❤❡r❡✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✸✳✺✿ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t x = a ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ✐ts
❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ f ❡①❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ a t❤❛t
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ a✱
xn → a ✇✐t❤ xn 6= a ,
✇❤❡♥ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐st✱ ✜♥✐t❡ ♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✿

yn = f (xn ) → L .

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ s❡t t❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛s✐❞❡ ❢♦r ❛ ♠♦♠❡♥t✱ t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ r❡♠❛✐♥s t❤❡
s❛♠❡✿ ❲❡ t❡st t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ■❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ x✬s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
♦❢ y ✬s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦♦❄ ❚❤❛t✬s ❛ t❡st✿
✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✸✶

❇✉t t❤❡② ❛❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♣❛ss ✐t✳ ❆♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✻✿ ✏❢♦r ❛♥② ✳✳✳ t❤❡r❡ ✐s✑

❲❡ s❤♦✉❧❞♥✬t ❝♦♥❢✉s❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❝♦♥str✉❝ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳ ■t ✐s✿
◮ ❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳✳✳
❛♥❞ ♥♦t
◮ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳✳✳
❚❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✳

❚❤❡ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣♠❡♥t✱ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❛t ❢♦r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳
❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤❡❞ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✇❡ r❡❧② ♦♥ t❤♦s❡ ❢♦r t❤❡
❧❛tt❡r✳

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❥✉st✐❢② ✏t❤❡✑ ✐♥ ✏t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✑✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ♣r♦♣❡rt②
❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ r❡❛s♦♥ t♦ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ♠✉st ❜❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✸✳✼✿ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

■❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✉♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

f (x) → L ❛s x→a
❛♥❞

lim f (x) = L .
x→a

■t r❡❛❞s ✏t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ f (x) ❛s

x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ a ✐s L✑✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ✉s❡ ♦❢ ✏ f (x) → L ❛s x → a✑ ♠✐❣❤t ♠✐s❧❡❛❞

♦♥❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤✐♥❦✐♥❣ t❤❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛rts ❛r❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✱
✇❤✐❧❡ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t f (x) ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ L ❜✉t x ❝❛♥♥♦t
❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ a✳ ❙♦♠❡ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

f (x) → L ❛s x → a6= .

❲❡ ✉s❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ✭✐♥✜♥✐t②✮✿

■♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

f (x) → ±∞ ❛s x→a
♦r

lim f (x) = ±∞ .
x→a

■t r❡❛❞s ✏t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ f (x) ❛s

x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ a ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✑✳
✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✸✷

❲❡ r❡st❛t❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿

L = lim f (x) ❆◆❉ M = lim f (x) =⇒ L = M

x→a x→a

❚❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t② ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ tr❡♥❞✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ st❛rts ✇✐t❤ ✏ ❚❍❊❘❊ ■❙ ❛
♥✉♠❜❡r a✳✳✳✑✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❛② t❤❛t ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t✿

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st

lim f (x), ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t

x→a
♦r
lim f (x) ❉◆❊✳
x→a

■t r❡❛❞s ✏t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ f (x) ❛s

x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ a ❞♦❡s ♥♦t
❡①✐st✑✳

❇❡❧♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ❡①✐st❀ ✐t✬s ❥✉st ♥♦t ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✇❛② t♦ ❡①♣r❡ss ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✸✳✽✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✈✐❛ ▲✐♠✐t

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t a✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❛t

a ❡①✐sts ❛♥❞ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t a✿

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✾✿ ❧✐♠✐ts ❢r♦♠ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②

■❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s tr✐✈✐❛❧✿

lim 3x3 + 2x2 + 1 = 3x3 + 2x2 + 1 x=3

= 3 · 33 + 2 · 32 + 1
x→3
2 2 2
lim ex = ex x=π
= eπ
x→π
lim sin x = sin x x=−1
= sin(−1)
x→−1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✵✿ t❤r❡❡ t❡st s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ✏t❡st s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✑✿

1 1 (−1)n
xn = , yn = − , zn = .
n n n
✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✸✸

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ f (x) = x2 ❛t a = 0✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

1
lim f (xn ) = lim f (yn ) = lim f (zn ) = lim = 0.
x→a x→a x→a x→0 n2

❆s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥✱ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✿

 
1
lim sin ✱ ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t✳
x→0 x

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ st❛rt t♦ ✜❧❧ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [−1, 1] ❛s ✇❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ 0✿

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❜② x✱ t❤❡ s✇✐♥❣s ✇✐❧❧ st❛rt t♦ ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❛② t♦ 0✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✿  
1
lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
▲❡t✬s ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r y = sign(x)✿
1
xn = (−1)n .
n
❚❤❡♥✱ (
1 ✐❢ x ✐s ❡✈❡♥,
sign(xn ) =
−1 ✐❢ x ✐s ♦❞❞.
❚❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❢❛✐❧s✱ ❛♥❞ lim sign(x) ❞♦❡s♥✬t
x→0
❡①✐st✳

❆♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ ❝♦♠❡ t♦ t❤✐s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ ♦♥❡ s✐❞❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

 
1
lim sign − = lim −1 = −1 ,
n→∞
 n n→∞
1
lim sign = lim 1 = 1.
n→∞ n n→∞

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ t❤❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ❢❛✐❧s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❛t✬s ✇❤② lim sign(x) ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✳
x→0

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ y = sign(x) ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✱ ✇❤❡♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✱ ✐s ✈❡r② r❡❣✉❧❛r✳
✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✸✹

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞✱ ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s t❤❡② st❛② ♦♥ ♦♥❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿
• ■❢ xn → 0 ❛♥❞ xn < 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✱ t❤❡♥ lim sign(xn ) = −1✳
n→∞

• ■❢ xn → 0 ❛♥❞ xn > 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✱ t❤❡♥ lim sign(xn ) = 1✳

n→∞

❚♦ t❛❦❡ ❛❞✈❛♥t❛❣❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐♥s✐❣❤t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ❡✐t❤❡r t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t
♦❢ x = a ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛rs ♦r t❤❡ ♣❛rt t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❞♦❡s✿

❲❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✸✳✶✶✿ ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ r✐❣❤t
• ❚❤❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t x = a ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡
❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t
t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ lim f (xn )✱ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ❧✐♠✐t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s xn ✇✐t❤
n→∞

xn → a ❛s n → ∞, ❛♥❞ xn < a ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n ,

✇❤❡♥ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐st ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳
• ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t x = a ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡
t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ lim f (xn )✱ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ❧✐♠✐t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s xn ✇✐t❤
n→∞

xn → a ❛s n → ∞, ❛♥❞ xn > a ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n ,

✇❤❡♥ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐st ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳
❖t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✳
❈♦❧❧❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡str✐❝t❡❞ t♦ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ♦r t♦ t❤❡
r✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✿
▲✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✿ lim f (x) x<a − − −◦
x→a−
▲✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✿ lim+ f (x) x>a ◦ − −−
x→a

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✉s❡❞✿

❖♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts

▲❡❢t✿ lim f (x)

x→a−
❘✐❣❤t✿ lim f (x)
x→a+

• ❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ a− s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♦❢ t❤❡ t②♣❡ a − ε ✇✐t❤ ε > 0✳
• ❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ a+ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♦❢ t❤❡ t②♣❡ a + ε ✇✐t❤ ε > 0✳
✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✸✺

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❙♦♠❡ s♦✉r❝❡s ❛❧s♦ ✉s❡ lim f (x) ❛♥❞ lim f (x)✳
xրa xցa

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✏♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞✑ ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ❋♦r t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✱ ✏t✇♦✲s✐❞❡❞✑ ❧✐♠✐t✱ t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✱ ❞♦ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✕ ❧❡❢t
❛♥❞ r✐❣❤t ✕ ❧✐♠✐ts ♠❛t❝❤❄

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✸✳✶✷✿ ▲✐♠✐t ✐♥ ❚❡r♠s ♦❢ ❖♥❡✲❙✐❞❡❞ ▲✐♠✐ts

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❡①✐sts ■❋ ❆◆❉ ❖◆▲❨ ■❋ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞

❢r♦♠ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❜♦t❤ ❡①✐st ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim f (x) ❡①✐sts ⇐⇒ lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) .

x→a x→a x→a

■♥ t❤❛t ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) .

x→a x→a x→a

Pr♦♦❢✳
❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t lim f (xn ) ❡①✐sts ❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a ❛♥❞ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳ ■♥
n→∞
♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ t❤✐s ✐s tr✉❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❧✐♠✐t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡s ❛❧❧ ❧❛r❣❡r t❤❛♥ a ❛♥❞ ❛❧❧ s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ a✳
❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✐s ♦♠✐tt❡❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✸✿ ♣✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡✲❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿


2 − x
 ✐❢ x < −1 ,
f (x) = x ✐❢ − 1 < x < 1,

(x − 1)2

✐❢ x > 1.

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t lim f (x) ❡①✐sts ❢♦r ❛❧❧ a ❡①❝❡♣t a = −1, 1✳ ❲❤✐❧❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ✇❡ ♣✐❝❦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t
x→a
❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡✿

lim f (x) = lim − (2 − x) = (2 − (−1)) = 3 lim f (x) = lim + x = −1

x→−1− x→−1 x→−1+ x→−1
lim f (x) = lim − x =1 lim f (x) = lim+ (1 − x)2 = (1 − 1)2 = 0
x→1− x→−1 x→1+ x→1

❙♦✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ❜r❛♥❝❤❡s✱ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✸✻

❚❤✐s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✇❛s ❛❜♦✉t ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ✇❛② ❛r♦✉♥❞✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✹✿ ❢r♦♠ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ ❣r❛♣❤s

●✐✈❡♥ t❤✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t f ✱ ♣❧♦t ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✿

lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = −1 f (0) ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞

x→0− x→0+
lim f (x) = 0 lim f (x) = 1 f (3) = 1
x→3− x→3+

❲❡ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

• ❆s x → 0− ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ y → 1 ✳
• ❆s x → 0+ ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ y → −1 ✳
• ❆s x → 3− ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ y → 0 ✳
• ❆s x → 3+ ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ y → 1 ✳
❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❜❡❧♦✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ f ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✿

■❢ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣✐♥❣ t♦ a ✕ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ✕ ✇❡ s❡❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s s❤r✐♥❦✐♥❣ t♦✇❛r❞s a✿

❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❢✉❧❧② ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② ✐ts t❛✐❧✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t a ✐s
❢✉❧❧② ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ t❛✐❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ f (xn ) ✇❤❡♥ xn → a✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② s❡❡ t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ f ✐♥ t❤❡
✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ✕ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧ ✕ ♦❢ a✱ ✇❡ st✐❧❧ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t lim f (x)✿
x→a
✷✳✸✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ s♠❛❧❧ s❝❛❧❡ tr❡♥❞s ✶✸✼

❚❤✐s ✐s ♦✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✸✳✶✺✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❆r❡ ▲♦❝❛❧

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❛t

❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t a✿

f (x) = g(x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ a − ε < x < a + ε, x 6= a ,

❢♦r s♦♠❡ ε > 0✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r ❧✐♠✐ts ❛t a ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ t♦♦✿

lim f (x) = lim g(x) ,

x→a x→a

✉♥❧❡ss ♥❡✐t❤❡r ❡①✐sts✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✻

❘❡st❛t❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✼

❙t❛t❡ ❛♥ ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛♥❞ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t a✱ ✇❤❡r❡ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ♣❛rts✿
✶✳ t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ x < a✱
✷✳ t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ x = a ✭♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t✮✱ ❛♥❞
✸✳ t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ x > a✳
❋♦r t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣❛rts ✭t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣✐❡❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦♣❡ ❛♥❞ ❛ ❞r♦♣ ♦❢ ❣❧✉❡✮ ❤❛✈❡ t♦
✜t t♦❣❡t❤❡r✿
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✸✽

❲❡ ♣✉t t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t❤❛t r❡❧✐❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ♦❢ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐t✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✸✳✶✽✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✈✐❛ ❖♥❡✲❙✐❞❡❞ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t a✱ t❤❡ t✇♦

♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐st ❛♥❞ ❜♦t❤ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t a✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim f (x) = f (a) = lim+ f (x) .

x→a− x→a

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✾

▼❛❦❡ ❛ ❤❛♥❞✲❞r❛✇♥ s❦❡t❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ ✐ts ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✿


 −3 ✐❢ x < 0,
f (x) = x2 ✐❢ 0 ≤ x < 1,

x ✐❢ x > 1.

✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ❢♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ a ✐s ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❤♦s❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ → lim → ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r

x→a

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✶

❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ ✈✐rt✉❛❧❧② ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t ❧✐♠✐ts

♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✷✿ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ an → a ❛♥❞ bn → b✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

❙❘✿ an + bn → a + b ❈▼❘✿ c · an → c · a ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c

P❘✿ an · bn → a · b ◗❘✿ an /bn → a/b ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ b 6= 0

Pr❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✈❡r❜❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥s✿

• ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✿ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳

• ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ✿ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳

• Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ✿ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳

• ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ✿ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s t❤❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡

❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s♥✬t ③❡r♦✳

✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✸✾

❊❛❝❤ ♣r♦♣❡rt② ✐s ♠❛t❝❤❡❞ ❜② ✐ts ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛♥❛❧♦❣s ❢♦r t❤❡ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞
❧✐♠✐ts✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡ ❛♥❛❧♦❣s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s ❢♦r ♥✉♠❡r♦✉s ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦rt❤❝♦♠✐♥❣
❝❤❛♣t❡rs✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✸✿ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f (x) → F ❛♥❞ g(x) → G ❛s x→a ✭♦r x → a− ♦r x → a+ ✮✳ ❚❤❡♥

❙❘✿ f (x) + g(x) → F + G ❈▼❘✿ c · f (x) → c · F ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c

P❘✿ f (x) · g(x) → F · G ◗❘✿ f (x)/g(x) → F/G ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ G 6= 0

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡♠ ❛❧❧ st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✹✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛t a ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f (x), g(x) ❡①✐st✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡✐r s✉♠✱
f (x) + g(x)✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿


lim f (x) + g(x) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) .
x→a x→a x→a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜② ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim (f (xn ) + g(xn )) = lim f (xn ) + lim g(xn ) .
x→a n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

■♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ✇❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s ❛s ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✿

♥✉♠❜❡r + (+∞) = +∞
♥✉♠❜❡r + (−∞) = −∞
+∞ + (+∞) = +∞
−∞ + (−∞) = −∞

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

■♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s ❛r❡♥✬t ❤❡r❡✿ ∞/∞✱ ∞ −

∞✱ 0/0✱ ❡t❝✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ❛r❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✺✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❛t a ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ❡①✐sts✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❛t ♦❢ ✐ts ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✱ cf (x)✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿

lim cf (x) = c · lim f (x) .

x→a x→a
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✹✵

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✻✿ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ❢♦r ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛t a ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f (x), g(x) ❡①✐st✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ♣r♦❞✉❝t✱
f (x) · g(x)✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

lim f (x) · g(x) = lim f (x) · lim g(x) .
x→a x→a x→a

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✼✿ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛t a ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f (x), g(x) ❡①✐st✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡✐r r❛t✐♦✱

f (x)/g(x)✱ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ lim g(x) 6= 0✳

x→a

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿


f (x)
 lim f (x)
x→a
lim = .
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t s✐❣♥ ✐s ✏❞✐str✐❜✉t❡❞✑ ♦✈❡r t❤❡s❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳

❚❤❡s❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s t❤❡ ▲✐♠✐ts ❘✉❧❡s✳

❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ❜❧♦❝❦s ❛r❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✕ t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ✇✐t❤
s✐♠♣❧❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✽✿ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❋♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c✱ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts ❛t ❛♥② ♣♦✐♥t a✿

lim c = c .
x→a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim c = lim c = c .
x→a n→∞

▲❡t✬s s❡t g(x) = c ✐♥ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡♥
lim cf (x) = lim (f (x) · g(x)) = c · (lim g(x)) .
x→a x→a x→a
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ✐s ❛❜s♦r❜❡❞ ✐♥t♦ Pr♦❞✉❝t
❘✉❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡r ❛♥❞ ❡❛s✐❡r t♦ ✉s❡✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✾✿ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ■❞❡♥t✐t② ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts ❛t ❛♥② ♣♦✐♥t a✿

lim x = a .
x→a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim x = lim xn = a .
x→a n→∞

❆♥② ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❜✉✐❧t ❢r♦♠ x ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts ❜② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✜rst ✜✈❡
t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✹✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✵✿ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s

▲❡t
f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 7x + 8 .
❲❤❛t ✐s ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ❛s x → 1❄ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s str❛✐❣❤t❢♦r✇❛r❞✱ ❜✉t ❡✈❡r② st❡♣ ❤❛s t♦ ❜❡ ❥✉st✐✜❡❞
✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❚♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✇❤✐❝❤ r✉❧❡s t♦ ❛♣♣❧② ✜rst✱ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s❀ ✐t✬s ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡
❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✱ s✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✿
lim f (x) = lim (x3 + 3x2 − 7x + 8) ❈♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ ❙❘✳
x→1 x→1
3 2
= lim x + lim 3x − lim 7x + lim 8 ❈♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
P❘✱ ❈▼❘✱ ❈▼❘✱ ❈❘✳
= lim x · lim x + 3 lim x − 7 lim x + 8 ❈♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ ❈❘✳
2 2
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
= 1 · lim x2 + 3 lim x2 − 7 · 1 + 8 ❈♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ P❘ ❛♥❞ ❈❘✳
x→1 x→1
=1·1+3·1−7+8
= 5.

❲✐t❤ t❤✐s ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t✱ ✐t ✐s ❡❛s② t♦ ♠✐ss t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛♣♣❡♥s
t♦ ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡ ✿

lim f (x) = lim (x3 + 3x2 − 7x + 8) = x3 + 3x2 − 7x + 8 = 13 + 3 · 1 2 − 7 · 1 + 8 = 5 .

x→1 x→1 x=1

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤✐s ✐s tr✉❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✦ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ♣❧♦t✿

▲❡t✬s r❡✲st❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✹✳✶✶✿ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②
❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ♣♦✐♥t a ✐❢
• f (x) ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t x = a✱
• t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ f ❡①✐sts ❛t a✱ ❛♥❞
• t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✿

lim f (x) = f (a) .

x→a

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳

❊q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❧②✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t a ✐❢

lim f (xn ) = f (a) ,

n→∞

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a✿

✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✹✷

❆s ✇❡ s❤❛❧❧ s❡❡✱ ❛❧❧ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ◆♦✇ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✷✿ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❛t 2 ♦❢

x+1
f (x) = .
x−1
❆❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ■t ✐s ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥✱ s♦ ✇❡ ✉s❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ✜rst✿

x+1
lim f (x) = lim ❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❥✉st✐❢② ◗❘ ❜② ♦❜s❡r✈✐♥❣ t❤❛t
x→2 x→2 x − 1

lim (x − 1) = 1 6= 0 .
x→2
limx→2 (x + 1)
=
limx→2 (x − 1)
3
=
1
= 3.

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✸✿ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❛t 1 ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

x2 − 1
f (x) = .
x−1
❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ✜rst✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t
♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s 0✿
lim (x − 1) = 0 .
x→1

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ✐s ✐♥❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✳ ❇✉t t❤❡♥ ❛❧❧ ♦t❤❡r r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ✐♥❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✦

❆ ❝❧♦s❡r ❧♦♦❦ r❡✈❡❛❧s t❤❛t t❤✐♥❣s ❛r❡ ❡✈❡♥ ✇♦rs❡❀ ❜♦t❤ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ❣♦ t♦ 0
❛s x ❣♦❡s t♦ 1✳ ❆♥ ❛tt❡♠♣t t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ✕ ♦✈❡r t❤❡s❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t✐♦♥s ✕ ✇♦✉❧❞ r❡s✉❧t ✐♥ ❛♥
✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✿
x2 − 1 ??? 0
−−−−−→ ❛s x → 1 ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉
x−1 0

❚❤✐s ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st❀ ✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♠❡❛♥ ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣✦ ❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❝❛♥
❞r❛✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞♦♥❡ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞♥✬t ❤❛✈❡✳ ❲❡ ❣♦ ❜❛❝❦ ❛♥❞✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ◗❘✱
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✹✸

❞♦ s♦♠❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳

❲❡ ❢❛❝t♦r t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✭t❤❡r❡❜② ❝✐r❝✉♠✈❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❢♦r ◗❘✮✿
x2 − 1
lim f (x) = lim
x→1 x→1 x − 1
(x − 1)(x + 1)
= lim ❢♦r x 6= 1
x→1 x−1
= lim (x + 1)
x→1

= 2.

❚❤❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t x t❡♥❞s t♦ 1 ❜✉t ♥❡✈❡r r❡❛❝❤❡s ✐t✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♠♦r❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❤♦✇ tr②✐♥❣ t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❧❛✇s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ✇✐t❤♦✉t ✈❡r✐❢②✐♥❣ t❤❡✐r ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s
❝♦✉❧❞ ❧❡❛❞ t♦ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✹✿ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ 0/0
❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② tr✐✈✐❛❧ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❋♦r x → 0 ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ♠✐s❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t
❘✉❧❡ ❧❡❛❞ t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✳ ❲❤❡♥ r❡s♦❧✈❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡rs ✈❛r② ✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇r♦♥❣ t✉r♥ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ r❡❞♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡

x2 ??? 0 x2
−−−−−→ ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉ =x →0
x 0 x
x ??? 0 x 1
−−−−−→ ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉ = →∞
x2 0 x 2 x
x ??? 0 x
−−−−−→ ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉ =1 →1
x 0 x
x sin(1/x) 0 x sin(1/x)
= x sin(1/x) ❉◆❊
???
−−−−−→ ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉
x 0 x
❙♦✱ ❛♥② ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✺✿ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ∞/∞

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦t❤❡r ❦✐♥❞s ♦❢ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s✳ ❋♦r x → 0✱ ❛ ♠✐s❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t
❘✉❧❡ ❧❡❛❞s t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇r♦♥❣ t✉r♥ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ r❡❞♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡

1/x ??? ∞ 1/x
−−−−−→ ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉ =x →0
1/x2 ∞ 1/x2
1/x2 ??? ∞ 1/x2 1
−−−−−→ ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉ = →∞
1/x ∞ 1/x x

❙♦✱ ❛♥② ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✻

❙❤♦✇ ♠♦r❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♦✉t❝♦♠❡s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✳
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✹✹

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✼✿ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ∞−∞

❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s ❛♣♣❡❛r ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t
❘✉❧❡✳ ❋♦r x → 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇r♦♥❣ t✉r♥ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ r❡❞♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡

???
(1/x + 1) − 1/x −−−−−→ ∞ − ∞ ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉ (1/x + 1) − 1/x = 1 → 1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✽

❙❤♦✇ ♠♦r❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♦✉t❝♦♠❡s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✾✿ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ tr✐❝❦s

❈♦♠♣✉t❡
√
x2 + 9 − 3
lim .
x→0 x2
■❢ ✇❡ ♠✐♥❞❧❡ss❧② s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ x = 0✱ ✇❡ ❣❡t 0/0✳ ❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s ✐t ♠❡❛♥❄ ■t ♠❡❛♥s✿

❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉

❙❚❖P✦ ❊r❛s❡ ❡✈❡r②t❤✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❞♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳

√
❚❤❡ ❣♦❛❧ ✐s t♦ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❝❦ ✐s t♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❜② t❤❡ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛t❡✱ x2 + 9 + 3 ✱ ♦❢ t❤❡
♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✏r❛t✐♦♥❛❧✐③❡✑ ✐t✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
√ √ √
x2 + 9 − 3 ( x2 + 9 − 3) · ( x2 + 9 + 3)
lim = lim √
x→0 x2 x→0 x2 · ( x2 + 9 + 3)
(x2 + 9) − 32
= lim √
x→0 x2 ( x2 + 9 + 3)

x2
= lim √
x→0 x2 ( x2 + 9 + 3)

1
= lim √
x→0 x2 + 9 + 3
1
=√
0+9+3
1
= .
6
❆t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✱ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ❡①✐sts ❛♥❞ ✐s ♥♦t 0✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✷✵✿ t✇♦ ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐ts

❲❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✭0/0 ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❝②✮ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❧✐♠✐ts✿

sin x 1 − cos x
lim =1 ❛♥❞ lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ r❡s♦❧✈❡❞ ❧❛t❡r ✇✐t❤ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr②✳ ❚❤❡② ✇♦✉❧❞ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s ✐❢ ✇❡ tr✐❡❞
t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❝❤❡❝❦✐♥❣ t❤❡✐r ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✜rst✳
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✹✺

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r t♦ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ ✏■t✬s ✐♥❞❡✲

t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡✦✑✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✷✶✿ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ ❉◆❊

■s ✐t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❛t lim (f (x) + g(x)) ❡①✐sts✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ lim f (x) ❛♥❞ lim g(x) ❞♦ ♥♦t❄ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱
x→a x→a x→a
❝❛♥ t❤❡✐r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✱ f + g ✱ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ t❤❡✐r ✐rr❡❣✉❧❛r ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r❄ ❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡❀ ❥✉st ♣✐❝❦ g = −f ✳ ❚❤❡♥ f + g = 0✱
s♦ lim (f + g) = 0✳ ❋♦r s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ t❛❦❡✿
x→a
1
• f (x) = ❛♥❞ a = 0✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✿
x
1
lim .
x→0 x
• ◆❡✐t❤❡r ❞♦❡s t❤✐s✿  
1
lim − .
x→0 x
• ❇✉t t❤✐s ♦♥❡ ❞♦❡s✿   
1 1
lim + − = lim 0 = 0 .
x→0 x x x→0

❲❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ ❧✐♠✐ts t❤❛t ❡①✐sts ✇✐t❤ t❤♦s❡ t❤❛t ❞♦♥✬t ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✷✷✿ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r ❆❞❞✐t✐♦♥

■❢ lim f (x) ❡①✐sts ❜✉t lim g(x) ❞♦❡s ♥♦t✱ t❤❡♥ lim (f (x) + g(x)) ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✳
x→a x→a x→a

❲❡ t❛❦❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ x ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♥❣ ♦♥
◮ ❤♦✇ x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ a✱
✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t
◮ ❤♦✇ ❢❛r x ✐s ❢r♦♠ a✳
❲❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ h ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦✿

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝❡✿

x → a ⇐⇒ h = x − a → 0

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t lim f (x) ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♥❣ h = x − a✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

x→a

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✷✸✿ ❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t a ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ L ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢

lim f (a + h) = L
h→0
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✹✻

❚❤✐s ✇✐❧❧ ♠❛❦❡ ♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❧♦♦❦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✷✹✿ ❡❛s✐❡r ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s ✉s❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ t❛❦❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t✿

x2 − 1 (1 + h)2 − 1
lim = lim ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳
x→1 x − 1 h→0 (1 + h) − 1
1 + 2h + h2 − 1
= lim ❲❡ ❡①♣❛♥❞✳
h→0 1+h−1
2h + h2
= lim ❲❡ s✐♠♣❧✐❢②✳
h→0 h
= lim (2 + h) ❲❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡✳
h→0

=2+h ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡✳
h=0
= 2.

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❞✐❞♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❞♦ ❛♥② ❢❛❝t♦r✐♥❣✦

❆s ✇❡ s❡❡✱ t❤✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ♠✐❣❤t ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ s✐♠♣❧❡r✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✷✺

❯s❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿

x3 − 1
lim .
x→1 x − 1

❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❛s ❛ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✿

lim
f,
g −−−−−→ F,G
 
+
y SR +
y
lim
f + g −−−−−→ lim(f + g) = F + G

■♥ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛t t❤❡ t♦♣ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ✐♥ t✇♦ ✇❛②s✿

• ❘✐❣❤t✿ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❡✐t❤❡r❀ t❤❡♥ ❞♦✇♥✿ ❛❞❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts✳

• ❉♦✇♥✿ ❛❞❞ t❤❡♠❀ t❤❡♥ r✐❣❤t✿ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✳

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦ ❋♦r t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ✏ +✑ ✇✐t❤ ✏ ·✑ ❛♥❞ ✏ ÷✑
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ❛♣♣❛r❡♥t ❛❜✉♥❞❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❣♦♦❞ ♥❡✇s✿

◮ ❆ t②♣✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❡♥❝♦✉♥t❡r ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✐t ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦✉ts✐❞❡ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳ ❋r♦♠ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ s♦ ❢❛r✱ ♦♥❧② ❛ ❢❡✇
♣✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡✲❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ❡①❝❡♣t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ✈❛❧✉❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜② s❤♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

lim F (x) = F (a) ♦r F (x) → F (a) ❛s x→a

x→a

❖♥❝❡ ✐t ✐s ♣r♦✈❡♥✱ ✇❡ t✉r♥ t❤✐s ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛♥❞ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❤❡❧♣s✿
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✹✼

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✷✻✿ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ❛♥❞ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a✳ ❚❤❡♥ s♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❙❘✿ f +g ❈▼❘✿ c·f ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c

P❘✿ f ·g ◗❘✿ f /g ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ g(a) 6= 0

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋♦r t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ tr② t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ❛t a ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
   
lim (f + g)(x) = lim f (x) + g(x) ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❙❘ ♥❡①t✳
x→a x→a
= lim f (x) + lim g(x) ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♥❡①t✳
x→a x→a
= f (a) + g(a)
= (f + g)(a) .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ f +g ✐s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❀ ❤❡♥❝❡✱ ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❜② t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳ ◆❡①t✱
t❤❡❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✱ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❛r❡ ♣r♦✈❡♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t
▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✱ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐ts✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳
▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s✳

■♥ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✱ g s❡r✈❡s ❛s ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✏♣✉s❤✑ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f✳ ❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s ♠❡❛♥t t♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡
t❤❛t ✐❞❡❛✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♣✐♥❣✲♣♦♥❣ ❜❛❧❧s ❛rr❛♥❣❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✱ f✱ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ✇✐♥❞✱ g✳ ❚❤❡♥✱
t❤❡ ✇✐♥❞✱ ♥♦♥✲✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧② ❜✉t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✱ ❜❧♦✇s t❤❡♠ ❢♦r✇❛r❞✿

❚❤❡ ♣✐♥❣✲♣♦♥❣ ❜❛❧❧s r❡♠❛✐♥ ❛rr❛♥❣❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✱ f + g✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❛② t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡✐❧✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛ t✉♥♥❡❧ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② f ❛♥❞ g r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧② ❛r❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s ✐ts ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s g−f ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❖r✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡✐❧✐♥❣✱ f ❛♥❞ −g ✱ ♦❢ ❛ t✉♥♥❡❧ ❛r❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s ✐ts ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ g+f
✭r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❚❤✉s✱ ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ❜✉♠♣s ♦♥ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ❛♥❞ ♥♦ ❜✉♠♣s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝❡✐❧✐♥❣✱ ②♦✉ ✇♦♥✬t ✭s✉❞❞❡♥❧②✮ ❜✉♠♣
②♦✉r ❤❡❛❞ ❛s ②♦✉ ✇❛❧❦✳
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✹✽

■♥ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✱ t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ c ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ str❡t❝❤✴s❤r✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ r✉❜❜❡r
s❤❡❡t t❤❛t ❤❛s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ❞r❛✇♥ ♦♥ ✐t✿

■♥ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ f ❛♥❞ g ✱ ♦❢ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ❛r❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✱
t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s ✐ts ❛r❡❛✱ f · g ✿

■♥ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ f ❛♥❞ g ✱ ♦❢ ❛ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ❛r❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✱
t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ♦❢ ✐ts ❜❛s❡ ❛♥❣❧❡✱ f /g ✿

❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡ st❛♥❞s ♦✉t ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❡①tr❛ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s♥✬t ③❡r♦ ✕ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ❛t t❤❡
1
♣♦✐♥t a ✐ts❡❧❢✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = 0❀ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t 1 ✐s ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t✳ ❖♥
x−1
t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❤❛♥❞✱ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❜② 0 ❝r❡❛t❡s ❛ ❤♦❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥❀ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s t❤❡r❡ ❛♥②✇❛②✦
❆♥ ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ r❡❛❞s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✹✳✷✼✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❆❧❣❡❜r❛

❚❤❡ s✉♠✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✭♦♥ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✮✳
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✹✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✷✽

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡rs✿

a b c
❞❡❣r❡❡ 1 3 4
t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t −2 2 −1

❚♦ ❥✉st✐❢② ♦✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✱ ❧❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥
nt❤ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✿
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + an−1 x + an xn .
❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✿ 1 , x , x , ... x , x.

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t♦♦ ❜② P❘✿ 1 , x , x2 , ... xn−1 , xn .
❚❤❡s❡ t♦♦ ❜② ❈▼❘✿ a0 , a1 x , a2 x2 , ... an−1 xn−1 , an xn .
❚❤✐s ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❜② ❙❘✿ a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + an−1 xn−1 + an xn .

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣✐❡❝❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✷✾✿ ❧✐♠✐ts ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

❊✈❛❧✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ♥♦✇ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r②✿

lim x2 − 17x2 + 7x − 2 = 222 − 17 · 222 + 7 · 22 − 2 .
x→22

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ ✈❡r② ✉s❡❢✉❧ s❤♦rt❝✉t✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✸✵✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛♥❞ ❘❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

• ❊✈❡r② ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t✳

• ❊✈❡r② r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✸✶

❘❡st❛t❡ ❛s ❛♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡✿ ✏❊✈❡r② ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✑✳

❖♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✐s ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts
✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s ③❡r♦✮ ✐s ♣r♦✈❡♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛
r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ♣✐❡❝❡s ✕ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✸✷✿ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

1
f (x) =
(x − 1)2 (x − 2)(x − 3)
❤❛s t❤r❡❡ ❤♦❧❡s✱ x = 1, 2, 3✱ ✐♥ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✿

1 2 3
− − −− ◦ − − −− ◦ − − −− ◦ − − −−

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ❤❛s ❢♦✉r ❜r❛♥❝❤❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✸✸

❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✶✺✵

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ✢♦✇❝❤❛rt ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐t ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ✇❛② ♦✉t✦

✷✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✺✶

✷✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

■s t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❄

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ✐t✳
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✭✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡rs ✶P❈✲✶ ❛♥❞ ✶P❈✲✹✮ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = ax , a > 0
❢♦r ❛❧❧ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ❛s r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛❧s♦ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛
♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ x ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛❞❞❡❞ ♠♦r❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❜② ❞✐✈✐❞✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢ ❛s ♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s ❛s ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✿

❲❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❡❛♥ t♦ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❛t t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ♣♦✐♥t✿
x+y √
a 2 = ax · ay .

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❡①t❡♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ ❛❧❧ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs x = pq ❜② ♠❡❛♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

p √
q
√
p
aq = ap = q
a

❚❤❡ ❣❛♣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ✐♥✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❛t ♦♥❝❡✳

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t y = ex ❢♦r t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x❄ ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts❀ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱
eπ = lim exn ,
n→∞

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ♦❢ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ π ✳

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣✐♥❣ t♦ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡② ❛❧❧
♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✦
❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶ t❤❛t ❡♥s✉r❡s ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡✿

lim exn = 1
n→∞

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → 0✳ ◆♦✇ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✺✳✶✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r r❡❛❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t
❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t x = a ❛s t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t✿

ea = lim exn
n→∞

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a ♦❢ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✿

✷✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✺✷

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✺✳✷✿ ❱❛❧✐❞✐t② ♦❢ ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r ❛♥② a✿

lim exn = ea ,
n→∞

❋❖❘ ❆◆❨ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
▲❡t hn = xn − a✳ ❚❤❡♥✿
lim exn = lim ea+hn
n→∞ n→∞
= lim ea ehn ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❛ r✉❧❡ ♦❢ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥ts✳
n→∞
= e · lim ehn
a
❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❈▼❘✳
n→∞
= ea · 1 ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳
= ea .

▲❡t✬s r❡♣❤r❛s❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

■♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ✜rst r❡st❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✿

lim ex = 1 .
x→0

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✿
lim ex = e0 .
x→0

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♣r♦✈❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ex ❛t ♦♥❡ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ x = 0✳ ❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ r❡st ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✺✳✸✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ◆❛t✉r❛❧ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = ex ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② x✳

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❝♦♥✜r♠s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ y = ex ❞♦❡s ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✱ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ✐♥ ♦♥ ❛♥② ♣♦✐♥t✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺✳✹
Pr♦✈❡✿  x n
x
e = lim 1+ .
n→∞ n
✷✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✺✸

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✺✳✺✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❆♥② ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = bx ♦❢ ❛♥② ❜❛s❡ b✮ ✐s

❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② x✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺✳✻

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✳

❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣❛t❤ ❢♦r t❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❥✉st✐❢② tr❡❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥
(−∞, ∞)✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r x ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ ❧✐♥❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ 1 ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡♥✿
• cos x ✐s t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t✳
• sin x ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t✳

❲❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ cos x ❛s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❤❛❞♦✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ st✐❝❦ ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ 1 ✉♥❞❡r ❛♥❣❧❡ x ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡
s✉♥ ✐s ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐t ❛♥❞ sin x ❛s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ✐ts s❤❛❞♦✇ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧ ❛t s✉♥s❡t✳
■t ✐s t❤❡♥ ♣❧❛✉s✐❜❧❡ t❤❛t ✕ ❛s t❤❡ st✐❝❦ r♦t❛t❡s ✕ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❤❛❞♦✇ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✳ ❖r t❤❡ st✐❝❦
✐s st✐❧❧ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ s✉♥ t❤❛t ✐s ♠♦✈✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❤❛❞♦✇ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s cos x✱ ✇❤❡r❡ x ✐s ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿

■♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢✲❛♥❣❧❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ❚❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛r❡ ♦♥❧② ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ π ✿
✷✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✺✹

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s

X = {rπ : r r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ }.
❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ r❡st❄
❲❤❛t ✐s sin 1❄ ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts❀ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱



sin 1 = lim sin π · 1 + 1/n .
n→∞

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣✐♥❣ t♦ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡② ❛❧❧
♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✳ ❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶ t❤❛t ❡♥s✉r❡ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡✿

lim sin xn = 0 ❛♥❞ lim cos xn = 1

n→∞ n→∞

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → 0✳ ◆♦✇ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✺✳✼✿ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡
❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ❛t x = a ❛s t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

sin a = lim sin xn ❛♥❞ cos a = lim cos xn

n→∞ n→∞

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a ✐♥ X ✳

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✺✳✽✿ ❱❛❧✐❞✐t② ♦❢ ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡
❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim sin xn = sin a ❛♥❞ lim cos xn = cos a ,

n→∞ n→∞

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a ❛♥❞ ❛♥② a✳

✷✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✺✺

Pr♦♦❢✳

▲❡t hn = xn − a✳ ❚❤❡♥✿
lim sin(xn ) = lim sin(a + hn )
n→∞ n→∞ 
= lim sin a · cos h + cos a · sin hn ❆ tr✐❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✺✮✳
h→0



= lim sin a · cos hn + lim cos a · sin hn ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❙❘✳
n→∞ n→∞
= sin a · lim cos hn + cos a · lim sin hn ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❈▼❘✳
n→∞ n→∞
= sin a · 1 + cos a · 0 ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳
= sin a .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺✳✾

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺✳✶✵

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ②♦✉r ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ❞✉r✐♥❣ ❛ r✐❞❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❋❡rr✐s ✇❤❡❡❧✳

▲❡t✬s r❡♣❤r❛s❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
■♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡st❛t❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✿

lim sin x = 0 ❛♥❞ lim cos x = 1 .

x→0 x→0

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✿
lim sin x = sin 0 ❛♥❞ lim cos x = cos 0 .
x→0 x→0

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ♣r♦✈❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ❛t ♦♥❡ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ x = 0✳ ❲❡
♥♦✇ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ r❡st ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✺✳✶✶✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡

❇♦t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡✱ y = cos x✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐♥❡✱ y = sin x✱ ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② x✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ r❡♣❡❛t t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ♣r♦♦❢✿

 
lim sin(a + h) = lim sin a · cos h + cos a · sin h ❆ tr✐❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✺✮✳
h→0 h→0



= lim sin a · cos h + lim cos a · sin h ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❙❘✳
h→0 h→0
= sin a · lim cos h + cos a · lim sin h ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❈▼❘✳
h→0 h→0
= sin a · 1 + cos a · 0 ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳
= sin a .

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❝♦♥✜r♠s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ y = sin x ❛♥❞ y = cos x ❞♦ ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✱ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠
✐♥ ♦♥ ❛♥② ♣♦✐♥t✿
✷✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✺✻

❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ r❡✲st❛t❡ t❤❡ ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐ts ❛s ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺✳✶✷

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t✿

 
 sin x  1 − cos x ✐❢ x 6= 0
✐❢ x 6= 0
f (x) = x g(x) = x
1 ✐❢ x = 0 0 ✐❢ x = 0

❲❡ ✇♦♥✬t ❣♦ ✐♥t♦ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr② ❜❡②♦♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✺✳✶✸✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t

❚❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t✱ y = tan x✱ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② x ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✐♥❝❡
sin x
tan x = ,
cos x
✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ t♦ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t x ✇✐t❤ cos x 6= 0✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✺✳✶✹✿ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❛♥❣❡♥t

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ✐s ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞✱ x = π/2✿

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ❛s x → π/2✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

sin x → 1 ❛♥❞ cos x → 0 .

❲❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t

tan x → ±∞ .
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t②❄ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ ✐♥t♦ ❛❝❝♦✉♥t t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ cos x ♦♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ π/2✿
0 < cos x → 0 ❛s x → π/2− ❛♥❞ 0 > cos x → 0 ❛s x → π/2+ .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
tan x → +∞ ❛s x → π/2− ❛♥❞ tan x → −∞ ❛s x → π/2+ .
■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ r❡✈❡❛❧s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦rs ♦♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ π/2✳ ❚❤❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥ r❡♣❡❛ts ✐ts❡❧❢ ❡✈❡r②
π ✉♥✐ts ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❞❞❡❞ ♠♦r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t♦ ♦✉r ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✦

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ❛❧❧ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✱ ❛❧❧ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝✲
✷✳✻✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✺✼

t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✭♦♥ t❤❡✐r ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✮✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡✐r ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

lim ex = e0 , lim sin x = sin 0, ❡t❝✳

x→0 x→0

❈♦♠❜✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✭♦♥ t❤❡✐r ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✮
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
x3 + 3
x2 + sin x, cos x · ex , , ❡t❝✳
sin x + 2x
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡s❡✿
sin(x2 + 1), ecos x , ❡t❝✳ ❄

✷✳✻✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s

■♥ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✶✿ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❡rr❛✐♥

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ♠✐❣❤t ❡♠❡r❣❡✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❝❛r ✐s ❞r✐✈❡♥ t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❛ ♠♦✉♥t❛✐♥ t❡rr❛✐♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
• ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ✇❤❡r❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♠❛♣ ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳
• ❚❤❡ ♠❛♣ t❡❧❧s ✉s t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♣✐❡❝❡s ♦❢ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛s r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✿

❲❡ s❡t ✉♣ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ❢♦r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞ ✐♥✿
• t ✐s t✐♠❡ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❤r
• x = f (t) ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ♠✐
• y = g(x) ✐s t❤❡ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✭❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✮ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢t
• y = h(t) = g(f (t)) ✐s t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢t
❚❤❡ ✜rst ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡s t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❧✐t❡r❛❧❧② t❤❡ ♣r♦✜❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞✳

❖♥❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❡①♣❡❝t ❛❧❧ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❤❡r❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✿

✷✳✻✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✺✽

■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s❡t✉♣✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✻✳✷✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♠❛t❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡
❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✮✿

F :X→Y ❛♥❞ G:Y →Z.

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r t♦ t❤❡
❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✮
H :X →Z,
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x ✐♥ X ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦✲st❡♣ ♣r♦❝❡✲
❞✉r❡✿
x → F (x) = y → G(y) = z .
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✿
z = H(x) = G(F (x)) .

■t ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

G◦F

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❲❡ r❡❛❞ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t✳

❲❡ ❥✉st ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❢r♦♠ X ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ ❛rr♦✇s ♦❢ F t♦ Y ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ ❛rr♦✇s ♦❢ G t♦ Z✿

❚❤❡r❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ♠♦r❡✿

F G H Q
X −−−−→ Y −−−−→ Z −−−−→ U −−−−→ W −−−−→ ...

■t✬s ❛s ✐❢ ✉♣♦♥ ❛rr✐✈✐♥❣ ❛t ❛ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s t♦ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❞❡st✐♥❛t✐♦♥✱ ♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦♥✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ✏❞❡❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥✑ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
♥❛♠❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❛♥❞ ✜rst ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

↓ ↓

G◦F (x) = G F (x)
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥
✷✳✻✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✺✾

■❢ ✇❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s ❜❧❛❝❦ ❜♦①❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✇✐r❡ t❤❡♠ t♦❣❡t❤❡r✿
✐♥♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t

x → F → y
↓
✐♥♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t

y → G → z

❍❡r❡✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✱ t❤✉s ❝r❡❛t✐♥❣ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

✐♥♣✉t
x → → → ↓
♦✉t♣✉t
↓ → → → z

❚♦ ♠❛❦❡ ✐t ❝❧❡❛r t❤❛t Y ✐s ♥♦ ❧♦♥❣❡r ❛ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

F
X −−−−→ Y


ցH G
y
Z

❚❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿ ❲❤❡t❤❡r ✇❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ F ✲t❤❡♥✲G r♦✉t❡ ♦r t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t H r♦✉t❡✱ t❤❡
r❡s✉❧ts ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳

■❢ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s ❧✐sts ♦❢ ✐♥str✉❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❛tt❛❝❤ t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐st
♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❤❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ G ◦ F✿
• ❙t❡♣ ✶✿ ❉♦ F✳
• ❙t❡♣ ✷✿ ❉♦ G✳
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❡①❡❝✉t❡❞ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧② ❀ ②♦✉ ❝❛♥✬t st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✉♥t✐❧ ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ❞♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✜rst✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(u)
u=f (x)

❍❡r❡✱ u ✐s t❤❡ ✏✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡✑ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✸✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❚❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ✐s ✉♥❞❡rst♦♦❞ ❛♥❞ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✿

2y 2 − 3y + 7 22 − 3 + 7
f (y) = , f () = .
y 3 + 2y + 1 3 + 2 + 1
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ y=3 ❜② ✐♥s❡rt✐♥❣ 3 ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✇✐♥❞♦✇s✿

2
  2 3 −3 3 +7
f 3 = f (y) = 3 .
y=3 3 +2 3 +1
✷✳✻✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✻✵

▲❡t✬s ✐♥s❡rt sin x✱ ♦r✱ ❜❡tt❡r✱ (sin x)✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ y = sin x✿
2
2 (sin x) − 3 (sin x) + 7
f (sin x) = f (y) = 3 .
y=sin x (sin x) + 2 (sin x) + 1

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
2(sin x)2 − 3(sin x) + 7
f (sin x) = (f ◦ sin)(x) = .
(sin x)3 + 2(sin x) + 1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✻✳✹

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ✐♥str✉❝t✐♦♥s✿

√
3

1/2
f (x) = sin x + 2 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✻✳✺

❋✐♥❞ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

→ sq✉❛r❡ ✐t → t❛❦❡ ✐ts r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ →

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✻✳✻

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ②♦✉ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = −f (−x − 3) − 1❄

◆♦✇✱ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳

❆♥ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ r❡✈❡❛❧s ❛ ♥❡✇ s❤♦rt❝✉t✿
h
2 i
lim f (x) = lim [f (x) · f (x)]
x→a x→a
= lim f (x) · lim f (x) ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ P❘✳
x→a
 x→a
2
= lim f (x) . ❯♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✳
x→a

■t s❡❡♠s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡ s❛②✐♥❣ t❤❛t ✏t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❛t
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✑✳ ❏✉st ❧✐❦❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✦

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❛ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ✉s❡ ♦❢ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

 n
lim [f (x)n ] = lim f (x) ,
x→a x→a

❢♦r ❛♥② ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r n✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✼✿ ♣♦✇❡rs

❚❤❡ r✉❧❡ ✐s ✉s❡❢✉❧✿  20

 
lim (sin x) 20
= lim [sin x] = (0)20 = 0 .
x→0 x→0

▲❡t✬s ❣✐✈❡ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥❀ ✐t✬s ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿

x → f → u → un → z
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (x)n = g(f (x)) ✇✐t❤ g(u) = un .
❲❤❛t ✐s s♦ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ■t ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✦

■♥ ❜r✐❡❢✱
✷✳✻✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✻✶

◮ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✽✿ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✱ ♠♦t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝✉r✈❡❞ ✇✐r❡s ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢r❡❡❧② ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♥✉t ♦♥
❡❛❝❤✳ ❚❤❡ ♥✉ts ❛r❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ ❜② t✇♦ r♦❞s✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ♥✉t ✐s ♠♦✈❡❞✱ ✐t ♠♦✈❡s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ❛♥❞
t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♠♦✈❡s t❤❡ t❤✐r❞✿

❊✐t❤❡r ❝♦♥♥❡❝t✐♦♥ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡✐r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥✳ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ❛ ❞r✐✈❡r
❝♦♥tr♦❧s t❤❡ ❛①❧❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ st❡❡r✐♥❣ ✇❤❡❡❧ ✐♥ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐st❛❣❡ ❜✉t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✇❛②✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✾✿ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✱ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s

■♠❛❣✐♥❡ ✇❡ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t t✇♦ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛ r❡❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ ✐♥ ❛ r♦✇✿

❙✐♠♣❧② ♣✉t✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❞✐❞♥✬t t❡❛r t❤❡ r♦♣❡ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst st❛❣❡✱ ♦r ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ st❛❣❡✱ t❤❡♥ ✐t✬s ♥♦t
t♦r♥✦

❲❡ ✜rst ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❛t ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✻✳✶✵✿ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts

■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❛t a ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ❡①✐sts✱ ❛♥❞ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ L✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❛t ♦❢

✐ts ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t L✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ g(L)✿

lim (g ◦ f )(x) = g(L) .

x→a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱

xn → a .
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱
bn = f (xn ) .
✷✳✻✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✻✷

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ f (x) → L ❛s x → a ✐s r❡st❛t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

bn → L ❛s n → ∞ .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ g ✐♠♣❧✐❡s✱

g(bn ) → g(L) ❛s n → ∞ .

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱
(g ◦ f )(xn ) = g(f (xn )) → g(L) ❛s n → ∞ .
❙✐♥❝❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a ✇❛s ❝❤♦s❡♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❧②✱ t❤✐s ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s r❡st❛t❡❞ ❛s✱

(g ◦ f )(x) → g(L) ❛s x → a .

❲❡ ❝❛♥ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❛s ❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✿

lim (g ◦ f )(x) = g(L)

x→a
L=limx→a f (x)

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s g ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♠♦✈❡❞ ♦✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞✿

 
lim g f (x) = g lim f (x)
x→a x→a

■t✬s ❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ♠♦✈❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✶✶✿ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s

❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t✇✐❝❡✿

lim sin cos x = sin lim cos x = sin cos 0 = sin 1 .
x→0 x→0

❇✉t t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

lim sin cos x = lim sin ◦ cos(x) = sin ◦ cos(0) = sin 1 .
x→0 x→0

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❛ ❝r✉❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♥s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✻✳✶✷✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ g◦f ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a ❛♥❞ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g

❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t y = f (a) ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ f ✿

 
lim (g ◦ f )(x) = g lim f (x) = g (f (a)) = (g ◦ f )(a) .
x→a x→a

❚❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

✷✳✻✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✻✸

◆♦✇ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t✇♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥t❡r❛❝t✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❡✐t❤❡r ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡❞
s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✿
• ✶✳ ❆ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x ❢r♦♠ a ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ u = f (x) ❢r♦♠ f (a)✳
• ✷✳ ❆ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ u ❢r♦♠ c ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ y = g(u) ❢r♦♠ g(c)✳
■❢ ✇❡ s❡t c = f (a)✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• ✸✳ ❆ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ u = f (x) ❢r♦♠ c = f (a) ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ y = g(u) = g(f (x))
❢r♦♠ g(c) = g(f (a))✳
❚❤❛t✬s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ h = g ◦ f ❛t x = a✦ ❚❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡s t❤✐s ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥✿
f
x→a −−−−→ f (x) → f (a)


ցg◦f g
y
g(f (x)) → g(f (a))

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✶✸✿ sin ❛♥❞ cos

❋r♦♠ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr②✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t
cos(x) = sin(π/2 − x) .
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ sin ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ cos✱ ❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✶✹✿ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿

y = g(u) = u2 + 2u − 1 ,
u = f (x) = 2x−3 .
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ h = g ◦ f ❛t 1❄

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ♥♦t❡ t❤❛t g ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t ❛s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
 
lim (g ◦ f )(x) = g lim f (x) ,
x→1 x→1

✐❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❡①✐sts✳ ■t ❞♦❡s✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ f ✐s ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t x = 1✿
lim f (x) = lim 2x−3 = 2 · 1−3 = 2 .
x→1 x→1

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ u = 2✱ ❛♥❞ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t❡❞ ✐♥t♦ g ✿

 
lim h(x) = g lim f (x) = g(2) = 22 + 2 · 2 − 1 = 7 .
x→1 x→1
✷✳✻✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✻✹

❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s ✈❡r✐✜❡❞ ❜② ❛ ❞✐r❡❝t ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ h✿

2

h(x) = (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = u2 + 2u − 1 = 2x−3 + 2 2x−3 − 1 = 4x−6 + 4x−3 − 1 .
u=2x−3

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✭r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t 1✮✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

lim h(x) = 4x−6 + 4x−3 − 1 = 4 · 1−6 + 4 · 1−3 − 1 = 7 .

x→1 x=1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✶✺✿ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ r✉❧❡

❈♦♠♣✉t❡✿
1
lim .
x→0 (x2 + x − 1)3
❲❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ❜② ❛ ❣r❛❞✉❛❧ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢
1
r(x) = .
(x2 + x − 1)3
❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f ✐s ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

3 1
r(x) = g(f (x)), ✇❤❡r❡ u = f (x) = x2 + x − 1 ❛♥❞ g(u) = .
u
❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ✐s r❛t✐♦♥❛❧❀ ❜✉t ✐s ✐t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❄ ■ts ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s♥✬t ③❡r♦ ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✇❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞
✐♥✿


3 3
f (0) = x2 + x − 1 = 02 + 0 − 1 = −1 6= 0 .
x=0
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ❛♥❞ ♦✉r ❧✐♠✐t ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿
1 1
lim 3 = lim r(x) = lim g(f (x)) = g(lim f (x)) =  ,
x→0 (x2 + x − 1) x→0 x→0 x→0 limx→0 (x2 + x − 1)3
♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✳ ◆♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞✦

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ✐t✳ ❲❡ st❛rt ♦✈❡r ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢

3
p(x) = x2 + x − 1 .
❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f ✐s t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
p(x) = g(f (x)), ✇❤❡r❡ u = f (x) = x2 + x − 1 ❛♥❞ g(u) = u3 .
❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ✐s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♣♣❧✐❡s
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿

3 h
i3
lim x2 + x − 1 = lim p(x) = lim g(f (x)) = g(lim f (x)) = lim x2 + x − 1 ,
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✳ ◆♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞✦

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ✐t✳ ❲❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ x2 + x − 1 ✐s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ✐s
❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿


lim x2 + x − 1 = x2 + x − 1 = 02 + 0 − 1 = −1 .
x→0 x=0
❲❤❛t r❡♠❛✐♥s ✐s t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛❜♦✈❡✿
1 1
lim 3 = 
x→0 (x2 + x − 1) limx→0 (x2 + x − 1)3
1
=
[limx→0 (x2 + x − 1)]3
1
=
[−1]3
= −1 .
✷✳✼✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✶✻✺

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② t♦ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❛♣♣❧② ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✭s✉❝❤ ❛s ❢❛❝t♦r✐♥❣✮✱ ♦r tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr②✱
❡t❝✳ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❖✉r s❤♦rt ❧✐st ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ♠❛♥② ❧✐♠✐ts❀ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❥✉st✐❢②✱ ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡✱
♦✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❜② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ ❛ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡ t♦ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✶✻✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s

❋✐rst✱     
1 1
lim ln 1 + = ln lim 1 + = ln 1 = 0 ,
n→∞ n n→∞ n
❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ln x ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = 1✳ ❙❡❝♦♥❞✱
 2   2
1 1
lim 1+ = lim 1 + = 12 = 1 ,
n→∞ n n→∞ n

❜❡❝❛✉s❡ x2 ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = 1✳ ❚❤✐r❞✱

1 1 1
lim 1 =  1
= = 1,
n→∞ 1 +
n limn→∞ 1 + n
1

1
❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = 1✳
x

✷✳✼✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡

❙♦ ❢❛r✱ t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❧❛r❣❡ ❝❧❛ss ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✐s t❤❡ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ❆❧❧ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝
♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✱ ♦♥ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧
√ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♠♦r❡ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②
♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t x r❡♠❛✐♥s ✉♥♣r♦✈❡♥✳ ❇✉t t♦ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t❤❡
♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✇❡ ❥✉st ♥❡❡❞ t♦ r❡♠❡♠❜❡r ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠✳ ■t✬s t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ sq✉❛r✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
y2✦
▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✼✳✶✿ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜✉t ✇✐t❤ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✭♦r ✐♥♣✉t ❛♥❞
♦✉t♣✉t✮ r❡✈❡rs❡❞✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✼✳✷✿ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ✇❤❡♥ ♦♥❡ ✉♥❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✳ ❋♦r ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✳ ❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✉♥❞♦♥❡ ❜② ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✿
✷✳✼✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✶✻✻

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② 3 1→3 1↔3 1←3 ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❜② 3
sq✉❛r✐♥❣ 2→4 2↔4 2←4 sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ✭❢♦r x, y ≥ 0✮
❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❛s❡ 3 2→9 2↔9 2←9 ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠ ❜❛s❡ 3
❇✉t ✇❤② ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✼✳✸✿ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❜❛s✐❝ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ♠♦r❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✿

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❤✐❢t s ✉♥✐ts t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ✐s t❤❡ s❤✐❢t ♦❢ s ✉♥✐ts t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✳
• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✢✐♣ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✢✐♣✳
• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ str❡t❝❤ ❜② k 6= 0 ✐s t❤❡ s❤r✐♥❦ ❜② k ✭✐✳❡✳✱ str❡t❝❤ ❜② 1/k ✮✳
❲❤❡♥ ❡①❡❝✉t❡❞ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ✐s ♥✐❧✳ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✿

f ✈s✳ f −1
s❤✐❢t y =x+s x=y−s
✢✐♣ y = −x x = −y
str❡t❝❤ y =x·k x = y/k

❲✐t❤✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❧❛ss✱ ✐t s❡❡♠s t❤❛t ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✐❢ t❤❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s✳

▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✼✳✹✿ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s F :X →Y ❛♥❞ G:Y →X ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ✐❢ t❤❡②
❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ❛♥❞ y✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

F (x) = y ■❋ ❆◆❉ ❖◆▲❨ ■❋ G(y) = x .

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✿

F G
x −−−−→ y ⇐⇒ y −−−−→ x

❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r G ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

■♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
F −1
■t r❡❛❞s ✏ F ✐♥✈❡rs❡✑✳
✷✳✼✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✶✻✼

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐t❡r❛❧ r❡✈❡rs❛❧ ♦❢ ❛rr♦✇s✿

F
x −−−−→ y
F −1
x ←−−−−−− y

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✼✳✺

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = 3x2 + 1✳ ❈❤♦♦s❡ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ❢♦r t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✼✳✻

✭❛✮ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✱ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x2 ✐s ♥♦t ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳ ✭❜✮ ●r❛♣❤✐❝❛❧❧②✱ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g(x) = 2x+1 ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳ ✭❝✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ g ✳

◆♦✇ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✼✳✼✿ t❡❛r✐♥❣

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ♦t❤❡rs❄ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇
t❤❛t ✉♥❞♦✐♥❣ ❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t t❡❛r t❤❡ r♦♣❡❄

❲❡❧❧✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❡❛r✐♥❣❄ ■t✬s ❣❧✉✐♥❣✦

■❢ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t ♦✉r ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❣❧✉✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣✐❡❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦♣❡
t♦❣❡t❤❡r✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s t♦♦✳ ❇✉t t❤✐s s✐♠♣❧② ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s t♦ ❜❡
♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳

❚❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ✉♥❞♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ✉♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❀ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s y = f (x) ❛♥❞ x = g(y) ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤
♦t❤❡r ✇❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ y ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ g ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

g(f (x)) = x ❆◆❉ f (g(y)) = y

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ s❛② f ✱ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❄ ❉♦❡s ✐t ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✱ g ✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s t♦♦❄ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r✐♥❣
t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✭x ❛♥❞ y ✮ ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❡①♣❡❝t t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r
t♦ ❜❡ ❨❡s✳
❊✈❡r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ x ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ y ✮ ❤❛s t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ x = g(y)
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ y ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✮✳ ■❢ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛♥❞ ✢✐♣ t❤✐s
♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❝❤❛♥❣❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❣❡t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✭❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡
✈❡rs❛✮✿
✷✳✼✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✶✻✽

❚❤❡ s❤❛♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦ ■❢ ♦♥❡ ❤❛s ♥♦ ❜r❡❛❦s✱ t❤❡♥ ♥❡✐t❤❡r ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✳ ■t ✐s t❤❡♥
❝♦♥❝❡✐✈❛❜❧❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✳
❚♦ ❧✐♥❦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❝❛r❡❢✉❧ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❲❡
❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✿

xn → a =⇒ f (xn ) → f (a)

❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥✳ ◆♦✇✱ ✐♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✿

f −1 (yn ) → f −1 (b) ⇐= yn → b

❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡✳ ❲❡ ❛❝❝❡♣t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣r♦♦❢✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✼✳✽✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ■♥✈❡rs❡

❚❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a✱ ✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✱ ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

x = g(y) ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t b = f (a)✳

❚❤✉s✱ ❛s t❤❡ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✭✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡✐r ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✮✱ s♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡✐r ✐♥✈❡rs❡s✳ ■♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱
t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
p q
lim f (x) = lim f (x) .
x→a x→a

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄ ❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ♦❞❞ ♣♦✇❡rs ❛r❡ ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ❜✉t t❤❡ ❡✈❡♥
♣♦✇❡rs ❛r❡♥✬t ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛❞ t♦ r❡♠♦✈❡ ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿

❚❤❡ ❧♦♦❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❣r❛♣❤ s✉❣❣❡st t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✼✳✾✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❘♦♦ts

√ √ √
• ❚❤❡ ♦❞❞ r♦♦ts✱ y= 3
x, y = 5
x, y = 7
x, ... ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r② r❡❛❧

x✳ √ √ √
• ❚❤❡ ❡✈❡♥ r♦♦ts✱ y = 2
x, y = 4
x, y = 6
x, ... ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡✈❡r②

x ≥ 0✳

❆♥♦t❤❡r ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ✐s t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ t❤❡♥
s♦ ✐s t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳ ❚❤✐s ♠❛❦❡s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s✿
✷✳✼✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✶✻✾

❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ✭❛s s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✱ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ x✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢r♦♠
t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ (−∞, ∞)✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐t ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✼✳✶✵✿ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠
❚❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ♦r t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❛s❡ e✱ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s
t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✼✳✶✶✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❛s❡ a > 0 ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ r❡❛❧ x✿
ax = ex ln a .

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ ❥✉st ✢✐♣♣❡❞✿

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✼✳✶✷✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥② ❜❛s❡ y = ax ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ y = ex ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts✳
❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✼✳✶✸✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ▲♦❣❛r✐t❤♠
❚❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠ ♦❢ ❛♥② ❜❛s❡ y = loga x ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✭♦♥ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥ x > 0✮✳

❚❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❛t ❢♦r ♣♦✇❡rs✿ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ r❡❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✱ ❛s
❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✼✳✶✹✿ ❛r❝s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❛r❝❝♦s✐♥❡
❚❤❡ ❛r❝s✐♥❡
✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡str✐❝t❡❞ t♦
[−π/2, π/2]✱ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❜② ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡s❡✿

arcsin y = sin−1 y

❚❤❡ ❛r❝❝♦s✐♥❡ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [0, π]✱ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞
✷✳✼✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✶✼✵

❜② ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡s❡✿

arccos y = cos−1 y

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

y = sin x x = sin−1 y y = cos x x = cos−1 y

❞♦♠❛✐♥✿ [−π/2, π/2] ❞♦♠❛✐♥✿ [−1, 1] ❞♦♠❛✐♥✿ [0, π] ❞♦♠❛✐♥✿ [−1, 1]

r❛♥❣❡✿ [−1, 1] r❛♥❣❡✿ [−π/2, π/2] r❛♥❣❡✿ [−1, 1] r❛♥❣❡✿ [0, π]

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✇✐t❤ ❥✉st x ❛♥❞ y ✐♥t❡r❝❤❛♥❣❡❞✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✼✳✶✺

❈♦♥❞✉❝t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t✳

✷✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ✶✼✶

✷✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts

❚♦ s❤♦✇ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜❡②♦♥❞ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❡♠♣❧♦② s♦♠❡ ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t ❛♥❞ ❞✐r❡❝t

♠❡t❤♦❞s✳

❲❤❡♥ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❜❧❡ ✐♥ ✈❛❧✉❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ♠✐❣❤t t❡❧❧ ✉s s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❛t ❢♦r t❤❡

♦t❤❡r✿

❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ✐❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛❝t✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✽✳✶✿ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

◆♦♥✲str✐❝t ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♣r❡s❡r✈❡❞ ✉♥❞❡r ❧✐♠✐ts✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢

f (x) ≤ g(x)
❢♦r ❛❧❧ n ❣r❡❛t❡r t❤❛♥ s♦♠❡ N✱ t❤❡♥

lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x),

x→a x→a

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐st✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽✳✷

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❝❧❛✐♠ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿

f (x) ≥ g(x)
↓ ↓
L M
=⇒ ≥

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽✳✸

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♥♦♥✲str✐❝t ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② f (x) ≤ g(x) ✇✐t❤ ❛ str✐❝t ♦♥❡ f (x) < g(x) ✇♦♥✬t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡
❛ str✐❝t ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❋r♦♠ t❤✐s ✭s✐♥❣❧❡✮ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿
✷✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ✶✼✷

❙♦✱ ❡✈❡♥ ✇❤❡♥ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❜❧❡ ✐♥ ✈❛❧✉❡✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦r ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✇♦♥✬t t❡❧❧ ✉s

❛♥②t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✳ ❍❛✈✐♥❣ t✇♦ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s✱ ♦♥ ❜♦t❤ s✐❞❡s✱ ♠❛② ✇♦r❦ ❜❡tt❡r✿

❙✉❝❤ ❛ ❞♦✉❜❧❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ sq✉❡❡③❡ ✱ ❥✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ sq✉❡❡③❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

✉♥❞❡r ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ s❛② s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t✳ ❙♦♠❡

❢✉rt❤❡r r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥ts ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✽✳✹✿ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

■❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❧✐❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ❡q✉❛❧ ❧✐♠✐t✱

t❤❡♥ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ❛❧s♦ ❡①✐sts ❛♥❞ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❛t ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (x) ≤ h(x) ≤ g(x)

❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✇✐t❤✐♥ s♦♠❡ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s x = a✱ ❛♥❞ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim f (x) = lim g(x) = L ,

x→a x→a

t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts ❛♥❞ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✿

lim h(x) = L .
x→a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (xn ) ≤ h(xn ) ≤ g(xn ) .

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim f (xn ) = lim g(xn ) = L .

n→∞ n→∞

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim h(xn ) = L .
n→∞
✷✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ✶✼✸

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s ❝❧❛✐♠ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✽✳✺✿ ✜♥❞ ❛ sq✉❡❡③❡

▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱  
1
lim x sin =?
x→0 x
■t ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡
 
1
lim sin ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✳
x→0 x

▲❡t✬s tr② t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ sq✉❡❡③❡ ✐♥st❡❛❞✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr②✿

 
1
−1 ≤ sin ≤ 1.
x

▲❡t✬s ♥♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s sq✉❡❡③❡ ♣r♦✈❡s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ sin(1/x)✿

■t✬s ❥✉st t✇♦ ❜♦✉♥❞s✦

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s sq✉❡❡③❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡✿

 
1
−|x| ≤ x sin ≤ |x| .
x

■t ❧♦♦❦s ♠♦r❡ ✉s❡❢✉❧✿

◆♦✇✱ s✐♥❝❡ lim (−x) = lim (x) = 0✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
x→0 x→0
 
1
lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
✷✳✽✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ✶✼✹

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✽✳✻✿ ❉✐r✐❝❤❧❡t

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❧♦❣✐❝ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❉✐r✐❝❤❧❡t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② x ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❡①❛❝t❧②
♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t✦ (
x ✐❢ x ✐s ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r,
xIQ (x) =
0 ✐❢ x ✐s ❛♥ ✐rr❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r.
❆❣❛✐♥✱ t♦ ♣❧♦t ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❞r❛✇ t✇♦ ❧✐♥❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♣♦✐♥t ♦✉t s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥ts✿

❚❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ s❤♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ❛ ❣♦♦❞ t♦♦❧ ❢♦r ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♥❣ ❛ sq✉❡❡③❡✳ ❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ t♦
❛❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✽✳✼✿ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❛t ♦❢ ✐ts ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim f (x) = 0 ⇐⇒ lim |f (x)| = 0 .

x→a x→a

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽✳✽

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✽✳✾✿ ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐t

❚❤❡ ✜rst ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐ts✿

sin x 1 − cos x
lim = 1 ❛♥❞ lim = 0,
x→0 x x→0 x
❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❜② t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢❛❝t✿
sin x
cos x ≤ ≤ 1.
x

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽✳✶✵

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♠❛♥♥❡r✳

❲❡ ♥♦✇ t✉r♥ t♦ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳

❚♦ ♠❛❦❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥tr♦❧ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ♦♥❡✱ ❜✉t t❤❡
r✐❣❤t✱ s✐❞❡✿
✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✼✺

❚❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ♣✉s❤ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ♣✉s❤ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r
t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳ ❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✽✳✶✶✿ P✉s❤ ❖✉t ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

• ■❢ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r
♦♥❡✳
• ■❢ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r
♦♥❡✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ f (x) ≤ g(x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✇✐t❤✐♥ s♦♠❡ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s
a✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim f (x) = +∞ =⇒ lim g(x) = +∞

x→a x→a
lim f (x) = −∞ ⇐= lim g(x) = −∞
x→a x→a

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽✳✶✷

❙✉❣❣❡st ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❤♦✇ t❤✐s t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿

f (x) ≤ g(x) f (x) ≤ g(x)

↓ ↓
+∞ −∞
=⇒ ↓ =⇒ ↓
+∞ −∞

✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✐s ♣✉r❡❧② ❧♦❝❛❧ ❛s ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t②✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r
❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♠❛tt❡rs✳ ◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ❛ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧❄ ❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ✇❡
s❛② ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r❄
✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✼✻

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ s❛②✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣✐❡❝❡✳

❖✉r ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt② ♦❢ ❤❛✈✐♥❣ ♥♦ ❣❛♣s ✐♥ t❤❡✐r ❣r❛♣❤s ✳ ■♥

❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ❣❛♣s ✐♥ t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ ❡✐t❤❡r✳ ❚♦ ❣❡t ❢r♦♠ ♣♦✐♥t A = f (a) t♦ ♣♦✐♥t B = f (b)✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ✈✐s✐t

❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t ✐♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ✭♥♦ t❡❧❡♣♦rt❛t✐♦♥✦✮✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥ ❤♦✇ t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt② ♠❛② ❢❛✐❧✳

❚❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ✐s ♠♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡❧② ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✾✳✶✿ ■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♠✐ss ❛♥② ♣♦✐♥ts

❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛♥❞ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✱

t❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② c ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ f (a) ❛♥❞ f (b)✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s d ✐♥ [a, b] s✉❝❤ t❤❛t f (d) = c✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s t❤✐s✿ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡

t❤❡♦r❡♠ ♥❛rr♦✇❡r ❛♥❞ ♥❛rr♦✇❡r❀ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❡♥s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ✇✐❧❧ ❣❡t ♥❛rr♦✇❡r ❛♥❞ ♥❛rr♦✇❡r t♦♦✿

✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✼✼

▼♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥str✉❝t s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥❡st❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✱

I = [a, b] ⊃ I1 = [a1 , b1 ] ⊃ I2 = [a2 , b2 ] ⊃ ... ,

t❤❛t t❤❡② ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❤❛❧✈❡s ♦❢ I = [a, b]✿    

a+b a+b
a, , ,b .
2 2
❋♦r ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡♠✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ y = f (x) ❢r♦♠ ❧❡ss t♦ ♠♦r❡ ♦r ❢r♦♠ ♠♦r❡ t♦ ❧❡ss ♦❢ c✳
❈❛❧❧ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I1 = [a1 , b1 ]✿

f (a1 ) < c, f (b1 ) > c ♦r f (a1 ) > c, f (b1 ) < c .

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❤❛❧✈❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

   
a1 + b1 a1 + b1
a1 , , , b1 .
2 2
❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ❢♦r ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡♠✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f ❝r♦ss y = c✳ ❈❛❧❧ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I2 := [a2 , b2 ]✿

f (a2 ) < c, f (b2 ) > c ♦r f (a2 ) > c, f (b2 ) < c .

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡✿

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t ✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r f (an ) = c ♦r f (bn ) = c✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❞♦♥❡✳

❋♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss✱ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿

I = [a, b] ⊃ I1 = [a1 , b1 ] ⊃ I2 = [a2 , b2 ] ⊃ ...

❚❤❡② s❛t✐s❢② t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s✿

a ≤ a1 ≤ ... ≤ an ≤ ... ≤ bn ≤ ... ≤ b1 ≤ b ,

❛♥❞

f (an ) < c, f (bn ) > c ♦r f (an ) > c, f (bn ) < c .

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡✿
1 1
|bn+1 − an+1 | = |bn − an | = n |b − a| → 0 .
2 2
✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✼✽

❇② t❤❡ ◆❡st❡❞ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✮✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✈❛❧✉❡✿

an → d, bn → d .

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ f ✱ ✇❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿

f (an ) → f (d), f (bn ) → f (d) .

❇② t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ❛❜♦✈❡✿

f (d) ≤ c, f (d) ≥ c ♦r f (d) ≥ c, f (d) ≤ c .

❍❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (d) = c .
❙♦✱ d ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡s✐r❡❞ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

❈❤♦♦s✐♥❣ c = 0 ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✾✳✷✿ x✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣ts ♦❢ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

■❢ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❛❦❡s ✈❛❧✉❡s ✇✐t❤ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ s✐❣♥s ❛t

✐ts ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✱ t❤❡♥ ✐t ❤❛s ❛♥ x✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (a) > 0, f (b) < 0 ❖❘ f (a) < 0, f (b) > 0 =⇒ f (c) = 0 ❢♦r s♦♠❡ c ✐♥ [a, b] .

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛❦❡ t❤✐s ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ❡✈❡♥ ♠♦r❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝✱ ❢♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳ ❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❤♦✇ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝❧❛ss✐✜❡❞✿

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ✕ ❜✉t ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✕ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛t t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ♦♥❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst r♦✇ ❛r❡✱
t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡❞ t♦ t❛❦❡ ❜♦t❤ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✾✳✸✿ x✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣ts ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧

❆♥② ♦❞❞ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❤❛s ❛♥ x✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✹

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❞❡t❛✐❧s t♦ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✳

✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✼✾

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✺✿ ✐t❡r❛t❡❞ s❡❛r❝❤

❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ◆❡st❡❞ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

✈✐❛ t❤❡ ✐s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥

❛♥ ✐t❡r❛t❡❞ s❡❛r❝❤ ❢♦r ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ f (x) = c ✳ ▲❡t✬s ✉s❡ t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

sin x = 0 .

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a1 , b1 ] = [3, 3.5]✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = sin x ❞♦❡s ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐ts s✐❣♥ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❲❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢ ❛♥❞ ♣✐❝❦ t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢ ♦✈❡r ✇❤✐❝❤ f ❛❧s♦ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts s✐❣♥✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡

r❡♣❡❛t t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s✳ ❚❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r an ✐s✿

❂■❋✭❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✸❪✯❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✹❪❁✵✱❘❬✲✶❪❈✱❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✶❪✮

❛♥❞ bn ✿
❂■❋✭❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✶❪✯❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✷❪❁✵✱❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪✱❘❬✲✶❪❈✮
✇❤✐❧❡ dn ✐s t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ an , bn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ π ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f (an ), f (bn ) t♦ 0✳ ❚❤❡ s❝❛tt❡r

♣❧♦t ♦❢ (an , f (an )) ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❛❧♦♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❛ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✐❝❛❧❧② r❡✲s❝❛❧❡❞ y ✲❛①✐s✳

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ s❛②s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ■t✬s ❛❧s♦ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

▼♦r❡ ❝♦♥❝✐s❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✾✳✻✿ ❘❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

■❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s ✐ts r❛♥❣❡✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ P♦✐♥t ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✳

✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✽✵

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♠❛② ❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❣❛♣s✿

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❣r❛♣❤ s❤♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s♥✬t tr✉❡✳
❘❡❝❛❧❧ ✭❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮ t❤❛t ❛❧❧ str✐❝t❧② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ❝❛♥✬t ❝♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦ ❛♥❞ ❝r♦ss ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ t✐♠❡✿

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✐s tr✉❡ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ❢♦r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✼

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡
✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ✐t ✐s str✐❝t❧② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✽✿ s✉♣♣❧② ❛♥❞ ❞❡♠❛♥❞

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t ✉s❡❞ ✐♥ ❡❝♦♥♦♠✐❝s✳ ■♥ ❛ t②♣✐❝❛❧ tr❛♥s❛❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
• ❚❤❡ s✉♣♣❧✐❡r ✐s ✇✐❧❧✐♥❣ t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♠♦r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t② ❢♦r ❛ ❤✐❣❤❡r ♣r✐❝❡✳
• ❚❤❡ ❜✉②❡r ✐s ♣r❡♣❛r❡❞ t♦ ❜✉② ♠♦r❡ ❢♦r ❛ ❧♦✇❡r ♣r✐❝❡✳
❊✐t❤❡r ❢❛❝t ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t② ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ ♣r✐❝❡✳ ❚❤❡
❢♦r♠❡r ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✿

■❢ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ♠✉st ❜❡ ❛ ♣r✐❝❡ t❤❛t
s❛t✐s✜❡s ❜♦t❤ ♣❛rt✐❡s✳
✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✽✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✾
❲❤❛t ♦t❤❡r ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♠❛❞❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡❄ P✉t t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠
❛♥❞ ♣r♦✈❡ ✐t✳

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ❜✉t ✐s t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❝❧♦s❡❞❄ ❇✉t ✜rst✱ ✐s t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞❄
❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✐❢ ✐ts r❛♥❣❡ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ r❡❛❧
♥✉♠❜❡r Q t❤❛t
|f (x)| ≤ Q
❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ I ✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❦ t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t s✉❜❥❡❝t ✐s t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❜❡❧♦✇✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✾✳✶✵✿ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ▼❡❛♥s ❇♦✉♥❞❡❞
■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❡①✐sts✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ s♦♠❡ ♦♣❡♥

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim f (x) ❡①✐sts =⇒ |f (x)| ≤ Q

x→a

❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ (a − δ, a + δ) ❢♦r s♦♠❡ δ>0 ❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ Q✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✶✶
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ s♣❡❛❦✐♥❣ ✉♥t✐❧ ♥♦✇ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡❀ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❝✉t ❛t x = a✳ ◆♦✇ s❡ts ✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✾✳✶✷✿ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✐❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ❝♦♥t❛✐♥❡❞ ✐♥
t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ f ❛♥❞
lim f (xn ) = f (a)
n→∞

❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ✐♥ I s✉❝❤ t❤❛t xn → a✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✶✸✿ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s

■♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ 1/x ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ (−∞, 0) ❛♥❞ ♦♥ (0, ∞)✳
• ❇✉t ✐t ✐s ♥♦t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ (−∞, ∞) ♦r ❡✈❡♥ (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)✳
❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡✿ √
• ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ x ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [0, ∞)✳
• ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s sin−1 x ❛♥❞ cos−1 x ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [−1, 1]✳

❚❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥② ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ [a, b]✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✽✷

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✾✳✶✹✿ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ▼❡❛♥s ❇♦✉♥❞❡❞

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡✱ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥tr❛r②✱ t❤❛t f ✐s ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ✐♥ [a, b]
s✉❝❤ t❤❛t f (xn ) → ∞✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❇♦❧③❛♥♦✲❲❡✐❡rstr❛ss ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✮✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ❤❛s
❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ yk ✿
yk → y .
❚❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ [a, b]✦ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t

f (yk ) → f (y) .

❚❤✐s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝ts t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t yk ✐s ❛ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ∞✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ ♦r t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ [−Q, Q]✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✶✺

❲❤② ❛r❡ ✇❡ ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t y ♦❢ yk ✐s ✐♥ [a, b]❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✶✻✿ ♣r❡✲❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s

❲❡ s❤♦✇ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢❛✐❧s ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✐s ♦♠✐tt❡❞✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ❛ ♥♦t ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

■♥ ❛❧❧ t❤r❡❡ ❝❛s❡s✱ t❤❡ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ❛s ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿
✶✳ lim f (x) = +∞
x→c−
✷✳ lim f (x) = +∞
x→b−
✸✳ lim f (x) = +∞
x→+∞

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞♥✬t ❡q✉❛t❡ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞♥❡ss ✇✐t❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts❀ ❤❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = x sin x✿
✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✽✸

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✶✼✿ arctan

❚❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛r❝t❛♥❣❡♥t✳ ■ts r❛♥❣❡ ✐s (−π/2, π/2)✿

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

inf(−π/2, π/2) = −π/2, sup(−π/2, π/2) = π/2 .

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ♥❡✈❡r r❡❛❝❤❡❞✿

arctan(x) 6= ±π/2 .

■❢ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡✴r❛♥❣❡ ✐s ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡❛❝❤❡s ✐ts ❡①tr❡♠❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞

♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♦❢ ✐ts r❛♥❣❡✳

▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ✭❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✾✳✶✽✿ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥ts

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳
• ❆ ♣♦✐♥t x=d ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ f ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐❢
f (d) ≥ f (x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ a ≤ x ≤ b.
✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✽✹

• ❆ ♣♦✐♥t x=c ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ f ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐❢

f (c) ≤ f (x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ a ≤ x ≤ b.

❈♦❧❧❡❝t✐✈❡❧② t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❚❤❡ ✇♦r❞ ✏❣❧♦❜❛❧✑ ✐s ♦❢t❡♥
♦♠✐tt❡❞✳

❏✉st ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ✐s ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡❞ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t ✐t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❢♦✉♥❞✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ f (x) = 1/x ❤❛s ♥♦
♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦♥ [0, ∞)✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❜❡❧♦✇ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡s t❤❡✐r ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✾✳✶✾✿ ❊①tr❡♠❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛s ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞

❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ c, d ✐♥ [a, b] s✉❝❤ t❤❛t

f (c) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (d)

❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b]✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ t❤❡♦r❡♠s✱ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦❢ [a, b] ✐s ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✷✵
Pr♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✳ ❍✐♥t✿ t❤❡ ❇♦❧③❛♥♦✲❲❡✐❡rstr❛ss ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✮✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✷✶✿ ▲❛✛❡r ❝✉r✈❡

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t ✉s❡❞ ✐♥ ❡❝♦♥♦♠✐❝s✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡✈❡♥✉❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡
t❛① r❛t❡ ✐s ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✳ ■t s❡❡♠s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❛t ❜♦t❤ 0% ❛♥❞ 100% r❛t❡s ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ③❡r♦
r❡✈❡♥✉❡✳

■❢ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t s♦♠❡✇❤❡r❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥
t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♠❛② ②✐❡❧❞ ❛ t❛①✲❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ r❡✈❡♥✉❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✷✷
❲❤❛t ♦t❤❡r ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♠❛❞❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡❄ P✉t t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠
❛♥❞ ♣r♦✈❡ ✐t✳

▼♦r❡ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✾✳✷✸✿ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳
• ❆ ♣♦✐♥t y=M ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐❢
✷✳✾✳ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✶✽✺

✐t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ f❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

M = max{f (x) : a ≤ x ≤ b} .

• ❆ ♣♦✐♥t y=m ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐❢

✐t ✐s t❤❡ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ f❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

m = min{f (x) : a ≤ x ≤ b} .

❈♦❧❧❡❝t✐✈❡❧② t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ✇♦r❞ ✏❣❧♦❜❛❧✑ ✐s ♦❢t❡♥
♦♠✐tt❡❞✳

❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t = ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❛♥❞ f ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t = ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞

♣♦✐♥ts ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✲

✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛① ✭♦r ♠✐♥✮ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s r❡❛❝❤❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t ❛♥② ♦❢ ✐ts ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛① ✭♦r ♠✐♥✮ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❋♦r
❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ f (x) = sin x ❛tt❛✐♥s ✐ts ♠❛① ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ 1 ❢♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❝❤♦✐❝❡s ♦❢ x = π/2, 5π/2, ...✳
❲❤② ❛r❡ t❤❡ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❡ss❡♥t✐❛❧❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✷✹✿ 1/x

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ 1/x ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛tt❛✐♥ ✐ts ❧❡❛st ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦♥ (0, 1] ❛s ✐t ✐s✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✿

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛♣♣❧② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s♥✬t ❝❧♦s❡❞✳ ❙❡❝♦♥❞❧②✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ 1/x ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛tt❛✐♥
✐ts ❣r❡❛t❡st ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ✈❛❧✉❡✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s 0✱ ♦♥ [1, ∞)✳ ❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛♣♣❧② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
✐s♥✬t ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✷✺✿ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s

❍❡r❡ t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✐s♥✬t ❛tt❛✐♥❡❞ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✿
✷✳✶✵✳ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ✶✽✻

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛♣♣❧② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ f ✐s♥✬t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✳

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❊①tr❡♠❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s t♦ ❡♥s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✇❡
❛r❡ ❢❛❝✐♥❣ ❤❛s ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳

✷✳✶✵✳ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s

●r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ♠♦st ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥ s✐③❡ ❛♥❞ ✇♦♥✬t ✜t ♦♥ ❛♥② ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✳ ❚❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❧❡❛✈❡ t❤❡
♣❛♣❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡② ❞♦ t❤❛t ✐♥ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✇❛②s✿

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤✐s ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ x✲ ❛♥❞ y ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✳ ❋♦r ❡✐t❤❡r✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ❝❛s❡s✿

❚❤❡r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡✐t❤❡r✿

• ❛ ✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✭❢r♦♠ ♦♥❡ s✐❞❡✮ ♦r
• ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✭♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♦r ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✮✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ❛r❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝❛s❡s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ✇❛②s✳
✷✳✶✵✳ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ✶✽✼

❋✐rst✱ ❜♦t❤ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ✜♥✐t❡✿

x → a± , y → L± .
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❧✐♠✐t t❤❛t ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡r② ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♣t❡r✿

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ♦♥❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ✜♥✐t❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✿

x → a± , y → ±∞ ♦r x → ±∞ y → L± .

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❡✐❣❤t ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t✐❡s ❤❡r❡✱ ❛❧❧ ✇✐t❤ ❡✐t❤❡r ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♦r ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✿

❚❤✐r❞✱ ❜♦t❤ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✿

x → ±∞, y → ±∞ .
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❢♦✉r ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t✐❡s✱ ❛❧❧ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✿

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ tr❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ✇❛❧❦✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛♥❞
❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s t♦ r❡❝♦r❞ t❤❡ x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢♦r✇❛r❞ ♦r ❜❛❝❦ t♦ s❡❡ ✇❤❛t ✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣
t❤❡ y ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✿
✷✳✶✵✳ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ✶✽✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✶

❙✉❣❣❡st ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t②♣❡s ♦❢ tr❡♥❞s✳

❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛r❡ ❞r❛✇♥ ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ✐t ❛t ❛ s❤❛r♣
❛♥❣❧❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❛❧♠♦st ✐♥✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❧❡❛r❧② s❡❡ t❤❡
❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ y ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✿

■❢ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✱ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x ✐s s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥t✳
❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞❡s❝r✐♣t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦❡s ✐t ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡❄ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t
❤❛✈❡✿
• x → +∞ ❛♥❞ y → 0+
• x → 0+ ❛♥❞ y → −∞
■❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ✐t ❝❛♥✬t ❝r♦ss ✭y = 0 ❛♥❞ x = 0✮✱ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ st❛rts t♦ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡
str❛✐❣❤t ❛♥❞ s❧♦✇❧② ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t❤❛t ❧✐♥❡✿
✷✳✶✵✳ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ✶✽✾

❊✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② ✐t ❛❧♠♦st ♠❡r❣❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❧✐♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✐s t❤❡♥ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✷✿ ♥♦ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s

❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❝❛s❡✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐s t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✿

y = x, y = x2 , ... ❛t ± ∞, y = ex , y = ln x ❛t + ∞,

❛♥❞ ♠❛♥② ♠♦r❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✸✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧

❲❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧② ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

x → −∞, y → 0 ❛♥❞ x → +∞, y → +∞ .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✹✿ ❛r❝t❛♥❣❡♥t

❆s ❛♥ ✐❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛s②♠♣t♦t✐❝ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ✭r❡str✐❝t❡❞✮ t❛♥❣❡♥t y = tan x ❛♥❞

✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡✱ ❛r❝t❛♥❣❡♥t✿

y = tan x ❛♥❞ x = tan−1 y

❢♦r −π/2 < x < π/2✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✇✐t❤ ❥✉st x ❛♥❞ y ✐♥t❡r❝❤❛♥❣❡❞✳ ▲❡t✬s

❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡✐r ❧❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦rs ❛t ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❛r❡❛ ✭✐♥ ②❡❧❧♦✇✮ ✉s✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

❋✐rst t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t✿

y → +∞ ❛s x → π/2− .
❈❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ x t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❛♥❞ y t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✇❡ s✐♠♣❧② r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡

❢♦r t❤❡ ❛r❝t❛♥❣❡♥t✿

y → π/2− ❛s x → +∞ .
✷✳✶✵✳ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ✶✾✵

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❉❡s❝r✐❜✐♥❣ ❛s②♠♣t♦t✐❝ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛s ✏✢❛tt❡♥✐♥❣✑ ♦❢
√
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s ♠✐s❧❡❛❞✐♥❣✱ ❛s t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ y = x
s❤♦✇s✳

❚❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥s ♦❢ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ❧❡❛✈❡s t❤❡ ✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ❛r❡ st❛t❡❞
❜❡❧♦✇ ✐♥ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ t❡r♠s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✶✵✳✺✿ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣♦❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②

●✐✈❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t f ❣♦❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ✐❢

f (xn ) → ±∞ ❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → +∞ .

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

f (x) → ±∞ ❛s x → +∞
♦r
lim f (x) = ±∞ .
x→+∞

❯♥❞❡r t❤✐s ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ s❛② f ❣♦❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ✇❤❡♥ x → −∞✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✶✵✳✻✿ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ❛s ❧✐♠✐t

●✐✈❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)✱ ❛ ❧✐♥❡ y =p ❢♦r s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ p ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧
❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ♦❢ f ✐❢

lim f (xn ) = p ❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → +∞ .

n→∞

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

f (x) → p ❛s x → +∞
♦r✱ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱
lim f (x) = p .
x→+∞

❯♥❞❡r t❤✐s ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡ x → −∞✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✶✵✳✼✿ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ❛s ❧✐♠✐t

❆ ❧✐♥❡ x=a ❢♦r s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ a ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ♦❢ f ✐❢

lim f (x) = ±∞ ❢♦r ❛♥② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn → a+ .

n→∞

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

f (x) → ±∞ ❛s x → a+
♦r✱ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱
lim f (x) = ±∞ .
x→a+

❯♥❞❡r t❤✐s ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡ x → a− ✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦✉rt❤ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ✐s ✏♥♦ ♣❛tt❡r♥✑✳

✷✳✶✵✳ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ✶✾✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✽✿ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t t❤✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

lim ex = 0, lim ex = +∞ ,
x→−∞ x→+∞

❛♥❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛r❝t❛♥❣❡♥t✿

lim tan−1 = −π/2+ ❛♥❞ lim tan−1 y → π/2− .
x→−∞ x→+∞

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✾✿ s②♠♠❡tr②

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ❧♦♦❦ ✈❡r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ t❤❡② ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡
❝✉r✈❡✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤✐s s②♠♠❡tr② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = 1/x✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ✐t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿
x y
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✿ x → +∞ y → 0
✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✿ x→0 y → +∞

❲❡ ❥✉st ✐♥t❡r❝❤❛♥❣❡ x ❛♥❞ y ✳ ■♥ ♠♦r❡ ❞❡t❛✐❧✿

1 1 1 1
→ 0− ❛s x → −∞, → 0+ ❛s x → +∞, → −∞ ❛s x → 0− , → +∞ ❛s x → 0+ .
x x x x

❚❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✵✳✶✵✿ ❆s②♠♣t♦t❡s ♦❢ ■♥✈❡rs❡

❚❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ♦❢ ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡✱

❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✶✶

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✶✷✿ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ▲❛✇ ♦❢ ●r❛✈✐t②

❚❤❡ ❧❛✇ st❛t❡s✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ♦❢ ❣r❛✈✐t② ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ♦❜❥❡❝ts ✐s ✐♥✈❡rs❡❧② ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡✐r ❝❡♥t❡rs✳
✷✳✶✵✳ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ✶✾✷

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

C
F = ,
r2
✇❤❡r❡✿
• C ✐s s♦♠❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ❛♥❞
• r ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦✳
❚❤❡♥✱ ✐❢ r > 0 ✐s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
lim F (r) = 0 .
r→+∞

❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ♥❡❣❧✐❣✐❜❧❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♦❜❥❡❝ts ❜❡❝♦♠❡ s✉✣❝✐❡♥t❧② ❢❛r ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠
❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✶✸

❲❤❛t ✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❜♦❞✐❡s ❛r❡ ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❝❧♦s❡r ❛♥❞ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✶✹✿ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ▲❛✇ ♦❢ ❈♦♦❧✐♥❣

❲❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛✇ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛❝t✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t✬s t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛t♠♦s♣❤❡r❡
✐s ❞❡❝❧✐♥✐♥❣ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧❧②✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
T − T0 = Cekx , k < 0, C > 0 ,
✇❤❡r❡ T ✐s t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ❛♥❞ T0 ✐s t❤❡ ❛♠❜✐❡♥t t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿
lim T (t) = T0 .
t→+∞

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ y = T0 ✳ ❚❤❡ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
❢r♦♠ ❛❜♦✈❡ ♦r ❢r♦♠ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
• ❆ ✇❛r♠❡r ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ❝♦♦❧✐♥❣✿ T − T0 > 0 ❛♥❞ T ց ✳
• ❆ ❝♦♦❧❡r ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ✇❛r♠✐♥❣✿ T − T0 < 0 ❛♥❞ T ր ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✶✺✿ ♣❧♦ts ❢r♦♠ ❧✐♠✐ts

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❢❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ✭✐♥✈❡rs❡✦✮ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ♥♦✇ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞
t♦ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ❛♥❞ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
✷✳✶✵✳ ▲❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ✶✾✸

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t f ✿ ■t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x 6= 3✱ ❛♥❞

lim f (x) = 3, lim f (x) = +∞, lim f (x) = −2 .

x→−∞ x→3 x→+∞

▲❡t✬s r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤♦s❡✿

✶✳ x → −∞, y → 3
✷✳ x → 3− , y → +∞
✸✳ x → 3+ , y → +∞
✹✳ x → +∞, y → −2
❲❡ ❞r❛✇ r♦✉❣❤ str♦❦❡s t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡s❡ ❢❛❝ts ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❚❤❡ ❛♠❜✐❣✉✐t② ❛❜♦✉t ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t❤❡ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s r❡♠❛✐♥s ❛t −∞ ❛♥❞ +∞✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t
t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ str♦❦❡s ✐♥t♦ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❣r❛♣❤❀ ✐t ❤❛s t✇♦ ❜r❛♥❝❤❡s✳ ❚✇♦ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❡rs✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ❛r❡
s❤♦✇♥ ✭♠✐❞❞❧❡ ❛♥❞ r✐❣❤t✮✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✶✻✿ t❤r❡❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥s

❆ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛✐♥ ✇❛②s✿

❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❡①❡♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

     
1 1 1
lim 1+ = 1, lim 2− = 2, lim cos x = 0.
x→∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✶✼

❙✉❣❣❡st ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ♦s❝✐❧❧❛t❡s ❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡ ❜✉t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ✢❛tt❡♥ ♦✉t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✶✽

❯s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✷✳✶✶✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✶✾✹

✷✳✶✶✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡ t❤❡ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡s ♦❢ ♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t ✭❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ♦r t✇♦✲s✐❞❡❞✱
♦r ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②✮✿


 L → ■t✬s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❨♦✉ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳

±∞ → ❨♦✉ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ s♦♠❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿ ∞ + ∞ = ∞✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❛❧❧✿ ∞ − ∞ = ?
lim =


 ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t → ❉♦ ♥♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳
■t✬s ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡✳ ❙t❛rt ♦✈❡r✦

0/0, ∞/∞, ∞ − ∞ →

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✿ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s

▲❡t✬s ❢✉❧❧② ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

 2
x − x
✐❢ x 6= 1 ,
f (x) = x2 − 1

1 ✐❢ x = 1 .
❚❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♠✐❣❤t ❝♦♥✢✐❝t ✐s x = 1✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞✱ ❜✉t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t
❡①✐st❄ ▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿
x2 − x
lim f (x) = lim .
x→1 x→1 x2 − 1

P❧✉❣ ✐♥ x = 1 ✭♠✐st❛❦❡✦✮✿
11 − 1 0
= . ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉
12 − 1 0
■♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡✦ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❞♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❢♦r❡ t✉r♥✐♥❣ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡
❧✐♠✐t✳

❍❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿

x2 − x x(x − 1)
lim 2
= lim
x→1 x − 1 x→1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
x
= lim
x→1 x + 1
1 1
= = .
1+1 2
x
❚❤❡ ❧❛st st❡♣ ✭♣❧✉❣❣✐♥❣ ✐♥ x = 1✮ ✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❛♥❞✱
x+1
1
t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t ❛♥② ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳ ◆♦✇✱ ❛r❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡q✉❛❧❄ ◆♦✿ 1 6= ✳
2
❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛t t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t ✭❛ r❡♠♦✈❛❜❧❡ ❦✐♥❞✮✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿ ( x

✐❢ x 6= 1 ,
f (x) = x + 1
1 ✐❢ x = 1 .
❲❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❜② s♦❧✈✐♥❣✿ x + 1 6= 0 ❛♥❞ x 6= 1✳ ❚❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞) ✳
x
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛t x = −1✿
x+1
x
lim = ∞.
x→−1 x + 1
✷✳✶✶✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✶✾✺

❚❤✉s✱ x = −1 ✐s ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✳

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s st✐❧❧ t❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ♦❢ ✐♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✇❛②s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t❤❡
❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✳ ❚♦ t❡❧❧ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♦♥❡✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts ✇❤✐❧❡ ✇❛t❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡ s✐❣♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✿  
x −
lim − = =+ = +∞,
x→−1 x + 1  − 
x −
lim + = =− = −∞ .
x→−1 x + 1 +
◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛t ∞✿
x
lim f (x) = lim = 1.
x→∞ x→∞ x + 1

❚❤✉s✱ y = 1 ✐s ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✳

❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ ♣❧♦t✿

❏✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ❡❛❝❤ ♣r♦♣❡rt② ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ✐s ♠❛t❝❤❡❞ ❜② ✐ts ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐ts ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✶✳✷✿ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛t ■♥✜♥✐t②
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f (x) → F ❛♥❞ g(x) → G ❛s x → +∞ ✭♦r −∞✮✳ ❚❤❡♥

❙❘✿ f (x) + g(x) → F + G ❈▼❘✿ c · f (x) → cF ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c

P❘✿ f (x) · g(x) → F G ◗❘✿ f (x)/g(x) → F/G ✇❤❡♥ G 6= 0

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✶✳✸✿ ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✐❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t L = lim g(x)✱
x→∞
t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
 
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x)
x→∞ x→∞

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✹✿ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

❈♦♠♣✉t❡✿  
x 1 ❙❘ 1
lim e − +3 === lim ex − lim + lim 3
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x→−∞ x x→−∞
= 0−0+3
= 3.
✷✳✶✶✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✶✾✻

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✺✿ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡

❈♦♠♣✉t❡✿
x
lim .
x→∞ x + 1

P❧✉❣❣✐♥❣ ✐♥ x = ∞ ✭♠✐st❛❦❡✦✮✱ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s

∞
❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉
∞
❋❛❝✐♥❣ ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❞♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✐♥st❡❛❞✳ ❲❤❛t ❛r❡ ✇❡ tr②✐♥❣ t♦
❛❝❝♦♠♣❧✐s❤❄ ❲❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❣❡t r✐❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✳ ❍♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t
✇❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜♦t❤ ❜② x❄
x
x x
lim = lim
x→∞ x + 1 x→∞ (x+1)
x
1
= lim
x→∞ 1 + 1
x
◗❘ limx→∞ 1
===

limx→∞ 1 + x1
❙❘ 1
=== = 1.
1+0
■t ✇♦r❦❡❞✦ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t y = 1 ✐s ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✻✿ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t ∞✿

x2
.
x2 + 1
❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♥❣ ✭♠✐st❛❦❡✦✮ ❧❡❛❞s t♦
∞
❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉
∞
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡✳ ▲❡t✬s ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② x ❛s ❧❛st t✐♠❡✿
x2
x2 x
= (x2 +1)
x2 + 1
x
x ∞
= 1 → ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉
x+ x
∞

■t✬s st✐❧❧ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡♥✬t ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛t❡❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s✳ ▲❡t✬s ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② x ❛❣❛✐♥✱
x
x x
1 = (x+ x1 )
x+ x
x
1
=
1 + x12
1
→
1+0
= 1.

❇❡tt❡r ✐❞❡❛✿ ❉✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② x2 ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ♣❧❛❝❡✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❛t ∞❄ ❚❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✇❛② ✇❡ ❞✐❞ ✐t ❢♦r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳ ❋♦r ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞
❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✳
✷✳✶✶✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✶✾✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✼✿ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠s ❛♥❛❧②s✐s

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r✿
❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠✦ s❤♦rt✲t❡r♠✳✳✳
z}|{ z }| {
3x3 − 2x2 + x − 8 ∞
lim 2 → .
x→∞ 2x
|{z} − 17x + 5 ∞
| {z }
♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✦ ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ✐s✳✳✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡s t❤❡ ❧♦♥❣ t❡r♠✿

3x2 3
2
= x → ∞.
2x 2
❚♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤✐s ✈✐s✐❜❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ❜② x2 ✳
(3x3 −2x2 +x−8)
x2
3x − 2 + x1 − x82
lim (2x2 −17x+5) = lim
x→∞ x→∞ 2 − 17
x
+ x52
x2
∞−2+0−0
=
2−0+0
= ∞.

• ❚❤❡ ❧❡ss♦♥✿ ❚♦ ❣❡t r✐❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❝②✱ ❣❡t r✐❞ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s✳
• ❚❤❡ ♣❧❛♥✿ ❉✐✈✐❞❡ ❜♦t❤ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ ❜② x t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✽✿ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧

❆♥❛❧②③❡✿
x3 − x
f (x) = .
x2 − 6x + 5
❆t ∞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
x3 −x
x3 − x x2
lim 2 = lim x2 −6x+5
x→∞ x − 6x + 5 x→∞
x2
x − x1
= lim
x→∞ 1 − 6 + 52
x x
∞−0
=
1−0−0
= ∞.
■t✬s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ ②❡s✱ ❜✉t ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t②❄ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥✳ ❲❡ ❥✉st ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣
t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✳
lim (x3 − x) = +∞ lim (x3 − x) = −∞
x→+∞ x→−∞
lim (x2 − 6x + 5) = +∞ lim (x2 − 6x + 5) = +∞
x→+∞ x→−∞

❈♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿ ♥♦ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳

◆♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳ ❲❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t

x3 − x
x2 − 6x + 5
❛♥❞ s❡❛r❝❤ ❢♦r 0 ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✳ ▲❡t✬s ❢❛❝t♦r ❜♦t❤✿
x3 − x = x(x2 − 1) = x(x − 1)(x + 1)
x2 − 6x + 5 = (x − 1)(x − 5)
✷✳✶✶✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✶✾✽

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

√ √
62 − 4 · 5
6± 6 ± 36 · 20
x = =
2 2
6±4
= = 5, 1 .
2
◆♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
x(x − 1)(x + 1) x(x + 1)
f (x) = =
(x − 5)(x − 1) x−5
❢♦r x 6= 1 ✭t❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✦✮✳ ◆❡①t✿
1(1 + 1) 1
lim f (x) = =− ,
x→1 1−5 2
x(x + 1)
❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t 1✳ ❙♦✱ x = 1 ✐s ♥♦t ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✳ ◆❡①t✿
x−5
x(x + 1) 30 ?
lim− = = ±∞ .
x→5 x−5 0
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ x = 5 ✐s ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✳ ❇✉t ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t②❄ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥✿
+·+
=−
−
❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
x(x + 1)
lim− = −∞ .
x→5 x−5
❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞✿
lim f (x) = +∞ .
x→5+

◆♦✇ s♦♠❡ ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡st❛t❡❞ ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
❋✐rst✱ r❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❧❡ss♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛t ∞✿
◮ ❖♥❧② t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠ ♠❛tt❡rs✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✶✳✾✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛t ■♥✜♥✐t②
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ p ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ap 6= 0✳
❚❤❡♥ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
✐❢ ap > 0
(
±∞
lim (ap xp + ap−1 xp−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 ) =
x→±∞ ∓∞ ✐❢ ap < 0

❚❤❡♥✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ♦✉t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡ ❥✉st ❢♦✉r ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥s
✷✳✶✶✳ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✶✾✾

❆ ♠♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛❜♦✉t r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✵✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❘❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛t ■♥✜♥✐t②

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛s ❛ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s
♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡s p ❛♥❞ q✱ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ap 6= 0, bq 6= 0✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ✐s
❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
✐❢ p > q


 ∞
✐❢ p = q
ap xp + ap−1 xp−1 + ... + a1 x + a0  ap
lim =
x→+∞ bq xq + bq−1 xq−1 + ... + b1 x + b0 bp
✐❢ p < q



0

❚❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ ❝❛s❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✶
❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r x → −∞✳

❚❤❡ ❧♦♥❣✲t❡r♠ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ✐ts ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞
❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✿

ap xp + ap−1 xp−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 ap xp ap

lim q q−1
= lim q
= lim xp−q
x→∞ bq x + bq−1 xx + ... + b1 x + b0 x→∞ bp x bp x→∞

❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ✐s ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛t❡❞ ✕ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ t♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✕ ❜② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✷✿ ♥♦t r❛t✐♦♥❛❧

❙♦♠❡t✐♠❡s ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦t❤❡r t❤❛♥ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿
√ 
lim x2 +1−x .
x→∞

❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♥❣ ✭♠✐st❛❦❡✦✮ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s✿

∞−∞ ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉

❚❤✐s ✐s ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❝❦ ✐s t♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② t❤❡ ✏❝♦♥❥✉❣❛t❡✑ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✿
√
x2 + 1 + x .
✷✳✶✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✷✵✵

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✐t ✇♦r❦s✿

√
√

x2 + 1 − x x2 + 1 + x (x2 + 1) − x2
lim √ = lim √
x→∞ x2 + 1 + x x→∞ x2 + 1 + x
1
= lim √
x→∞ 2
x +1+x
1
=
∞
= 0.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✸
 
x
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿ lim ln ✳
x→∞ x+1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✹

●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣❛tt❡r♥s ❛s x → ∞✿ ✭❛✮ f (x) → −1✱ ✭❜✮
f (x) → .33✱ ✭❜✮ f (x) → +∞✱ ✭❝✮ f (x) ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❜✉t ♥♦t t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳

■♥ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ ❛t ❛♥ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✺

P❧♦t ✐♥ t❤✐s ♠❛♥♥❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

✷✳✶✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ ❛ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ sq✉❛r❡ t✐❧❡s ♦❢ ✈❛r✐♦✉s s✐③❡s ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ A ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡♠
✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❦♥♦✇ ❤♦✇ ♠❛♥② ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✢♦♦r✳
✷✳✶✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✷✵✶

❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t♦ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ t❤❡ s✐❞❡✱ x✱ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ t✐❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿
A = x2 .
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
x = 10 =⇒ A = 100 .

❇✉t ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ ♥❡✈❡r ❢✉❧❧② ❛❝❝✉r❛t❡❀ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❤❛✈❡✿
x = 10 ± .3 .
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ x ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
x ✐♥ (10 − .3, 10 + .3) = (9.7, 10.3) .
❆s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✐❧❡ ✕ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛r❡ ❛❜♦✉t ✕ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡ s♦♠❡ ❡rr♦r✦
■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✇♦♥✬t ❜❡ ❥✉st A = 100 ❜✉t
A = (10 ± .3)2 .
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ A ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
A ✐s ✐♥ ((10 − .3)2 , (10 + .3)2 ) = (9.72 , 10.32 ) = (94.09, 106.09) .

❚❤✐s ✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐✈❡✱ ❜✉t ♦✉r ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛t✐♦♥ ❣♦❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♥❡①t t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧✇❛②s ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✐❧❡ x ✕ ❛s
♠✉❝❤ ❛s ✇❡ ❧✐❦❡✳ ❚❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✐s✱ ❝❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ A✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡
❛❝❤✐❡✈❡ t❤✐s ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② t♦ ❛♥②❜♦❞②✬s s❛t✐s❢❛❝t✐♦♥✱ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ t❤✐s st❛♥❞❛r❞ ♦❢ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♠✐❣❤t ❝❤❛♥❣❡❄
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ t❤❛t x = 10✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❞❡s✐r❡❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ A ✐s ±3✱ ✇❡ r❡q✉✐r❡ ✿
A ✐s ✐♥ (100 − 3, 100 + 3) = (97, 103) .
❇✉t t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ t♦ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡ t♦ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ A✿ (94.09, 106.09)✦ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡♥✬t ❛❝❤✐❡✈❡❞ t❤❡ ❞❡s✐r❡❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ A ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t x✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ±.3 ✳
■❢ t❤❡ ❞❡s✐r❡❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ A ✐s ±7✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
A ✐s ✐♥ (94.09, 106.09) ⊂ (100 − 7, 100 + 7) = (93, 107) .
■t ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✦
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡❛s✐❧② s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ±.1 ❢♦r x ♣r♦✈✐❞❡s t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✱ s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤r❡s❤♦❧❞ ❢♦r A✿


A ✐s ✐♥ (10 − .1)2 , (10 + .1)2 = (9.92 , 10.12 ) = (98.01, 102.01) ⊂ (100 − 3, 100 + 3) = (97, 103) .

▲❡t✬s r❡♣❤r❛s❡ t❤✐s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ✐t ❢♦r ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡s✐r❡❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ A✳
▲❡t✬s ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ✐s a ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❛ss✉♠❡❞ ❛r❡❛ A ✐s a2 ✳ ◆♦✇ s✉♣♣♦s❡
✇❡ ✇❛♥t t❤❡ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ A ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ tr✉❡ ✭✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✮ ❛r❡❛ t♦ ❜❡ s♦♠❡ s♠❛❧❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ε > 0 ♦r ❜❡tt❡r✳ ❲❤❛t
t❤r❡s❤♦❧❞ δ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ a ❢r♦♠ x ❞♦ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡ t❤❛t❄ ❲❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❡♥s✉r❡ t❤❛t
A ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ε ❢r♦♠ a2 ❜② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ s✉r❡ t❤❛t x ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ δ ❢r♦♠ a✿
✷✳✶✷✳ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✷✵✷

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤✐s✿

A ✐s ✐♥ (a − δ)2 , (a + δ)2 .
❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ t❤❛t✿
A ✐s ✐♥ (a2 − ε, a2 + ε) .
❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✇✐❧❧ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✱ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞✿


(a − δ)2 , (a + δ)2 ⊂ (a2 − ε, a2 + ε) .

▼♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✿


f (a − δ), f (a + δ) ⊂ (f (a) − ε, f (a) + ε) .

❚❤✐s ✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❲❡ r❡♣❤r❛s❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿

x ✇✐t❤✐♥ δ ❢r♦♠ ❛ =⇒ f (x) ✇✐t❤✐♥ ε ❢r♦♠ ❢✭❛✮ .

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ s✉❣❣❡st❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✶✷✳✶✿ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②
❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a ✐❢ ❢♦r ❛♥② ε > 0 t❤❡r❡ ✐s δ > 0 s✉❝❤
t❤❛t
|x − a| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (a)| < ε .

■❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥
❛♥s✇❡r ♦✉r q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛✣r♠❛t✐✈❡✿
◮ ❨❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧✇❛②s ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ A = x2 ✕ t♦ ❛♥②❜♦❞②✬s
s❛t✐s❢❛❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ❜② ✐♠♣r♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ x✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✷
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t f (x) = x2 ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = 0, x = 1, x = a✳
✷✳✶✸✳ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✷✵✸

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✸

❈❛rr② ♦✉t t❤✐s ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r✿ ❛ t❤❡r♠♦♠❡t❡r ♣✉t ✐♥ ❛ ❝✉♣ ♦❢ ❝♦✛❡❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ ✐ts t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡✳
❆ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ t❤❡r♠♦♠❡t❡r ❣✐✈❡s ♣❡r❢❡❝t r❡❛❞✐♥❣s✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ■t✬❧❧ t❛❦❡ t✐♠❡ ❢♦r ✐t t♦ ✇❛r♠ ✉♣✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✹

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ε ❛♥❞ δ ✇❤❡♥ f ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r ❄

❚♦ ❢✉rt❤❡r ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛✱ ❧❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❝❛r❡ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛
❛♥②♠♦r❡❀ ✇❡ ❥✉st ✇❛♥t t♦ ✜t t❤❡s❡ t✐❧❡s ✐♥t♦ ❛ str✐♣ 10 ✐♥❝❤❡s ✇✐❞❡✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❡st✐♥❣ t❤❡ t✐❧❡s ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝✐❞❡
❛❤❡❛❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✇❤❡t❤❡r ✐t ✇✐❧❧ ✜t✿ ■❢ ✐t ✜ts✱ ✐t ✐s ✉s❡❞❀ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ ✐t ✐s ❞✐s❝❛r❞❡❞✳
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ st✐❧❧ ❣❡t ❛ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t a ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✐❧❡ ❜✉t ♦✉r r❡❛❧ ✐♥t❡r❡st ✐s ✇❤❡t❤❡r a ✐s ❧❡ss ♦r ♠♦r❡
t❤❛♥ 10✳ ❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❧❡♥❣t❤ x ❡①❛❝t❧②❀ ✐t✬s ❛❧✇❛②s ✇✐t❤✐♥
s♦♠❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿ 10.0 ± 0.5 ♦r a ± δ ✳ ❍❡r❡ δ ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ a✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✐s ♠✉❝❤ s✐♠♣❧❡r
t❤❛♥ ❜❡❢♦r❡✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ❛s 11✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② δ = 1 ♦r ❜❡tt❡r t♦ ♠❛❦❡
t❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥✳ ■t✬s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ 9✳
❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ✐s ❡①❛❝t❧② a = 10❄ ❊✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ δ ✱ ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s
δ > 0✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❦♥♦✇ ✇❤❡t❤❡r x ✐s ❧❛r❣❡r ♦r s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ 10✳
▲❡t✬s ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s t❤✐s ❞❡❝✐s✐♦♥✿
(
1 ✭♣❛ss✮ ✐❢ x ≤ 10 ,
f (x) =
0 ✭❢❛✐❧✮ ✐❢ x > 10 .

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ y = f (x) t♦ ❜❡ ε = 0.5✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❛❝❤✐❡✈❡ t❤✐s ❜② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ δ ❄ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r
✇♦r❞s✱ ❝❛♥ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ δ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
|x − 10| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − 1| < ε ?
❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡ ♥♦t✿
x > 10 =⇒ |f (x) − 1| = |0 − 1| = 1 .

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r t♦ ♦✉r q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✐s✿

◮ ◆♦✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❛❧✇❛②s ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f (x) ✕ t♦ ❛♥②❜♦❞②✬s
s❛t✐s❢❛❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ❜② ✐♠♣r♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ x✳
❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ t♦ ❜❡ q✉♦t❡❞ ✐s t❤❛t f ✐s ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = 10✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✺

❈❛rr② ♦✉t t❤✐s ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r✿ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ t❡st s❝♦r❡ ✈s✳ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❧❡tt❡r ❣r❛❞❡✳ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡
✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ❆✲✱ ❇✰✱ ❡t❝✳❄

❲❡ ♥❡①t ♣✉rs✉❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ y ♦♥ x✿

◮ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡♥s✉r❡ t❤❡ ❞❡s✐r❡❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ y ❜② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ x✳
❲❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss ❧✐♠✐ts ✜rst✳

✷✳✶✸✳ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤♦✉t ✐♥✈♦❦✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ▲❡t✬s st❛rt ♦✈❡r✳
✷✳✶✸✳ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✷✵✹

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✿ ✐♠❛❣❡s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ ♦✉r ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r❡st ✉♥❞❡r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❋✐rst✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✭t♦♣✮✳ ❆s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s s❤r✐♥❦s✱ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✿

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭❜♦tt♦♠✮✳ ❆s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s s❤r✐♥❦s✱ ✇❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡
t✇♦ t❤✐♥❣s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ s❡t ✐♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✿
• ■t ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② ❝❡❛s❡s t♦ ❜❡ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❆ t❡❛r✦
• ■t ❛❧s♦ st♦♣s s❤r✐♥❦✐♥❣✳ ❆ ❣❛♣✦

❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ r❡✇r✐t❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ✐♥ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐✈❡❧② ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡
♣r❡❝✐s❡ t❡r♠s✳
x y = f (x)
❆s x → a, ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ y → L.
❆s x ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s a, y ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s L.
❆s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ x t♦ a ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s 0, t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ y t♦ L ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s 0.
❆s |x − a| → 0, ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ |y − L| → 0.
❇② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ |x − a| ❛s s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r, ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ |y − L| ❛s s♠❛❧❧ ❛s ♥❡❡❞❡❞.
❇② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ |x − a| ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ s♦♠❡ δ > 0, ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ |y − L| s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ ❛♥② ❣✐✈❡♥ ε > 0.
◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✐t✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✶✸✳✷✿ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t
❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t x = a ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r L✱ ✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✱ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛♥②
ε > 0 t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ δ > 0 t❤❛t

0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε .

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿

◮ ■❢ x ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ δ ❢r♦♠ a✱ t❤❡♥ f (x) ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ ε ❢r♦♠ L✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤✐s ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✜ts ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ε✲❜❛♥❞ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ y = L✿
✷✳✶✸✳ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✷✵✺

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ✏ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✑ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ■t ♠❛t❝❤❡s t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝❛♥
♥♦✇ ❜❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✏ ε✲N ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✑✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ♦✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✸✳✸✿ ❊q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
[ε✲δ ⇒ ε✲N ] ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ xn → a✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♥♦✇ t❤❛t ε>0 ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❆s t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✱
t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ δ > 0 s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε .
❖♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❤❛♥❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
|xn − a| < δ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n>N
❢♦r s♦♠❡ N✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n > N✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

|f (xn ) − L| < ε .

❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t f (xn ) → L✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✹
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❤❛❧❢✿ [ε✲N ⇒ ε✲δ]✳

❆s ❛♥ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡✱ ❧❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r② ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ δ ❛♥❞ ε ✐s
♣r❡❞✐❝❛❜❧❡✿
✷✳✶✸✳ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✷✵✻

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❣✉❡ss ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✸✳✺✿ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❋♦r ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = mx+b ✇✐t❤ m 6= 0✱ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞
❢♦r
δ = ε/|m| .

Pr♦♦❢✳
|x − a| < δ ⇐⇒ |x − a| < ε/|m|
⇐⇒ |m| · |x − a| < ε
⇐⇒ |m · (x − a)| < ε
⇐⇒ |mx − ma| < ε
⇐⇒ |(mx + b) − (ma + b)| < ε
⇐⇒ |f (x) − f (a)| < ε .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✻✿ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✕ ❧✐♥❡❛r

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿
9 − 4x2
lim = 6.
x→−1.5 3 + 2x

▲❡t✬s ♠❛t❝❤ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿

9 − 4x2
lim = |{z}
6 .
x→−1.5 3 + 2x
| {z } | {z } L
a f (x)

❲❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ f (x) ✇✐t❤ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡r ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✱ ❡q✉❛❧ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x 6= −1.5✿

9 − 4x2 32 − (2x)2
=
3 + 2x 3 + 2x
(3 + 2x)(3 − 2x)
=
3 + 2x
= 3 − 2x

❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ 3 + 2x 6= 0✱ ♦r x 6= 1.5 ✳

◆♦✇✱ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✦ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ δ ♦♥ ε ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡✱ ❛s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✿

ε
δ= .
2
✷✳✶✸✳ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✷✵✼

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

ε ?
0 < |x − (−1.5)| < =⇒ |3 − 2x − 6| < ε
2
❲❡ r❡✇r✐t❡ ✐t✿
ε ?
0 < |x + 1.5| < =⇒ | − 3 − 2x| < ε
2
ε ?
0 < |x + 1.5| < =⇒ |2x + 3| < ε
2
ε ? ε
0 < |x + 1.5| < =⇒ |x + 1.5| <
2 2
■t ✇♦r❦s✦ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✼✿ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✕ ♥♦♥✲❧✐♥❡❛r

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ✜rst f (x) = x2 ❛t a = 0✳ ❲❡ ❡①♣❡❝t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t t♦ ❜❡ L = 0✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ δ
✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ε❄ 2
|f (x) − L| < ε ⇐⇒ |x | < ε
⇐⇒ |x|2 <√ε
⇐⇒ |x| < ε .
√
❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ t❤❛t δ = ε ✇♦r❦s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✽✿ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✕ ♥♦♥✲❧✐♥❡❛r

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ a = 0 t♦ a = 1 ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛t❡s t❤✐♥❣s✿
|f (x) − L| < ε ⇐⇒ |x2 − 1| < ε
⇐⇒ |(x − 1)(x + 1)| < ε
ε
⇐⇒ |x − 1| <
|x + 1|
ε
⇐= |x − 1| < δ < .
|x + 1|

❚♦ ✜♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛ δ ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❡st✐♠❛t✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ |x + 1|✱ ❥✉st ❛s ✇❡ ❞✐❞ ❜❡❢♦r❡✳
❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ❢♦r t❤✐s ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡①♣❧❛✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = x2 ❝✉r✈❡s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t❧②
✭f ′′ 6= 0✮ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦❢ a = 1✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✾✿ ❉◆❊

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r♦✉♥❞ 0✿

−1
 ✐❢ x < 0,
f (x) = sign(x) = 0 ✐❢ x = 0,


1 ✐❢ x > 0 .
❖✉r ❣✉❡ss ✐s t❤❛t lim f (x) ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st ❜✉t ❢♦r ♥♦✇✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❥✉st s❤♦✇ t❤❛t L = 1 ✐s ♥♦t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳
x→0
❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ δ s❛t✐s❢②✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ❢♦r s♦♠❡ ε > 0✳ P✐❝❦ ε = 1✳ ■s t❤❡r❡ δ > 0
s✉❝❤ t❤❛t✿
a f (x)
L
z}|{ z }| { z}|{
0 < |x − 0 | < δ =⇒ | s✐❣♥(x) − 1 | < ε = 1 .
| {z }
f (x) ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ (0,2)

❲❤❛t x ✇♦✉❧❞ ✈✐♦❧❛t❡ t❤✐s❄

✷✳✶✸✳ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✷✵✽

❆♥② x < 0 s✐♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡♥ f (x) = −1✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❢❛✐❧s✱ s♦ L = 1 ✐s ♥♦t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✵

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t L = 0 ✐s♥✬t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❡✐t❤❡r✳

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❧❡❛r♥ ❤♦✇ t♦ ❞✐s♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❧❡t✬s st❛t❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✶✿ ◆♦t ▲✐♠✐t

❆ ♥✉♠❜❡r L ✐s ♥♦t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t x=a ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ε>0 s✉❝❤ t❤❛t

❢♦r ❛♥② δ > 0 ❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ x ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

0 < |x − a| < δ ❛♥❞ |f (x) − L| ≥ ε .

❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ ε ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s t❤❡ ♣r❡s❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❣❛♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✷✿ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ♥♦♥✲❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ❛t a = 0 ❢♦r t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = sign(x)✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ L 6= 0
✐s ❛♥② ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ▲❡t✬s ♣✐❝❦ ε = |L|/2✳ ◆♦✇ s✉♣♣♦s❡ δ > 0 ✐s ❛r❜✐tr❛r② ❛♥❞ s✉♣♣♦s❡ ❢♦r s♦♠❡ x 6= 0 ✇❡
❤❛✈❡✿
0 < |x| < δ ❛♥❞ |f (x) − L| < ε = |L|/2 .
❚❤❡♥✱ f (x) ✐s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s✐❣♥ ❛s L✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤✐s s❛② ❛❜♦✉t −x❄ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡✿

0 < | − x| < δ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ |f (−x) − L| < ε = |L|/2 .

❚❤❡♥✱ f (−x) ✐s ❛❧s♦ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s✐❣♥ ❛s L✳ ❚❤✐s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝ts t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t f (−x) = −f (x)✳

▲❡t✬s ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✳
✷✳✶✸✳ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✷✵✾

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ✐♥st❛♥❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡❀ ✇❡
♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ ♣❛rt ✸ ❢r♦♠ ♣❛rts ✶ ❛♥❞ ✷✿
✶✳ y = g(x) → L ❛s x → a✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② 6 ε γ > 0 t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ δ > 0 t❤❛t

0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ |g(x) − L| <6 ε γ .

✷✳ z = f (y) → M ❛s y → L✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ε > 0 t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ 6 δ γ > 0 t❤❛t

0 < |y − L| <6 δ γ =⇒ |f (y) − M | < ε .

✸✳ z = f (g(x)) → M ❛s x → a✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ε > 0 t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ δ > 0 t❤❛t

0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ |f (g(x)) − M | < ε .

❆❜♦✈❡ ✇❡ r❡❝♦♥❝✐❧❡ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡rs✱ ε ❛♥❞ δ ✱ t❤❛t ❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤✱ ❜② ♠❛t❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿ ❆ s♠❛❧❧
❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x ✭❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧✿ ✇✐t❤✐♥ δ ✮ ❝❛✉s❡s ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ y ✭❝❛❧❧ ✐t γ ✮✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♥ t✉r♥ ❝❛✉s❡s ❛ s♠❛❧❧
❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ z ✭t❤❛t✬s ε✮✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♥♦✇ ε > 0 ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ γ ❢♦✉♥❞✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ε✱ ✐♥ ♣❛rt ✷ ✐s ❢❡❞ ✐♥t♦ ♣❛rt ✶✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ❛ δ ✳
❈♦♠❜✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts t♦❣❡t❤❡r✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ |g(x) − L| < γ . ▲❡t y = g(x)

=⇒ |y − L| < γ =⇒ |f (y) − M | < ε .

P❛rt ✸ ✐s ♣r♦✈❡♥✦ ❲❡ ✜♥❛❧❧② st❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✸✿ ▲✐♠✐t ✉♥❞❡r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡

✶✳ y = g(x) → L ❛s x → a ✱ ❛♥❞
✷✳ z = f (y) → M ❛s y → L ✳
❚❤❡♥

z = (f ◦ g)(x) → M ❛s x → a.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✹

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t ✐❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❛r❡ max{f, g} ❛♥❞ min{f, g}✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ t❤❛t ✐❢ x ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ δ ❢r♦♠ a✱ t❤❡♥ f (x) ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ε ❢r♦♠ L✳ ❲❡ ❛r❡ r❡❢❡rr✐♥❣ ❤❡r❡ t♦
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✕ ♦♥❡ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ a ❛♥❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r L ✕ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❥✉st ❛♥②❀ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛r❡ ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳
❚❤✐s s②♠♠❡tr② r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ✐s♥✬t ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✿

❊✈❡♥ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r♦✉♥❞ a✱ t❤❡ s②♠♠❡tr② ❛r♦✉♥❞ L ♦❝❝✉rs ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r ✿
✷✳✶✸✳ ❚❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t ✷✶✵

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✺✿ ❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t x = a ✐s L ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ❢♦r ❛♥② ε1, ε2 > 0 t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡
s✉❝❤ δ2, δ2 > 0 t❤❛t
−δ1 < x − a < δ2 =⇒ −ε1 < f (x) − L < ε2 .

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s s✉♣♣❧② ❛♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❛♥❞ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✻
✭❛✮ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✈❡✳
✭❝✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✿ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✸✳✶ ❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✶
✸✳✷ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✾
✸✳✸ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✷✾
✸✳✹ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✹✵
✸✳✺ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✹✽
✸✳✻ ❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺✸
✸✳✼ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺✾
✸✳✽ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✼✹
✸✳✾ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✽✶
✸✳✶✵ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✽✾

✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ✇❛②s t♦ ❡♥t❡r ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✿

• t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞

• t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡❞ s❤❛♣❡s ✭✏❣❡♦♠❡tr②✑✮✳

❲❡ st❛rt❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶ ❛♥❞ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ♦♥ s❤♦rt❧②✳ ■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳

■♥ ✇❤❛t ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❧✐❣❤t ❜♦✉♥❝❡ ♦✛ ❛ ♠✐rr♦r❄ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠✐rr♦r ✐s str❛✐❣❤t ✭❧❡❢t✮✱ ❜✉t
✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ❛ ❝✉r✈❡❞ ♠✐rr♦r ✭♠✐❞❞❧❡✮❄

❚❤❡ r❛② ✐s ❡①tr❡♠❡❧② ♥❛rr♦✇ ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❥✉st ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ❝♦♥t❛❝t✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐❣❤t ❜♦✉♥❝❡s ❛s ✐❢
♦✛ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ♠✐rr♦r ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ❝♦♥t❛❝t ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❚♦ s❡❡ t❤❛t✱ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ✐♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳

❲❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ s❡❡ ❡①❛❝t❧②❄ ❚❤❡ ✜rst ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t② ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t s❡❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ ❜② ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❡❞❣❡✿
✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✶✷

❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐❣❤t ✇✐❧❧ ❤✐t t❤✐s ❡❞❣❡ ❛♥❞ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ ✐ts ♣❛t❤ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ ❝♦♥t❛❝t✳ ❚❤✐s
❧✐♥❡ ❝✉ts ❛❝r♦ss t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛♥❞ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ s❡❝❛♥t ✭t❤❡ ●r❡❡❦ ❢♦r ✏❝✉t✑✮ ❧✐♥❡✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s❄ ❙✐♥❝❡ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s s✉♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤✱ ❛❧❧ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ✐s t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ♣r❡s❡♥❝❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✲s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✱ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤♦s❡ ❧✐♥❡s ✭s❡❡♥
✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✷✮✳

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ♠♦st ❜❛s✐❝ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✶✳✶✿ s❧♦♣❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞ ♦r❞❡r✱ A = (x0 , y0 ) t❤❡♥ B = (x1 , y1 )✱
♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ❢r♦♠ A t♦ B ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡

r✐s❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ y ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❢r♦♠ y0 t♦ y1 y1 − y0

s❧♦♣❡ =m= = = =
r✉♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❢r♦♠ x0 t♦ x1 x1 − x0

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✷✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ s❧♦♣❡s

❚❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s s❡❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❍❡r❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• = 8 − 2 = 6✱ ❛♥❞
r✉♥
• = 10 − 1 = 9✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
r✐s❡
9 3
• s❧♦♣❡ = = = 1.5 ✳
6 2
✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✶✸

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✳✸

❊①♣r❡ss t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ✐♥ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ t❡r♠s✳

❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❄

❇❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ ❛rr❛♥❣❡ ❛❧❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡✐r s❧♦♣❡s ✭✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ y ✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t✮✿

■t✬s ❛s ✐❢ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ r♦t❛t❡s t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ❝♦✉♥t❡r❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡✿

■t ❝❛♥✬t ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ t❤♦✉❣❤✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞ ♣♦✐♥t A = (x0 , y0 ) ♦♥ ♦✉r ❧✐♥❡✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r② ♣♦✐♥t X = (x, y) ♦♥
t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✿

❚❤❡ r✉♥ ✐s x − x0 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r✐s❡ ✐s y − y0 ✭❧❡❢t ♦r r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ✐s
y − y0
m= .
x − x0
■♥ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ x ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ x0 ✳ ■t ❝❛♥♥♦t✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ ❛s ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✦ ▲❡t✬s ❝❤❛♥❣❡
♦✉r ✈✐❡✇ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡✿ ❢r♦♠
r✐s❡
s❧♦♣❡ =
r✉♥
t♦
r✐s❡ = s❧♦♣❡ · r✉♥ .
✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✶✹

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✇❛② t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛ ❧✐♥❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✶✳✹✿ P♦✐♥t✲❙❧♦♣❡ ❋♦r♠ ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡

❆ ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ m ♣❛ss✐♥❣ t❤r♦✉❣❤ ♣♦✐♥t (x0 , y0 ) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡❛r
r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✿

y − y0 = m · (x − x0 )

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❜r❡❛❦❞♦✇♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

P♦✐♥t✲s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡

r✐s❡ = s❧♦♣❡ · r✉♥
(y − y0 ) = m · (x − x0 )
♣♦✐♥t X ♣♦✐♥t X
↓ ↓
y − y0 = m · (x − x0 )
↑ ↑
♣♦✐♥t A ♣♦✐♥t A

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✺✿ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ s❧♦♣❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs x, y ✐♥ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ❚❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ✐s ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ❛s ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ❣✐✈❡♥
❜② ✐ts ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t ❛ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡
♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❂✭❘❈❬✲✶❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪✮✴✭❘❈❬✲✷❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✷❪✮
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥✿

❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✈❡✿

✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✶✺

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✻✿ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛

❚❤❡ ❤✐st♦r② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥❝✐❡♥t ●r❡❡❝❡ t❡❧❧s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❢❛♠♦✉s ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝✐❛♥ ❆r❝❤✐♠❡❞❡s ✇❤♦ ❛rr❛♥❣❡❞
t❤❡ s❤✐❡❧❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ s♦❧❞❡rs ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤✐s ❝✉r✈❡ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ s❡t ♦♥ ✜r❡ t❤❡ s❤✐♣s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘♦♠❛♥s t❤❛t ❜❡s✐❡❣❡❞
❤✐s ❤♦♠❡ ❝✐t② ♦❢ ❙②r❛❝✉s❡✳ ❍❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ r❛②s ♦❢ ❧✐❣❤t ❜♦✉♥❝✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧✐❝ ♠✐rr♦r
✇✐❧❧ ❛❧❧ ♠❡❡t ❛t ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❝✉s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ✐❞❡❛ ❜② tr❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐❣❤t ❜❡❛♠s ❛s t❤❡② ❜♦✉♥❝❡ ♦✛ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s✿

❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ❛ s♦✉r❝❡ ♦❢ ❧✐❣❤t ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❝✉s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ ✇✐❧❧ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ❜❡❛♠ ♦❢ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ r❛②s ♦❢
❧✐❣❤t❀ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t ✐s ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❞❡s✐❣♥ ❝❛rs✬ ❤❡❛❞❧✐❣❤ts✿

❆♥♦t❤❡r ❤②♣♦t❤❡t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t② ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t s❡❡ ♥♦ ❝♦r♥❡rs ❡✈❡♥ ❛❢t❡r ③♦♦♠✐♥❣ ✐♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ t✐♠❡s✿ ✇❡
❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ✐❞❡❛❧✐③❡❞✱ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ ❝✉r✈❡s✳ ■♥ t❤✐s ❝❛s❡✱ ③♦♦♠✐♥❣ ✐♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ✈✐rt✉❛❧❧② str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✿
✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✶✻

■t ✐s t❤✐s ❧✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐❣❤t ✇✐❧❧ ❤✐t✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐ts ♣❛t❤ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t❛❝t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ✐❢ t❤✐s ❧✐♥❡ ✐s
❢♦✉♥❞✳ ❚❤✐s ❧✐♥❡ t♦✉❝❤❡s t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛♥❞ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ t❛♥❣❡♥t ✭t❤❡ ●r❡❡❦ ❢♦r ✏t♦✉❝❤✑✮ ❧✐♥❡✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡s❡ ✏t♦✉❝❤✐♥❣✑ ❧✐♥❡s❄ ■t ✐s ♠✉❝❤ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✼✿ ❝✐r❝❧❡

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ❤❛s ❛♥ ❡❛s② s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ❢♦r s♦♠❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝✉r✈❡s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡✿

❖♥❝❡ t❤❡② r❡❛❧✐③❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ❛♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ❢♦r♠ ❛ 90✲❞❡❣r❡❡ ❛♥❣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✇❛s s♦❧✈❡❞ ❜②
t❤❡ ❛♥❝✐❡♥t ●r❡❡❦s ✇✐t❤ ❥✉st r✉❧❡r ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣❛ss✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ♦♥❡ ❥✉st ♣❧♦t ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r
s❡r✈❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✽✿ ❤❡❛❞❧✐❣❤ts

❲❤❡r❡ ❞♦ t❤❡ ❧✐❣❤ts ♦❢ ❛ ❝❛r tr❛✈❡❧✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❛ ❝✉r✈② r♦❛❞ ♣♦✐♥t❄

✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✶✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✾✿ s❧✐♥❣

■♥ ✇❤❛t ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❛ r♦❝❦ r❡❧❡❛s❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ❛ s❧✐♥❣ ❣♦ ✭✈✐❡✇ ❢r♦♠ ❛❜♦✈❡✮❄

❆♥s✇❡r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥s ❜❡❧♦✇✳
❍♦✇ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❛ ❜✐❧❧✐❛r❞ ❜❛❧❧ ❜♦✉♥❝❡ ♦✛ ❛ ✇❛❧❧❄ ❙❛♠❡ ❛s ❧✐❣❤t✿

❍♦✇ ✇♦✉❧❞ t✇♦ ❜❛❧❧s ❜♦✉♥❝❡ ♦✛ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r❄ ❆s ✐❢ t❤❡② ❜♦t❤ ❤✐t ❛ ✇❛❧❧✿
✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✶✽

◆❡①t✱ ✐♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❛ r❛❞❛r s✐❣♥❛❧ ❜♦✉♥❝❡ ♦✛ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡❄ ■❢ ②♦✉ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❤❡❛❞ ♦❢
t✐♠❡✱ ❞❡s✐❣♥ ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦ ❝✉r✈❡s✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✶✵✿ ✉s✐♥❣ ❛ r✉❧❡r

Pr❛❝t✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ❤♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ❞r❛✇♥ ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r❄ ❆s ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❤❛✈❡
t❤❡ ❧✉①✉r② ♦❢ ③♦♦♠✐♥❣ ✐♥ ♦♥ ❛ ❞✐❣✐t❛❧ ✐♠❛❣❡✱ ✇❡ ❞r❛✇ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s ❝❧♦s❡r ❛♥❞ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ s♦
t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡ t♦✉❝❤❡s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛t t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t✳

❚❤❡ r✉❧❡ ♦❢ t❤✉♠❜ ✐s t❤❛t ♦♥❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❡①♣❡❝t ✕ ✇❤❡♥ ③♦♦♠❡❞ ♦✉t ✕ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥
t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t A✳ ❆♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ②♦✉
❞✐❞ ✐t r✐❣❤t ✐s t♦ s❡❡ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛s ❛♥ ❡❞❣❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r❀ t❤❡♥ t❤✐s ♣✐❡❝❡ ❤❛s t♦ ❝♦✈❡r ♥♦♥❡
♦❢ t❤❡ ✭r❡❧❡✈❛♥t✮ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❡①❝❡♣t✐♦♥s❀ t❤❡ ❧❛st ✐♠❛❣❡ ❣✐✈❡s ②♦✉ ❛♥ ✐♥✢❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❝✉tt✐♥❣ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢✳

❚❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝❛❧ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ♦❢ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ♠♦t✐✈❛t✐♦♥s ✭t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ♦♥❡
✐s ♠♦t✐♦♥✮ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣♠❡♥t ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✶✾

▲❡t✬s ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ✜rst✳ ■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❛ tr✐❛❧✲❛♥❞✲❡rr♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠✳ ❲❡ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s✳ ❊❛❝❤ ❧✐♥❡ ♣❛ss❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts✱ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t A = (a, f (a))
✭s❛♠❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧✮ ❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t B = (b, f (b)) ✇✐t❤ a 6= b✿

❚❤❡s❡ s❡❝❛♥ts ❛r❡ ❡①♣❡❝t❡❞ t♦ ❣❡t ❝❧♦s❡r ❛♥❞ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❛s B ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❝❧♦s❡r ❛♥❞ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ A✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥ts ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡❝♦♠✐♥❣ s❤♦rt❡r ❛♥❞ s❤♦rt❡r✱ ❛♥❞ ❧❡ss ❛♥❞ ❧❡ss ✉s❡❢✉❧✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❡①t❡♥❞ t❤❡s❡
s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✐♥t♦ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❡♠ r♦t❛t❡✳ ❚❤❡② ✇✐❧❧ r♦t❛t❡ ❧❡ss ❛♥❞ ❧❡ss ❛s t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❣❡tt✐♥❣
❝❧♦s❡r ❛♥❞ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✳
❇✉t ❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❜❡tt❡r ✐❞❡❛ ✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝✿ ❋♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ✦ ❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❞❡❛❧✐♥❣
✇✐t❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ✦
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ s❡t ❧✐♠✐ts ❛s✐❞❡ ❢♦r ♥♦✇ ❛♥❞ ❛❞❞r❡ss ✜rst t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ♣♦s❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✿ ❤♦✇ t♦ ❞❡❛❧
✇✐t❤ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t s❧♦♣❡s ❛t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✿

❆♥② ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ st❛rts ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r✐s❡✳

✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝✲

t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❡♥t❡r ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❛ st✉❞② ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶ ♦✉r r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❜r♦❦❡♥ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ❛♥❞ ❛ ❜r♦❦❡♥ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❛r❡ ✉♥✐ts✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❣♦ ❢r♦♠ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s t♦ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❜❛❝❦ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ t✇♦ s✐♠♣❧❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s
♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ s✉♠ ✿
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✷✵

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r②✿

• ■❢ ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ♣❛✐r✲✇✐s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ ②♦✉ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳
❆ ❜r♦❦❡♥ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r ❛♥❞ ❛ ✇❛t❝❤✳
• ■❢ ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ t❤❡✐r s✉♠ ✉♣ t♦ t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ ②♦✉ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳
❆ ❜r♦❦❡♥ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r ✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ❛♥❞ ❛ ✇❛t❝❤✳
■♥ t❤❡ ❛❜str❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ♣❛✐r✇✐s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ❢r♦♠ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ ✐ts t❡r♠s t♦
t❤❡ ♥❡①t ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✷✳✶✿ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❣r❛♣❤
■♥ t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❝❛s❡✱ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❛❦❡s ♦♥❧② ✐♥t❡❣❡r ✈❛❧✉❡s✱ t❤❡♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st
❝♦✉♥t t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ st❡♣s ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡✱ ✉♣ ❛♥❞ ❞♦✇♥✿

❚❤❡s❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts t❤❡♥ ♠❛❦❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ❧❡❛❞s t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✷✳✷✿ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s
❋♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✱ ✐ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ♦r s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ✐s ❛ ♥❡✇
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ s❛② dn ✱ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ n ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
dn = an+1 − an .

■t ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
∆an = an+1 − an

❚❤♦s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ r✐s❡s t❤❛t ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s♦♦♥ ❜❡ ✉s✐♥❣ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ s♦♠❡ s❧♦♣❡s✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❜✉✐❧t✿
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✷✶

❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s
❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ a1 a2 a3 a4 ...
ց ւ ց ւ ց ւ ...
✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✿ a2 − a1 a3 − a2 a4 − a3 ...
|| || || ...
❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ d1 d2 d3 ...
|| || || ...
t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿ ∆a1 ∆a2 ∆a3 ...

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✷✳✸✿ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❧✐st

❲❤❡♥ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st✱ ✇❡ s✉❜tr❛❝t t❤❡ ❧❛st t❡r♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ♦♥❡ ❛♥❞ ♣✉t t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t
❜❡❧♦✇ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ 2 4 7 1 ...
ց ւ ց ւ ց ւ ց ...
✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✿ 4−2 7−4 1−7 ...
|| || || ...
❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ 2 3 −6 ...

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❧✐st✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✳✹
P❧♦t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ tr✐♣✿ ✏■ ❞r♦✈❡ ❢❛st✱ t❤❡♥ ❣r❛❞✉❛❧❧② s❧♦✇❡❞ ❞♦✇♥✱
st♦♣♣❡❞ ❢♦r ❛ ✈❡r② s❤♦rt ♠♦♠❡♥t✱ ❣r❛❞✉❛❧❧② ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t❡❞✱ ♠❛✐♥t❛✐♥❡❞ s♣❡❡❞✱ ❤✐t ❛ ✇❛❧❧✳✑ ▼❛❦❡ ✉♣ ②♦✉r
♦✇♥ st♦r② ❛♥❞ r❡♣❡❛t t❤❡ t❛s❦✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✳✺
❉r❛✇ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✱ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✐t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ②♦✉r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ s❦❡t❝❤ ✇❤❛t ②♦✉r
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✳✻
■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✜rst ❣r❛♣❤ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❜❛♥❦ ❛❝❝♦✉♥ts✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡
✇❤❛t ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✷✳✼✿ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛r❡♥✬t ✉♥✐ts❄

❲❡ st✐❧❧ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ tr✐♣ ❛♥❞ r❡❝♦r❞ t❤❡ ♠✐❧❡❛❣❡ ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✳
❇✉t t❤✐s t✐♠❡ ✐t✬s ❡✈❡r② ❤❛❧❢✲❤♦✉r✳ ❚❤✐s ❧✐st ♦❢ ♦✉r ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♠✐❣❤t ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿
• ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ r❡❛❞✐♥❣✿ 10, 000 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ ✜rst ❤❛❧❢✲❤♦✉r✿ 10, 055 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤❛❧❢✲❤♦✉r✿ 10, 095 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❤❛❧❢✲❤♦✉r✿ 10, 155 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❡t❝✳
❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ✭t♦♣✮✿
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✷✷

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✭❜♦tt♦♠✮✳

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s❄ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❤❛❧❢✲❤♦✉r
♣❡r✐♦❞s✱ ❜② s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥ ✿
• ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst ❤❛❧❢✲❤♦✉r✿ 10, 055 − 10, 000 = 55 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤❛❧❢✲❤♦✉r✿ 10, 095 − 10, 055 = 40 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❤❛❧❢✲❤♦✉r✿ 10, 155 − 10, 095 = 60 ♠✐❧❡s
• ❡t❝✳
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✷✳✽✿ t❤r❡❡ r✉♥♥❡rs

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜❡❧♦✇ s❤♦✇s t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ r✉♥♥❡rs ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ n✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞✿

❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❛t t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡ t♦❣❡t❤❡r✱ ❛♥❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✱ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❛t t❤❡ ✜♥✐s❤ ❧✐♥❡✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱
A r❡❛❝❤❡s t❤❡ ✜♥✐s❤ ❧✐♥❡ ✜rst✱ ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ ❜② B ✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ C ✭✇❤♦ ❛❧s♦ st❛rts ❧❛t❡✮✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❡❛❝❤ ❞✐❞ ✐t✿

• A st❛rts ❢❛st✱ t❤❡♥ s❧♦✇s ❞♦✇♥✱ ❛♥❞ ❛❧♠♦st st♦♣s ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ ✜♥✐s❤ ❧✐♥❡✳
• B ♠❛✐♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣❡❡❞✳
• C st❛rts ❧❛t❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ r✉♥s ❢❛st ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣❡❡❞✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❛t A ✐s r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ❢❛st❡r ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ B ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✳ ■t ❜❡❝♦♠❡s s❧♦✇❡r
❧❛t❡r✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✳

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛②✦ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤✐s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❛❝ts ❜② ❡①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✷✸

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❧❡❛r❧② s❡❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ r✉♥✳

■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✿

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s❛♠♣❧❡ ✐t✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✐t ✐s ❞♦♥❡✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ✐ts ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r
n ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♣❧❛❝❡ n + 1 ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ... < xn−1 < xn = b .

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xi ✿

❆s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s s♣❧✐t ✐♥t♦ n s♠❛❧❧❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❧❡♥❣t❤s✿
[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], ..., [xn−1 , xn ] .

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣②✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✷✳✾✿ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
❆ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ✐ts r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ✉♥✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s t❤❛t
✐♥t❡rs❡❝t ♦♥❧② ❛t t❤❡✐r ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✿
[a, b] = [x0 , x1 ] ∪ [x1 , x2 ] ∪ ... ∪ [xn−1 , xn ] .
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✷✹

❚❤❡s❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✱
a = x0 , x1 , x2 , ..., xn−1 , xn = b ,
✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✷✳✶✵✿ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿
∆xi = xi − xi−1 , i = 1, 2, ..., n .

■t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ∆x ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✳

❚❤♦s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ r✉♥s t❤❛t ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s♦♦♥ ❜❡ ✉s✐♥❣ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ s♦♠❡ s❧♦♣❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✷✳✶✶✿ ❞❡s❝r✐♣t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❞r✐✈❡
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❞r♦✈❡ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ✇❤✐❧❡ ♣❛②✐♥❣ ❛tt❡♥t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❝❧♦❝❦ ❛♥❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♠✐❧❡♣♦sts✳ ❲❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ t❤✐s
s✐♠♣❧❡ t❛❜❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ✜✈❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s✿
t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ 0 2 4 6 8
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 0 60 160 80 0

❲❤❛t ✇❡r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ♦✈❡r t❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r ♣❡r✐♦❞s ♦❢ t✐♠❡❄ ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t = ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✿

t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ 0 2 4 6 8

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 0 60 160 80 0

❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 60 − 0 = 60

❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 160 − 60 = 100

❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 80 − 160 = −80

❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 0 − 80 = −80

❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛r❡ ∆x = 1✱ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿ [0, 2]✱ [2, 4]✱ [4, 6]✱
❛♥❞ [6, 8]✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤✐s t❛❜❧❡✿
t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ [0, 2] [2, 4] [4, 6] [6, 8]
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ 60 100 −80 −80

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞♦♥❡✿

✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✷✺

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ❛ss✐❣♥ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ✈❛❧✉❡s t♦✱ s❛②✱ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ 1 3 5 7
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ 60 100 −80 −80

❙♦✱ ✐♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

c1 ✐♥ [x0 , x1 ], c2 ✐♥ [x1 , x2 ], ..., cn ✐♥ [xn−1 , xn ] .

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡s t❤✐s s❡t✉♣✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✷✳✶✷✿ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
❆♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ♦r s✐♠♣❧② ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ t✇♦
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
✶✳ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s a = x0 , x1 , x2 , ..., xn−1 , xn = b
✷✳ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s c1 , c2 , x3 , ..., cn−1 , cn
t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② t❤❡s❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s✿

x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ c2 ≤ x2 ≤ ... ≤ xn−1 ≤ cn ≤ xn .
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✷✻

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ ♣r✐✲

♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲str✐❝t✳

❆ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ♣r♦♣❡r s❡tt✐♥❣ ❢♦r s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✷✳✶✸✿ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣

▲❡t✬s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ tr✐♣ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❜r♦❦❡♥ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ✐♥ ❛
♠♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ s❡tt✐♥❣✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ♦✉r s♣❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❞❡❝✐❞❡
t♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♠✐❧❡st♦♥❡s s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ tr✐♣✳ ❚❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ r❛♥❞♦♠✿
a = x0 , x1 , x2 , ..., xn−1 , xn = b ✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ s❛♠♣❧❡
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ♦✉r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♦✉r ❛♥s✇❡r
❜✉t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❛ss✐❣♥ t❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs t♦ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛s ❛ ♠❛tt❡r ♦❢ ❜♦♦❦❦❡❡♣✐♥❣✿

t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ [0, 2] [2, 4] [4, 6] [6, 8]

t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ c1 c2 c3 c4
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ 60 100 −80 −80

■♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦s❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ ❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t ✇❛②✳ ❋✐rst ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts✿

b−a
h = ∆x =
n

❲✐t❤ t❤✐s ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♥♦✇ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛✐♥ ✏s❝❤❡♠❡s✑ ❢♦r ❝❤♦♦s✐♥❣ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳ ❖♥❡ ✐s s❡❡♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✿ ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡
♣❧❛❝❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ s❝❤❡♠❡ ✿
• ❚❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ x = a, a + h, a + 2h, ...✳
• ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ c = a + h, a + 2h, ...✳
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ s❝❤❡♠❡ ✿
• ❚❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ x = a, a + h, a + 2h, ...✳
• ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ c = a, a + h, ...✳
❆♥♦t❤❡r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t s❝❤❡♠❡ ✿
• ❚❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ x = a, a + h, a + 2h, ...✳
• ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ c = a + h/2, a + 3h/2, ...✳
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✷✼

❚❤❡ ✜♥❛❧ st❡♣ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

◮ ❲❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦✉t❧✐♥❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ st❛❣❡s t❤❛t ✇❡ s❡❡ ❤❡r❡✿

✶✳ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱
✷✳ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱
✸✳ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱
✹✳ r❡♠♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱
✺✳ ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱
✻✳ ♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
■t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✷✽

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✷✳✶✹✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ y = f (x) ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s xk , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n✱ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ f ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

∆f (ck ) = f (xk+1 ) − f (xk )

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✷✳✶✺✿ sq✉❛r✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❧❡t f (x) = x2 ❛♥❞ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [0, 6]✿
• ❚❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ 0, 1, 3, 6✳
• ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ 0, 2, 4✳
❲❡ s❛♠♣❧❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1, f (3) = 9, f (6) = 36 .
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠♣❧❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

✵ ✶ ✾ ✸✻
| | | |
0 1 3 6

❚❤❡♥
∆f (0) = f (1) − f (0) = 12 − 02 = 1
∆f (2) = f (3) − f (1) = 32 − 12 = 8
∆f (4) = f (6) − f (3) = 62 − 32 = 27
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠♣❧❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

✶ ✽ ✷✼
| | |
0 2 4

■❢ ✇❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ ✇❡✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
♦♥ ❛ ❧❛r❣❡ s❝❛❧❡✱ ❛s ✇❡ s❤❛❧❧ s❡❡ ❧❛t❡r✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧❛♥❣✉❛❣❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♦❢t❡♥ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡s❡ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ ✐❞❡❛s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✷✳✶✻✿ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t

❲❤❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✑ ♦r ✏♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✑✱ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s
❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✳

❲❤❡♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ♦♠✐t t❤❡ s✉❜s❝r✐♣t ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱ x✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ c✳ ❚❤❡♥
✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
∆f (c) = f (x + ∆x) − f (x)

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ tr❡❛t ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ✐s♥✬t 1❄ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ♦✈❡r t✐♠❡❄ ❚❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣❛✈❡s t❤❡ ✇❛②✿ ❲❤❡♥❡✈❡r ✇❡ s✉❜tr❛❝t✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞✐✈✐❞❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✳✶✼
❨♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ r❡❝❡✐✈❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡♠❛✐❧ ❢r♦♠ ②♦✉r ❜♦ss✿ ✏❚✐♠✱ ▲♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐♥ t❤✐s s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳
❚❤✐s st♦❝❦ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ✐♥❝❤✐♥❣ ✉♣✳✳✳ ❉♦❡s ✐t❄ ■❢ ❞♦❡s✱ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st❄ ❚❤❛♥❦s✳ ✕ ❚♦♠✑✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ②♦✉r
❛❝t✐♦♥s✳
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✷✾

✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ t❤❡ r✐s❡s✳ ❚♦ ❣❡t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤♦s❡✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② t❤❡ r✉♥s✳
❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❧❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❜r♦❦❡♥ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✳ ❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st
s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❤❛❧❢✲❤♦✉r ❧♦♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ st❡♣ ✐s t❤❡
❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❜② t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t h = .5 ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✿ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❡❧❛❜♦r❛t❡ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❞r♦✈❡ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ✇❤✐❧❡ ♣❛②✐♥❣ ❛tt❡♥t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❝❧♦❝❦ ❛♥❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♠✐❧❡♣♦sts✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤✐s
s✐♠♣❧❡ t❛❜❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ✜✈❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s✿

t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ 0 2 4 6 8
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 0 60 160 80 0

❲❤❛t ✇❛s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦✈❡r t❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r ♣❡r✐♦❞s ♦❢ t✐♠❡❄ ❲❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ✐t ❜② t❤❡ ✏❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✑
❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② =
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t✐♠❡
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✸✵

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✿

t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ 0 2 4 6 8

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 0 60 160 80 0

60 − 0
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ = 30
2−0
160 − 60
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ = 50
4−2
80 − 160
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ = −40
6−4
0 − 80
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ = −40
8−6
❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦rs ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦rs ❛r❡ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t t❤❡ r✐s❡s ❛♥❞ r✉♥s✿

❚❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿ [0, 2]✱ [2, 4]✱
[4, 6]✱ ❛♥❞ [6, 8]✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤✐s t❛❜❧❡✿

t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ [0, 2] [2, 4] [4, 6] [6, 8]

✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ 30 50 −40 −40

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞✿

❲❡ ♠❛② ❛❧s♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ❛ss✐❣♥ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ✈❛❧✉❡s t♦ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✭t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ✐♥
t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛rt✮✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ 1 3 5 7
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ 30 50 −40 −40

■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❥✉st t✇♦ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ s❛②✱ xn ❛♥❞ yn ✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②
✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳ ❲❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t t❤♦s❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s
♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✸✶

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✸✳✷✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ yn ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xn ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞
t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ yn ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ xn ✿

∆yn yn+1 − yn
=
∆xn xn+1 − xn

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s ♥♦t ③❡r♦✳

■t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✕ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✕ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ❆♥❞ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts✱
✐t ✐s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t✐♥❣ t❤❡♠✿

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤② ✐t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤✐s ✇❛②✿

❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥
ւ
∆yn yn+1 − yn
= ←− q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥
∆xn xn+1 − xn
տ
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✸✿ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳ ❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❏✉st ❛s
✇❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡ ✏❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✑ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♥♦✇ ✉s❡ ✐t t♦ ✜♥❞
t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿

❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ =
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t✐♠❡

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t♦ t❤r❡❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✿

t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ [0, 2] [2, 4] [4, 6] [6, 8]

t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ 1 3 5 7

✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ 30 50 −40 −40

50 − 30
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✴❤♦✉r✮✿ = 10
3−1
−40 − 50
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✴❤♦✉r✮✿ = −45
5−3
−40 − (−40)
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✴❤♦✉r✮✿ = 0
7−5
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✸✷

❚❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥s ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿ [0, 4]✱
[2, 6]✱ ❛♥❞ [4, 8]✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✿

t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ [0, 4] [2, 6] [4, 8]

❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✴❤♦✉r✮✿ 10 −45 0

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞✿

❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ❛ss✐❣♥ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s t♦ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ❛s
❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ 2 4 6
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✴❤♦✉r✮✿ 10 −45 0
❚❤❡s❡ ❤❛♣♣❡♥ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ♦✉r ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✹✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥

■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❢♦r ♥✉♠❡r♦✉s ♠♦♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
• tn ❢♦r t❤❡ t✐♠❡✱
• pn ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱
• vn ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❛♥❞
• an ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ❜② t❤❡s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✿
pn+1 − pn v − vn
vn+1 = ❛♥❞ an+1 = n+1 .
tn+1 − tn tn+1 − tn
❇♦t❤ ❛r❡ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✦

❋♦r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❧♦t ♦❢ ❞❛t❛✱ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ✐s ✉s❡❞✳ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✿
❂✭❘❈❬✲✶❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪✮✴✭❘❈✷✲❘❬✲✶❪❈✷✮

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♦r t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✮ r❡❢❡rs t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭♦r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✮ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ t❤❡
❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✳ P♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❞ ❣r❛♣❤s ❢♦r t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✸✸

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ ❞♦ts ♦♥❧②✦ ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✭✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✮ ❤❛s ♦♥❡ ❢❡✇❡r ❞❛t❛ ♣♦✐♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡
♥❡①t ✭❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✮ ♦♥❡ ❢❡✇❡r ②❡t✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❡♥ ③♦♦♠❡❞ ♦✉t✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❣✐✈❡ t❤❡ ✐♠♣r❡ss✐♦♥ t❤❛t
t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳

❚❤❡ st♦r② ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✐♥❢❡rr❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡s❡ ❣r❛♣❤s✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✇❛s ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❢♦r✇❛r❞✱ t❤❡♥ st♦♣♣❡❞ ❢♦r ❛ ♠♦♠❡♥t✱ t✉r♥❡❞ ❜❛❝❦ ❢♦r ❛ s❤♦rt ✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡♥
st❛rt❡❞ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❢♦r✇❛r❞ ❛❣❛✐♥✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇❛s ❢♦r✇❛r❞ ❤✐❣❤✱ t❤❡♥ ❧♦✇❡r ❛♥❞ ❧♦✇❡r ✭s❧♦✇❡r ❛♥❞ s❧♦✇❡r✮✱ ✉♥t✐❧ ✐t ✇❛s ③❡r♦
❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡❞ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥ ❢♦r✇❛r❞ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❛♥❞ ❤✐❣❤❡r ✭❢❛st❡r ❛♥❞ ❢❛st❡r✮✳
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❤❛❞ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✭❞❡❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✮✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡♥ ❜❡❝❛♠❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✱ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞
t♦ ❣r♦✇✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐t ✐s ♠✉❝❤ ❡❛s✐❡r t♦ ❞r❛✇ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ t❤❛♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✦

❚❤❡s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣ r❡❛❧✐st✐❝ ♠♦❞❡❧s ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❞❛t❛ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞✱ ❛s ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ♦✉t✱ t❤❡ s❝❛tt❡r ♣❧♦ts ✇✐❧❧ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝✉r✈❡s ✦ ❚❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ r❡♠❛✐♥s ❢✉❧❧② ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✳ ■t ❛♠♦✉♥ts t♦ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t
❤♦✇ ❢❛st t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ✭r✐❣❤t✮ ♦✉r t✐♠❡✲❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t q✉❛♥t✐t②✱ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❢♦r ❛♥♦t❤❡r✱ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ❛s ❥✉st ♦♥❡
♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜r❡❛❞t❤ ♦❢ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✐❞❡❛s✳ ❚❤✐s ❞✐❝t❛t❡s t❤❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❢♦r ❝♦♥t❡①t✲✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t✱
♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣②✳ ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
◮ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♣❡r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t✳
◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♠❛② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ s❛♠♣❧❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♥♣✉ts ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✸✹

♦✉t♣✉ts✿
an = f (xn ) .

❲❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡❞ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❜② ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❢♦✉♥❞✿
❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t
❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② =
t✐♠❡

❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞s ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ❜❡❤✐♥❞ t❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭r✐❣❤t✮❄ ❲✐t❤ s♦ ♠✉❝❤ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥✱
❝❛♥ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✏❡①❛❝t✑ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢♦r ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t✐♠❡❄

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ♦♥❧② t✇♦ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

f (x1 ) = y1 ❛♥❞ f (x2 ) = y2 ,

✇✐t❤ x1 6= x2 ✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ✇❡ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡❄ ❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡
t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x)✿

A = (x1 , y1 ) ❛♥❞ B = (x2 , y2 ) ,

❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✸✺

❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ r✐s❡ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ r✉♥✿

y2 − y1 f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
s❧♦♣❡ = = .
x2 − x1 x2 − x1
❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r✱ t❤❡ r✐s❡✱ ✐s t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ y ✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ f ✱✿
∆f = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) .
❚❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✱ t❤❡ r✉♥✱ ✐s t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ x✿
∆x = x2 − x1 .
❚❤❡✐r r❛t✐♦✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✱ ✐s t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ f ✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✿
∆f f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
=
∆x x2 − x1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✺✿ s✐♥❣❧❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t

■♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ x ✐s ∆x = x2 − x1 = 8 − 2 = 6 ✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ f ✐s ∆f = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = 10 − 1 = 9 ✳
∆f 9
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✐s = ✳
∆x 6

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✻✿ s♣❡❡❞

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ tr❛✈❡❧ ❜② ❝❛r ❛♥❞ r❡❝♦r❞ ♦✉r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s ✭✜rst r♦✇✮✿

− 100 − − − 250 − − 100 −−− 250 −

− −•− −−− −•− − −→ − − • − − 75 − − • − −
0 2 0 1 2

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✮ ❞✉r✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡
♥✉♠❜❡r ✐♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ✭s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇✮✳

❇② ❛♥❛❧♦❣②✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ♦♥❧② t✇♦ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭✜rst r♦✇✮ ❛t ❡♥❞s ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✭s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇✮✿
− − − − f (x + ∆x) −
f (x)
∆f
− −•− −•− −
∆x
x c x + ∆x

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❢♦r s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ✇✐t❤✐♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]❄ ❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡
✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✿
a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ c2 ≤ x2 ≤ ... ≤ xn−1 ≤ cn ≤ xn = b .
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✸✻

❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤✐s t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦t ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✭t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ♦❢ t❤❡ st❡♣s✮ ❜✉t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
✐♥❝❧✐♥❡s✳ ❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ♠♦st ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❜❡❧♦✇✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✸✳✼✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s xk , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n✱
♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
ck , k = 1, 2, ..., n ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛s t❤✐s ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✿

∆f f (xk+1 ) − f (xk ) f (xk + ∆xk ) − f (xk )

(ck ) = =
∆x xk+1 − xk ∆xk

❲❤❡♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ♦♠✐t t❤❡ s✉❜s❝r✐♣t ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱ x✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ c✳ ❚❤❡♥
✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

∆f f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
(c) =
∆x ∆x

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❜r❡❛❦❞♦✇♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t
♦❧❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
↓
∆f
❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✿ (c)
∆x
ր ↑
♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✽✿ ❣r❛♣❤s

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t ✐t ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ♦♥❧②❄ ❨❡s✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❛t ♦♥❝❡✳
❲❡ ❞♦ t❤✐s ♣✐❡❝❡ ❜② ♣✐❡❝❡✳ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭t♦♣ ❧❡❢t✮ ❛♥❞✱ ❛t ♠❛♥② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❝✉t ✕
✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r✐❞ ✕ ❛ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ s♦ s❤♦rt t❤❛t ✐t✬s ❛❧♠♦st str❛✐❣❤t ✭t♦♣ r✐❣❤t✮✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✸✼

❚❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣✐❡❝❡s ❛r❡ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t✳ ❲❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❤❡♠ ✉♣ ❜❡❧♦✇ s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡✐r s❧♦♣❡s✱ t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛r❡ ❡❛s② t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ✭❜♦tt♦♠ r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❚❤✐s ❣✐✈❡s ✉s 15 ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳
❚❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ ❢♦r♠ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ✭❜♦tt♦♠ ❧❡❢t✮✳ ❚❤✐s ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✾✿ t❛❜❧❡s

∆f
◆♦✇ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ ∆x = .5✿
∆x
x 0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0
y = f (x) −1 −2 0 1 1

❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ❞❛t❛✿

∆f f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
(x) = .
∆x ∆x
❲❡ ❞♦ t❤❛t ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❜② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
[x, x + ∆x] [0, .5] [.5, 1.0] [1.0, 1.5] [1.5, 2.0]
∆f (c) = f (x + ∆x) − f (x) = −2 − (−1) 0 − (−2) 1 − 0 1−1
= −1 2 1 0
∆f
(c) = −1/.5 2/.5 1/.5 0/.5
∆x
= −2 4 2 0

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ ❜② ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ❞❛t❛ ♣♦✐♥ts✿

❚❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❥✉st t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♥♥❡❝t t❤❡ ❞♦ts✳
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✸✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✵

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤✿

[a, b] = [0, 4] ❛♥❞ ∆x = 1 .

∆f
❊st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✳ ❙❤♦✇ ②♦✉r ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✳
∆x

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✶✿ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ✉t✐❧✐③❡ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t t♦ s♣❡❡❞ ✉♣ t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ❧❛r❣❡ t❛❜❧❡
♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s✱ ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s✿ x ❛♥❞ y = f (x)✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿
• t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ x✱
• t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ y ✱ ❛♥❞
• t❤❡✐r r❛t✐♦✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳
❚❤❡ ❧❛st ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s✿
❂❘❈❬✲✷❪✴❘❈❬✲✸❪

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✷✿ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r f (x) = x2 ✳ ❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡ts t♦ s❛♠♣❧❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡s❡ 5 ♣♦✐♥ts✱ ❞r❛✇
❧✐♥❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❡✈❡r② t✇♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♦♥❡s✱ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✷✸✾

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ❝♦✉♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✿

1−0
• ❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❢r♦♠ (0, 0) t♦ (1, 1) ✐s = 1✳
1−0
4−1
• ❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❢r♦♠ (1, 1) t♦ (2, 4) ✐s = 3✳
2−1
◆♦✇ f (x) = x3 ✿

❆ ❝♦✉♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✿
1−0
• ❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❢r♦♠ (0, 0) t♦ (1, 1) ✐s = 1✳
1−0
8−1
• ❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❢r♦♠ (1, 1) t♦ (2, 8) ✐s = 7✳
2−1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✸✿ ❞❡♥s❡r s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣

▲❡t✬s ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t♦ f (x) = sin x✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ x ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✈❛❧✉❡s
♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r s❤♦✇s ❛ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✿
✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✷✹✵

■♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❣r❛♣❤ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ s❛♠♣❧❡ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❡✈❡r② ∆x = .1✿

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳ ■t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ y = cos x✱ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✐❢ ✇❡ s❤✐❢t ✐t ❛ ❧✐tt❧❡ t♦
t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳

❇❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡s❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧❛♥❣✉❛❣❡ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❛ ♠♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ♠❛♥♥❡r✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✸✳✶✹✿ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②

❲❤❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✑ ♦r ✏♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✑✱ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✸✳✶✺✿ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥

❲❤❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✑✱ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞
t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳

✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ y = f (x) ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✇❡
❝❛♥ ❢r❡❡❧② s❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t♦ ✜♥❞ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡ y = f (x) ❢♦r ❛♥② ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ x✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡s ♦❢
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x✦ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❧✐♥❡ ❢r♦♠ (x0 , f (x0 )) t♦ (x1 , f (x1 )) ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
x1 − x0

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② s✉❝❤ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❢♦r ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✷✹✶

❚❤❡② ❛r❡♥✬t ✉♥str✉❝t✉r❡❞ t❤♦✉❣❤❀ t❤❡ s❛♠♣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛r❡ ❛rr❛♥❣❡❞ ✐♥ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ r❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♠❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s ❞❡♥s❡r
❛♥❞ ❞❡♥s❡r✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✹✳✶✿ ❞❡♥s❡r s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣

❲❡ ❧❡t t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❢♦r f (x) = x2 ✭❧❡❢t✮ ❛♥❞ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ✐♥ ❛
s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ❝❤❛rt ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❲❡ t❤❡♥ r❡♣❡❛t t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ❢♦r ❛ ❞❡♥s❡r ♣❛tt❡r♥ ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳

◆♦✇ f (x) = x3 ✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✉s✐♥❣ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❢♦r t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t h = 1 ❛♥❞ h = .2 ✿
✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✷✹✷

∆f
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ s❛♠♣❧❡❞ s❧♦♣❡s✱ ♦❢ f (x) = 1/x ✭❜♦tt♦♠ r♦✇✮✿
∆x

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✹✳✷

❉♦ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❣r❛♣❤s ❧♦♦❦ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✹✳✸✿ sin x

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t f (x) = sin x✳ ❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳

❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ n = 2, 3, 4, ...✱ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞✱ ∆x = (b − a)/n✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ n s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✐♥ ♦✉r
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✳ ❖♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s r❡❝♦r❞❡❞
❛s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ r♦✇✿

❲❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❙❤♦✉❧❞ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t❄

❖✉r s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❞❡♥s❡r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥s❡r✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛r❡ ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❝❧♦s❡r ❛♥❞ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦❣❡t❤❡r✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤✐s
♣r♦❝❡ss❄ ❆ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✦

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❛❜♦✈❡ s❡❡♠ t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❛❜❧❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✐t ✐s ❛ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ t♦
❝❛♣t✉r❡ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t ♦♥❝❡✳ ■♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱ ♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✷✹✸

◮ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❛r❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❢r❡❡❧② s❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t♦ ✜♥❞ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡ y = f (x) ❢♦r ❛♥② ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ x✱
❛♥❞ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ✈❛❧✉❡
♦❢ x✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✹✳✹✿ ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡ ∆x
▲❡t✬s ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ x = 0✿

❚❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ♥♦❞❡ a = x0 = 0 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t
∆x = 1✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤✐s ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✈❛r✐❡s✳

▲❡t✬s ♥♦✇ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛ s♠❛❧❧❡r st❡♣ ∆x = .1 ✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❛♥ ❛❧♠♦st str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✦ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ❛❧♠♦st ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✭t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡
❛♣♣❡❛rs t♦ ❜❡ .1✮✳ ❲❡ ✇❡r❡ ✉s✐♥❣ t✇♦✲♥♦❞❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s ❤❡r❡✱ {a, a + ∆x}✳

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜② ❜❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✉♣
❛ s♠❛❧❧ ♣✐❡❝❡ s✉rr♦✉♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ ✐t ♦♥ ❛ ❣r✐❞✿

❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡❄

✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✷✹✹

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✹✳✺✿ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s❡❝❛♥ts

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r y = x2 ❛t x = 1✳ ❋✐✈❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛r❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ ❝❧♦s❡r ❛♥❞ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ 1 ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✿
x = −1, 0, .5, .75, .875 .

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

(x, y) = (−1, 1), (0, 0), (.5, .25), (.75, .5625), (.875, 0.765625) .

❚❤❡♥ ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ✐s ❞r❛✇♥ t❤r♦✉❣❤ (1, 1) ❛♥❞ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ♦♥t♦ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐t ✐s ♠✉❝❤ ❡❛s✐❡r t♦ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡
♦♥ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦♥❧②✿ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✦ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡
✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ❞r❛✇♥ t❤r♦✉❣❤ (1, 1) ❛♥❞ (x, x2 )✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ❛r❡✿
x2 − 1
.
x−1
❋r♦♠ ♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛s x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣
1 ✐s 2✳ ❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✦

❙♦✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ tr②✐♥❣ t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✇❤❛t t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✐s✱ ✇❡ s✐♠♣❧② ✜♥❞ ✐ts s❧♦♣❡✳
❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ✐ts s❧♦♣❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦r❞s✱ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❧✐♥❡s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t✇♦
♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ x 6= a✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ (a, f (a)) ❛♥❞ (x, f (x)) ✐s✿
r✐s❡ f (x) − f (a)
s❧♦♣❡ = = .
r✉♥ x−a

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t a ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x 6= a t♦ ❜❡

f (x) − f (a)
.
x−a
✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✷✹✺

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❧♦♣❡s✳ ❆s ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ x t♦✇❛r❞ a✱ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s t✉r♥
❛♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✱ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✹✳✻✿ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t
❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ❛t x = a ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts
♦❢ f ❛t x = a ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ∆x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ 0✱ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

df f (x) − f (a)
(a) = lim
dx x→a x−a

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ♥♦t ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥❀ t❤✐s ✐s ❥✉st ❛ ♥♦t❛✲
t✐♦♥✳

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❜r❡❛❦❞♦✇♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
♦❧❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
↓
df
♥♦t ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✿ (a)
dx
ր ↑
♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧② ✇r✐tt❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ r❡✈❡❛❧s t❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿
df ∆f
(a) = lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✹✳✼✿ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s

▲❡t✬s ❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♦♥❧②✿
x 5 10 15
y = f (x) 554 344 250

df
❲❤❛t ✐s (10)❄
dx
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ❝❤♦✐❝❡s✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s✿
✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✷✹✻

344 − 554
• ❙❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✶st s❡❣♠❡♥t = = −42 ✳
5
250 − 344
• ❙❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✷♥❞ s❡❣♠❡♥t = = −18.8 ✳
5
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦✳
−42 + (−18.8) −60.8
❆✈❡r❛❣❡ s❧♦♣❡ = = = −30.4 .
2 2
❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♣t✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❛s ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
250 − 554
❙❧♦♣❡ = = −30.4 .
10
■t✬s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✹✳✽

■s t❤✐s ❛ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝❡❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✹✳✾✿ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢r♦♠ ❣r❛♣❤

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ ♦✉r ❛❜✐❧✐t② t♦ ♣❧♦t t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s✳ ▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞
t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛t t❤❡ r❡❞ ♣♦✐♥t✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ st❡♣s✿

✶✳ P❧♦t t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✭❣r❡❡♥✮✳
✷✳ ❯s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r✐❞✱ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛ r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛s ✐ts ❤②♣♦t❡♥✉s❡✳
✸✳ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡✿
r✐s❡ 10.5
s❧♦♣❡ = ≈ = 1.75 .
r✉♥ 6
❚♦ ❜❡tt❡r ❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡✱ ❞r❛✇ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ❛s ❧❛r❣❡ ❛s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ r✐s❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s 6.5✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ✇❛② t♦ ❥✉st✐❢②
✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✷✹✼

✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✇♦r❞ ✏r✐s❡✑ ✇❤✐❧❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❣♦✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ ✐s t♦ ❣✐✈❡ ✐t ❛ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡✿

r✐s❡ = −6.5 .

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✿

df −6.5
(3) = ≈ −7.2 .
dx 9

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✹✳✶✵

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛t t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ♣♦✐♥ts✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✹✳✶✶✿ ❣r❛♣❤ ❢r♦♠ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❣♦ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✿ P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❞❛t❛✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♦♥❧② t❤❡s❡
✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥✿

df df df df df df
(−5) = 2, (−3) = 3, (−1) = 1, (1) = 0, (3) = −2, (5) = −1 .
dx dx dx dx dx dx
❊❛❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ r✐s❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❧✐♥❡ ✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r t❤❡ r✉♥
✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 1✳ ■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ r✉♥ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ 2✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡
✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r✐s❡ ❛r❡✿
x: −5 −3 −1 1 3 5
r✐s❡✿ 4 6 2 0 −4 −2
❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s✐① tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❤②♣♦t❡♥✉s❡s ❛r❡ ♠❡❛♥t t♦ ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ r♦✉❣❤ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡
s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

■♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t f t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✦ ❚❤❛t ✐s ✇❤② ✇❡ ❛tt❛❝❤
❡❛❝❤ ♣✐❡❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡ ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✹✳✶✷

❚r② t♦ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✹✳✶✸

P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

df df df df df df
(−5) = −1, (−4) = 1, (−3) = 0, (−2) = 2, (−1) = −2, (0) = 3 .
dx dx dx dx dx dx
▼❛❦❡ ✉♣ ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛♥❞ r❡♣❡❛t✳

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❣♦ ❜❡②♦♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳

✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✷✹✽

✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡

❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥♦✇ ✉s❡ ♦✉r s❦✐❧❧s ✇✐t❤ ❧✐♠✐ts ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✮ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✺✳✶✿ x2

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ y = x2 ❛t (1, 1)✿

❯s❡ f (x) = x2 ✱ a = 1 ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿

df f (x) − f (a)
(a) = lim
dx x→a x−a
x2 − 12 0
= lim → ? ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉
x→1 x − 1 0
(x − 1)(x + 1)
= lim
x→1 x−1
= lim (x + 1)
x→1

=1+1

= 2. ❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡✦

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✲s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✐s✿

y − 1 = 2(x − 1) .

■♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✱ ✇❡ s❛✇ ❛♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿ ■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❤♦✇ x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣
a✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ✭s✐❣♥❡❞✮ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ h = x − a ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠✳ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s ❛r❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
| • |
x ❛ x
h h
| • |
❛
❚❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
lim g(x) = lim g(a + h) .
x→a h→0
❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳ ❍❡r❡✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❤♦✇ x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣
a✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ✭s✐❣♥❡❞✮ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ h = x − a ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠✳ ❚❤❡♥ h → 0✳ ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ h = x − a ✐♥t♦ t❤❡
✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✷✹✾

❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭t♦♣✮ ❛♥❞ ♦❜t❛✐♥ ❛♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭❜♦tt♦♠✮ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ x = a + h✿

df f (x) − f (a)
(a) = lim
dx x→a x−a
| {z }
h=x−a
df f (a + h) − f (a)
(a) = lim
dx h→0 h

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❤❛t t❤✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛❝❝♦♠♣❧✐s❤❡❞ ✐s ❛ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳
❚❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t r❡♠❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

❍❡r❡✱ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ ❣❡tt✐♥❣ s❤♦rt❡r ❛♥❞ s❤♦rt❡r s♦ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ❤❛r❞ t♦ t❡❧❧ ✇❤❛t ✐s ❣♦✐♥❣ ♦♥✳ ❲❡
❡①t❡♥❞ t❤❡♠ ✐♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡s✳ ❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s ❦❡❡♣ t✉r♥✐♥❣✿ ✷♥❞ ✐s ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t❤❛♥ ✶st✱ ❡t❝✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ❛❜♦✉t ❛♥❣❧❡s ✦
❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ♥♦t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ f ✱ lim f (x)✱ ❜✉t

x→a
❛ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♠❛❞❡ ✭❞❡r✐✈❡❞✮ ❢r♦♠ f✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✺✳✷✿ x2
❚❤✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❡❛s✐❡r s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✿
f (x) = x2 .

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t✿

df f (1 + h) − f (1)
(1) = lim
dx h→0 h
(1 + h) − 12
2
0
= lim → ? ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉
h→0 h 0
12 + 2h + h − 1
= lim
h→0 h
2h + h2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (2 + h) ❚❤❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✳
h→0

= 2 + 0 = 2.
✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✷✺✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✸

df df
❋✐♥❞ (−1) ❛♥❞ (0) ❢♦r f (x) = x2 ✳
dx dx

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✹

df
❋✐♥❞ (1) ❢♦r f (x) = x2 + 1✳
dx

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✺

df
❋✐♥❞ (1) ❢♦r f (x) = x3 ✳
dx

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✺✳✻✿ 1/x

df 1
❋✐♥❞ (1) ❢♦r f (x) = ✳
dx x

df f (1 + h) − f (1)
= lim
dx h→0 h
1 1
− 0
= lim 1+h 1 → ? ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉
h→0 h 0
1
1+h
− 1+h
1+h
= lim
h→0
 h 
1 − (1 − h) 1
= lim ·
h→0 1+h h
 
−h 1
= lim ·
h→0 1+h h
 
1
= lim − ❚❤❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✳
h→0 1+h
1
=− = −1 .
1+0
❆t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✱ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③✐♥❣ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ s✐♠♣❧② ♣❧✉❣ ✐♥
t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✼

df
❋✐♥❞ (1) ❢♦r f (x) = 1/x2 ✳
dx

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ✭s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢✮ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❣♦ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
st❛❣❡s✿
✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✷✺✶

◮ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ✭❡rr♦r✦✮ ✳✳✳ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦ ✳✳✳ ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✳✳✳ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦ ✳✳✳ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛
✳✳✳ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦ ✳✳✳ t❤❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥ ✳✳✳ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦ ✳✳✳ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥
❲❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❥✉st ✐❣♥♦r❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t♦ ❜❡ ❛ ❞❡❛❞✲❡♥❞ ❛♥❞ ❣♦ str❛✐❣❤t t♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✦
❙♦♠❡t✐♠❡s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✐s ♥♦t ❡♥♦✉❣❤ t❤♦✉❣❤✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✺✳✽✿ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr②

❋✐rst f (x) = sin x✳ ❚❤❡♥

∆f sin h − sin 0
=
∆x h
x=0
sin h
= ◆♦ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✳
h
→1 ❛s h → 0 .
❚❤❡ ❧❛st st❡♣ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✿
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = sin x ❝r♦ss❡s t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛t 45 ❞❡❣r❡❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✾

df
❋✐♥❞ (π) ❢♦r f (x) = sin x✳
dx

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✶✵

df
❋✐♥❞ (π) ❢♦r f (x) = sin x + x✳
dx

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✺✳✶✶✿ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr②

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ f (x) = cos x✳ ❚❤❡♥

∆f cos h − cos 0
=
∆x h
x=0
cos h − 1
= ◆♦ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✳
h
→0 ❛s h → 0 .
✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✷✺✷

❚❤❡ ❧❛st st❡♣ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✿
1 − cos x
lim = 0.
x→0 x
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = cos x ❝r♦ss❡s t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✶✷

df
❋✐♥❞ (π) ❢♦r f (x) = cos x✳
dx

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✶✸

df
❋✐♥❞ (0) ❢♦r f (x) = sin x + cos x✳
dx

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✺✳✶✹✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧

▲❡t f (x) = ex ✳ ❚❤❡♥

∆f eh − e0
=
∆x h
x=0
h
e −1
= ◆♦ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✳
h
→1 ❛s h → 0 .
❚❤❡ ❧❛st st❡♣ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✿
ex − 1
lim = 1.
x→0 x
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿
✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ✷✺✸

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = ex ❝r♦ss❡s t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛t 45 ❞❡❣r❡❡s✳ ■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❜❛s❡
❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝✉ts ❛❧❧ t❤❡ r❡st ✐♥ t✇♦ ❤❛❧✈❡s✿ st❡❡♣ ❛♥❞ s❤❛❧❧♦✇✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✶✺

df
❋✐♥❞ (1) ❢♦r f (x) = ex ✳
dx

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✺✳✶✻✿ x3

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = x3 ❛t x = a✳ ▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛❧❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❛t ♦♥❝❡✿
x3 − a3
= x2 + xa + a2 → 3a2 ❛s x → a .
x−a
■♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❝r♦ss❡s t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❜② t♦✉❝❤✐♥❣ ✐t✿

▲❡t✬s ❝❤❡❝❦✿
• ■❢ ✇❡ tr② a = −4✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 48✳
• ■❢ ✇❡ tr② a = 0✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 0✳
• ■❢ ✇❡ tr② a = 4✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 48✳
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ♠❛t❝❤ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✳

✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t②

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r

✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ✷✺✹

✶✳ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥

✷✳ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♣r❡❝❡❞❡s t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛♥❞ t❛❦❡s ❝❛r❡ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡q✉✐r❡s ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡
♠❡t❤♦❞s ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐ts ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✳
❚❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ✐s
❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳
❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ✇♦r❞ ✏❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✑ ❤❛s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤
✏❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐s❤✑ ♦r ✏t❡❧❧ ❛♣❛rt✑✳

❙♦♠❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❞♦♥✬t ❡①✐st✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱

df f (x) − f (a)
(a) = lim ,
dx x→a x−a
♠✐❣❤t ♥♦t ❡①✐st ❡✐t❤❡r✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✿ ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞
❚♦ ❜❡❣✐♥ ✇✐t❤✱ ✐❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t a✱ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✐s ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛♥❞ ♥❡✐t❤❡r ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
df
❛t a✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ (0) ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st ❢♦r f (x) = 1/x✳
dx

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✷✿ sign(x)

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱
y = f (x) = sign(x) .

❲❡ s❡❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❛t ❛s x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ 0✱ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ st❡❡♣ ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤
❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♦♥❡✿

df
❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t s❧♦♣❡s → +∞✳ ❙♦✱ t❤❡✐r ❧✐♠✐t (a) ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳
dx
❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❡✛❡❝ts t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿
df sign(x) − sign(0)
(0) = lim
dx x→0 x−0
sign(x)
= lim
x→0 x
1
= lim
x→0 |x|

= ∞.

❚❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✳

✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ✷✺✺

❊✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t x = a ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞✱ ✐t ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❛t
❛s h → 0 t❤❡② ❞♦ ♥♦t t❡♥❞ t♦✇❛r❞ ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❧✐♥❡✳
■♥ ♦✉r ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ■❢ t❤❡
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐♥st❛♥t❧② ✭❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✮✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♠✉st ❜❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✿
❞✐st❛♥❝❡ 6= 0
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② = .
t✐♠❡ = 0
❲❤❡♥ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ❡①✐st✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦❡s ✐t t❡❧❧ ✉s❄ ■t t❡❧❧s ✉s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛t t❤❛t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳
❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❛t t❡❧❧ ✉s❄ ■t t❡❧❧s ✉s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❜r❡❛❦ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✦
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✻✳✸✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ◆❡❡❞s ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②
■❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ❡①✐sts ❛t a✱ t❤❡♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t a✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ r✐s❡✱ ❢♦r x 6= a✱ ❛♥❞ r❡✇r✐t❡ ✐t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
f (x) − f (a)
f (x) − f (a) = · (x − a) .
x−a
■t✬s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s x → a✿
f (x) − f (a)
· (x − a) = f (x) − f (a)
x−a | {z } | {z }
| {z }
↓ ↓ ↓
f ′ (a) · 0 =⇒ 0

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ❢❛❝t♦r ❡①✐sts ❛♥❞ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ f ′ (a)✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❢❛❝t♦r ❡①✐sts ❛♥❞
✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞
s✐❞❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ③❡r♦✿
f (x) − f (a)
f (x) − f (a) = · (x − a) → f ′ (a) · 0 = 0 .
x−a
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✱
lim (f (x) − f (a)) = 0 ,
x→a

✐s r❡✇r✐tt❡♥ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

lim f (x) − lim f (a) = 0 .
x→a x→a

◆♦✇✱ s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ lim f (a) = f (a)✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
x→a

lim f (x) = f (a) .

x→a

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐t② ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t a✳

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ♦♥ ♠❛♥② ♦❝❝❛s✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠❡❞ ✐♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t ✐t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t
❧✐♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t t❤♦s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✦ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛♣♣❧② t❤✐s t❡r♠ t♦ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✻✳✹✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛t a✱
f (x) − f (a)
lim ,
x→a x−a
❡①✐sts✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t a✳
✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ✷✺✻

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ s❛②✿
◮ ❊✈❡r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✺

Pr❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❧❛st st❛t❡♠❡♥t ❛s ❛♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ t♦♦✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✐s♥✬t tr✉❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✻✿ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

■❢ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ✐♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r♦✉♥❞ (0, 0)✱ ✐t ✇♦♥✬t ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t
❧✐♥❡✿

❚❤❡ ❝♦r♥❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❱ ✇♦♥✬t ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛r ❡✈❡♥ ❛❢t❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ tr✐❡s✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ❜② tr②✐♥❣
t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = |x| ❛t x = 0✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
df |0 + h| − |0|
(0) = lim
dx h→0 h
|h|
= lim .
h→0 h

❲❡✬✈❡ s❡❡♥ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ❜❡❢♦r❡✦ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡s❡ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

|h| −h
lim− = lim− = −1
h→0 h h→0 h
|h| h
lim+ = lim+ =1
h→0 h h→0 h

❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ♥♦t ❡q✉❛❧✱ s♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✳ ❲❡ s❡❡ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s s✐♠♣❧② ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐ts❡❧❢✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ✷✺✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✼

P❧❛❝❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✿ |x|, sign x, x3 ✳

❈♦♠♣❛r❡✿
• ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✿ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❜r❡❛❦ ♦r ❣❛♣✳
• ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✿ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❝♦r♥❡r ♦r ❝✉s♣✳
❆s ✇❡ ❥✉st s❛✇✱ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s t♦ ❜❡ ❛ t❛♥❣❡♥t✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ t❛♥❣❡♥t✦
▲❡t✬s tr② t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✕ ✈✐❛ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ s❡❝❛♥t r❛②s✳
❆s ✇❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ a s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ r✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡② t✉r♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿
• ❚✇♦ r❛②s✳ ❚❤❡♥ f ✐s ♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✿

• ❖♥❡ ❧✐♥❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✿

❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ✈❡r✐❢② t❤❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✿

lim = lim+
h→0− h→0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✽

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ♦♥❡ r❛②❄

✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ✷✺✽

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✾✿ s♠♦♦t❤ ❣r❛♣❤s

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❧♦♦❦ s♠♦♦t❤ ✭♥♦ ❝✉s♣s✮ ❛♥❞ ②❡t t❤❡② ❛r❡ ♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✿

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ✐♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛♣♣❡❛r ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✦

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ √

f (x) = 3
x
❛t x = 0 ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❡✈❡♥ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❛ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✿

df
(0) = ∞ .
dx
❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇❄ ❚❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ x = y 3 ✭r✐❣❤t✮ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ √ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛t 0
✐s 0❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐ts t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✐s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛t 0✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ y = x ❛t 0 ✐s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✦
3

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✵✿ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝

df
❈♦♠♣✉t❡ (2) ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❢♦r
dx
f (x) = −x2 − x .

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿
df f (2 + h) − f (2)
(2) = lim .
dx h→0 h
❚♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t✇✐❝❡✳ ■♥ f (x) = −x2 − x✱ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ x ✇✐t❤
2 + h ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ x ✇✐t❤ 2✿

f (2 + h) = −(2 + h)2 − (2 + h), f (2) = −22 − 2 .

✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✺✾

◆♦✇✱ ✇❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿

df [−(2 − h)2 − (2 − h)] − [−22 − 2]
(2) = lim
dx h→0 h
−4 − 4h − h2 − 2 − h + 4 + 2
= lim
h→0 h
−5h − h2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (−5 − h)
h→0
= −5 − 0
= 5.

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✶✿ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ t❛①

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❤②♣♦t❤❡t✐❝❛❧ t❛① ❝♦❞❡ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✳ ■❢ x ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❛r❣✐♥❛❧ t❛① r❛t❡ ✐s
❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿ 
0
 ✐❢ x ≤ 10000 ,
f (x) = .10 ✐❢ 10000 < x ≤ 20000 ,

.20 ✐❢ 20000 < x .


❚❤❡ t❛① ❜✐❧❧ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿


0
 ✐❢ x ≤ 10000 ,
g(x) = .10 · (x − 10000) ✐❢ 10000 < x ≤ 20000 ,

.10 · (x − 10000) + .20 · (x − 20000) ✐❢ 20000 < x .


▲❡t✬s ♣❧♦t ❜♦t❤✿

▲♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✦ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱
t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿
dg
(x) = f (x) ,
dx
❡①❝❡♣t ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ✇❤❡r❡ g ✐s♥✬t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✿ x = 10, 000 ❛♥❞ x = 20, 000✳

❚❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢♦r♠ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡❄
❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✻✵

t✐♠❡❄ ■t ❧♦♦❦s ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛t❡❞✿

❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝✿ ❲❡ ✜♥❞✱ ♦r ❛tt❡♠♣t t♦ ✜♥❞✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✕ ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t
✕ ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t a ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ f ✳ ❚❤❡s❡ a✬s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢
df
t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ (a) ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✦ ■ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts
dx
✇❤❡r❡ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡✱ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t✱ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

df
f ′ (x) = (x)
dx
■t r❡❛❞s ✏ f ♣r✐♠❡✑✳

❙✐♥❝❡ x ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❢♦r ❜♦t❤✱ ✐t ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ t❤❛t ♥❛♠❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
y = f (x) −→ z = f ′ (x) .

❚❤✉s✱ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦❧❞✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡s✿ t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
♠❛❦❡s ❛ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐t ❝❛♠❡ ❢r♦♠✳ ▲❡t✬s ❞❡❝♦♥str✉❝t t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ ✐♥♣✉t ♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ ✐♥♣✉t

f x f x
df
f′ x x
dx
df
f ′ (x) = (x)
dx
df
f′ =
dx

❚❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐s ❛ ♠❛tt❡r ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝❡✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❞♦❡s♥✬t

♠❛t❝❤ t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛ t❤❡♦r② ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥s✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s st❛t❡♠❡♥t ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥✿

◮ ✏■❢ ■ ❛♠ st❛♥❞✐♥❣ st✐❧❧✱ ♠② s♣❡❡❞ ✐s ③❡r♦✳✑
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✻✶

■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡st❛t❡ t❤✐s ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧②✳ ❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇
❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✼✳✶✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥
■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t
♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛ ③❡r♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r②
♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ ∆f (c) = 0 .

❲❡ ❥✉st ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② ∆x t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✼✳✷✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥
■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t
♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛ ③❡r♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r ❛❧❧
s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆f
f (x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ (c) = 0 .
∆x

❚❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ∆x → 0 ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✼✳✸✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥
■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✱ t❤❡♥ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ③❡r♦ ❢♦r ❛❧❧
x ✐♥ I ✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

df
f (x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ (x) = 0 .
dx

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✿
∆f df
f (x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ ∆f (c) = 0 =⇒ (c) = 0 =⇒ (x) = 0 .
∆x dx

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✹
Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❞❡t❛✐❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ tr✉❡ ❜✉t ✐ts ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s ♣♦st♣♦♥❡❞ ✉♥t✐❧ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✺✿ ♣✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
■s ✐t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❝♦♥st❛♥t❄ ❩♦♦♠✐♥❣ ✐♥ r❡✈❡❛❧s ❣❛♣s✿
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✻✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✻✿ ❈❛♥t♦r✬s st❛✐r❝❛s❡

❚♦ ❢❛❝❡ t❤❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡✱ ❧❡t✬s ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ❣❡ts ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤✐s ✐♠♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t②✳ ❲❡ ❝✉t t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡
✐♥ ❤❛❧❢ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② ❛♥❞ ✐♥ t❤r❡❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡♥ ♣❧❛❝❡ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡✿

❚❤❡ ✇❡ ❞♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ t✇♦ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧❧② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ❲❤❡♥
✇❡ r❡♠♦✈❡ t❤❡ s❝❛✛♦❧❞✐♥❣✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛♥❞ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ♠❛❞❡ ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ♦❢ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♣✐❡❝❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✼✿ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛t x = a ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

f (x) = mx + b .

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②✿

❊✈❡r② s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝ts ♦✉r ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r❡st✱ (a, f (a))✱ t♦ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱
(a + h, f (a + h))✱ ✇❤❡r❡ h = ∆x ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡
❧✐❡s ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳ ■t t❤❡♥ ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❧♦♣❡✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♠✉st ❜❡ m✦
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✻✸

◆♦✇✱ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✿

∆f f (a + h) − f (a)
(a) = ❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡ x=a+h ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦❢ f.
∆x h
[m(a + h) + b] − [ma + b]
= ❙✐♠♣❧✐❢②✳
h
mh
= ❚❤❡♥ ❞✐✈✐❞❡✳
h
=m =⇒
df ∆f
(a) = lim (a) = m .
dx h→0 ∆x

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ s✐♥❝❡ ✐s ✐t ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ a✱ ✇❡ tr❡❛t ✐t ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛
❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❡ ✜rst ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ st❛t❡♠❡♥t✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♥❞✱ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧②
❜❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤❛❧❢ ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥ ❛ ❝♦♥❥❡❝t✉r❡ ❢♦r ♥♦✇✳

❚♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ ♦✉r t❤❡♦r②✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤✐s t✐♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ r✉♥♥❡rs❀ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❧✐❣❤t❧② ❧❡ss ♦❜✈✐♦✉s
❢❛❝t ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥✿

◮ ✏■❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ r✉♥♥❡rs ✐s♥✬t ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡② r✉♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣❡❡❞✳✑

■t✬s ❛s ✐❢ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❤♦❧❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❡♥❞s ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦❧❡ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣✉❧❧✐♥❣ ♦r ♣✉s❤✐♥❣✿

■t ✐s ❡✈❡♥ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❛t t❤❡② s♣❡❡❞ ✉♣ ❛♥❞ s❧♦✇ ❞♦✇♥ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡②
♠♦✈❡ ❧✐❦❡ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❜♦❞②✳

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s y = f (x) ❛♥❞ y = g(x) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡✐r ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡st❛t❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛
♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ♦✉r t❤❡♦r② ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✽✿ s❤✐❢t ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ❢♦r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ❲❡ s❤✐❢t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② 1 ✉♥✐t ✉♣
t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ bn ✭t♦♣✮✿
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✻✹

❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ✉♣s ❛♥❞ ❞♦✇♥s r❡♠❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡
✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ✭❜♦tt♦♠✮✳

❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✷✮✿
◮ ■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ t❤❡♥
t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
f (x) − g(x) = K =⇒ ∆f (c) = ∆g(c) .

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛r❡ ❝♦❧♦r❡❞ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣❧②✿

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ ❛ t✉♥♥❡❧ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡✐❧✐♥❣ ♠✉st ❜❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ✐♥ s❤❛♣❡✳
❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✼✳✾✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❚❤❛t ❉✐✛❡r ❜② ❈♦♥st❛♥t
■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛
❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (x) − g(x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ ∆f (c) = ∆g(c) .

❲❡ ❥✉st ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② ∆x t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✻✺

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✼✳✶✵✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❚❤❛t ❉✐✛❡r ❜② ❈♦♥✲

st❛♥t
■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛
❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆f ∆g
f (x) − g(x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ (c) = (c) .
∆x ∆x

❚❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ∆x → 0 ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✼✳✶✶✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❚❤❛t ❉✐✛❡r ❜② ❈♦♥st❛♥t
■❢ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

df dg
f (x) − g(x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ (x) = (x) .
dx dx

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✿
∆f ∆g df dg
f (x) − g(x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ ∆f (c) = ∆g(c) =⇒ (c) = (c) =⇒ (x) = (x) .
∆x ∆x dx dx
❍❡r❡✱ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ❢r♦♠ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts t♦ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s t♦ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✶✷
Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❞❡t❛✐❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✳

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ✇✐❧❧✐♥❣ t♦ ✉s❡ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤✐s ♣r♦♦❢ ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ ♠✉❝❤ s❤♦rt❡r✿
d(f − g) df dg
f (x) − g(x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ (x) = 0 =⇒ (x) = (x) .
dx dx dx
❚❤❡ ❧❛st ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ ❜❡ ♣r♦✈❡❞ s❤♦rt❧②✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ ❜② ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s✿

■❢ t❤❡② ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ♦♥❡ ✐s ❥✉st ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② s❤✐❢t❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❤❛✈❡
❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❤❛♣❡✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❤❛✈❡ ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❧♦♣❡s ❛t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✳
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✶✸✿ t❤r❡❡ r✉♥♥❡rs
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ s❤♦✇s t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ r✉♥♥❡rs ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞✳
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✻✻

❍❡r❡✬s ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞✿

• ❘✉♥♥❡r A st❛rts ❢❛st ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ s❧♦✇s ❞♦✇♥✱ ❜✉t r❡❛❝❤❡s t❤❡ ✜♥✐s❤ ❧✐♥❡ ✜rst✳
• ❘✉♥♥❡r B ♠❛✐♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣❡❡❞✳
• ❘✉♥♥❡r C st❛rts ❧❛t❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ r✉♥s ❢❛st ❛♥❞ ❛rr✐✈❡s ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡ ❛s B ✳
❲❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡
s❦❡t❝❤❡❞ ❤❡r❡✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✶✹

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✶✺

❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ ❤❡r❡✿

✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✻✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✶✻✿ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

df
❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ♣✐❝❦ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤✐s t✐♠❡❄ ▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ f ′ = ❢♦r f (x) = ax2 + bx + c✳
dx

∆f f (x + h) − f (x)
(x) =
∆x h
(a[x + h]2 + b[x + h] + c) − (ax2 + bx + c)
=
h
ax2 + 2axh + ah2 + bx + bh + c − ax2 − bx − c
= ❚❤❡ t❡r♠s ✇✐t❤♦✉t h ❝❛♥❝❡❧✳
h
2axh + ah2 + bh
= ❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤② ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② h!
h
= 2ax + ah + b . =⇒
df
(x) = lim (2ax + ah + b)
dx h→0

= (2ax + ah + b)
h=0

= 2ax + b .

❆s ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ s❤✐❢t✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ♠❛t❝❤ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✭t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ♣❧♦t ❜❡❧♦✇✮✿

❲❡ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✴♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ s❧♦♣❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡
df
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ′ = ✇✐t❤ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✴♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✳
dx

❚❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❡ ✜rst ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ st❛t❡♠❡♥t✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♥❞✱ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❜❡
t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤❛❧❢ ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥ ❛ ❝♦♥❥❡❝t✉r❡ ❢♦r ♥♦✇✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✶✼

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❞❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡✈❡♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦❞❞✳
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✻✽

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✶✽✿ r♦❧❧✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r♦❧❧✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ t❤❛t ❤✐ts ❛ ✇❛❧❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❣♦❡s ❜❛❝❦✳

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡❞ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ✐ts ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② r❛t❤❡r t❤❛♥ ✐ts ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✦ ❲❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ✜♥❞
t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ✕ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s t♦ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✳ ❲❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❜❡ t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧✳
❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
✷✳ ❆s t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ t♦✉❝❤❡s t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧ ❛♥❞ st❛rts t♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❝t✱ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ❞❡❝❧✐♥❡s✳ ❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t t❤❡
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡s✦
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡s ✉♥t✐❧ ✐t r❡❛❝❤❡s 0✳
✹✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡s t♦ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ st❛rts t♦ ❡①♣❛♥❞✳
✺✳ ❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ ❛s t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❧❡❛✈❡s t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② t❤❛t ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ r❡❛❝❤❡❞ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♥❞
♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ♣❧❛✉s✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✿

❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡✱ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❧②✱ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥t♦
❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡s❝r✐♣t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✿

◆❡①t✱ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❍❡r❡ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝ts ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✿
• ❚❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
• ❚❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡✱ ✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❛❧❧②✱ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t
t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♥❞ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣✐❡❝❡s ✐♥t♦ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❝✉r✈❡✿
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✻✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✶✾

❉♦❡s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t♦✉❝❤ t❤❡ t✲❛①✐s❄ ❉♦❡s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❤❛✈❡ ❝✉s♣s ❛t t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥ts
✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ r❡❛❝❤❡s ❛♥❞ ❧❡❛✈❡s t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✷✵

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❜✐❧❧✐❛r❞ ❜❛❧❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦❧❧✐s✐♦♥ ✐s ♣❡r❢❡❝t❧② r✐❣✐❞❄ P❧♦t t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞
❞✐s❝✉ss t❤❡✐r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t②✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✷✶✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t②

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ♠❡t❛❧ r♦❞✿

❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❢♦r s✉❝❤ ❛ r♦❞✿ ♠❛ss

❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② = .
❧❡♥❣t❤
❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ r♦❞ ✐s♥✬t ✉♥✐❢♦r♠✱ ❧✐❦❡ ❛♥ ❛❧❧♦②❄ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ♣✐❡❝❡s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♠❡t❛❧s
♣❛rt✐❛❧❧② ♠❡❧t❡❞ t♦❣❡t❤❡r✿

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t✐❡s ❛r❡ 1 ❧❜✴✐♥ ❛♥❞ 2 ❧❜s✴✐♥ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢ t❤✐s ❛❧❧♦②
✇✐❧❧ ❣r❛❞✉❛❧❧② ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❢r♦♠ 1 t♦ 2✿
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✼✵

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛ss ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✱ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿ y = m(x) ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❞ ❢r♦♠ 0 t♦ x✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r
❤♦✇ m ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣✿

❲❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ✇❡r❡ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ❝♦♥st❛♥t t♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✦

❚❛❦❡ ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❞ ❛t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ x✱ ∆x ❧♦♥❣✱ ❛♥❞ ❧❡t✬s ❝❛❧❧ ✐ts ♠❛ss ∆m✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r t❤✐s ♣✐❡❝❡✱
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
♠❛ss ∆m m(x + ∆x) − m(x)
❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② = = = .
❧❡♥❣t❤ ∆x ∆x
❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

∆m
❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛t x = lim = m′ (x) .
∆x→0 ∆x

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✷✷✿ s❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐♥ r❡❞ ✭✜rst r♦✇✮ ❛♥❞ ❧♦♦❦ ❢♦r ✐ts ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ s❧♦♣❡s ✭s❡❝♦♥❞
r♦✇✮✿

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✳ ❲❡ ✇r✐t❡ + ❢♦r ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞
− ❢♦r ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✭t❤✐r❞ r♦✇✮✳ ❚❤✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s✉✣❝✐❡♥t t♦ ♣❧♦t ❛ r♦✉❣❤ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ′ ✭❧❛st r♦✇✮✳

❆s ❛ s❤♦rt❝✉t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✜rst ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ t❛♥❣❡♥t✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❢♦r t❤♦s❡ x✬s ✇❤❡r❡
f ′ (x) = 0✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ✇✐❧❧ t②♣✐❝❛❧❧② s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✇❤❡r❡ f ′ > 0 ❢r♦♠ f ′ < 0✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❡
✢❛tt❡♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢❛r r✐❣❤t❀ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛ ✢❛tt❡♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✕
t♦✇❛r❞ 0✳
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✼✶

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ f ′ ✐s ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ f ✱ ❛s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱

t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ✇❛② t♦ ❝♦♥❥✉r❡ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ′
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦♦❦s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳ ❲❡ s❤♦✉❧❞♥✬t
❡①♣❡❝t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ′ t♦ ❡♠❡r❣❡ ❢r♦♠ s❤✐❢t✐♥❣ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✱ str❡t❝❤✐♥❣ ♦r s❤r✐♥❦✐♥❣✱ ♦r ✢✐♣♣✐♥❣✱ ❡t❝✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✷✸✿ q✉❛❧✐t❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ t❤✐s ♠♦r❡ str❛t❡❣✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇✐t❤ ❢❡✇❡r ♣♦✐♥ts t♦ t❡st✳ ▲❡t✬s ❛♣♣❧② t❤✐s ♠❡t❤♦❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢
y = sin x✳ ■t ✐s r❡♣❡t✐t✐✈❡✿

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ t❤❛t ♦❢ y = cos x✦ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❤♦✇ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s♥✬t
❛ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝❡✳

▲❡t✬s s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡✳
❆s ∆x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❢♦✉♥❞
♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❆s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦✉♥❞✳
❊✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♣♦✐♥ts ❢♦r♠ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❢♦r♠ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✿

▲❡t✬s st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❜❛s✐❝ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s✳

❋✐rst ❛ s❤✐❢t y = x + k✿
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✼✷

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 1✳
◆❡①t✱ ❛ ✢✐♣ y = −x✿

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s −1✳

❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
◮ ❋♦r r✐❣✐❞ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✭♥♦ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ♦❢ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s✮✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 1 ♦r −1✳
◆❡①t✱ ❛ str❡t❝❤ y = kx (k > 0)✿

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s k ✳ ❚❤❡ str❡t❝❤ y = 2x ✐s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❛♥② t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ❞♦✉❜❧❡s✳ ■t ✐s
❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✦ ■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ t❤✐s r❛t✐♦ k ✐s t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡
r❛♥❣❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳
❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❛ s❤r✐♥❦ ✐s ❛ str❡t❝❤ ✇✐t❤ k < 1✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦❧❧❛♣s❡✱ f (x) = c✱ ♠❛❦❡s ❛❧❧ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0✿

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 0 t♦♦✳

❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
◮ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥✳
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞✿
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✼✸

❚❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿ 1, 1, −1, 2✱ ❛♥❞ 1/2✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ str❡t❝❤✐♥❣ ❢❛❝t♦rs✦
❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜❡❧♦✇ t♦ s❡❡ t❤❡s❡ ❢❛❝t♦rs ❛s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s✿

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ✭❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✸✮ t❤❛t ✉♥❞❡r ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ f (x) = mx + b✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s
✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦❢ |m| ✇❤❡♥ |m| > 1✱ ♦r ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡❞ ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦❢ |m| ✇❤❡♥ |m| < 1✳ ❚❤✐s str❡t❝❤✴s❤r✐♥❦
❢❛❝t♦r ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✈❡r②✇❤❡r❡✳ ❇✉t m ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✦
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✷✹✿ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s✿

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 0 2 5 7 8 8.5 8.5 8 7 4 2

❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢❛s❤✐♦♥✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [0, 1] ✐s ♠❛♣♣❡❞ t♦ [0, 2] ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ✭y = 2x✮✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [1, 2] t♦ [2, 5]✱ ❡t❝✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s
❞♦♥✬t ♠❛tt❡r✳

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ 1✲✉♥✐t s❡❣♠❡♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛r❡ str❡t❝❤❡❞ ❛♥❞ s❤r✉♥❦ ❛t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t r❛t❡s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦♥❡s
❜❡②♦♥❞ x = 6 ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ✢✐♣♣❡❞ ♦✈❡r ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿

2, 3, 2, 1, 1/2, 0, −1/2, −1, −3 .

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ t❤❡ str❡t❝❤ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡s❡ ❢❛❝t♦rs ❛s s❧♦♣❡s ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣❛t❝❤❡s t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳
✸✳✽✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✷✼✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✷✺
❊st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦✉rt❤ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❜② ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s
✐♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞✿

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ❛♥ ❛❜str❛❝t ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ t❤r❡❡ t❛♥❣✐❜❧❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ♥♦✇
✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡ t❤r❡❡ t❛♥❣✐❜❧❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s❡❡♥ ❛s ■ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s

1. ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②
2. ❣r❛♣❤ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡
3. tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ str❡t❝❤✴s❤r✐♥❦ r❛t❡

✸✳✽✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ♦✉r ❝✉rr❡♥t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ ♥❡✇✱ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✳

■♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✱ x = a✳ ❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿

∆f f (a + ∆x) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)

(a) = =
∆x ∆x x−a

❆♥❞ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

df ∆f
(a) = lim (a)
dx ∆x→0 ∆x

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♠✐t t❤❡ ♠❡♥t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

∆f df
❛♥❞
∆x dx

◆♦✇✱ ✐t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❧❡❛✈❡ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✉♥♥❛♠❡❞✱ ❛s ✐♥✿

y = x2 .

■♥ t❤❛t ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ✉s❡ t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛♥❞

❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
∆y dy
❛♥❞
∆x dx

■♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ●r❡❡❦ ❧❡tt❡r ∆✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ st❛♥❞s ❢♦r ✏❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✑✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
✸✳✽✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✷✼✺

• ∆x ✐s t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x ✭t❤❡ r✉♥✮✱ ❛♥❞

• ∆y ✐s t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ y ✭t❤❡ r✐s❡✮✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x)✳ ❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ ∆x✱ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❛t
st❡♣ t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ♦r t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

◆❡①t✱ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧❡tt❡r d t❤❛t✱ t♦♦✱ st❛♥❞s ❢♦r ✏❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✑✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢
❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✱ ❜✉t t❤✐s ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t ✕ ✐♥ s♣✐t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ✐t ✐s ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ t♦♦✦ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ♦♥❝❡ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥✱ ❛t x = a✱ ✐t ❣✐✈❡s ✉s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❏✉st ❛s ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ ❛
s✐♥❣❧❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✕ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✕ ❛♥❞ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

• dx ❢♦r t❤❡ r✉♥✱ ❛♥❞

• dy ❢♦r t❤❡ r✐s❡✳

❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ dx✱ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❛t st❡♣ t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ♦r t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t
❧✐♥❡✿

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✱ t♦♦✿

dy ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ y
= .
dx ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x
■❢ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ✐s 2✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿

dy = 2 dx .
❲❡ tr❡❛t t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✱ dx ❛♥❞ dy ✱ ❛s ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡t ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❚❤❡② ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✽✳✶✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s f ′ (a)✳
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧✱ dx✱ ♦❢ x ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧✱ dy ✱ ♦❢ y ❛r❡ t✇♦ r❡❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ❜② t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

dy = f ′ (a) · dx
✸✳✽✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✷✼✻

❙✉❝❤ ❛♥ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ✭t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡rs ✸■❈✲✷ ❛♥❞ ✸■❈✲✹✮✳

❆t ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ a✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✦
❆♥♦t❤❡r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ ♣r❡s❡♥t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✿
❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛♥❞
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
∆ d
(f ) ❛♥❞ (f )
∆x dx

❍❡r❡ ❜♦t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✦

❆❧s♦ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s ✐s t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♥❣ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥t✿

∆f ∆y df dy
, , , .
∆x ∆x dx dx
x=a x=a x=a x=a

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✷✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s

❲❡ ♠❛②✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ♦♠✐t t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡s ❛❧t♦❣❡t❤❡r ❛♥❞ ♣r❡s❡♥t ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦
t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✇r✐t❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✿

∆ ∆
(3x + 5) = 3 =⇒ (3x + 5) =3 =3
∆x ∆x
x=0 x=0
∆ ∆
(−x2 + 7) = −2x − 2h =⇒ (−x2 + 7) = −2x − 2h = −2.2
∆x ∆x
x=1, h=.1 x=1, h=.1

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✇r✐t❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

d d
(−x2 + 7) = −2x =⇒ (−x2 + 7) = −2x = −2
dx dx
x=1 x=1
d d
(3x2 + 2x + 1) = 6x + 2 =⇒ (3x2 + 2x + 1) = 6x + 2 = −4
dx dx
x=−1 x=−1

❆♥❞ ♥♦✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

(−x2 + 7)′ = −2x =⇒ (−x2 + 7)′ = −2x = −2

x=1 x=1

(3x2 + 2x + 1)′ = 6x + 2 =⇒ (3x2 + 2x + 1)′ = 6x + 2 = −4

x=−1 x=−1
✸✳✽✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✷✼✼

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❲❡ ❝❛♥✬t s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ x=1 ✐♥t♦ (−x2 + 7)′ ✉♥t✐❧ ❛♥

❡①♣❧✐❝✐t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✸

❈♦♠♣✉t❡✿
∆
(−x + 2) ❛t x = 5
∆x
d
(−x + 2) ❛t x = 5
dx
d x
(e ) ❛t x = −1
dx
(sin x)′ ❛t x = π/2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✹

Pr♦✈❡ ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✺✿ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t

❈♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ♠✐❣❤t ❣✐✈❡ ✉s ❡✈✐❞❡♥❝❡ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ ❛♥ ❡❞✉❝❛t❡❞ ❣✉❡ss ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✱ s❛②✱ y = f (x) = −(x − 1.5)2 + 3✳ ❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❤♦✇ ✐♥ s❡❛r❝❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛tt❡r♥✱ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡
♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ♦✉r ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❞❡♥s❡r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥s❡r✿

❆s ✇❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✇❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ❛
str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✦

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡ ♠♦r❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧②✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
✸✳✽✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✷✼✽

■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ❣♦❡s ❞♦✇♥ ❜② ♦♥❡✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✻

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ♣❛✐r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✼✿ x2
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♠❛❞❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢
f (x) = x2 .
❋r♦♠ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ♣♦✐♥t✱ t♦ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✉♥s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞ ♣♦✐♥t✱ t♦ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛t ♦♥❝❡✱ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ st❡♣s ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

a=1 r❡♣❧❛❝❡ 1 ✇✐t❤ a r❡♣❧❛❝❡ a ✇✐t❤ x

∆f ∆f ∆f
(1) = (a) = (x) = ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳✳✳
∆x ∆x ∆x
f (1 + h) − f (1) f (a + h) − f (a) f (x + h) − f (x)
= = = ✐s ✇r✐tt❡♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳
h h h
(1 + h)2 − 12 (a + h)2 − a2 (x + h)2 − x2
= = = ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞✳
h h h
2
1 + 2h + h − 1 a + 2ah + h − a2
2
x + 2xh + h − x2
2
= = = ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✐s ❡①♣❛♥❞❡❞✳
h h h
2h + h2 2ah + h2 2xh + h2
= = = ❚❤❡ t❡r♠s ✇✐t❤♦✉t h ❛r❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❡❞✳
h h h
=2+h = 2a + h = 2x + h ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✐s ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❜② h.

→2+0 → 2a + 0 → 2x + 0 ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❜②✳✳✳

=2 = 2a = 2x s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳✳✳

✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ h.

❖✉r ♣r♦❣r❡ss ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s✿
✸✳✽✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✷✼✾

■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✈❡r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱
❜✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧♦t ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥✳
❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱
∆f f (x + h) − f (x)
= ❛s h → 0 .
∆x h
❲❤❡♥❡✈❡r f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✐s 0✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✦
0
❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❢❛❝❡✱ ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t②♣❡ ✳ ❊✈❡r② t✐♠❡✱
0
✐t ✐s t♦ ❜❡ r❡s♦❧✈❡❞✱ ❛♥❞ ♥♦t ❜② t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ❜✉t ❜② ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✦ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♠♦st ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣✐♥❣ st❡♣✿
◮ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❢❛❝t♦r t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ h ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✽✿ ❡①♣❛♥❞✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ x3
❚❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✜rst✳ ❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦✇❡rs✿
(x1 )′ = 1, (x2 )′ = 2x1 .

◆♦✇ ❝✉❜✐❝✿
f (x) = x3 .
❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ❦❡❡♣✐♥❣ ✐♥ ♠✐♥❞ t❤❛t x ✐s ✜①❡❞ ❛s ❢❛r ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s
❝♦♥❝❡r♥❡❞✿
∆f f (x + h) − f (x)
(x) = ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ✇r✐tt❡♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳
∆x h
(x + h)3 − x3
= ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞✳
h
x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 − x2
= ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✐s ❡①♣❛♥❞❡❞✳
h
3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3
= ❚❤❡ t❡r♠s ✇✐t❤♦✉t h ❛r❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❡❞✳
h
= 3x2 + 3xh + h2 ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✐s ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❜② h.
∆f
(x) = 3x2 + 3xh + h2 ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳
∆x
❛s h → 0, → 3x2 + 3x · 0 + 02 ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s t❤❡♥ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ h = 0...

= 3x2 ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ h.

❲❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣✿ ❆❧❧ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛r ❡①❝❡♣t ❢♦r t❤♦s❡ ✇✐t❤ h ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ♣♦✇❡r✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❇✐♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✽✳✾✿ ❍✐❣❤❡st ❚❡r♠s ♦❢ ❇✐♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❊①♣❛♥s✐♦♥
❚❤❡ nt❤ ♣♦✇❡r✱ (x + h)n✱ ❤❛s n + 1 t❡r♠s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ h ❤❛s ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t
❡q✉❛❧ t♦ n✿
(x + h)n = xn + nxn−1 h + t❡r♠s ✇✐t❤ h2 , h3 , ...

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❧❛t❡r✳

❆♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ ❢❛❝t♦r✐♥❣ r❡❧✐❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛❝t♦r✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✿

an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + ... + abn−2 + bn−1 )

✸✳✽✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✷✽✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✶✵✿ ❢❛❝t♦r✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ x3

❲❡ ✉s❡ ✐t ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ✭n = 3✮✿
(x + h)3 − x3
(x3 )′ = lim
h→0 h
(x + h − x)((x + h)2 + (x + h)x + x2 )
= lim
h→0 h
 
= lim (x + h)2 + (x + h)x + x2
h→0

= (x + 0)2 + (x + 0)x + x2

= 3x2 .

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿

∆

x3 = (x + h)2 + (x + h)x + x2 .
∆x
❲❡ ♣❧♦t ❛❧❧ t❤r❡❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❆ ♣❛tt❡r♥ st❛rts t♦ ❡♠❡r❣❡✿

n (xn )′
1 (x1 )′ = 1x0 1 x 0

2 (x2 )′ = 2x1 2 x 1

3 (x3 )′ = 3x2 3 x 2

... ... ... ... ...

?
1000 (x1000 )′ = 1000x999 1000 x 999

... ... ... ... ...

?
n (xn )′ = nxn−1 n x n−1

■t s❡❡♠s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♣r❡s❡♥t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ♦♥❡ ❧♦✇❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❛t ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧
♣♦✇❡r ❛♣♣❡❛rs ❛s ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✳
▲❡t✬s ❣♦ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✱ st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✿
✸✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✷✽✶

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✽✳✶✶✿ ■♥t❡❣❡r P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡

▲❡t n ❜❡ ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s
❛r❡ x = a, a + h ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ ✐s c = a✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ y = xn
✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛t c ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
 
n n−1 n−2 1 1 n−2 n−1
∆(x ) = h (c + h) + (c + h) c + ... + (c + h) c +c .

Pr♦♦❢✳
❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦♥❧② ♥❡❡❞s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛❜♦✈❡✳

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② h = ∆x✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✽✳✶✷✿ ■♥t❡❣❡r P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t
▲❡t n ❜❡ ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s
❛r❡ x = a, a + h ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ ✐s c = a✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t
♦❢ y = xn ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛t c ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
∆ n
(x ) = (c + h)n−1 + (c + h)n−2 c1 + ... + (c + h)1 cn−2 + cn−1 .
∆x

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❧❡t h = ∆x → 0✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s cn−1 ✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ n ♦❢ t❤❡♠✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✽✳✶✸✿ ■♥t❡❣❡r P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
▲❡t n ❜❡ ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ y = xn ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②

d n
(x ) = nxn−1
dx

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞r❛♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✦

✸✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦r❡ ❛♣♣❛r❡♥t ♣❛tt❡r♥s t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ♦✉r s✐♠♣❧❡st ❣✉❡ss❡s✳ ❋♦r t❤❡ ✜rst ♦♥❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡
✸✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✷✽✷

♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ✉♣s✐❞❡✲❞♦✇♥ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❛t ♦❢ f ❀ t❤❛t✬s ✇❤② ♦✉r ✜rst ❣✉❡ss ✐s −1/x✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞
❣r❛♣❤ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❢❛st❡r✦ ▼❛②❜❡ ✐t✬s −1/x2 ❄ ❨❡s✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✾✳✶

❚r② t♦ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡s❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥s✳

❚❤❡ ■♥t❡❣❡r P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ♥♦✇ t♦ ❜❡ t❡st❡❞ ❢♦r ♦t❤❡r ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ n✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✾✳✷✿ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧

▲❡t✬s ♥♦✇ tr② ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♣♦✇❡rs✳ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡✿

 ′ 1 1
1 −
= lim x+h x
❲❡ ❞♦ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦rs ❤❡r❡✳
x h→0 h
x−(x+h)
(x+h)x
= lim
h→0 h
−h 1
= lim ❈❛♥❝❡❧ h.
h→0 (x + h)x h
−1
= lim ❚❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢♦r h < |x|.
h→0 (x + h)x
1
=− 2 ❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤② ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❥✉st s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ h = 0.
x
❍♦✇ ❞♦❡s t❤✐s ✜t ✐♥t♦ ♦✉r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❄ ❲❡ r❡✇r✐t❡✿
1 1
= x−1 , 2 = x−2 , ...
x x
❙♦✱
(x−1 )′ = −x−2 .
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ n = −1✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ st✐❧❧ ✇♦r❦s✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞✿
∆
−1
x−1 = .
∆x (x + h)x

❲❡ ♣❧♦t ❛❧❧ t❤r❡❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

✸✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✷✽✸

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✾✳✸✿ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t

◆❡①t✱ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥❛❧ ♣♦✇❡rs✳ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡✿

√ √
√
′ x+h− x
x = lim ■s t❤✐s ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡❄
h→0 √ h √ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim ·√ √ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ✏r❛t✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ tr✐❝❦✑✦
h→0 h x+h+ x
(x + h) − x
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
1
= lim √ √ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢♦r h < |x|.
h→0 x+h+ x
1
=√ √ ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ h = 0.
x+h+ x
h=0
1
= √ .
2 x

❍♦✇ ❞♦❡s t❤✐s ✜t ✐♥t♦ ♦✉r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❄ ❲❡ r❡✇r✐t❡✿

√ 1
x = x1/2 , √ = x−1/2 , ...
x

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ n = 1/2✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ r❡♠❛✐♥s ✈❛❧✐❞✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞✿

∆
1
x1/2 = √ √ .
∆x x+h+ x

❲❡ ♣❧♦t ❛❧❧ t❤r❡❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t✿

f ′ (x) → +∞ ❛s x → 0+ .
■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛t x = 0✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❤❡r❡✳

❚❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝❛s❡✱ t♦ ❜❡ ♣r♦✈❡♥ ❧❛t❡r✱ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❋♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r r 6= 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

(xr )′ = rxr−1

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡①t ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

✸✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✷✽✹

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✾✳✹✿ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ex ❛t 0

❇❡❢♦r❡ ❛❞❞r❡ss✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝❛s❡✱ ❧❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛t x = 0✳ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢
y = ex ❝r♦ss❡s t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛t 45 ❞❡❣r❡❡s✿

❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐t✿

ex − 1
lim = 1,
x→0 x
❤❛s ♥♦✇ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥✿
(ex )′ = 1.
x=0

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ✉s❡ t❤✐s r❡s✉❧t t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❛s❡ e✳ ❘❡♠❛r❦❛❜❧②✱ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐ts❡❧❢✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✾✳✺✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ x = a, a + h ❛♥❞ t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ ✐s c = a✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ex ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛t c ❜②✿
∆(ex ) = (eh − 1) · ec .

Pr♦♦❢✳
▲❡t f (x) = ex ✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛t c✿

∆f = ea+h − ea

= ea eh − ea ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❢❛❝t♦r✳

= ea (eh − 1) . ❍❡r❡ a ✐s ♦✉r s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡✦

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✾✳✻✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ x = a, a + h ❛♥❞ t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ ✐s c = a✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ex ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛t c ❜②✿
∆ x eh − 1 c
(e ) = ·e .
∆x h
✸✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✷✽✺

Pr♦♦❢✳

▲❡t f (x) = ex ✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛t c✿

∆f ea (eh − 1)
=
∆x h
h
e −1
= ea · .
h

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✾✳✼✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ex ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿

d x
(e ) = ex
dx

Pr♦♦❢✳

▲❡t f (x) = ex ✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛t c✿

∆f eh − 1
= ea ·
∆x h
→ ea · 1 ❛s h → 0

= ea .

❚❤❡ ❧❛st st❡♣ ✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐t ❛❜♦✈❡✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ex ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
∆ x eh − 1
✭❆✮ (e ) = · ex
∆x h
d x
✭❇✮ (e ) = ex
dx
❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t
eh − 1
k= > 1.
h
❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❞✐✛❡rs ❢r♦♠ t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥❧② ❜② ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ str❡t❝❤ ❜② ❛
❢❛❝t♦r k✦ ❆s h ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ 0✱ t❤❡ str❡t❝❤ ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿
✸✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✷✽✻

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

(ex )′ = ex

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✾✳✽✿ bx
❚❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧② ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❜❛s❡ b✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r✱
f (x) = bx , b > 0✿

f (x + h) − f (x)
(bx )′ = f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
bx+h − bx 0
= lim → ? ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✦
h→0 h 0
bx bh − bx
= lim ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❛ r✉❧❡ ♦❢ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥ts✳
h→0 h
bx (bh − 1)
= lim ❚❤❡♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣❧② ❈▼❘✳
h→0 h
bh − 1
x
= b lim ❉♦❡s t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐st❄
h→0 h
b0+h − b0
x
= b lim ■t ✐s ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ♦♥❡✦
h→0 h
= bx · (bx )′ . ◆♦ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ❤❡r❡✦
x=0

❚❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ✐s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛t t❤❡ y ✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ f ′ (0)✱ ✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✳

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❜❛s❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ♦♥❡✦

❲❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ♥❡①t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✾✳✾✿ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ sin ❛t 0
❇❡❢♦r❡ ❛❞❞r❡ss✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝❛s❡✱ ❧❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛t x = 0✳ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢
y = sin x ❝r♦ss❡s t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛t 45 ❞❡❣r❡❡s✿
✸✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✷✽✼

❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛♠♦✉s tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❧✐♠✐t✱

sin x
lim = 1,
x→0 x
❤❛s ♥♦✇ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥✿
(sin x)′ = 1.
x=0
❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = cos x ❝r♦ss❡s t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧②✿

❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛♠♦✉s tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❧✐♠✐t✱

1 − cos x
lim = 0,
x→0 x
❤❛s ♥♦✇ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥✿
(cos x)′ = 0.
x=0

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ✉s❡ t❤❡s❡ r❡s✉❧ts t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡✳ ❘❡♠❛r❦❛❜❧②✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢
♦♥❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✱ ✉♣ t♦ ❛ s✐❣♥✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✾✳✶✵✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ x = a, a + h ❛♥❞ t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ ✐s c = a + h/2✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ y = sin x ❛♥❞ y = cos x
❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛t c ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
∆(sin x) = 2 sin(h/2)· cos c ❛♥❞ ∆(cos x) = −2 sin(h/2)· sin c .

Pr♦♦❢✳
❋✐rst f (x) = sin x✳ ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✿

u−v u+v
sin u − sin v = 2 sin cos .
2 2
❚❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s t❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✇❤② ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤✐s ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛t c✿
∆f = sin(a + h) − sin(a)
= 2 sin(h/2) cos(a + h/2) . ❍❡r❡ a + h/2 ✐s ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡✳
❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐❞❡♥t✐t② ✉s❡s ❛♥♦t❤❡r tr✐❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
u−v u+v
cos u − cos v = −2 sin sin .
2 2
✸✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✷✽✽

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✾✳✶✶✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ x = a, a + h ❛♥❞ t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ ✐s c = a + h/2✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ♦❢ y = sin x ❛♥❞
y = cos x ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛t c ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

∆ sin(h/2) ∆ sin(h/2)
(sin x) = · cos c ❛♥❞ (cos x) = − · sin c .
∆x h/2 ∆x h/2

Pr♦♦❢✳
❋✐rst f (x) = sin x✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛t c ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠✿
∆f 2 sin(h/2) cos(a + h/2)
=
∆x h
sin(h/2)
= · cos(a + h/2) .
h/2

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✾✳✶✷✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ y = sin x ❛♥❞ y = cos x ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿

d d
(sin x) = cos x ❛♥❞ (cos x) = − sin x
dx dx

Pr♦♦❢✳
❋✐rst f (x) = sin x✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛t c✿
∆f sin(h/2)
= · cos(a + h/2)
∆x h/2
→1 · cos a ❛s h → 0
= cos a .

❚❤❡ ❧❛st st❡♣ ✐s t❤❡ ✜rst ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐t ❛❜♦✈❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ cos x✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐❞❡♥t✐t② ✉s❡s t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢❛♠♦✉s ❧✐♠✐t ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✾✳✶✸
Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ♣❛rt✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ sin x ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
∆ sin(h/2)
✭❆✮ (sin x) = · cos(x + h/2) .
∆x h/2
d
✭❇✮ (sin x) = cos x .
dx
❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t
sin(h/2)
0< < 1,
h/2
❢♦r ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ h✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❞✐✛❡rs ❢r♦♠ t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❜② ❛
✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ s❤r✐♥❦ ❛♥❞✱ ✐♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❤✐❢t✳ ❆s h ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ 0✱ t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s
❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤❡s❀ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿
✸✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✷✽✾

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

(sin x)′ = cos x ❛♥❞ (cos x)′ = − sin x

✸✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✶✿ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ❛ ❜❛❧❧ r♦❧❧✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s ♥♦✇ t❤r♦✇♥ ✉♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛✐r ❄ ❚❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ✐s ✈❡r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✱ ❛s t❤❡r❡
✐s ♥♦ ❢♦r❝❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡♠❛✐♥s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧②
❝❤❛♥❣❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②✳

■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ♦❢ ❛ ♣✐♥❣✲♣♦♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ r❡❝♦r❞❡❞
❛❜♦✉t ❡✈❡r② .1 s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s✿

❲❡ ✉s❡ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t t♦ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ pn ✭r❡❞✮✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ pn ✱
✸✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✷✾✵

✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ vn ✭❣r❡❡♥✮✿

■t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❇✉t t❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ ♦♥❡ ♠♦r❡ st❡♣✿ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ■t ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ an ✭❜❧✉❡✮✳ ■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs ❝♦♥st❛♥t✦ ❚❤❡r❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ ❛ ❧❛✇ ♦❢
♥❛t✉r❡ ❤❡r❡✳

▲❡t✬s ❛❝❝❡♣t t❤❡ ♣r❡♠✐s❡ ✇❡✬✈❡ ♣✉t ❢♦r✇❛r❞✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ tr② t♦ ♣r❡❞✐❝t t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t t❤r♦✇♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛✐r ✕ ❢r♦♠ ❛♥② ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤❡✐❣❤t ❛♥❞ ✇✐t❤
❛♥② ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ t♦ t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

◮ ❲❡ ✉s❡ ♦✉r ❦♥♦✇❧❡❞❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥
♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐♥ t✐♠❡✳

❲❤✐❧❡ ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ s✉♠s ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮ ♥♦✇✳

❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡s❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛❣❛✐♥st t✐♠❡✿

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✏❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡✑ ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✿

✸✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✷✾✶

❊❛r❧✐❡r✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿
∆p pn+1 − pn ∆v vn+1 − vn
vn = = ❛♥❞ an = = ,
∆t h ∆t h
✇❤❡r❡ h ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥
t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✷✿ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ✉s❡❞ ❛❣❛✐♥✿

❂✭❘❈❬✲✶❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪✮✴❘✷❈✶

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts✿

◆♦✇ ✐♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✦
❚♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ❛ s✐♠✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐♦♥ ❣♦❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✿
• t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
• t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛r❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ ❢♦r pn+1 ❛♥❞ vn+1 r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿
pn+1 − pn
vn = =⇒ vn+1 = vn + han
h
vn+1 − vn
an = =⇒ pn+1 = pn + hvn
h
❚❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦♥ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✳
❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❯♥❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛r❡ ❥✉st ✈❡rs✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② s❝❤♦♦❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

s♣❡❡❞ = ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ / t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ = s♣❡❡❞ × t✐♠❡

✸✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✷✾✷

❙✉♠♠❛r②✿
✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ pn ❣✐✈❡♥
✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
pn+1 − pn ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an ❣✐✈❡♥
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn = =⇒
h ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn+1 = vn + han
vn+1 − vn ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ pn+1 = pn + hvn
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an =
h

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❲❡ ❧❡❛✈❡ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ❡♠♣t② t♦ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ ❧❛t❡r

t♦ r❡❝♦r❞ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♣r♦❣r❡ss ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s
t❤r♦✇♥ ❢♦r✇❛r❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✸✿ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✳

◮ P❘❖❇▲❊▼✿ ❋r♦♠ ❛ 100✲❢♦♦t ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣✱ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥ ✉♣ ❛t 50 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐♥ s✉❝❤
❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t ✐t ❢❛❧❧s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✳ ❍♦✇ ❤✐❣❤ ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❣♦❄
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿
❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪✯❘✷❈✶
◆♦✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❥✉st ♦♥❡ ❢♦r❝❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s
❦♥♦✇♥ t♦ ❜❡ a = −g ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ g ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿
g = 32 ❢t/s❡❝2 .
◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❛❝q✉✐r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿
• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿ p0 = 100✳
• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿ v0 = 50✳
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❡✈❡r② h = .20 s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✿

❇② s✐♠♣❧② ❡①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s♦❧✈❡ ✈❛r✐♦✉s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t✿
✶✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ p✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ✈❛❧✉❡ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦
y = 144 ❢❡❡t✳
✸✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✷✾✸

✷✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✇❡ s❝r♦❧❧ ❞♦✇♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ p ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 0✳ ■t
❤❛♣♣❡♥s s♦♠❡t✐♠❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t = 4.7 s❡❝♦♥❞s✳
✸✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✇❡ s❝r♦❧❧ ❞♦✇♥ ❛❣❛✐♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ p ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 0
❛♥❞ ❧♦♦❦ ✉♣ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ v ✳ ■t ✐s ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ v = 200 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳
❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t h = ∆x ❛♥❞ ❣❡t ♠♦r❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛t❡ ❛♥s✇❡rs✳

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛s❦ ❛♥❞ ❛♥s✇❡r ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ♦t❤❡r q✉❡st✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t s✉❝❤ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✭❤♦✇ ❤❛r❞
✐t ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ❡t❝✳✮✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❞♦ ♦♥❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✦ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❞r❛✇ ❛r❡
s♣❡❝✐✜❝ t♦ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✭❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s ❣r❛✈✐t② ❡t❝✳✮✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦♥ ∆x✳ ❚❤✐s ✇❤②
✇❡ ♥♦✇ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡✳
❲❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿
h = ∆x → 0 .

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✿

• p ✐s t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳
• v = p′ ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳
• a = v ′ ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳
◆♦✇ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✿
a = −g .

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♥❥❡❝t✉r❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r t❤❛t✿

• ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳
• ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❤♦✇ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺ t❤❛t✱ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✿
• ❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐s ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳
• ❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳
❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r t✇♦✱ ✇❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡✿
a = a(t) ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ v = v(t) ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r =⇒ p = p(t) ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
p(t) = ax2 + bx + c .

❲❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡s❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✿

• p0 ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ p0 = p(0)✳
dp
• v0 ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ v(0) = ✳
dt t=0

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
1
p(t) = p0 +v0 t − gt2
2

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✹✿ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

■♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ♦✉rs✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

p0 = 100, v0 = 50 .
❖✉r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿
p = 100 +50t −16t2 .
✸✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✷✾✹

■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❜✉t ❞✐r❡❝t ❛♥❞ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t✦

❇❡❢♦r❡ ✇❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❜② ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♥❡①t t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✿

❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ♣❧♦t t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s ♠♦t✐♦♥✳
▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐s✐t t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s s♣❡❝✐✜❝ t❤r♦✇ ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ t❤❡
s❛♠❡ ✇❛②✿
✶✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ p✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ✈❛❧✉❡ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦
y = 139 ❢❡❡t✳
✷✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✇❡ s❝r♦❧❧ ❞♦✇♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ p ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 0✳ ■t
❤❛♣♣❡♥s s♦♠❡t✐♠❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t = 4.5 s❡❝♦♥❞s✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❥✉st ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s ❛ ✇❛② t♦ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤
❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❛✈♦✐❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

❋♦r t❤❡ ✜rst ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✱ ✇❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t p = −16t2 + 50t + 100 ✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✦ ❆♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt❡① ♦❢
y = ax2 + bx + c ✐s ❛t x = −b/a ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ♣♦✐♥t ✐s r❡❛❝❤❡❞
❛t t✐♠❡
t = −50/(−2 · 16) = 1.5625 .
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ✐s
p = 100 + 50 · 1.5625 − 16 · 1.56252 = 139.0625 .

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛t❝❤❡s ♦✉r ❡st✐♠❛t❡✦

❋♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✱ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ✐s 0✱ s♦ t♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞✱ ✇❡ s❡t p = 0✱ ♦r
−16t2 + 50t + 100 = 0 ,

❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r t✳ ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
p
−50 − 502 − 4(−16)100
t= ≈ 4.5106 .
2 · (−16)

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛t❝❤❡s ♦✉r ❡st✐♠❛t❡✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✺

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ t♦ ±❄
✸✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✷✾✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✻

❍♦✇ ❤✐❣❤ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t✐❧❡ ❣♦ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✼

❯s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ✇✐❧❧ ✐t t❛❦❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t✐❧❡ t♦ r❡❛❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ✐❢ ✜r❡❞ ❞♦✇♥ ❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✽

❯s❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ♠♦❞❡❧ t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ✐t ✇✐❧❧ t❛❦❡ ❢♦r ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t t♦ r❡❛❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ✐❢ ✐t ✐s
❞r♦♣♣❡❞✳ ▼❛❦❡ ✉♣ ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ q✉❡st✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡♠✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✾✿ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t✐♠❡

❲❤❛t ②♦✉r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✐s ✐♥❝❛♣❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ❞♦✐♥❣ ✭❢♦r ♥♦✇✮ ✐s t♦ ❤❛♥❞❧❡ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✲❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♣❧❛♥❡t t❤❛t ♠♦✈❡s ✐♥ ❛♥❞ ♦✉t ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝❛❧❧②✳
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛❧s♦ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝❛❧❧②✳ ❲❤❛t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❜❛❧❧❄

❚❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ✇♦r❦s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✦ ❲❡ ❥✉st ✐♥s❡rt ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

❂✶✵✵✯❙■◆✭❘❈❬✲✶❪✮

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❡st ✐s t❛❦❡♥ ❝❛r❡ ♦❢✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✶✵✿ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥

❖♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧❡✈❡❧ ✐s t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦t ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✦ ❲❡ ❥✉st ❦♥♦✇
❤♦✇ ✐t ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r✐♥❣ ✐s ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠✳
✸✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✷✾✻

❲❡ ♠♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❜② ❣✐✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s ❛ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿

❂✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✷❪
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ♦s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✦ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐t ♠❛② ❜❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ ✐ts ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡

❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛✐r r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡✳ ❲❡ ❥✉st ♠♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❜② ❣✐✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛

t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s ❛ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡ t♦ ❜♦t❤ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿

❂✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✷❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✶❪
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ q✉✐❝❦ ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛r❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥✿
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✹✳✶ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✾✼
✹✳✷ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✵✹
✹✳✸ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶✵
✹✳✹ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶✾
✹✳✺ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✷✻
✹✳✻ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸✶
✹✳✼ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸✼
✹✳✽ ❘❡❧❛t❡❞ r❛t❡s✿ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹✻
✹✳✾ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✺✵
✹✳✶✵ ❘❡✈❡rs✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✺✼
✹✳✶✶ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✻✵

✹✳✶✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥✲

❡❛r✐t②

■♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❛❦✐♥❣ ❛ ❜r♦❛❞❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✳
■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s x0 , x1 , ..., xn ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✱ ✐t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢
♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ✐s ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✿
∆f = f (xn+1 ) − f (xn ) .
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
∆(x2 ) = x2n+1 − x2n .
❲❤❛t t❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s ✐s t❤❛t t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ✐s ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✿
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ → ∆ → ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

∆f
❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❞✐✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜② ∆x = xn+1 − xn ✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✱ ❢♦r
∆x
❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
∆(x2 ) x2 − x2n
= n+1 .
∆x ∆x
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
∆
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ → → ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
∆x
✹✳✶✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✷✾✽

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ■t ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✉♥❧✐❦❡ t❤❡
❧✐♠✐ts ✇❡ s❛✇ ♣r✐♦r t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ t❤✐s ♦♥❡ ❤❛s ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡r✱ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ x✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
d(x2 ) x2 − x2n
= lim n+1 .
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
❚❤❛t ✐s ✇❤② ✐❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ♦❢ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ′ ✳
❲❤❛t t❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s ✐s t❤❛t t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss ✐s ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦♦✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
d
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ → → ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
dx

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❤♦✇ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♣❡r❛t❡✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣ s❤♦rt❝✉ts ❛♥❞ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r✉❧❡s ❢♦r
❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ❛♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ✇✐t❤♦✉t r❡s♦rt✐♥❣ t♦ ✉s✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐ts✦ ❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✿
d
ax2 + bx + c → → 2ax + b
dx

❚❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛s❦✐♥❣ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

◮ ❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ✇❡ ♣❡r❢♦r♠ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s
✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ s❤♦rt❝✉t ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s✳
▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤✐s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② st❛t❡♠❡♥t ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✿
◮ ■❋ t✇♦ r✉♥♥❡rs ❛r❡ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣♦st✱ ❚❍❊◆ t❤❡✐r r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢
t❤❡✐r r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳
■t✬s ❛s ✐❢ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ r✉♥♥❡r ✐s st❛♥❞✐♥❣ st✐❧❧ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ✐s r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ s♣❡❡❞✿

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✇❤② ✇❡ ❛❞❞ t❤❡✐r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✹✳✶✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✷✾✾

❍❡r❡✱ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ r♦✉t❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✿
• ❉♦✇♥✱ t❤❡♥ r✐❣❤t✿ ❋✐rst t❤❡ ❜❛rs t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ st❛❝❦❡❞ ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤
♦t❤❡r✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞✳
• ❘✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡♥ ❞♦✇♥✿ ❋✐rst ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rs t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❡✐t❤❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛r❡ ❢♦✉♥❞
❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ st❛❝❦❡❞ ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳
❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ❜❡❤✐♥❞ t❤✐s ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡✿
(A + B) − (a + b) = (A − a) + (B − b) .

■t✬s t❤❡ ❆ss♦❝✐❛t✐✈❡ ❘✉❧❡ ♦❢ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✳✶✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ✱ t❤❡✐r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s s❛t✐s❢②✿

∆(f + g) = ∆f + ∆g

Pr♦♦❢✳
❆♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f + g ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
∆(f + g)(c) = (f + g)(x + ∆x) − (f + g)(x)
= f (x + ∆x) + g(x +
∆x) − f (x) − g(x)

= f (x + ∆x) − f (x) + g(x + ∆x) − g(x)
= ∆f (c) + ∆g(c) .

❙✐♠♣❧② ❞✐✈✐❞✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❜② ∆x ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✐ts ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✳✷✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♥♦❞❡s x ❛♥❞
x + ∆x ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✭❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣
s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡✮ s❛t✐s❢②✿

∆(f + g) ∆f ∆g
= +
∆x ∆x ∆x

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛s ∆x → 0 ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ❢♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✳✸✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s
❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t
❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
✹✳✶✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✸✵✵

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛t x✿

d(f + g) df dg
= +
dx dx dx

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✇✐t❤ c = x✿

∆(f + g) ∆f ∆g
(x) = (x) + (x) ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts✳
∆x ∆x ∆x
df dg
→ + ❛s ∆x → 0 .
dx dx

■♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ✐❢ t✇♦ r✉♥♥❡rs ❛r❡ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r st❛rt✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥
t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞✳
❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

(f + g)′ (x) = f ′ (x) + g ′ (x)

❚❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✳✹

❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❘✉❧❡✳

■♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ✐❢ t✇♦ r✉♥♥❡rs ❛r❡ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ❛❧♦♥❣s✐❞❡ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r st❛rt✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥
t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞✳
❆♥♦t❤❡r s✐♠♣❧❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥❝❡r♥s ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✉♥✐ts✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s ❢r♦♠ ♠✐❧❡s t♦ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs✿
◮ ■❋ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s r❡✲s❝❛❧❡❞✱ ❚❍❊◆ s♦ ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✕ ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❜② 1000✳
❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✇❤② ❛ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❝❛✉s❡s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞
❜❡❧♦✇ ✭tr✐♣❧✐♥❣✮✿
✹✳✶✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✸✵✶

❍❡r❡✱ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ r♦✉t❡s ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts tr✐♣❧❡✱ t❤❡♥
s♦ ❞♦ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✳
❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ❜❡❤✐♥❞ t❤✐s ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡✿
kA − ka = k(A − a) .

■t✬s t❤❡ ❉✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❡ ❘✉❧❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✐t ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✳✺✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✱ t❤❡ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ s❛t✐s✜❡s✿

∆(kf ) = k∆f

Pr♦♦❢✳
❆♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ c f ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
∆(k · f )(c) = (k · f )(x + ∆x) − (k · f )(x)
= k · f (x + ∆x) − k · f (x)


= k · f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= k · ∆f (c) .

❙✐♠♣❧② ❞✐✈✐❞✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❜② ∆x ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✐ts ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✳✻✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♥♦❞❡s x ❛♥❞ x + ∆x ♦❢
❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❛♥② r❡❛❧ k✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✭❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣
✹✳✶✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✸✵✷

s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡✮ s❛t✐s❢②✿

∆(kf ) ∆f
=k
∆x ∆x

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ∆x → 0 ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ❢♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✳✼✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❆ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t✱

❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x ❛♥❞ ❛♥② r❡❛❧ k✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛t
x✿
d(kf ) df
=k
dx dx

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✇✐t❤ c = x✿

∆(kf ) k∆f
(x) = (x)
∆x ∆x
∆f
=k (x) ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts✳
∆x
df
→ k (x) ❛s ∆x → 0 .
dx

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

◮ ■❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡❞✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ♥❡❡❞❡❞ t♦ ❝♦✈❡r t❤❡♠✱
✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳
❆s ✇❡ s❡❡ ✭❛♥❞ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✮✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱
❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡✿

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

(k · f )′ (x) = k · f ′ (x)

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ ✇r✐t❡ t❤❡s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ✇❡ ♦♠✐t t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s x → u✱ x → v ✿

d
du dv
u+v = +
dx dx dx
✹✳✶✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✸✵✸

❆♥❞ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ x → u✿

d
du
cu = c
dx dx

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✳✽✿ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ❛♥② ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❡❛s✐❧② ♥♦✇✿

(x77 + 5x18 + 6x3 − x2 + 88)′ ❚r② t♦ ❡①♣❛♥❞ (x + h)77 !

❙❘
=== (x77 )′ + (5x18 )′ + (6x3 )′ − (x2 )′ + (88)′
❈▼❘
===== (x77 )′ + (5x18 )′ + (6x3 )′ − (x2 )′ + 0
P❋
=== 77x77−1 + 5 · 18x13−1 + 6 · 3x3−1 − 2x2−1
= 77x76 + 90x17 − 18x2 − 2x .

❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✐♥t♦ ♦♥❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ✿
αx + βy ,

✇❤❡r❡ α, β ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐❢ ✐t ✏♣r❡s❡r✈❡s✑ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s✿

αx + βy → F → αF (x) + βF (y)

❲✐t❤ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛✱ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✐♥t♦ ♦♥❡✿ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ❛♥❞
t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❆ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✳✾✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐t② ♦❢ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥
♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r t❤❡② ❡①✐st✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆(αf + βg) = α∆f +β∆g

∆(pf + βg) ∆f ∆g
=α +β
∆x ∆x ∆x
d(αf + βg) df dg
=α +β
dx dx dx

❚❤❡ ❧❛st ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✿

d
αf + βg → → αf ′ + βg ′
dx

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✳✶✵✿ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s

❚❤❡ ❤✐❡r❛r❝❤② ♦❢ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✇❛s ✉s❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸ t♦ ♠♦❞❡❧ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✳ ▲❡t✬s
r❡✈✐❡✇✿
• ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ③❡r♦✿

(c)′ = 0 .
✹✳✷✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✸✵✹

• ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

(mx + b)′ = (mx)′ + (b)′ = m(x)′ + 0 = m · 1 = m .

• ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✿

(ax2 + bx + c)′ = (ax2 )′ + (bx)′ + (c)′ = a(x2 )′ + b(x)′ + 0 = a · 2x + b · 1 = 2ax + b .

❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ❈♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ r✉❧❡s ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ❛❧❧
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳ ❊✈❡r② t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ❣♦❡s ❞♦✇♥ ❜② 1✦

❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❣✐✈❡ ✉s ❛❧❧ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✳✶✶✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ n>0 ✐s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ n − 1✱

❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ✭an 6= 0✮✿

f (x) = an xn +an−1 xn−1 +... +a2 x2 +a1 x +a0

f ′ (x) = nan xn−1 +(n − 1)an−1 xn−2 +... +2a2 x +a1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✳✶✷

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

✹✳✷✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✶✿ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r✿
• ❚❤❡ ✜rst tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ str❡t❝❤ ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦❢ 2✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 2✳
• ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ str❡t❝❤ ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦❢ 3✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 3✳
• ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ✐s ❛ str❡t❝❤ ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦❢ 3 · 2 = 6✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 6✳
■t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❲❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳

❇✉t str❡t❝❤❡s ❛r❡ ❥✉st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ str❡t❝❤ ❢❛❝t♦rs ❛r❡ t❤❡✐r s❧♦♣❡s✳ ❇✉t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
✜rst tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ str❡t❝❤ ❜② 2 ✷
s❡❝♦♥❞ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ str❡t❝❤ ❜② 3 ✸
t❤❡✐r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ str❡t❝❤ ❜② 2 · 3 = 6 2 · 3 = 6
✹✳✷✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✸✵✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✷✳✷

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ s❤✐❢ts❄ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ str❡t❝❤❡s ❛♥❞ s❤✐❢ts❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✸✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s ❞♦ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❲❡ s❡❡ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t❤✐♥❣ ❢♦r ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡✐r
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

∆x dx
x = qt =⇒ = =q
∆t dt
◦ ×
∆y dy
y = mx =⇒
= =m
∆x dx
∆y dy ∆x ∆y dx dy
y = m(qt) = mqt =⇒ = =m·q = · = ·
∆t dt ∆t ∆x dt dx
■♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ✇❤❡t❤❡r ✐t ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ∆x ♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧
dx✱ ✐s ❝❛♥❝❡❧❡❞ ♦r ✏❝❛♥❝❡❧❡❞✑✿
∆x ∆y ∆y
· =
∆t ∆x ∆t
dx dy dy
· =
dt dx dt
❈♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿ ❲❤✐❝❤❡✈❡r r♦✉t❡ ②♦✉ t❛❦❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ✕ ✜rst ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ t❤❡♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦r
t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ✕ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦

▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t ❡✈❡r② ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✇❡ ❛r❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r✐♥❣ ❛r❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✇❡ ♠❡❡t ✐♥ ❡✈❡r②❞❛② ❧✐❢❡✳ ❋r❡q✉❡♥t❧②✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✇❛②s t♦ ♠❡❛s✉r❡
t❤❡s❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✿

• ❧❡♥❣t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✿ ✐♥❝❤❡s✱ ♠✐❧❡s✱ ♠❡t❡rs✱ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs✱ ✳✳✳✱ ❧✐❣❤t ②❡❛rs

• ❛r❡❛✿ sq✉❛r❡ ✐♥❝❤❡s✱ sq✉❛r❡ ♠✐❧❡s✱ ✳✳✳✱ ❛❝r❡s

• ✈♦❧✉♠❡✿ ❝✉❜✐❝ ✐♥❝❤❡s✱ ❝✉❜✐❝ ♠✐❧❡s✱ ✳✳✳✱ ❧✐t❡rs✱ ❣❛❧❧♦♥s

• t✐♠❡✿ ♠✐♥✉t❡s✱ s❡❝♦♥❞s✱ ❤♦✉rs✱ ✳✳✳✱ ②❡❛rs

• ✇❡✐❣❤t✿ ♣♦✉♥❞s✱ ❣r❛♠s✱ ❦✐❧♦❣r❛♠s✱ ❦❛r❛ts

• t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡✿ ❞❡❣r❡❡s ♦❢ ❈❡❧s✐✉s✱ ♦❢ ❋❛❤r❡♥❤❡✐t

• ♠♦♥❡②✿ ❞♦❧❧❛rs✱ ❡✉r♦s✱ ♣♦✉♥❞s✱ ②❡♥

• ❡t❝✳

❆❧♠♦st ❛❧❧ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛r❡ ❥✉st ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s t❤✐s ♦♥❡✿

# ♦❢ ♠❡t❡rs =# ♦❢ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs · 1000 .

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❲❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❝♦♥✈❡rt ✏♣♦✉♥❞s t♦ ❦✐❧♦s✑✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡

♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♣♦✉♥❞s t♦ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❦✐❧♦s✳

▲❡t✬s t✉r♥ t♦ ♠♦t✐♦♥✿

✹✳✷✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✸✵✻

• ■❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s ❛♥❞ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ ♠✐♥✉t❡s✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s ♣❡r
♠✐♥✉t❡✳
• ◆♦✇✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢❡❡t✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♥♦✇ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢❡❡t ♣❡r ♠✐♥✉t❡✳
• ❇✉t ✐❢ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳
❲❡ ❛r❡ ❞❡❛❧✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❥✉st ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✉♥✐ts✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡
t❤r❡❡❄
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✹✿ t✐♠❡ ✉♥✐ts

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✭❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✮ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥

• x✱ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ ♠✐♥✉t❡s✱ ❛♥❞
• y ✱ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s✳
❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s✇✐t❝❤ t♦ t✱ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s❄ ❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡✿
1
x= · t.
60
❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
1
· f
t −−−60
−−→ x −−−−→ y

◆♦✇✱ t♦ s❡❡ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❣r❛♣❤s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ ❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❝♦✈❡r✐♥❣ 60 t✐♠❡s ❧❡ss ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② s❡❝♦♥❞ t❤❛♥ ❢♦r ❛ ♠✐♥✉t❡✳ ❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥
❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✦ ❲❡ ✇r✐t❡ ✐t ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
dy 1 dy
= · .
dt 60 dx

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✺✿ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✉♥✐ts

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✭❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✮ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥

• x✱ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ ♠✐♥✉t❡s✱ ❛♥❞
• y ✱ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s✳
❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s✇✐t❝❤ t♦ z ✱ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❢❡❡t❄ ❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡✿
1
z= ·y.
12
❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
1
f ·
x −−−−→ y −−−12
−−→ z

◆♦✇✱ t♦ s❡❡ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❣r❛♣❤s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ ❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
✹✳✷✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✸✵✼

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❝♦✈❡r✐♥❣ 12 ✐♥❝❤❡s ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ❢♦♦t✳ ❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✦
❲❡ ✇r✐t❡ ✐t ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
dz 1 dy
= · .
dx 12 dx

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ s❡❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ str❡t❝❤✲

✐♥❣✴s❤r✐♥❦✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❣r❛♣❤✱ ✐t✬s ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ✉♣

t♦ ✉s t♦ ♠❛r❦ t❤❡ ✉♥✐ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❛①❡s t♦ ♠❛t❝❤

t❤❡ ♦❧❞✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✷✳✻

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s ❛♥❞ ❢❡❡t❄

❍♦✇ ❞♦ s✉❝❤ s✐♠♣❧❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s ❛✛❡❝t ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ✐t❄

■❢
y = f (x)
✐s ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s x ❛♥❞ y✱ t❤❡♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦♥❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳ ▲❡t✬s
❝❛❧❧ t❤❡♠ t ❛♥❞ z r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧② ❛♥❞ s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡s❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② s♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

• ❈❛s❡ ✶✿ x = g(t)
• ❈❛s❡ ✷✿ z = h(y)
❚❤❡s❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s ❝r❡❛t❡ ♥❡✇ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿

• ❈❛s❡ ✶✿ y = k(t) = f (g(t))

• ❈❛s❡ ✷✿ z = k(x) = h(f (x))

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✇✐❧❧ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠ ✐♥t♦ t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ♦r❞❡r✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐s
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✳ ■t✬s ✏❜❡❢♦r❡ f✑ ✈s✳ ✏❛❢t❡r f ✑✿

1. t → g → x → f → y
2. x → f → y → h → z
✹✳✷✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✸✵✽

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤② t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡rs ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❢♦r ❈❛s❡ ✶✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✷✳✼✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ■

■❢ y = f (x) ✐s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ m ✐s ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

d
f (mt) = mf ′ (mt) .
dt

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ s✐♠♣❧② r❡✲s❝❛❧❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡
♦❧❞ ♦♥❡s✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ❢♦r ❈❛s❡ ✷✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✷✳✽✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ■■

■❢ y = f (x) ✐s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ m ✐s ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

d
mf (x) = mf ′ (x) .
dx

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ s✐♠♣❧② r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡✐r ✳ ❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ t❤❡
♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡s
✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② str❡t❝❤❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❧❞ ♦♥❡s✳
❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

■❢ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦✉r ✉♥✐t t♦ ❛ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✐❝ s❝❛❧❡

✭❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ x = 10t ✮✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦♥ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥♦t ❜❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧✳
✹✳✷✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✸✵✾

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✾✿ ❢♦✉r ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f t❤❛t r❡❝♦r❞s t❤❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ✕ ✐♥ ❋❛❤r❡♥❤❡✐t ✕ ❛s ❛
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✕ ✐♥ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ✕ r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥♦t❤❡r t♦ r❡❝♦r❞ t❤❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ✐♥ ❈❡❧s✐✉s ❛s ❛
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s✿
• s t✐♠❡ ✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s
• m t✐♠❡ ✐♥ ♠✐♥✉t❡s
• F t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ✐♥ ❋❛❤r❡♥❤❡✐t
• C t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ✐♥ ❈❡❧s✐✉s
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛r❡✿
m = s/60 ,
❛♥❞
C = (F − 32)/1.8 .
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✿
s/60 f (F −32)/1.8
g: s −−−−−−→ m −−−−→ F −−−−−−−−−−→ C .

❆♥❞ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

F = k(s) = (f (s/60) − 32)/1.8 .
❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
dF dF dC dm 1 1
= = · f ′ (m) · .
ds dC dm ds 1.8 60

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✷✳✶✵

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ s✐③❡s ♦❢ s❤♦❡s ❛♥❞ ❝❧♦t❤✐♥❣✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✶✶✿ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ✐♥ ❞❡❣r❡❡s

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡s y t♦ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ r❛❞✐❛♥s x ✐s✿

π
x= y.
180
❚❤❡♥✱
dx π
= .
dy 180
▲❡t✬s ❞❡♥♦t❡ ✭❥✉st ♦♥❝❡✮ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ❢♦r ❞❡❣r❡❡s ❜② sind y ❛♥❞ cosd y r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿
 π   π 
sind y = sin y ❛♥❞ cosd y = cos y .
180 180
❚❤❡♥✱
d d  π 
sind y = sin y
dy dy 180
π  π 
= cos y
180 180
π
= cosd y .
180
❲ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞♦♥✬t ❝♦♥♥❡❝t t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ❛s s✐♠♣❧② ❛s t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ♦♥❡s✿
(sin x)′ = cos x✦ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ❝❤♦♦s✐♥❣ ❛ ❜❛s❡ ♥♦t ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ e ✇✐❧❧ r✉✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t✐♠❛t❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡
❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿ (ex )′ = ex ✳
✹✳✸✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✸✶✵

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✿

d

(g(x)) −−−dx−−→ f ′ (g(x))g

f x (x)
′

 
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u=g(x)
y
❈❘

d

f (u) −−−du
−−→ f ′ (u)
❚❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ❣❡t ❢r♦♠ ❧❡❢t t♦ r✐❣❤t ❛t t❤❡ t♦♣ ✭❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x✮ ❜② t❛❦✐♥❣ ❛
❞❡t♦✉r✳ ❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡✿ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✱ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ u✱ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥
❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇✐t❤ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t ♣❛t❤ ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳

✹✳✸✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡

❍♦✇ ❞♦❡s ♦♥❡ ❡①♣r❡ss t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s❄ ❚❤❡
❛♥s✇❡r s✉❣❣❡st❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✐s✿

◮ ❲❤❡♥ ②♦✉ ❝♦♠♣♦s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ②♦✉ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✶✿ ♠♦t✐♦♥

Pr♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❝❛r ✐s ❞r✐✈❡♥ t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❛ ♠♦✉♥t❛✐♥ t❡rr❛✐♥✳ ■ts ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts s♣❡❡❞✱ ❛s s❡❡♥ ♦♥ ❛
♠❛♣✱ ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛st ✐s t❤❡ ❝❛r ❝❧✐♠❜✐♥❣❄

❲❡ s❡t ✉♣ t❤r❡❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ t✱ t❤❡ ✭❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✮ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ x✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ y✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦
t✇♦ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
f g
t −−−−→ x −−−−→ y
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ✐s ❧✐t❡r❛❧❧② t❤❡ ♣r♦✜❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞✳ ❚❤❡✐r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡
❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞ ✐♥✦

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ ✭❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✮ t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ x = f (t)✱ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ♦♥ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞
t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡✱ z = g(x)✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ♦♥
t✐♠❡ ❛s ✇❡❧❧✱ z = (g ◦ f )(t)✳ ❲❡ s❤❛❧❧ ❛❧s♦ s❡❡ ❧❛t❡r t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ ❜♦t❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♠♣❧✐❡s
t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✳

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❧❡t✬s ✜rst ❞✐s♣♦s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✏◆❛✐✈❡ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡✑✿

❄❄❄
(f ◦ g)′ === f ′ ◦ g ′
❲❡ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t ❛ ✏✉♥✐t ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✑ t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t s✉❝❤ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ s✐♠♣❧② ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ tr✉❡✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡
• t ✐s t✐♠❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❤r✳
• x = f (t) ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ♠✐✳
• y = g(x) ✐s t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✭❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✮ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢t✳
✹✳✸✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✸✶✶

• y = h(t) = g(f (t)) ✐s t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢t✳
❚❤❡♥✱
♠✐
• f ′ (t) ✐s t❤❡ ✭❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✮ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ♦♥ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✳
❤r
❢t
• g ′ (x) ✐s t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ✐♥❝❧✐♥❡ ✭s❧♦♣❡✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✱ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t st✐❧❧ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥
♠✐
♠✐✳
■t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡✈❡♥ ♠❛tt❡r ♥♦✇ ✇❤❛t h′ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥❀ ❥✉st tr② t♦ ❝♦♠♣♦s❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳✳✳ ■t ✐s
✐♠♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ✉♥✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❞♦♥✬t ♠❛t❝❤✦

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤✐s ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✿

♠✐ ❢t ❢t
• f (t) · g (x) ✐s t❤❡✐r ♣r♦❞✉❝t ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥
′ ′
· = ❀ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡❞ t♦
❤r ♠✐ ❤r
❢t
• h (t) ✐s t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✳
′
❤r
❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤② ✐t ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✿
✶✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛st ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ❝❧✐♠❜✐♥❣ ✐s ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ ②♦✉r ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s♣❡❡❞✳
✷✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛st ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ❝❧✐♠❜✐♥❣ ✐s ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡✳

❲❡ ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿

■❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇♥ ✭♣♦ss✐❜❧② ❛t ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❡❛❝❤✮✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦✲
s✐t✐♦♥✿
✹✳✸✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✸✶✷

❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ♦✉r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✦ ❖♥❡ ✇♦✉❧❞♥✬t ❣✉❡ss t❤✐s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✳✳✳
❲❡ ❞♦ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡
♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✭s❧♦♣❡s✮✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛s ❢❛r ❛s s✐♥❣❧❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥❝❡r♥❡❞✱ ❛❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡
❧✐♥❡❛r ✭❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❧②✮✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ str♦♥❣ ❡✈✐❞❡♥❝❡ ✐♥ s✉♣♣♦rt ♦❢ ♦✉r ❝♦♥❥❡❝t✉r❡✳

❚❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
f g
t −−−−→ x −−−−→ y

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡❞ t❤✐s ♣❛tt❡r♥ ♦❢ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✿

∆x ∆y ∆y
· =
∆t ∆x ∆t
dx dy dy
· =
dt dx dt
❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡♥✬t ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s t♦ ❜❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❡❞✦ ❇✉t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❛r❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❛♥❝❡❧
✭✇❤❡♥ ∆x 6= 0✮✳ ❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡♠✳
❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t✿
• ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✿ ❢♦r t ❛♥❞ ❢♦r x✳
• ❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♠✉st ♠❛♣ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t t♦ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✳
❇❡❧♦✇✱ k = ∆t ❛♥❞ h = ∆x✿
✹✳✸✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✸✶✸

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❛t✱ ✇❤❡t❤❡r y ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ x ♦r t✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝❛r❡❢✉❧❧② st❛t❡ t❤✐s tr✐✈✐❛❧
❢❛❝t✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✸✳✷✿ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ x = f (t) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t✇♦ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♥♦❞❡s t ❛♥❞
t + ∆t ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = g(x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t
♥♦❞❡s x = f (t) ❛♥❞ x + ∆x = f (t + ∆t) ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✭❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s c ❛♥❞ q = f (c) ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡s❡ ❡❞❣❡s ♦❢
t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✮ s❛t✐s❢②✿

∆(g ◦ f )(c) = ∆g(q)

❚♦ ❣❡t t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧② ❜②
1 1 ∆x
= · ,
∆t ∆x ∆t
♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✸✳✸✿ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡
♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ x = f (t) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t✇♦ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♥♦❞❡s t ❛♥❞
t + ∆t ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = g(x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t
♥♦❞❡s x = f (t) ❛♥❞ x + ∆x = f (t + ∆t) ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✭❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s c ❛♥❞ q = f (c) ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡s❡ ❡❞❣❡s ♦❢
t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✮ s❛t✐s❢②✱ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ∆x 6= 0✿

∆(g ◦ f ) ∆g ∆f
(c) = (q) · (c)
∆t ∆x ∆t
✹✳✸✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✸✶✹

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✐s ❞❡❞✉❝❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

∆(g ◦ f ) (g ◦ f )(t + ∆t) − (g ◦ f )(t)
(c) =
∆t ∆t
g(f (t + ∆t)) − g(f (t)) f (t + ∆t) − f (t)
=
f (t + ∆t) − f (t) ∆t
g(x + ∆x) − g(x) f (t + ∆t) − f (t)
=
∆x ∆t
∆g ∆f
= (q) · (c) .
∆x ∆t

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❣✐✈❡s ✉s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✸✳✹✿ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ❛♥❞ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥✲

t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ✜rst ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t t❤❛t
♣♦✐♥t✱ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ x = f (t) ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t t = c ❛♥❞ y = g(x) ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡

❛t x = q = f (c)✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

d(g ◦ f ) dg df
(c) = (q) · (c)
dt dx dt

Pr♦♦❢✳

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇✐t❤ c = t✱ ❛s

∆t → 0 .

❙✐♥❝❡ x = x(t) ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡✿ ∆x → 0✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆g ∆g ∆f
= (f (t)) · (t)
∆t ∆x ∆t
↓ ↓ ↓
dg dg df
= (f (t)) · (t)
dt dx dt
❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s✿ ❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡❞ t❤❛t ∆x 6= 0✦ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ x = f (t) ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t②
♦❢ t❄ ❆ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ❧❛t❡r✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸✳✺

❋✐♥❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r✱ ♥♦♥✲❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ x = f (t) s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ∆f ♠❛② ❜❡ ③❡r♦ ❡✈❡♥ ❢♦r s♠❛❧❧
✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ∆t✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❞♦♥✬t ♠❛t❝❤✳

✹✳✸✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✸✶✺

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

(g ◦ f )′ (t) = g ′ (f (t)) · f ′ (t)

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✻✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♥❞ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢✿

y = (1 + 2x)2 .
❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✐♥ t✇♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ st❡♣s ✭t❤❛t✬s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✦✮✿
• ❙t❡♣ ✶✿ ❋r♦♠ x ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ 1 + 2x✳
• ❙t❡♣ ✷✿ ❲❡ sq✉❛r❡ t❤❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst st❡♣✳
❲❡ t❤❡♥ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ❛♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧✱ ❞✐s♣♦s❛❜❧❡✱ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ st♦r❡ t❤❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ ♦❢ st❡♣ ✶✿

u = 1 + 2x .

❚❤❡♥ st❡♣ ✷ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿

y = u2 .
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿
x→u→y
◆♦✇ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿
du
u = 1 + 2x =⇒ =2
dx
dy
y = u2 =⇒ = 2u
du
dy dy du
❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ =⇒ = · = 2u · 2 = 4u
dx du dx
❉♦♥❡❄ ◆♦✳ ❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ♠✉st ❜❡ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ x✦ ▲❛st st❡♣✿ ❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡ u = 1 + 2x✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s
4(1 + 2x)✳ ❚♦ ✈❡r✐❢②✱ ❡①♣❛♥❞✱ 1 + 4x + 4x2 ✱ t❤❡♥ ✉s❡ P❋ ✐♥ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❙❘ ❛♥❞ ❈▼❘✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸✳✼

❱❡r✐❢② t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✿ ❊①♣❛♥❞✱ 1 + 4x + 4x2 ✱ t❤❡♥ ✉s❡ P❋ ✐♥ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❙❘ ❛♥❞ ❈▼❘✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸✳✽

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ y = (2 − x)3 .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✾✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♥❞ r♦♦t

◆♦✇ ❛ ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ t❤❛t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ ❝✐r❝✉♠✈❡♥t t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✳ ▲❡t
√
y= 3x + 1 .
✹✳✸✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✸✶✻

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t❡❞ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✭❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ❈❘✱ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✮✿

√
x → u = 3x + 1 → y = u

|x → u{z
= 3x + 1}
du
=3
dx
√
u → y= u
| {z }
dy 1
= √
du 2 u
| {z }
dy du dy 1 1
= · =3· √ =3· √
dx dx du 2 u 2 3x + 1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✶✵✿ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢✿ √

3x+1
z=e
❚❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤✐s t✐♠❡✿

√
x → 3x + 1 = u → u = y → ey = z

❋♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ ❛ ❧♦t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳ ❲❡ ❥✉st ❛♣♣❡♥❞ t❤❛t s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❡
❡①tr❛ st❡♣✿
√
x → u = 3x + 1 → y = u → z = ey

| → u{z
x = 3x + 1}
du
=3
dx
√
u → y= u
| {z }
dy 1
= √
du 2 u
| {z }
dy du dy 1
= · =3· √
dx dx du 2 u
y → z = ey
| {z }
dz y
=e
dy
|  {z }
dz du dy dz 1 1 √
= · · = 3 · √ · ey = 3 √ e 3x+1
dx dx du dy 2 u 2 3x + 1
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ t✇✐❝❡✦

❚❤❡ ❧❡ss♦♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ ✐s✿ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✕ t❤r❡❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✕ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② t❤❡♠✿

x →u →y →z
dz du dy dz
= · ·
dx dx du dy

❚❤❡s❡ ✏❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s✑ ❛♣♣❡❛r t♦ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❛❣❛✐♥✿

du dy dz 6 du 6 dy dz dz
· · = · · = .
dx du dy dx 6 du 6 dy dx
✹✳✸✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✸✶✼

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ●❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❡❞ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✭❛ ✏❝❤❛✐♥✑✦✮ ♦❢ n ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❚❤❡ s❤♦rt ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ s❛②s✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✶✶✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✜① t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ x = a✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡
❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ❛❢t❡r ❛❧❧✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t a ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

dy
= m.
dx
▲❡t✬s✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧s dx ❛♥❞ dy ❛s t✇♦ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✕ r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ❜② t❤❡
❛❜♦✈❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ m✱ ♥♦t ❛s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❜✉t ❛s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✿

dy = m · dx .

■❢ ♥♦✇ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t✱ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ q ❛s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

dx = q · dt .

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ q✿

x = x(t) = qt =⇒ dx = q · dt
◦ ◦ ◦
y = y(x) = mx =⇒ dy = m · dx
y = y(x(t)) = m(qt) ⇐⇒ dy = m · (q · dt)

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✦

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ♦t❤❡r ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✸✳✶✷✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ●❡♥❡r❛❧ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❋♦r ❛♥② b > 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

(bx )′ = bx ln b

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤✐s ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

x
bx = eln b = ex ln b .
✹✳✸✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✸✶✽

❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

′ ❈❘
(bx )′ = ex ln b === ex ln b · (x ln b)′ = bx · ln b .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸✳✶✸

❯s❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❛❜♦✈❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ xx ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✶✹✿ tr✐❣ ❛♥❞ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✿
y = sin(x2 ) .
❲❡ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s❡ ✜rst ❜② ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ❛♥ ❡①tr❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✿
x → x 2 = u → u2 = y .

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② t❤❡♠✿
du
= (x2 )′ = 2x
dx
dy
= (sin u)′ = cos u
du
du dy
· = 2x · cos u
dx du
❇② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✿
dy du dy
= · = 2x · cos u = 2x cos x2 .
dx dx du

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸✳✶✺

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ y = (sin x)3 ✳ ▼❛❦❡ ✉♣ ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ r❡♣❡❛t✳

▲❡t✬s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❛s ❞✐❛❣r❛♠s✿
d d d
′ ′ ′ ′ ′
f,
g −−−dx−−→ f,g f −−−dx−−→ f f,g −−−dx−−→ f,g
     
+
y SR +
y
×c CM R
y
×c
y
◦
y CR ×
y
d d d

f + g −−−dx−−→ (f + g)′ = f ′ + g ′ cf −−−dx−−→ (cf )′ = cf ′ f ◦ g −−−dx−−→ (f ◦ g)′ = f ′ g ′

■♥ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠s✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛t t❤❡ t♦♣ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ✐♥ t✇♦ ✇❛②s✿
• ❘✐❣❤t✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡♠❀ t❤❡♥ ❞♦✇♥✿ ❞♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts✳
• ❉♦✇♥✿ ❉♦ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡♠❀ t❤❡♥ r✐❣❤t✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✳
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞♥✬t ♥❛✐✈❡❧② ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛♣♣❡♥ t♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥✳
✹✳✹✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✸✶✾

✹✳✹✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ✇❡ ♣❡r❢♦r♠ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ♠✉❧✲
t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✶✿ t❛r♣

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿ ■❢ t✇♦ ❣r♦✉♣s ♦❢ r✉♥♥❡rs ❛r❡ ✉♥❢♦❧❞✐♥❣ ❛ t❛r♣ ✭♦r ✉♥❢✉r❧✐♥❣ ❛ ✢❛❣✮
✇❤✐❧❡ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ❡❛st ❛♥❞ ♥♦rt❤✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤✐s r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡❄

❚❤❡② ♠❛② ❜❡ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ❛t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t s♣❡❡❞s✿

▲❡t✬s ✜rst ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ ✇❡ ❛✈♦✐❞ t❤❡ s♦✲❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏◆❛✐✈❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡✑✿

❄❄❄
(f · g)′ === f ′ · g ′ .

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ❡①tr❛♣♦❧❛t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❜✉t ✐t s✐♠♣❧② ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ tr✉❡✳ ▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛st t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠
✐♥ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❛❦❡ ❛ ❣♦♦❞ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ✉♥✐ts✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡
• x ✐s t✐♠❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ s❡❝✳
• y = f (x) ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ♣❡rs♦♥ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢t✳
• y = g(x) ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢t✳
❚❤❡♥
❢t
• f ′ (x) ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ♣❡rs♦♥ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✳
s❡❝
❢t
• g ′ (x) ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✳
s❡❝
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡② ❛r❡ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ✐♥ t✇♦ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ✭❡❛st ❛♥❞ ♥♦rt❤✮✳ ❲❡ ❞r❛✇ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s✿
2
• y = f (x) · g(x) ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ❡♥❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❡rs♦♥s ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢t ✳
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
2
′ ❢t
• y = (f (x) · g(x)) ✐s t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱
s❡❝
2
❢t ❢t ❢t
• f (x)′ · g(x)′ ✐s ❛♥ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ q✉❛♥t✐t② ✕ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ · = ✦
s❡❝ s❡❝ s❡❝2

❲❡ ❞♦ ♥♦t✐❝❡ ♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❣✐✈❡s t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ✉♥✐ts✿
′ ′
✶✳ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞✿ f f, g g ✱ ❛♥❞
′ ′
✷✳ ❝r♦ss✲♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞✿ f g, g f ✳
❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♠✉st ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ❢♦r♠❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞
❜❡❧♦✇✿
✹✳✹✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✸✷✵

❆s t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤ ❛r❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✱ s♦ ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♣t❤✦ ❚❤✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ✐s s♣❧✐t
✐♥t♦ t✇♦ ♣❛rts ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t✇♦ t❡r♠s✿
◮ ❲❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝r♦ss✲♠✉❧t✐♣❧② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✹✳✷✿ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t
♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♥♦❞❡s x ❛♥❞
x + ∆x ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✭❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r②
♥♦❞❡ c✮ s❛t✐s❢②✿

∆(f · g)(c) = f (x + ∆x) · ∆g(c) + ∆f (c) · g(x)

Pr♦♦❢✳
❚❤❡ tr✐❝❦ ✐s t♦ ✐♥s❡rt ❡①tr❛ t❡r♠s✿
∆(f · g)(c) = (f · g)(x + ∆x) − (f · g)(x)
= f (x + ∆x) · g(x + ∆x) − f (x) · g(x)
= f (x + ∆x) · g(x + ∆x)−f (x + ∆x) · g(x) + f (x + ∆x) · g(x) − f (x) · g(x)
= f (x + ∆x) · (g(x + ∆x) − g(x)) + (f (x + ∆x) − f (x)) · g(x)
= f (x + ∆x) · ∆g(c) + ∆f (c) · g(x) .

◆♦✇✱ ❥✉st ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② ∆x✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✹✳✸✿ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢
t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♥♦❞❡s x ❛♥❞
x + ∆x ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✭❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣
s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ c✮ s❛t✐s❢②✿

∆(f · g) ∆g ∆f
(c) = f (x + ∆x) · (c) + (c) · g(x)
∆x ∆x ∆x

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ✭f ❛♥❞ g ✮ ♦❢ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ❛r❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✱ t❤❡♥
s♦ ✐s ✐ts ❛r❡❛ ✭f · g ✮✿
✹✳✹✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✸✷✶

❲❡ s❤❛❧❧ ❛❧s♦ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ ❜♦t❤ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛✱ ❛s
❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✹✳✹✿ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t t❤❛t

♣♦✐♥t ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞
t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

d(f · g) dg df
(x) = f (x) · (x) + (x) · g(x)
dx dx dx

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✇✐t❤ c = x✿

∆(f · g)(x) ∆g ∆f
= f (x + ∆x) · (c) + (c) · g(x)
∆x ∆x ∆x
↓ ↓ ↓
dg df
f (x) · (x) + (x) · g(x) ❛s ∆x → 0 .
dx dx
❚❤❡ ✜rst ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t f ✱ ❛s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

(f · g)′ (x) = f (x) · g ′ (x) + f ′ (x) · g(x)

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇♦r❦s✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s
✜rst f f′ −→ (f g)′ = f g ′ + f ′ g
s❡❝♦♥❞ g g′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✺✿ r♦✉t✐♥❡

▲❡t
y = xex .
✹✳✹✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✸✷✷

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
du
u =x =⇒ = (x)′ = 1,
dx
dv
v = ex =⇒ = (ex )′ = ex .
dx
❆♣♣❧② Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ✈✐❛ ✏❝r♦ss✲♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✑✱ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❛❜♦✈❡✿

dy
= x · ex + 1 · ex = ex (x + 1) .
dx

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✉♥❞❡r ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✻✿ ✉♥✐t ❛♥❛❧②s✐s
▲❡t✬s ✜rst ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ ✇❡ ❛✈♦✐❞ t❤❡ s♦✲❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏◆❛✐✈❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✑✿

❄❄❄
(f /g)′ === f ′ /g ′ .

❲❡ ❝❛♥ r❡♣❡❛t t❤❡ ✏✉♥✐t ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✑ t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t s✉❝❤ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ s✐♠♣❧② ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ tr✉❡✳ ❚❤❡ r✉♥♥❡rs
st✐❧❧ ❛r❡ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ✐♥ t✇♦ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• y = f (x)/g(x) ✐s ✉♥✐t❧❡ss✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
1
• y = (f (x)/g(x))′ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✱ ✇❤✐❧❡
s❡❝
′ ′
• f (x) /g(x) ✐s ✉♥✐t❧❡ss✦

❚❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✐s ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✹✳✼✿ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s

❋♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♥♦❞❡s x ❛♥❞ x + ∆x ♦❢ ❛
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✭❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ c✮ s❛t✐s❢②✿

f (x + ∆x) · ∆g(c) − ∆f (c) · g(x)

∆(f /g)(c) =
g(x)g(x + ∆x)

Pr♦♦❢✳
❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ f = 1✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

1 1
∆(1/g)(x) = −
g(x + ∆x) g(x)
g(x) − g(x + ∆x)
= .
g(x + ∆x)g(x)

◆♦✇ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✹✳✽✿ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts

❋♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♥♦❞❡s x ❛♥❞ x + ∆x ♦❢ ❛
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✭❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡
c✮ s❛t✐s❢②✿

∆g
∆(f /g) f (x + ∆x) · ∆x (c) − ∆f
∆x
(c) · g(x)
(c) =
∆x g(x) · g(x + ∆x)
✹✳✹✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✸✷✸

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ g(x), g(x + ∆x) 6= 0✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ f = 1✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆(1/g)(x) g(x) − g(x + ∆x)
=
∆x ∆xg(x + ∆x)g(x)
g(x + ∆x) − g(x) 1
=− ·
∆x g(x + ∆x) · g(x)
∆g 1
=− (c) · ✇✐t❤ c = x .
∆x g(x + ∆x) · g(x)

◆♦✇ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡✳

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ✭f ❛♥❞ g ✮ ♦❢ ❛ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ❛r❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✱ t❤❡♥
s♦ ✐s t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ♦❢ ✐ts ❜❛s❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ✭f /g ✮✿

❲❡ s❤❛❧❧ ❛❧s♦ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ ❡✐t❤❡r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t✱ ❛s
❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✹✳✾✿ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❋♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

dg df
d(f /g) f (x) · dx
(x)− dx (x) · g(x)
(x) = 2
dx g(x)

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ g(x) 6= 0✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ f = 1✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆(1/g)(x) ∆g 1
=− (c) · ✇✐t❤ c = x
∆x ∆x g(x + ∆x) · g(x)
dg 1
→ − (x) · ❛s ∆x → 0 .
dx g(x) · g(x)
❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t g ✱ ❛s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳
❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✇❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ♦❢ g ❛s ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿
1 1 dz 1 dy dz 1 ′
z= =⇒ z = , y = g(x) =⇒ = − 2, = g ′ (x) =⇒ =− g (x) ,
g(x) y dy y dx dx g(x)2
❜② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✳ ◆♦✇ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡✳
✹✳✹✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✸✷✹

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

 ′
f (x) f ′ (x) · g(x) − f (x) · g ′ (x)
=
g(x) g(x)2

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡♥s❡ t❤❛t ✐t ❛❧s♦ ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡s ❝r♦ss✲♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s  ′
f f g′ − f ′g
✜rst f f ′
−→ =
g g2
s❡❝♦♥❞ g g′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✶✵✿ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❛♥❣❡♥t

 ′
′ sin x
(tan x) =
cos x
◗❘ (sin x)′ cos x − sin x(cos x)′
===
(cos x)2
cos x cos x − sin x(− sin x)
=
cos2 x
cos x + sin2 x
2
= ❯s❡ t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳
cos2 x
1
= ❚❤✐s ✐s sec2 x .
cos2 x

■♥ t❤❡ ▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ✿

d du dv
(uv) = ·v+ ·u
dx dx dx

❛♥❞ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✿

du dv
d u ·v− ·u
= dx dx
dx v v2

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✶✶✿ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ♣r♦♦❢

■♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ♣r♦✈❡❞ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs✿
(xm )′ = mxm−1 .

▲❡t✬s ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs✳ ❲❡ tr❡❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✿

1
x−m = .
xm
❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✿
u=1 =⇒ u′ = 0
v = xm =⇒ v ′ = mxm−1 ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✳
✹✳✹✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✸✷✺

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ♥♦✇✿

 ′
−m ′ 1
(x ) =
xm
0 · xm − 1 · mxm−1
=
(xm )2
m−1
mx
=− m 2
(x )
xm−1
= −m 2m
x
= −mx−m−1 .

■❢ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ −m ✇✐t❤ n✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

(xn )′ = nxn−1 .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✶✷✿ r❛t✐♦

❋✐♥❞  √ ′
x
2
.
x +1
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r✿
√ du 1
u = x = √ =⇒
dx 2 x
dv
v = x2 + 1 =⇒ = 2x
dx
❚❤❡♥✱
1 √
  √ (x2 + 1) − x · 2x
d u 2 x
= .
dx v (x2 + 1)2
◆♦ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢②✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✶✸✿ ❢r♦♠ ❧✐♠✐t t♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳ ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿

2x − 32
lim .
x→5 x − 5

■t✬s ❥✉st ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ❇✉t ✇❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡
❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿
f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim ,
x→a x−a
❛♥❞ ♠❛t❝❤✳ ❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❤❡r❡✿
a = 5, f (x) = 2x , f (5) = 25 = 32 .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ♦✉r ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ f ′ (5) ❢♦r f (x) = 2x ✳ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡✿

f ′ (x) = (2x )′ = 2x ln 2 ,

s♦
2x − 32
lim = f ′ (5) = 25 ln 2 = 32 ln 2 .
x→5 x − 5
✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✸✷✻

✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡

❲❡ s❛✇ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸ ❤♦✇ t♦ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛s t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✿
❉◗ ❉◗
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ −−−−−→ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② −−−−−→ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✐❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✕
❦♥♦✇♥ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ tr❡❛t t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦♦❄
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✺✳✶✿ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❜② 1 s♦ t❤❛t ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✳ ❲❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss ❢r♦♠
t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ❧✐♥❡ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡s
t♦ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ❛❣❛✐♥✿

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿ − 2 −−− 5 −−− 10 −

✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿ − − • − 5 − 3 = 3 −•− 10 − 5 = 5 − • − −
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✿ − −?− −−− 5−3=2 −−− −?− −
t✐♠❡✿ 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

●❡♥❡r❛❧❧②✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ♦♥❧② t❤r❡❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭✜rst ❧✐♥❡✮✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts
❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✭s❡❝♦♥❞ ❧✐♥❡✮✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛t t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❡❞❣❡✿
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ − f (x1 ) − − − f (x2 ) − − − f (x3 ) −
∆f ∆f
❉◗✿ − − • − −•− −•− −
∆x2 ∆x3
∆f ∆f
∆x3
− ∆x2
❉◗ ♦❢ ❉◗✿ − −?− −−− −−− −?− −
c3 − c2
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✿ x1 c2 x2 c3 x3
❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡
✭t❤✐r❞ ❧✐♥❡✮✳
▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳
❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❲❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐t ✐♥t♦ n ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢
t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ✭t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✮✿
a = x0 , x1 , x2 , ..., xn−1 , xn = b .
❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿
c1 ✐♥ [x0 , x1 ], c2 ✐♥ [x1 , x2 ], ..., cn ✐♥ [xn−1 , xn ] .
❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✱ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿
✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✸✷✼

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s xk , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f
✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

∆f f (xk+1 ) − f (xk )
(ck ) =
∆x xk+1 − xk

❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ k = 1, 2, ..., n ✳

❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿

■t ✐s ♥♦✇ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❡❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡
♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✳
❲❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛s ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ st❛rt❡❞✿ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦✇ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✿

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s

[p, q], ✇✐t❤ p = c0 ❛♥❞ q = cn .

❲❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐t ✐♥t♦ n − 1 ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s t❤❛t ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ t❤❡
♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿
p = c1 , c2 , c3 , ..., cn−1 , cn = b .
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡✿
∆ck = ck+1 − ck .
◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s❄ ❚❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✦ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

x1 ✐♥ [c1 , c2 ], x2 ✐♥ [c2 , c3 ], ..., xn−1 ✐♥ [cn−1 , cn ] .

✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✸✷✽

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

∆f
g= .
∆x
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ g ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

∆g g(ck+1 ) − g(ck )
(xk ) =
∆x ck+1 − ck

❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ k = 1, 2, ..., n − 1 ✳ ■t ✐s ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❲❡ ♣✉t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t♦❣❡t❤❡r✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✺✳✷✿ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t
❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t❀ ✐✳❡✳✱
✐t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✭❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞✮ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

∆f
∆2 f (c )
∆x k+1
− ∆f (c )
∆x k
(xk ) =
∆x2 ck+1 − ck

❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ k = 1, 2, ..., n − 1 ✳

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡✿
• n + 1 ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f ✭❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✮✱
∆f
• n ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ✭❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✮✱ ❛♥❞
∆x
∆2 f
• n − 1 ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ✭❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❡①❝❡♣t a ❛♥❞ b✮✳
∆x2
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♦❢t❡♥ ♦♠✐t t❤❡ s✉❜s❝r✐♣ts ❢♦r t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿
❙❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥t

∆f ∆f
∆2 f ∆x
(c + ∆c) − ∆x
(c)
(x) =
∆x2 ∆c

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✺✳✸✿ ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❡

❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s✱
t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ③❡r♦✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ❛ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s ❛ ♥♦♥✲❧✐♥❡❛r ❣r❛♣❤✿
✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✸✷✾

❆❜♦✈❡✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s r❡♠❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✱ 2✱ ❛t ✜rst❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ③❡r♦✿
∆2 f
= 0.
∆x2
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s t♦ 1✱ ❛♥❞ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✭❛ss✉♠✐♥❣ ∆x = 1✮✿
∆2 f
= −1 .
∆x2
❆s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ s❡❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛✱ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ②♦✉rs❡❧❢ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣ ❛❧♦♥❣ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ❛♥❞ s❡❡✐♥❣
❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r tr❡❡ ❛❤❡❛❞ ✭♥♦ ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❡✮✱ t❤❡♥✱ ❛s ②♦✉ st❛rt t♦ t✉r♥✱ t❤❡ tr❡❡s st❛rt t♦ ♣❛ss ②♦✉r ✜❡❧❞ ♦❢
✈✐s✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t ✭❝✉r✈❛t✉r❡✮✿

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❤✐❣❤❡r ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♠❡❛♥ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢
y = f (x)✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✺✳✹✿ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡

▲❡t✬s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ sin x ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ t✐♠❡✳ ■♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✱ ✇❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦✈❡r ❛
♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❚❤✐s t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ ❛t ❧❡❛st t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿
• t❤r❡❡ ♥♦❞❡s x✿ a − h✱ a✱ ❛♥❞ a + h✱ ❛♥❞
• t✇♦ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s c✿ a − h/2 ❛♥❞ a + h/2✳
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ♦❢ sin x ❛♥❞ cos x ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✳ ❲❡ ✇r✐t❡
t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❢♦r t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ ❜✉t ✇❡ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ♥♦❞❡s
a − h/2, a + h/2 ❛♥❞ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ x = a✿

∆ sin(h/2) ∆ sin(h/2)
(sin x) = · cos c , (cos x) = − · sin a .
∆x h/2 ∆x h/2
✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✸✸✵

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛t a✿
 
∆2 ∆ ∆
(sin x) = (sin x) (a)
∆x2 ∆x ∆x
 
∆ sin(h/2)
= · cos c ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ✜rst ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳
∆x h/2
sin(h/2) ∆ cos
= (a) ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❈▼❘✳
h/2 ∆x
 
sin(h/2) sin(h/2)
= − · sin a ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳
h/2 h/2
 2
sin(h/2)
=− · sin a .
h/2

■t✬s ❥✉st t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✉♣s✐❞❡ ❞♦✇♥ ❛♥❞ str❡t❝❤❡❞✦ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞✿

 2
∆ sin(h/2) ∆2 sin(h/2)
(cos x) = − · sin c =⇒ (cos x) = − · cos a .
∆x h/2 ∆x2 h/2

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✺✳✺✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❋♦r t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❛ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿
• x✿ a − h✱ a✱ ❛♥❞ a + h✱ ❛♥❞
t❤r❡❡ ♥♦❞❡s
•
t✇♦ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s c✿ a − h ❛♥❞ a✳
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ❛t a✿

 2
∆ x eh − 1 −h/2 c ∆2 x eh − 1 −h/2
(e ) = e · e =⇒ (e ) = e · ea .
∆x h ∆x2 h

■t✬s ❥✉st t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ str❡t❝❤❡❞ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧②✦

❚❤✐s ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞❧② ✉s❡❞ ❢♦r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s✐♠✉❧❛t✐♦♥s✳ ■t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞✱ ✇❤❡♥
♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✱ ❜② t❛❦✐♥❣ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✺✳✻✿ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿

∆f
d2 f ∆2 f (c )
∆x k+1
− ∆f (c )
∆x k
(x) = lim (xk ) = lim
dx2 ∆x→0 ∆x2 ∆x→0 ck+1 − ck

❲❡ ❛❝❝❡♣t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣r♦♦❢✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✺✳✼✿ ❙❡❝♦♥❞ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

d2 f
= (f ′ )′
dx2

❆s ✇❡ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❛❞❞ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ✏♣r✐♠❡s✑✿

f ′′ , f ′′′ , f ′′′′ , ...

✹✳✻✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✸✸✶

✹✳✻✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✶✿ sin

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ s✐♥❡✿
(sin x)′ = cos x
(cos x)′ = − sin x =⇒ (sin x)′′ = − sin x
(− sin x)′ = − cos x =⇒ (sin x)′′′ = − cos x
(− cos x)′ = sin x =⇒ (sin x)′′′′ = sin x

❆♥❞ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❜❛❝❦ ✇❤❡r❡ ✇❡ st❛rt❡❞✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❝❡ss ❢♦r t❤✐s ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝②❝❧✐❝✦

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣② ❛♥❞ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

❈♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f f (0)
df
✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f′ f (1)
dx  

′ d2 f d df
s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′′ = (f ′ )′ f (2) = f (1) =
dx2 dx  dx 
3

′ df d d2 f
t❤✐r❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′′′ = (f ′′ )′ f (3) = f (2) =
dx3 dx dx2
... ... ...
 
(n−1) ′

dn f d dn−1 f
nt❤ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f (n)
= f n
=
dx dx dxn−1
... ... ...

❚❤✉s✱ ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♠❛② ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✿

d d
f → → f′ → → f ′′ → ... → f (n) → ...
dx dx
♦r d d d d d

f −−−dx−−→ f ′ −−−dx−−→ f ′′ −−−dx−−→ ... −−−dx−−→ f (n) −−−dx−−→ ...

❲❡ ❥✉st ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ st❡♣ t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛s ✇❡❧❧✦
◆♦t❡ t❤❛t✱ ❢♦r ❛ ✜①❡❞ x✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿
f (x), f ′ (x), f ′′ (x), ..., f (n) (x), ...
✐s ❥✉st t❤❛t✱ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ❛ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛s t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ sin x s❤♦✇s✱ t❤✐s
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✿
(sin x)(n) , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0, −1, 0, 1, 0, ...
x=0

✭❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸■❈✲✺✱ t❤❛t s♦♠❡ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❞♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡
❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳✮
▲❡t✬s tr② t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛s ♠❛♥② ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✱ ♦r ❡✈❡♥ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡♠✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
❜❡❧♦✇✳
✹✳✻✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✸✸✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✷✿ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ♣♦✇❡rs

❚❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ♣♦✇❡rs ❛r❡ ❤❛♥❞❧❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✿
(xn )′ = nxn−1 .

❚❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡s ❜② 1 ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

(xn )(n+1) = 0 .

❚❤❡♥✱ ✐t st❛②s 0✿
(xn )(n+1) = (xn )(n+2) = ... = 0 .
❚❤❡ ♣♦✇❡rs ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡ t♦ 0 ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ r❡♠❛✐♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✸✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t

❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♥❡①t✳ ❙✐♥❝❡

(ex )′ = ex ,
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
(ex )(n) = ex .
❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♠❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✹✿ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡

❚❤❡ tr✐❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❙❛♠❡ ❢♦r ❜♦t❤ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡✿

(sin x)(4n) = sin x
(cos x)(4n) = cos x

❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✐s ❝②❝❧✐❝ ❢♦r ❜♦t❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✺✿ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ♣♦✇❡rs

❚❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ♣♦✇❡rs ❛r❡ s✉❜❥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛❣❛✐♥✿
(x−1 )′ = −1x−2
(−x−2 )′ = 2x−3
...

❚❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ❣♦❡s ❞♦✇♥ ❜② 1 ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞✱ ❛s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❡♥❞s t♦ −∞✳ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❞♦❡s♥✬t st♦♣✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✻✳✻

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❧ ♥♦♥✲✐♥t❡❣❡r ♣♦✇❡rs✳

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

✹✳✻✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✸✸✸

❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❇❛s✐❝ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

d
x dx
d d d d

xn −−−dx−−→ nxn−1 −−−dx−−→ ... −−−dx−−→ ❝♦♥st❛♥t −−−dx−−→ 0

1 d
1 d
2 d
dx
−−−−−→ − 2 dx
−−−−−→ −−−dx
− −→ ... ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t
n n n3
d

sin
xx −−−dx−−→ cos
 x
 
d
 dx
d
y dx ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝
d

− cos x ←−−dx−−− − sin x

d

e−x dx
←−−−→ −e−x ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣
d
x dx
ex ❝♦♥st❛♥t

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❙t❛rt✐♥❣ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹❍❉✲✷✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡
t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❛♥✐♠❛❧s
♦❢ ✈❡r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❜r❡❡❞s✳ ❆s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✲
✐❝s ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❞✐♠❡♥✲
s✐♦♥s✳

❚❤❡ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❝❡ss ♠❛② ❢❛✐❧ t♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ nt❤ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✿
f (n−1) (a + h) − f (n−1) (a)
f (n) (a) = lim .
h→0 h
❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✻✳✼✿ n t✐♠❡s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t✇✐❝❡✱ t❤r✐❝❡✱ ✳✳✳✱ n t✐♠❡s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ✇❤❡♥
f ′ , f ′′ , f ′′′ , ..., f (n) ❡①✐sts r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡s❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✲
✉♦✉s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ n t✐♠❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✽✿ ♥♦t t✇✐❝❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡

❚❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✿ (
−x2 ✐❢ x < 0 ,
f (x) =
x2 ✐❢ x ≥ 0 .
■ts ❣r❛♣❤ ❧♦♦❦s s♠♦♦t❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❞♦✉❜t ✐♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛ ❜❡❛♠ ♦❢ ❧✐❣❤t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜♦✉♥❝❡ ♦✛ s✉❝❤
❛ s✉r❢❛❝❡✿
✹✳✻✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✸✸✹

❇✉t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❧♦♦❦ s♠♦♦t❤✦

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳ ■t ✐s ❡❛s② ❢♦r x 6= 0 ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
(
−2x ✐❢ x < 0 ,
f (x) =
2x ✐❢ x > 0 .
❋♦r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ x = 0✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ t✇♦ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts✿
f (0 + h) − f (0) f (h) −h2
lim− = lim− = lim = lim (−h) = 0
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0

f (0 + h) − f (0) f (h) h2
lim+ = lim+ = lim = lim h = 0
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0

❚❤❡② ♠❛t❝❤✦ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

f ′ (0) = 0 .
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ t❤❛t f ′ (x) = 2|x|✳ ■t✬s ♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t 0✦ ❚❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t t✇✐❝❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✾✿ ❤✐❡r❛r❝❤②

▼♦r❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❦✐♥❞✿

1
✶✳ f (x) = sin ✐s ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = 0✳
x
1
✷✳ g(x) = x sin ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = 0 ❜✉t ♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✳
x
1
✸✳ h(x) = x2 sin ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = 0 ❜✉t ♥♦t t✇✐❝❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✳
x
❲❡ ❛r❡ ❛ss✉♠✐♥❣ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❛t 0 ✐s 0 ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡♠✳ ❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡♠ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✹✳✻✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✸✸✺

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥✐♥❣✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♥❡s ❞♦♥✬t ❢♦r♠ ❛ sq✉❡❡③❡✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♥❡s ❞♦ ❢♦r♠ ❛ sq✉❡❡③❡ ❛♥❞ ✐t ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛t x = 0✳ ❇✉t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡
❛❧s♦ t✇♦ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ✇✐t❤ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t s❧♦♣❡s❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ❛t x = 0✳
✸✳ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❝✉r✈❡s ❢♦r♠ ❛ sq✉❡❡③❡ ❛♥❞ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛t x = 0✳ ❇✉t t❤❡② ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡
s❛♠❡ s❧♦♣❡✱ 0✱ ❛t x = 0✦ ❚❤✐s ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡s t❤❛t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ 0❀
t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ❛t x = 0✳ ■t ♠✐❣❤t ♥♦t ❜❡ t✇✐❝❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ t❤♦✉❣❤✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✻✳✶✵

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts✳

❇❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❢♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳ ■t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❧♦♣❡s✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ✇❤❡❡❧ ♦❢ s❧♦♣❡s✿
✹✳✻✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✸✸✻

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s r♦t❛t❡✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ s❧♦♣❡s ❛r❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s r♦t❛t✐♥❣ t❛♥❣❡♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✿

❙♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ s❡❡✿

✶✳ ❉❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❧♦♣❡s ⇐⇒ t❛♥❣❡♥ts r♦t❛t❡ ❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡✳

✷✳ ■♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❧♦♣❡s ⇐⇒ t❛♥❣❡♥ts r♦t❛t❡ ❝♦✉♥t❡r✲❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡✳

❚❤✐s ♠❛t❝❤❡s ♦✉r ❝♦♥✈❡♥t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr② t❤❛t ❝♦✉♥t❡r✲❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r r♦t❛t✐♦♥s✳

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ t②♣✐❝❛❧❧② ❤❛✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ nt❤ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r n✱ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ✜rst
t✇♦ r❡✈❡❛❧ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ✈✐s✐❜❧❡
❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ✏❞❡r✐✈❡✑ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢
′′
t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ❢♦r t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜② ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ f ❀ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✏❞❡r✐✈❡✑ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡
′′ ′ ′ ′
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ♦❢ f ❢♦r t❤❛t ♦❢ f ❜② ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t ✐ts s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ f ✿

❲❤❛t ✐s ♥❡✇❄ ❚❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ f ❛♥❞ f ′′ ✳ ❆❜♦✈❡ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣❛✐rs✿

• ❖❧❞✿ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛t❝❤❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f t♦ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢
′
t❤❡ ✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ✳

• ◆❡✇✿ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛t❝❤❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f t♦ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s
♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′′ ✳
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❧❡✈❡❧s ♦❢ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
✹✳✼✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✸✸✼

• ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ❛t ❧❡✈❡❧ 0✿ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f ✳ ❲❡ ❛s❦✱ ❤♦✇ ❧❛r❣❡❄ ❚❤❡ ✜♥❞✐♥❣s ❛r❡ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✱ x✲ ❛♥❞
y ✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣ts✱ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ❧❛r❣❡✲s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✱ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝✐t②✱ ❡t❝✳
• ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ❛t ❧❡✈❡❧ 1✿ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ f ✳ ❲❡ ❛s❦✱ ✉♣ ♦r ❞♦✇♥❄ ❚❤❡ ✜♥❞✐♥❣s ❛r❡ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡s✱
✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✴❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✱ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts✱ ❡t❝✳
• ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ❛t ❧❡✈❡❧ 2✿ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ f ✳ ❲❡ ❛s❦✱ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣ ♦r ❞♦✇♥❄ ❚❤❡ ✜♥❞✐♥❣s
❛r❡ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ st❡❡♣♥❡ss✱ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t②✱ t❡❧❧✐♥❣ ❛ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✱ ❡t❝✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❣♦ ♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ s✉❜t❧❡ ❜✉t ❧❡ss ❛♥❞ ❧❡ss s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥t ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✶✶✿ ♠♦t✐♦♥

❚❤✐s t❤r❡❡✲❧❡✈❡❧ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ ♦✉r st✉❞② ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧✲
❡r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ❛❧❧♦✇s ♦♥❡ t♦ ❛❞❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧❡✈❡❧ ♦❢ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✿
• ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ❛t ❧❡✈❡❧ 0✿ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❤❡r❡❄
• ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ❛t ❧❡✈❡❧ 1✿ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st❄ ❢♦r✇❛r❞ ♦r ❜❛❝❦❄
• ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ❛t ❧❡✈❡❧ 2✿ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ❤♦✇ ❧❛r❣❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡❄

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t ✐s t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ y ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ t✉r♥ t♦ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡
❢❛❧❧✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿
• y0 ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ y0 = y ✳
t=0
dy
• vy ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ✳
dt t=0
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
1 dy d2 y
y = y0 + vy t − gt2 =⇒ = vy −gt =⇒ = −g .
2 dt dt2

◆♦✇✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❤②s✐❝s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❣♦ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✿
• ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❢♦r❝❡✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
• ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r ♦♥ t✐♠❡✱ ❡t❝✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛t t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t ✇❡ ❛r❡ st✐❧❧ ✉♥❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡s❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥s✿
• ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ♥♦♥❡ ♦t❤❡rs ❛r❡ ③❡r♦❄
• ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ♥♦♥❡ ♦t❤❡rs ❛r❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❄
• ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ♥♦♥❡ ♦t❤❡rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r❄
❚❤✐s r❡✈❡rs❡❞ ♣r♦❝❡ss ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥t✐❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

❙♦ ❢❛r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❥✉st✐❢② ❡✈❡♥ t❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡st ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿

f ′ = 0 =⇒ f = c, ❢♦r s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r c .

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ st✉❞② t❤❡s❡ ❛♥❞ r❡❧❛t❡❞ q✉❡st✐♦♥s ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✳

✹✳✼✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧②

■t s❡❡♠s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ t♦ ❛♥② ❝✉r✈❡✦ ❨❡s✱ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❝❛✈❡❛t✿ ❚❤✐s ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡❄ ■t ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✿
x2 + y 2 = 1 .
✹✳✼✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✸✸✽

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ❝♦♥str✉❝ts ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s r❡❧✐❡s
♦♥✿

• ❆ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✿ ✏❲❤❛t s♣♦rts ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ♣❧❛②❡❞ ❜② ✇❤❛t ❜♦②s t♦❞❛②❄✑

• ❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ ✏❲❤✐❝❤ s♣♦rt ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❜♦② ♣r❡❢❡r t♦ ♣❧❛②❄✑

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❛t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝❛s❡ ❡✈❡r②♦♥❡ ❤❛s ❛ ♣r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❡①❛❝t❧② ♦♥❡✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ❝❛♥ ✇❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❄

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ✭❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✷✮ t❤❛t r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✳

❯s✉❛❧❧②✱ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❢♦r x ❛r❡ t♦ ❜❡ s♦❧✈❡❞✿

x2
|{z} − |{z}
1 = 0. ◆♦✇ ✜♥❞ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♥✉♠❜❡r x t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳
x ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r

❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞ ✐♥ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ x✬s ❛♥❞ y ✬s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s✿

x2
|{z} + y2 = 0. ◆♦✇ ✜♥❞ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = y(x) t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳
|{z}
x ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r y ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ tr✉❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t
❛♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❛r❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ✭x + x = 2x✱ ❡t❝✳✮✳

❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ❞❡✜♥❡s t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❆s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❛st✱ ✇❡ ❝♦✉❧❞ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
y = y(x) ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❜② s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r y ✿
√ √
y= 1 − x2 ♦r y = − 1 − x2 .

❇✉t ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ✇❛♥t t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❧❡❛✈❡ y ✉♥s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ r❡❧② ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛❝t✿

◮ ■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✱ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ ♥♦❞❡s x ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡✐r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts
❢♦r ❛❧❧ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s c✿

∆f ∆g
f (x) = g(x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x =⇒ (c) = (c) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ c
∆x ∆x

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✼✳✶✿ ❝✐r❝❧❡

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1 ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t 0✿
√ √ !
2 2
, ❛♥❞ ❛♥② ♦t❤❡r ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) .
2 2
✹✳✼✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✸✸✾

❚②♣✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = x2 ✱ y = sin x✱ ❡t❝✳✱ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❧②✳ ❚❤✐s t✐♠❡
t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s✿
x2 + y 2 = 1 .
❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❇✉t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦ ◆♦t ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❛♥②✇❛②✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦
♦❢ y = y(x) ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✱ ✐✳❡✳✿
x2 + y(x)2 = 1 .
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❛ss✉♠❡✿ √
2
• ❚❤❡ t✇♦ x✲✈❛❧✉❡s x0 ❛♥❞ x1 = ❛r❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳
√2
2
• ❚❤❡ t✇♦ y ✲✈❛❧✉❡s y0 ❛♥❞ y1 = ❛r❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✳
2
❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ t♦ ❜♦t❤ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿
∆
∆
x2 + y 2 = (1) =⇒
∆x ∆x
∆ 2 ∆ 2
x + y =0 =⇒
∆x ∆x
∆y
(x0 + x1 ) + (y0 + y1 ) =0 =⇒
∆x
∆y x0 + x1
=− ❢♦r y0 + y1 6= 0 .
∆x y0 + y1
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❜✉t ✐t ✐s st✐❧❧ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ✕ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❤❛✈❡
❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r y = y(x)✳ ❋♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❥✉st t❤♦s❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ ✐ts
❣r❛♣❤✳ ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛❜♦✈❡ t♦ ✜♥❞✿
√
2
∆y y0 + 2
=− √ .
∆x x0 + 2
2

■♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 1)✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ✐s

√
2
m=− √ .
1+ 2
❚❤❡♥✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✲s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✿
√ √ √ !
2 2 2
y− =− √ x− .
2 1+ 2 2

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛✉t♦♠❛t❡ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ ♠♦r❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿
✹✳✼✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✸✹✵

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❄ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ r❡❧② ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛❝t✿

◮ ■❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

f (x) = g(x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x =⇒ f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♣✉t ✐t s✐♠♣❧② ❛s t❤✐s✿

◮ ■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

f = g =⇒ f ′ = g ′

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♥❣ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s
❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t✇♦ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❤♦✇ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ♠❛② ❤❡❧♣ ✉s ✇✐t❤ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❛♥❣❡♥ts t♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❝✉r✈❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✼✳✷✿ ❝✐r❝❧❡

√ √ !
2 2
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1 ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t 0 ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t , ✳
2 2

❚②♣✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = x2 ✱ y = sin x✱ ❡t❝✳✱ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❧②✳ ❚❤✐s t✐♠❡
t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s✿
x2 + y 2 = 1 .
❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ❜✉t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✦

❖✉r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛s ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❆s ✇❡
✹✳✼✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✸✹✶

❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✱ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ y = y(x) ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ y 2 = y(x)2 ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿

y y2
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿ x −−−−→ y − −−−−→ z
dy
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿ 2y
dx
❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✭t❤❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐t② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✮✿
x2 + y 2 = 1 .
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✱ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✿
d
d
x2 + y 2 = (1) =⇒
dx dx
d 2 d
x + y2 =0 =⇒
dx dx
dy
2x + 2y =0 =⇒
dx
dy x
=− ❢♦r y 6= 0 .
dx y
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ❜✉t ✐t ✐s st✐❧❧ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ✕ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛
❢♦r y = y(x)✳ ❋♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❥✉st ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✿
√ √
2 2
x= , y= .
2 2
❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛❜♦✈❡ t♦ ✜♥❞✿
dy x
=− = −1 .
dx √ √ y √ √
x= 22 , y= 22 x= 22 , y= 2
2

❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✲s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✿

√ √ !
2 2
y− = −1 x − .
2 2
√
❲❡ ❝♦✉❧❞ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ y = 1 − x2 ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✿

dy ❈❘ −2x x
=== √ =− ,
dx 2 1−x 2 1 − x2
√
2
❛❢t❡r ✇❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ x = ✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥
2
✭(y 2 )′ = 2y ✮ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥✳ ❆❧s♦✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ♦♥❧② ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r t❤❡ ✉♣♣❡r ❤❛❧❢√♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳ ❋♦r ❛
♣♦✐♥t ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ✇❡✬❞ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ st❛rt ♦✈❡r ❛♥❞ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ y = − 1 − x2 ✳

dy
◆♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t x = ±1 ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r
dx
✐s 0✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t❄ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ✐♥ t✇♦ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✿
ր y ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ x
x2 + y 2 = 1
ց x ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ y
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ tr② ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ❜✉t ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ y t❤✐s t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡
❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s✿
dx y
=− .
dy x
dx
❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❢♦r y = 0✱ ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts (−1, 0), (1, 0)✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ = 0 ❛t t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
dy
t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✐s x − 1 = 0(y − 0)✱ ♦r x = 1✳
✹✳✼✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✸✹✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✼✳✸✿ ❋♦❧✐✉♠ ♦❢ ❉❡s❝❛rt❡s

❚❤✐s ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

x3 + y 3 = 6xy
♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ s♦♠❡ t❛♥❣❡♥ts✳ ❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✿

d
d
x3 + y 3 = (6xy) .
dx dx
dy
❲❤✐❧❡ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡ ✇❡ s❡❡ y ✱ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r ❛❧s♦ ❛♣♣❡❛rs✿
dx

d 3 d d
(x ) + (y 3 ) = 6 (xy) =⇒
dx dx dx
 
dy dy
3x2 + 3y 2 · =6 y+x .
dx dx

dy
❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r ✿
dx
dy dy
3x2 + 3y 2 = 6y + 6x =⇒
dx dx
dy
(3y 2 − 6x) = 6y − 3x2 =⇒
dx
dy 6y − 3x2
= 2 . ❆s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s t❤✐s ✐s♥✬t (0, 0).
dx 3y − 6x
❚❤❡ ❡♥❞ r❡s✉❧t ✐s✿ ■❢ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ (x, y)✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❛t t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❋♦r
dy
❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❛t t❤❡ t✐♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ x = y ✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ✐s = −1✳
dx

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼✳✹

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥ts ❛t t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳

■♥ ❜♦t❤ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦s❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦✈❡r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ❧❡❞ ✕ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✕ t♦ s✐♠♣❧❡r
❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✳
◆♦t❡ t❤❛t ✐♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝✉t t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐♥t♦ ♣✐❡❝❡s ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
✹✳✼✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✸✹✸

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼✳✺

❋✐♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ✇❛②s t♦ ❞♦ ✐t✳

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞❡❝❧❛r❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡
♦t❤❡r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s
t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ s❧♦♣❡✳
◆♦✇✱ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛❧s♦ ❤❡❧♣s ✇✐t❤ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥s ✇❤❡♥ t✇♦ ♦r ♠♦r❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r
✈✐❛ ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ♦♥ ❛ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ✉s✉❛❧❧② t❤❡ t✐♠❡✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤✐s r❡❧❛t✐♦♥
✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❣❡t ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❛♠♦♥❣ t❤❡s❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡
r❡❧❛t❡❞ r❛t❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✼✳✻✿ ❛✐r ❜❛❧❧♦♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛✐r ❜❛❧❧♦♦♥✱ s♣❤❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥3 s❤❛♣❡✳ ❆✐r ✐s ♣✉♠♣❡❞ ✐♥ ✐t ❛♥❞ ❛t ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢
t✐♠❡ ✐t ✇❛s r❡❝♦r❞❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❛t t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ 5✐♥ /s❡❝ ✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛st ❞♦❡s t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ❣r♦✇❄

❙t❡♣ ✶ ✐♥ ✇♦r❞ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ✐s t♦ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ▲❡t

• t ❜❡ t✐♠❡✱
• V ❜❡ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡✱ ❛♥❞
• r ❜❡ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ♥❛♠❡ t❤❛t s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ s❛②✱ t0 ✳

◆❡①t✱ V ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t✳ ❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤✐s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✱ ✇❡ ❞♦ ❦♥♦✇ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
❛t t❤❛t ♠♦♠❡♥t t0 ✳ ❚❤❡♥✱
dV
= 5,
dt t=t0

❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ s♣❤❡r❡✱ s♦ t❤❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ✐ts ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✐s t❤❡
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
4
V = πr3 .
3
❍❡r❡ ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t V ❛❧s♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ r❀ ❛❧t♦❣❡t❤❡r✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❡s ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡✿
t → r
ց ↓
V

❲❡ ❝♦✉❧❞ r❡✈❡rs❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❛rr♦✇ ❜② ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡✿

r
3 3
r= V,
4π
❛♥❞ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐ts❡❧❢✳ ❲✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t✱
♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✦ ❚❤✉s✱ ✐❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛r❡ r❡❧❛t❡❞ ✭✈✐❛ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✮✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡
✹✳✼✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✸✹✹

r❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✳ ❍❡♥❝❡✱ ✏r❡❧❛t❡❞ r❛t❡s✑✳

❑❡❡♣✐♥❣ ✐♥ ♠✐♥❞ t❤❛t ❜♦t❤ V ❛♥❞ r ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦
t✿
4
V = πr3 .
3
❚❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡✿
d dV
V = ,
dt dt
❜✉t ✐♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡✱ r(t)3 ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✦ ❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ❜② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✿

 
d 4 3 4 dr
πr = π · 3r2 .
dt 3 3 dt

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
dV dr
= 4π · 3r2 .
dt dt
❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ V ✐s 5 ✭❛t t = t0 ✮✱ s♦ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

dr dr 5
5 = 4πr2 =⇒ = .
dt dt 4πr2
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ r❛t❡s ♦❢ ❣r♦✇t❤ ♦❢ r ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡s r = 1, r = 2, r = 3 ❛r❡✿

dr 5
r=1: =
dt 4π
dr 5
r=2: =
dt 16π
dr 5
r=3: =
dt 36π
❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦♥ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ♣✉♠♣✐♥❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛✐r ✐s s♠❛❧❧❡r ❢♦r ❧❛r❣❡r r❛❞✐✐✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼✳✼

❍♦✇ ❢❛st ✐s t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ❛r❡❛ ❣r♦✇✐♥❣❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✼✳✽✿ s❧✐❞✐♥❣ ❧❛❞❞❡r

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ 10✲❢♦♦t ❧❛❞❞❡r st❛♥❞s ❛❣❛✐♥st t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❜♦tt♦♠ ✐s s❧✐❞✐♥❣ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧✳ ❍♦✇
❢❛st ✐s t❤❡ t♦♣ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s 6 ❢t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ✐s s❧✐❞✐♥❣ ❛t 2 ❢t✴s❡❝❄

■♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿
• x t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧✱
• y t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t♦♣ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r✱ ❜♦t❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢
• t t❤❡ t✐♠❡✳
✹✳✼✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✸✹✺

▲❡t✬s ❞❡♥♦t❡ t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡ t0 ✳

❲❡ tr❛♥s❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥✱ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥t♦ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✿

q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✿ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
❛❧✇❛②s x2 + y 2 = 102 (x(t))2 + (y(t))2 = 102 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ t
♥♦✇ x =? x(t0 ) =?
dx
♥♦✇ =2 x′ (t0 ) = 2
dt
♥♦✇ y=6 y(t0 ) = 6
dy
♥♦✇ =? y ′ (t0 ) =?
dt
❚❤❛t✬s ❛ ♣✉r❡❧② ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ t♦ ❜❡ s♦❧✈❡❞✳

❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ t✿

d 2
d
x + y2 = (100) ❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② ❈❘ t✇✐❝❡✳
dt dt
dx dy dy
2x + 2y =0 ❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r .
dt dt dt
dy x dx
=−
dt y dt
❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✦

❆t t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ♠♦♠❡♥t t = t0 ✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ x = 8 ❢r♦♠ x2 + y 2 = 100✳ ❋r♦♠ t❤✐s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t y = 6✱
✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
dy 8 8
=− 2=− .
dt t=t0 6 3

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼✳✾

❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧❛❞❞❡r ✐s ✉♣r✐❣❤t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼✳✶✵

❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧❛❞❞❡r ❤✐ts t❤❡ ✢♦♦r✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼✳✶✶

P❧♦t y = y(t) ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼✳✶✷

❙❡t ✉♣ ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝r❛♥❦s❤❛❢t✿

✹✳✽✳ ❘❡❧❛t❡❞ r❛t❡s✿ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ✸✹✻

✹✳✽✳ ❘❡❧❛t❡❞ r❛t❡s✿ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥

Pr♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣ ❛t ❛ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ 80 ♠♣❤ ✇❤❡♥ ②♦✉ s❡❡ ❛ ♣♦❧✐❝❡ ❝❛r ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥❡❞ 40 ❢❡❡t ♦✛ t❤❡

r♦❛❞✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥✬s r❡❛❞✐♥❣❄

❋✐rst✱ ❤♦✇ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ✇♦r❦❄ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ❤♦✇ ❞♦❡s ❛ r❛❞❛r ✇♦r❦❄ ❆ s✐❣♥❛❧ ✐s s❡♥t✱ ✐t ❜♦✉♥❝❡s ♦✛ ❛♥
♦❜❥❡❝t✱ ❛♥❞✱ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ❝♦♠❡s ❜❛❝❦✱ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ❧❛♣s❡ ✐s r❡❝♦r❞❡❞✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞
❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
S = s✐❣♥❛❧✬s s♣❡❡❞ · t✐♠❡ ♣❛ss❡❞
| {z } | {z }
❦♥♦✇♥ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞

❆ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ❞♦❡s t❤✐s t✇✐❝❡✳

❆ s✐❣♥❛❧ ✐s s❡♥t✱ ✐t ❝♦♠❡s ❜❛❝❦✱ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ t✐♠❡✿
• S1 = s♣❡❡❞ · t✐♠❡✱ ❛t t✐♠❡ t = t1 ✱
• S2 = s♣❡❡❞ · t✐♠❡✱ ❛t t✐♠❡ t = t2 ✳
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ r❡❛❞✐♥❣ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ s✐❣♥❛❧ s♦✉r❝❡ ✭t❤❡
♣♦❧✐❝❡ ❝❛r✮ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ t❛r❣❡t ✭②♦✉r ❝❛r✮✿
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡
❡st✐♠❛t❡❞ s♣❡❡❞ = .
t✐♠❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ s✐❣♥❛❧s
◆♦ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ ❜❡tt❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❛t✦

■❢ t❤❡ s✐❣♥❛❧ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❡♠✐tt❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ S = S(t) ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛t ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♠♦♠❡♥ts
♦❢ t✐♠❡ t0 , t1 , ...✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❛❞❛r ❝♦♠♣✉t❡s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ S ✿
∆S
❘❛❞❛r r❡❛❞✐♥❣ = ,
∆t
✇❤❡r❡
✹✳✽✳ ❘❡❧❛t❡❞ r❛t❡s✿ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ✸✹✼

• ∆S = Sn+1 − Sn ✐s t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝❛rs✱

• ∆t = h = tn+1 − tn ✐s t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ s✐❣♥❛❧s✳
◆♦✇ t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥✱ ✐s t❤❡ r❡❛❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ 80 ♠✴❤❄
❚♦ ❣❡t ❛♥ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ❤❛♣♣❡♥✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ❡①tr❡♠❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ❥✉st ♣❛ss✐♥❣ ✐♥ ❢r♦♥t ♦❢
t❤❡ ♣♦❧✐❝❡ ❝❛r✱ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s❄

■t ✐s ❝♦♥❝❡✐✈❛❜❧❡ t❤❛t ❛t t✐♠❡ t1 ②♦✉r ❝❛r ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ✐t ✐s ♣❛st t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥
❛t t✐♠❡ t2 ✳ ❚❤❡♥
∆S
∆S = 0 =⇒ = 0.
∆t
❚❤❡ r❡❛❞✐♥❣ ✐s ♦✛ ❜② ❛ ❧♦t✦
❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❡ s♦✉r❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ t❡❧❧s ♦♥❧② ❤♦✇ ❢❛st t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❝❛r ✐s ❣♦✐♥❣ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡s❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr✐❝ ❝✐r❝❧❡s✱ ♥♦t ✐ts ❛❝t✉❛❧ s♣❡❡❞✳
❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❞ ❝❛r ✐s ❛s❦❡✇✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ r❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❣r❡❡♥
❝❛r ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛t❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐ts ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✐s str❛✐❣❤t ❛t t❤❡ r❛❞❛r✳
▲❡t✬s st❛rt ♦✈❡r✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ t❤❛t ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts s❤❛♣❡ ✇✐t❤ t✐♠❡✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✿

✹✳✽✳ ❘❡❧❛t❡❞ r❛t❡s✿ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ✸✹✽

• S ✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦❧✐❝❡ ❝❛r t♦ ②♦✉rs

• P ✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ②♦✉r ❝❛r t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥
• t✱ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡
• D = 40✱ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦❧✐❝❡ ❝❛r t♦ t❤❡ r♦❛❞
dP
❙✐♥❝❡ 80 ♠❧✴❤ ✐s ②♦✉r s♣❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ = 80✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ✐s ♠❡❛♥t t♦ ❞❡t❡❝t✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐t
dt
dS
❞♦❡s ♠❡❛s✉r❡ ✐♥ r❡❛❧✐t② ✐s ✦
dt
❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ ♦✉t✿
dP dS
◮ ❍♦✇ ❣♦♦❞ ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s t❤❡ ♣❡r❝❡✐✈❡❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❄
dt dt

❖✉r s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s P ♦❢ ②♦✉r ❝❛r ✭❞✐st❛♥❝❡s t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✮ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② ♠❡❛♥s
♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛
Pn+1 = Pn + 80h ,
✇❤❡r❡ h ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡ ♥❡①t ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ S t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦❧✐❝❡ ❝❛r ✭♣❧♦tt❡❞ ✜rst✮✱
❢♦✉♥❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✿
P 2 + D2 = S 2 .
❚❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ S ✭♣❧♦tt❡❞ s❡❝♦♥❞✮✿

❆s ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❜❡st ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❡❞ ❝❛r ✐s ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❇✉t✱ ✇✐t❤✐♥
75 ❢❡❡t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ r❡❛❞✐♥❣ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ 70 ♠♣❤✦
❋r♦♠ t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ t♦ ❛ ♠♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✳
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✈✐❛ t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✿
P 2 + D2 = S 2 ← ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡♥✬t ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ❜✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
✹✳✽✳ ❘❡❧❛t❡❞ r❛t❡s✿ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ✸✹✾

dP dS
❚❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥♥❡❝ts P ❛♥❞ S ✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❛♥❞ ②❡t✳ ❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t✿
dt dt
d
d

P 2 + D2 = S 2 =⇒
dt dt
dP dD dS
2P · + 2D = 2S · =⇒
dt dt
|{z} dt
=0
dP dS
P· =S· =⇒
dt dt
dS P dP
= .
dt S dt
❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❛❧❧② ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ ♦✉r ❡❛r❧✐❡r
❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s✿

❆♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s t❤❡ P❖❱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞r✐✈❡r✳ ▲❡t α ❜❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ❛❤❡❛❞
♦❢ ②♦✉ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦❧✐❝❡ ❝❛r✿

❚❤❡♥✿
P
cos α = .
S
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
❘❛❞❛r r❡❛❞✐♥❣ = ❛❝t✉❛❧ s♣❡❡❞ · cos α .
❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❞♦❡s α ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❛s ②♦✉ ❞r✐✈❡✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s✿

dS
• ❊❛r❧②✱ α ✐s ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 0✱ s♦ cos α ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 1✱ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐s ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 80✳
dt
✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✸✺✵

dS
• ❚❤❡♥✱ ❛s α ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡s✱ cos α ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡s t♦✇❛r❞ 0✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ❞♦❡s ✳
dt
π dS
• ■♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ α= ✱ cos α = 0✱ = 0✳
2 dt
π dS
• ❆s α ♣❛ss❡s ✱ cos α ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡s t♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ❞♦❡s ✳
2 dt
dS
• ▲❛t❡r✱ α ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s π✱ ❛♥❞ cos α ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s 1✱ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s 80✳
dt
❈♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿ ❚❤❡ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ❛❧✇❛②s ✉♥❞❡r ❡st✐♠❛t❡s ②♦✉r s♣❡❡❞✿
dS
< 80 .
dt
❯♥❧❡ss✱ t❤❡ ♣♦❧✐❝❡ ❝❛r ✐s ♦♥ t❤❡ r♦❛❞✦
■♥ t❤❛t ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ ❞♦ t♦ ✏✐♠♣r♦✈❡✑ t❤❡ r❡❛❞✐♥❣❄ ❲❤❛t ❞♦ ②♦✉ ✇❛♥t α t♦ ❜❡ ✕ ❛s ❧❛r❣❡ ❛s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✽✳✶

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ P❖❱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧✐❝❡♠❛♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❛♥❣❧❡ β ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✽✳✷

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t✱ ✇✐t❤ ♣r❡♣❛r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐t ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦❧✐❝❡♠❛♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❝❛r✬s
s♣❡❡❞✳

✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ②❡t r❡♠❛✐♥s ❧♦♥❣✿

√
x, ln x, arcsin x, ...
❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡s❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥❄ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✦
✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✸✺✶

▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ ✭❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✸✮ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ❛♥❞ ♦♥t♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)✱ ✐ts
✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ x = f
−1
(y)✱ t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s

f −1 (y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y .

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t❤❛t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✿
• x ❛♥❞ y ❛r❡ r❡❧❛t❡❞ ✇❤❡♥ y = F (x)✱ ♦r

• x ❛♥❞ y ❛r❡ r❡❧❛t❡❞ ✇❤❡♥ x = F −1 (y)✳

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥✈❡rs❡ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✿

y =x+2 ✈s✳ x=y−2

1
y = 3x ✈s✳ x= y
2
3
√
y=x ✈s✳ x= y ❢♦r x, y ≥ 0
y = ex ✈s✳ x = ln y ❢♦r y>0

❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❡①♣r❡ss t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❄
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉t✐❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✱ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝✱ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✸✮✿

f −1 (f (x))
= x ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x

f f −1 (y) = y ❢♦r ❛❧❧ y

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ✢♦✇❝❤❛rt r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛✿

x → f → y → f −1 → x (s❛♠❡ x)

y → f −1 → x → f → y (s❛♠❡ y)

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❤❡♥ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ t❤❡② ❦✐❧❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✿

▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ✏✉♥❞♦❡s✑ t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ x ❜❡❝♦♠❡s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ y✱ ✉♥❞❡r f ❛♥❞ f −1 ✿
✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✸✺✷

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♦t❤❡r r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✾✳✶✿ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ r❡✈❡rs❡s t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✇❡❧❧ t♦ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ✿

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✮ ♦❢ ❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥❄ ■t ✐s ✐ts
str❡t❝❤ r❛t✐♦✳ ◆♦✇✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❝♦♠♠♦♥ s❡♥s❡✿
◮ ■❢ f str❡t❝❤❡s t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛t t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ k ✭❛t x = a✮✱ t❤❡♥ f −1 s❤r✐♥❦s t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛t t❤❡
r❛t❡ ♦❢ k ✭❛t b = f (a)✮✳
❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♠❛t❝❤✿
1
k ❢♦r f ❛♥❞ ❢♦r f −1 .
k
■t✬s t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✾✳✷✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❣✉❡ss t❤✐s r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐♠♣❧❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ t❤❛t ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❆s t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✐s ✢✐♣♣❡❞ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s✿

❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ y A 1 1
s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ f = = = = .
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x B B/A s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ f −1
✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✸✺✸

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♥❥❡❝t✉r❡❞ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

∆f −1 1
= ∆f .
∆y ∆x

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡♥✬t ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s✱ ❛r❡✿

❚❤✐s ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✾✳✸✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ■♥✈❡rs❡
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛s t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ♦❢
t❤❡ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t✇♦ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♥♦❞❡s x ❛♥❞ x + ∆x ♦❢
❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ f (x) 6= f (x + ∆x) s♦ t❤❛t ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f −1 ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t
t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♥♦❞❡s f (x) ❛♥❞ f (x + ∆x) ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✭❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s c ❛♥❞ q ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡s❡ ❡❞❣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✮ s❛t✐s❢②✿

∆f −1 1
(q) = ∆f
∆y ∆x
(c)

❋♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ∆x → 0✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✾✳✹✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ■♥✈❡rs❡
❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛s t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐ts
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a✱ ✐ts

✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✸✺✹

✐♥✈❡rs❡ x = f −1 (y) ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t b = f (a)✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

df −1 1
(b) = df
dy dx
(a)

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❞♦♥✬t ♠❛t❝❤✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

∆x ∆y
· =1
∆y ∆x
↓ ↓
dx dy
· =1 ❛s ∆x → 0, ∆y → 0 .
dy dx
❚❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t

∆x → 0 =⇒ ∆y → 0
❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ f✳

❚♦ ❜❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t (a, b)✱ ✇❤❡r❡ b = f (a)✱ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x) ❛♥❞

✐ts t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

dy dx
❛♥❞
dx dy
x=a y=b

❛r❡ ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✿

✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✸✺✺

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✾✳✺✿ ln x
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✳ ❲❡✬❧❧ ✉s❡ ♦♥❧② ✐ts ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❛♠♦✉♥ts t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✱
♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
eln x = x .
❚❤❡ ✢♦✇ ❝❤❛rt ❜❡❧♦✇ s❤♦✇s t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❡s✿
x → u = ln x → y = eu

❇② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

(eln x )′ = (ln x)′ · eu
= (ln x)′ eln x ◆♦✇ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳
= (ln x)′ x ❈❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✳
′
= (x) = 1 .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
1
(ln x)′ = ,
x
✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r x > 0✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ✉s❡❢✉❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

1
(ln x)′ =
x

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ sin−1 x✱ cos−1 x✱ ❡t❝✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✾✳✻✿ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♣r♦♦❢

❋♦r ❛♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

f −1 (f (x)) = x .

❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆f −1 ∆f df −1 df
= 1 ❛♥❞ = 1.
∆y ∆x dy dx
❚❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✦

❚♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ♠♦r❡ ✉s❡❢✉❧✱ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✹✳✾✳✼✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ■♥✈❡rs❡ ❲✐t❤ ❇❛❝❦✲❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

❋♦r ❛♥② ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a✱ ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡ x =

f −1 (y) ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t b = f (a)✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

df −1 1
(b) = df
dy dx
(f −1 (b))

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s r❡✇r✐tt❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

′ 1
f −1 (f (a)) = .
f ′ (a)
✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✸✺✻

❆ ❜❡tt❡r ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

′ 1
f −1 (b) =
f ′ (f −1 (b))

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✾✳✽✿ arcsin x

❋✐♥❞ (sin−1 y)′ ✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❜✉t ✐ts ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ✐s ✭❢♦r −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2✮ ❛s
❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
y = sin x, ♦r x = sin−1 y .
❙✐♥❝❡ (sin x)′ = cos x✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
1 1
(sin−1 y)′ = = .
cos x cos(sin−1 y)

❚❤❛t ❝♦✉❧❞ s❡r✈❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✱ ❜✉t ✐t✬s t♦♦ ❝✉♠❜❡rs♦♠❡ ❛♥❞ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞✳ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❡①♣r❡ss
cos x ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ sin x✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s y ✿

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱

sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 ,
✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿ p
cos x = p1 − sin2 x
= 1 − y2 .
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
1
(sin−1 y)′ = p .
1 − y2

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ♦t❤❡r tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts✿

1
(sin−1 x)′ =√
1 − x2
1
(cos−1 x)′ = −√
1 − x2
1
(tan−1 x)′ =
1 + x2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✾✳✾

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✾✳✶✵

❙✐♥❝❡ (sin−1 x)′ = −(cos−1 x)′ ✱ ❞♦❡s ✐t ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t sin−1 x = − cos−1 x❄

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✐t ✐s ✐♠♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ s❡❡ ✐t ✐♥ t❤❡s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✱ ✇❡ r❡♣❡❛t✿

✹✳✶✵✳ ❘❡✈❡rs✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✸✺✼

◮ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ■♥✈❡rs❡ ❘✉❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♦♥❧②✿

dx 1
= dy .
dy dx

❆♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❜❡tt❡r ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

dx dy
· =1
dy dx

❚❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ❛ r❡s✉❧t ❢r♦♠ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ ✭✐♥t❡❣❡rs ♦♥❧②✮ ♣r♦♦❢✳ ❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤
r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ♣♦✇❡rs ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡② ❛r❡ r♦♦ts✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡rs✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✾✳✶✶✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❘❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ P♦✇❡rs

❋♦r ❛♥② ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r n✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

1
dy n 1 1
= y n −1
dy n

Pr♦♦❢✳
1
❚❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ x = yn ✐s y = xn ✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

1
dy n 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
= dxn
= =  n−1 = n−1 = yn .
dy nxn−1 1
ny n n
dx n yn

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♦♥❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✾✳✶✷✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❘❛t✐♦♥❛❧ P♦✇❡rs

❋♦r ❛♥② ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs n ❛♥❞ m✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

m
dy n m m
= y n −1
dy n

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✾✳✶✸

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t (xπ )′ = πxπ−1 ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥ ✉♥♣r♦✈❡♥✳

✹✳✶✵✳ ❘❡✈❡rs✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❡♥❝♦✉♥t❡r❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ q✉❡st✐♦♥ s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s ❜② ♥♦✇✿

✹✳✶✵✳ ❘❡✈❡rs✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✸✺✽

◮ ❲❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ ❤♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥❄

❚❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ❡q✉❛❧❧② t♦ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛❝q✉✐r❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦r ❛s ✐ts
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳ ❚♦ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✏r❡✈❡rs❡✲❡♥❣✐♥❡❡r✑ t❤❡✐r ❡✛❡❝t ♦♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❆♥♦t❤❡r s✐♠♣❧❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s ✐s t❤❛t ♦❢ ❛ ❜r♦❦❡♥ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ❛♥❞ ✐ts ✏✐♥✈❡rs❡✑✱
t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❜r♦❦❡♥ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r✿

■t ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞ ❜② s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡r✿ ■❢ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ❞✉r✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞s✱ ❝❛♥ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ♦✉r
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥❄ ❏✉st ❛❞❞ t❤❡♠ t♦❣❡t❤❡r t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✦ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = g(x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ c✱ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ❛
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱ x✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ s♦ t❤❛t g ✐s ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✿

∆f (c) = g(c)?
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡✿

❙♦❧✈❡✿ ∆f = g

❙♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t ❤❛r❞✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❜✉t f ✐s♥✬t✱ ❡①❝❡♣t ❢♦r ♦♥❡ ✭✐♥✐t✐❛❧✮ ✈❛❧✉❡✿ y0 = f (a)✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡
❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿
∆f (c1 ) = f (x0 + ∆x1 ) − f (x0 ) = g(c1 ) ,
❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s♦❧✈❡ ✐t✿
f (x1 ) = f (x0 + ∆x1 ) = f (x0 ) + g(c1 ) .
❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✐♥ t❤✐s ♠❛♥♥❡r ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f✿
f (xk+1 ) = f (xk + ∆xk ) = f (xk ) + g(ck ) .
❚❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ✿ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❧❛st ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t✳ ❚❤♦✉❣❤ ♥♦t ❛♥
❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡✦

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳

✹✳✶✵✳ ❘❡✈❡rs✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✸✺✾

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = v(x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ c✱ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ❛
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = p(x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱ x✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ s♦ t❤❛t v ✐s ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿
∆p
(c) = v(c)?
∆x
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡✿
∆p
❙♦❧✈❡✿ =v
∆x

❲❡ ❥✉st ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ v ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❜✉t p ✐s♥✬t✱ ❡①❝❡♣t ❢♦r ♦♥❡ ✭✐♥✐t✐❛❧✮ ✈❛❧✉❡✿ y0 = p(a)✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡
❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿
∆p p(x0 + ∆x1 ) − p(x0 )
(c1 ) = = v(c1 ) ,
∆x ∆x1
❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s♦❧✈❡ ✐t✿
p(x1 ) = p(x0 + ∆x1 ) = p(x0 ) + v(c1 )∆x1 .
❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✐♥ t❤✐s ♠❛♥♥❡r ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f ✿
p(xk+1 ) = p(xk + ∆xk ) = p(xk ) + v(ck )∆xk .
❚❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ❛❧s♦ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡✱ ❜✉t✱ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ r❡✈❡rs✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞✦
❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ❢❛❝❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ → ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② → ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❣♦ ✐♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✿
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ← ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ← ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛r❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛❀ t❤❡② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❢♦r x✿
√
x2 = 4 =⇒ x = 2 ✈✐❛ ·
2 x
= 8 =⇒ x = 3 ✈✐❛ log2 (·)
sin x = 0 =⇒ x = 0 ✈✐❛ sin−1 (·)
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ ❞♦ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t❄ ■♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱
✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② r❡❝♦❧❧❡❝t ❛ ♣❛st ❡①♣❡r✐❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦ ❋♦r ❛ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ✉s❡✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ ❞♦ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❦♥♦✇ ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ❝❛♠❡ ❢r♦♠❄ ❲❡
♥❡❡❞ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡s❡✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
f ′ = 2x =⇒ f = x2
f ′ = cos x =⇒ f = sin x
f ′ = ex =⇒ f = ex

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡✿

dp
❙♦❧✈❡✿ =v
dx

❚❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t ❛s ❡❛s② ❛s t❤❡ ❧❛st✳

■♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② r❡❝♦❧❧❡❝t ❛ ♣❛st ❡①♣❡r✐❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✦ ❋♦r ❛ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ✉s❡✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦
❞❡✈❡❧♦♣ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✮✳ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ♥♦t ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ ❜✉t ❛ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛
❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ s✐♥❣❧❡✱ ❡✈❡♥ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡✱ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳
❚❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳
✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✸✻✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✶✿ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

❚❤❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✏✐♥✈❡rs❡✑ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ st❡♠s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦r
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡ ❢r♦♠ ♦✉r ❡①♣❡r✐❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✱
✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts✿
✶✳ ❋♦r t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦✳ =⇒ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ =⇒ ❚❤❡
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
✷✳ ❋♦r t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ =⇒ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
=⇒ ❚❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✿

d
x2 → → 2x
dx
 −1
d
2x → → x2
dx

❲❡✬✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ♦♥❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳ ❆r❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛♥② ♦t❤❡rs❄ ❨❡s✱ (x2 + 1)′ = 2x✳ ❆♥❞ ♠♦r❡✿

x2 + 1
ր
2x → x2
ց
x2 − 1

d
❆s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✕ ✐s♥✬t ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✦
dx
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✷

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛❦❡ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ❜② r❡str✐❝t✐♥❣ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳ ❍♦✇ ✇♦✉❧❞ t❤❛t ✇♦r❦ ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛✲
t✐♦♥❄

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡s❡ ✐❞❡❛s t♦ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥

❆ s♦❝❝❡r ❜❛❧❧ r♦❧❧✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿

✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✸✻✶

❆ ♣✐♥❣✲♣♦♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ t❤r♦✇♥ ✉♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛✐r ❣♦❡s ✉♣✱ s❧♦✇s ❞♦✇♥ ✉♥t✐❧ ✐t st♦♣s ❢♦r ❛♥ ✐♥st❛♥t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t❡s
t♦✇❛r❞ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡✿

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❞♦ ❜♦t❤✿ ❲❡ r♦❧❧ ❛ s♦❝❝❡r ❜❛❧❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② ❛♥❞ t❤r♦✇ ❛ ♣✐♥❣✲♣♦♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧②❄ ▲❡t✬s tr② t♦
❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❜♦t❤ ❜❛❧❧s ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡✿

❲❡✬❞ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ✢② t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❛✐r ❛s ✐❢ t❤r♦✇♥ ❛t ❛♥ ❛♥❣❧❡✦

❖✉r ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ✐s t❤❛t ❛ t❤r♦✇♥ ❜❛❧❧ ♠♦✈❡s ✐♥ ❜♦t❤ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✱ s✐♠✉❧t❛♥❡♦✉s❧②
❛♥❞ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧②✿

❚❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ✐s ✈❡r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✿

✶✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛s t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❢♦r❝❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡♠❛✐♥s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
✷✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧② ❝❤❛♥❣❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ♦❢ ❣r❛✈✐t②✳
▲❡t✬s ♥♦✇ ✉s❡ t❤❡s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐♣t✐♦♥s t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧②✳
❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❤♦✇ ❡❛r❧✐❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts t♦ ✜♥❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿
∆p pn+1 − pn ∆v vn+1 − vn
vn = = ❛♥❞ an = = ,
∆t h ∆t h
✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✸✻✷

✇❤❡r❡ h ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡❡♥ s♦❧✈❡❞ ❢♦r pn+1 ❛♥❞ vn+1 r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧② ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ♠♦❞❡❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥

❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿

vn+1 = vn + han ❛♥❞ pn+1 = pn + hvn .

❚❤❡s❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ♠✐❣❤t ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✿

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ s✉❝❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✳

❲❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠♦st ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t ✇❛②✿

• ❚❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✳

• ❚❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ✐s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✳

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ ❛❜❛♥❞♦♥ t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r y = f (x) s❡t✉♣✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤r❡❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♥♦✇✿

• t ✐s t✐♠❡✳

• x ✐s t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤✳

• y ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✳

❊✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ s♣❛t✐❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❚❤❡✐r ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✸✻✸

▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ✇✐❧❧ ❛♣♣❡❛r t♦ ❛♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❡r ❛s ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡✱ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② ❛❧✐❣♥❡❞✱ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡
✭r✐❣❤t✮✳
❍✐st♦r✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡r② ✜rst ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✇❛s ✐♥ ❜❛❧❧✐st✐❝s✳ ❇❡❢♦r❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ♦♥❡ ❤❛❞ t♦ r❡s♦rt
t♦ tr✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❡rr♦r ❛♥❞ ✇❛t❝❤✐♥❣ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧s ✇❡r❡ ❧❛♥❞✐♥❣✳ ❆ ✇❡❧❧✲❞❡s✐❣♥❡❞ t❡st ♠❛② ♣r♦✈✐❞❡
♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ t❛❜❧❡ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✮ t❤❛t ❣✐✈❡s t❤❡ s❤♦t ❧❡♥❣t❤ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rr❡❧✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ s✉❝❤ ❛
r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♠❛② ♣r♦✈❡ ✉s❡❧❡ss ✇❤❡♥ ♦♥❡ ✐s t♦ s❤♦♦t ❢r♦♠ ❛♥ ❡❧❡✈❛t❡❞ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ♦r ❛t ❛♥ ❡❧❡✈❛t❡❞ t❛r❣❡t✱
♦r ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ♦❜st❛❝❧❡✳
◮ P❘❖❇▲❊▼✿ ❋r♦♠ ❛ 200✲❢♦♦t ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✐s ✜r❡❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② ❛t 200 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳
❍♦✇ ❢❛r ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧ ❣♦❄

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ♣❛t❤✦

▲❡t h = ∆t ❜❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ s✐① s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞
❢♦✉r t✐♠❡s✿
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ xn yn
xn+1 − xn yn+1 − yn
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn = un = ❉◗
h h
vn+1 − vn un+1 − un
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an = bn = ❉◗
h h
◆♦✇✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❣♦ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❣♦ ✐♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✿ t❤❡
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❤❡♥ ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❡♥❞ ✉♣ ✇✐t❤
t❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ✭t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✮ ❢♦r ♦✉r s✐① s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an bn
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn+1 = vn + han un+1 = un + hbn ❘❙
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ xn+1 = xn + hvn yn+1 = yn + hun ❘❙

◆♦✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❥✉st ♦♥❡ ❢♦r❝❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
✐s ③❡r♦ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✭❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ sq✉❛r❡❞✮✿
a = 0, b = −32 .

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❛❝q✉✐r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿

x y
✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿ x0 = 0 y0 = 200
✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿ v0 = 200 u0 = 0
❚❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r ♥✉♠❜❡rs s❡r✈❡ ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ♦✉r ❢♦✉r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
t✐♠❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
t0 ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ a0 = 0 b0 = −32
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v1 = 200 + .1 · 0 u1 = 0 + .1 · (−32)
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ x1 = 0 + .1 · 200 y1 = 200 + .1 · 0
t1 = t0 + h ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ a1 = 0 b1 = −32
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v2 = v1 + ha1 u2 = u1 + hb1
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ x2 = x1 + hv1 y3 = y1 n + hu1
t2 = t1 + h ... ...
✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✸✻✹

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❡✈❡r② h = .1 s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✱
❝♦♣② t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❢♦r ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ♣❛st❡ ♥❡①t✿

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s✱ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ a = 0✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✿ ❤♦✇ ❢❛r

❚♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✇❡ s❝r♦❧❧ ❞♦✇♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ y ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 0✳

■t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ❛❜♦✉t t = 3.5✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x ❛t t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐s ❛❜♦✉t x = 700✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛st ✐s ✐t ❣♦✐♥❣ ❛t
t❤❡ t✐♠❡❄ ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✈❛❧✉❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r♦✇✿

√
2002 + 1082 ≈ 227.3 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞.

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ x✲ ❛♥❞ y ✲❝♦❧✉♠♥s t♦ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ♣❛t❤✿

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛s❦ ❛♥❞ ❛♥s✇❡r ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ q✉❡st✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t s✉❝❤ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳ ❇✉t ✜rst✱ ❧❡t✬s
✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rr❡❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ♠♦❞❡❧✳

❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ 200 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ✉s✐♥❣ ✐s t❤❡ ✏♠✉③③❧❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✑✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞✱ s✱ ✇✐t❤ ✇❤✐❝❤
t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧ ❧❡❛✈❡s t❤❡ ♠✉③③❧❡ ✕ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡✱ α✱ ✐s✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛♥❞
t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠✿
✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✸✻✺

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr②✿

v0 = s cos α ❛♥❞ u0 = s sin α .

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡♠ ❜❡❧♦✇ t♦ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❢r❡❡❧② ❡♥t❡r t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✭❤✐❣❤❧✐❣❤t❡❞ ✐♥ ❣r❡❡♥✮✿

• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ s♣❡❡❞

• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❛♥❣❧❡

• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥

• ❛❧❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ r❡st ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✷✿ ❧♦♥❣❡st s❤♦t

■s ✐t r❡❛❧❧② tr✉❡ t❤❛t 45 ❞❡❣r❡❡s ✐s t❤❡ ❜❡st ❛♥❣❧❡ t♦ s❤♦♦t ❢♦r ❛ ❧♦♥❣❡r ❞✐st❛♥❝❡❄ ❚♦ t❡st t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛✱ ✇❡

tr② t♦ s❤♦♦t ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❛♥❣❧❡ ❥✉st ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❥✉st ❜❡❧♦✇✿

■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs t❤❛t t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❜❡st✱ ❜✉t ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ♣r♦✈❡ t❤✐s ✇✐t❤ ❥✉st t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧

♠❡t❤♦❞s✳

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ tr② t♦ s❤♦♦t ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❤✐❧❧ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ s❛②✱ 500 ❢❡❡t ❤✐❣❤❄
✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✸✻✻

■t✬s ♥♦t t❤❡ ❜❡st ❛♥②♠♦r❡✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✸

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❜❡st s❤♦t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ✢❛t ❛s t❤❡ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ❣r♦✇s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✹✿ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✐❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② s✉❞❞❡♥❧② ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛rs❄ ■♥ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st
r❡♣❧❛❝❡ −32 ✇✐t❤ 0 ❛❢t❡r ❛ ❢❡✇ r♦✇s✿

❚❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧ ✢✐❡s ♦✛ ♦♥ ❛ t❛♥❣❡♥t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✺✿ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✐❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② st❛rts t♦ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡❄ ❲❡ tr② t♦ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ ❞♦✇♥ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ 1 ❢♦♦t ♣❡r
s❡❝♦♥❞ sq✉❛r❡❞ ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✿

❚❤❡ tr❛❥❡❝t♦r② ❧♦♦❦s st❡❡♣❡r ❛♥❞ st❡❡♣❡r✱ ❜✉t ✐s t❤❡r❡ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ❄ ❲❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❛♥s✇❡r ✇✐t❤ ❥✉st
t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ♠❡t❤♦❞s✳
✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✸✻✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✻✿ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❣r❛✈✐t②

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✐❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② ✐s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✐♥st❡❛❞❄ ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛❧♦♥❣ ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ t❤❛t ❧✐❡s ♦♥ ✐ts
s✐❞❡✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❜♦t❤ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❣r❛✈✐t②❄ ▲❡t✬s ♠♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣❧② ❜② r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ 0✬s ✇✐t❤ −32 ✐♥ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❝♦❧✉♠♥✿

■s t❤✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✼

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳

■♥ s♣✐t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❡r♦✉s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❞♦ ♦♥❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✦ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❞r❛✇ ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ s♣❡❝✐✜❝
t♦ t❤❡s❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥s ✭❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✱ ❡t❝✳✮✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤② ✇❡ ♥♦✇ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❡✈❡r②t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✈❡✿

h = ∆t → 0

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ s✐① s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ s✐① ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿

x✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤✱ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ v = x′ ✱ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② a = v ′ ✱ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
y ✱ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ u = y ′ ✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② b = u′ ✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ❛s ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡r ❛♥②♠♦r❡✦
◆♦✇ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✿
a = 0, b = −g .

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r t❤❛t✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❤♦✇ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺ t❤❛t✱ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐s ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳
❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❛❜♦✉t ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ x = x(t) ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ y = y(t) ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳
❲❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✿
✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✸✻✽

dx
x0 ✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❞❡♣t❤✱ x0 = x(0) v0 ✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ v(0) =
dt t=0
dy
y0 ✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ y0 = y(0) u0 ✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ u(0) =
dt t=0
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
x = x0 +v0 t
1
y = y0 +u0 t − gt2
2

❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❝❛rr② t❤✐s ♦✉t ❢♦r x ❛♥❞ y
s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✽✿ ❤♦✇ ❢❛r

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐s✐t t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❛❜♦✉t ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ s❤♦t ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✳ ❖✉r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜❡❝♦♠❡✿
x = 200t
y = 200 −16t2

◆♦✇✱ ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ✐s y0 ✱ s♦ t♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞✱ ✇❡ s❡t y = 0✱ ♦r
200 − 16t2 = 0 ,

❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r t✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ♦❢ ❧❛♥❞✐♥❣ ✐s✿

r √
200 5 2
t1 = = .
16 2
❚♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞✱ ✇❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤✐s ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t ✐♥t♦ x❀ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s✿
√
5 2
x1 = 200t1 = 200 ≈ 707 .
2
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛t❝❤❡s ♦✉r ❡st✐♠❛t❡✦

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦✈❡ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✻ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧♦♥❣❡st ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ❛❝❤✐❡✈❡❞ ✇❤❡♥ s❤♦t ❛t 45 ❞❡❣r❡❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✾✿ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣r❛❝t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✈✐❡✇✱ ♥♦ s❤♦t ✐s ♣❡r❢❡❝t❧② ❛❝❝✉r❛t❡✳ ❊✈❡♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ✐s s❡❡♥
❛s ♣❡r❢❡❝t✱ ♦✉r ❧✐♠✐t❡❞ ❦♥♦✇❧❡❞❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛♥② ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡rs t❤❛t ❛✛❡❝t t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ ♦✉r s❤♦t ✇✐❧❧
♠❛❦❡ ✉s ✉♥❞❡r✲ ♦r ♦✈❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✜♥❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧✳
✹✳✶✶✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✸✻✾

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❥✉st ♦♥❡✿ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ ♦✉r ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤✐❧❧✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ H ✱ ✈❛r✐❡s✱
t❤❡♥ s♦ ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡ ♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✱ D✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❤♦t✳ ❚❤❡ ❣♦♦❞ ♥❡✇s ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❡rr♦r ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✇✐❧❧
❧❡❛❞ t♦ ❛ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❡rr♦r ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✦

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❝❤✐❡✈❡ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✱ ε✱ ♦❢ ♦✉r s❤♦t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❡♥s✉r❡ ❛ s✉✣❝✐❡♥t
❛♥②

❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✱ δ✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤✐❧❧✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ D ♦♥ H
✐s ✿ ❚❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❤♦t ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✳
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✵

Pr♦✈❡ t❤✐s st❛t❡♠❡♥t ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✶

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ t❛r❣❡t s❤♦♦t✐♥❣ t❤✐s ✇❛s ❛ ❣❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❡♥♥✐s❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✷

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❤♦t ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✳
❛♥❣❧❡

■t s♦ ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✦ ■♥ t❤❛t ❝❛s❡✱ t❤✐s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡
❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x ✐♥t♦ y(t)✳
■s t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛❄ ■t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ♦♥❡ ✇❤❡♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ♣♦✐♥t ❜② ♣♦✐♥t ✭❛s ❛❜♦✈❡✮✱ ❜✉t ❧❡t✬s ❞♦ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛
♥♦✇✳ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r x✱
x = x 0 + v0 t ,
✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t
t = (x − x0 )/v0
✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r v0 6= 0✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r y✿
u0 g
y = y0 + (x − x0 ) − 2 (x − x0 )2
v0 2v0

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♣r♦✈❡♥ ✐t✿

◮ ❚❤❡ tr❛❥❡❝t♦r② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧ ✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✳

❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤② t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ tr❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❦② ✐s ❝✉r✈❡❞ t❤✐s ✇❛②✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✸

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ✇❤❡♥ v0 = 0❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✹

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t uv ✐s t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❤♦t✳
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✿ ❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥✲
t✐❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✺✳✶ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✼✵
✺✳✷ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✽✻
✺✳✸ ❲❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾✶
✺✳✹ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾✽
✺✳✺ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✵✸
✺✳✻ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✶✺
✺✳✼ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷✷
✺✳✽ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷✻

✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s s♦ ❢❛r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✶✿ ❢❛r♠❡r

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✱ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✱ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✷✮✿ ❆ ❢❛r♠❡r
✇✐t❤ 100 ②❛r❞s ♦❢ ❢❡♥❝✐♥❣ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ✇❛♥ts t♦ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛s ❧❛r❣❡ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡ ❛s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❢♦r ❤✐s
❝❛tt❧❡✿

❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ W ✭t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤ D = 50 − W ✮ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ A✳ ❚❤❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐s ❛
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ W ✿
A = W (50 − W ) .
❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣❢✉❧ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ [0, 50]✳

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿

◮ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ A(W ) = −W 2 + 50W ✇✐t❤ 0 ≤ W ≤ 50❄
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✼✶

■♥ ✐ts s✐♠♣❧❡st ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r t♦ t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② ❡①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜②
t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛♥❞ ❝❤♦♦s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ✈❛❧✉❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ A✲❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✭t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts✮✿

❚❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❛♣♣❡❛rs t♦ ❜❡ 25 · 25 = 625✳

❚♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠✱ ✇❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ A ♦♥ W ✳ ❲❡ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛

♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛♥❞ ♥♦t✐❝❡ ❛ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ♦❢ ❣r♦✇t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ A✲❝♦❧✉♠♥✳

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✇❛t❝❤ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ A❀ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❡❛s✐❧② ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡
✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✦ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ♦❢ ♦✉r
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ t♦♦✳ ❲❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❛t ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [0, 25]✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡
❛♥❞ ❡❧s❡✇❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳

◆♦✇✱ ❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s❧✐❣❤t❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✳ ❊①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ r❡✈❡❛❧s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❧✐❡s
s♦♠❡✇❤❡r❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s t❤❡ ✢❛tt❡st✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ ❝❧♦s❡st t♦ ③❡r♦✳ ❇✉t t❤❡s❡ s❧♦♣❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ♦❢ ♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞
t❤❡♠✳ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
∆A
= −2W − h + 50 .
∆W
❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [25, 25 + h]✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s −h✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ♣♦t❡♥t✐❛❧❧② t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r
❝❧♦s❡st t♦ 0 ✭♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ h ✐s s♠❛❧❧ ❡♥♦✉❣❤✮✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛rr✐✈❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t ❛s ❛❜♦✈❡✦

❇❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣❛♣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡❧② s✉r❡ ✇❡✬✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❜❡st
❛♥s✇❡r ♦r t❤❛t ✇❡✬✈❡ ❢✉❧❧② ❝❧❛ss✐✜❡❞ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts✿

❉❡♣❡♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❤♦✇ ❡①♣❡♥s✐✈❡ ❡✈❡r② ❢♦♦t ♦❢ ❢❡♥❝✐♥❣ ✐s✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r A ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ [0, 50]✳

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ t♦♦❧s ❛t ♦✉r ❞✐s♣♦s❛❧✳ ❊①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ r❡✈❡❛❧s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❧✐❡s
s♦♠❡✇❤❡r❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s ❝❧♦s❡st t♦ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡
s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✐s ③❡r♦✳ ❇✉t t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✼✷

❋♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
dA
= −2W + 50 .
dW
❲❡ s❡t ✐t ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0 ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡✿
−2W + 50 = 0 .
❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ❛t W = 25✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 0✳ ❆♥❞ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ♦t❤❡r ♣♦✐♥ts ❧✐❦❡ t❤❛t✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❡①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ r❡✈❡❛❧s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✱ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t②
✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (0, 25)✱ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s str✐❝t❧② ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ♦♥ (25, 50) ✐t ✐s str✐❝t❧② ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳ ❚❤✐s ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❛♠♦✉♥ts t♦ s♦❧✈✐♥❣
❛♥ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✿
dA dA
>0 ✇❤❡♥ W < 25 ❛♥❞ <0 ✇❤❡♥ W > 25 .
dW dW

❍♦✇ ❝❛♥ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ♦✉t ❛❜♦✉t ❛♥② ❣✐✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡t❤❡r ❛♥❞ ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ❤❛s ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛♥❞ ✐ts
♠❛①✴♠✐♥ ♣♦✐♥ts❄ ❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ✐s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❜✉t ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ r❡❛❝❤ t❤✐s ❣♦❛❧ ✐♥ s❡✈❡r❛❧
st❛❣❡s✳ ❋✐rst✱ s♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✳

❲❡ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s ♦♥❡s ✇✐t❤ ❣r❛♣❤s r✐s✐♥❣✱ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s ♦♥❡s ✇✐t❤ ❣r❛♣❤s
❢❛❧❧✐♥❣✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛❜♦✈❡ ♦r ❜❡❧♦✇ ♦t❤❡r
♣❛rts✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♠✉st r❡❧② ♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✳✷✿ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) I ♦❢ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳
❛♥❞ ❛ s✉❜s❡t
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ I ✐❢✱ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ a, b ✐♥ I ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

✐❢ a ≤ b, t❤❡♥ f (a) ≤ f (b) .

✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ I ✐❢✱ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ a, b ✐♥ I✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

✐❢ a ≤ b, t❤❡♥ f (a) ≥ f (b) .

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ str✐❝t❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②
✐❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ ♥♦♥✲str✐❝t ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②
s✐❣♥s ✏ ≤✑ ❛♥❞ ✏ ≥✑ ✇✐t❤ str✐❝t ✏ <✑ ❛♥❞ ✏ >✑✳ ❈♦❧❧❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡
❝❛❧❧❡❞ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❛♥❞ str✐❝t❧② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡✳

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡t I ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥t ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ✭❛s s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r
✶P❈✲✹✮ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ❞r❛✇✐♥❣ s✉❝❤ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ♠❡❛♥s ❝♦♠♣❛r✐♥❣ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts✿
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✼✸

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✸✿ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ❄ ▲❡t✬s ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ x✲
❛♥❞ y ✲❛①✐s s✐❞❡ ❜② s✐❞❡✿

❆♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ✢✐♣ ❛♥② ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❛ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✢✐♣s ❛❧❧✦

◆❡①t✱ ♠❛①✐♠❛ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠❛✿

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠❛ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠❛ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s t❤♦s❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛❜♦✈❡
♦r ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛❧❧ ♦t❤❡rs✱ t❤❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♠✉st r❡❧②✱ ♦♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t
❛ t✐♠❡ ✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✳✹✿ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠❛ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠❛
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❛♥❞ ❛ s✉❜s❡t I ♦❢ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳
✶✳ ◆✉♠❜❡r x = c ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ f ♦♥ I ✐❢ f (c) ✐s t❤❡
♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ f ♦♥ I ✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
f (c) ≥ f (x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ I ,
❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f ♦♥ I ✳
t❤❡♥ y = f (c) ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡
✷✳ ◆✉♠❜❡r x = c ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ f ♦♥ I ✐❢ f (c) ✐s t❤❡
♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ f ♦♥ I ✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
f (c) ≤ f (x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ I ,
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✼✹

t❤❡♥ y = f (c) ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡

✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♦❢ f ♦♥ I✳
❲❡ ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✱ ♦r ❡①tr❡♠❛✳

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♠❛♥② ♠❛① ♣♦✐♥ts ✭t❤♦s❡ ❛r❡ x✬s✮ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ♠❛① ✈❛❧✉❡ ✭t❤✐s ✐s ❛ y ✮✳

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ✏❤✐❣❤❡st ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✑ ✐♥ ❛♥ ❛r❡❛ ❜✉t t❤❡r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♠❛♥② ✏❤✐❣❤❡st ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✑✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✺✿ ♠❛♥② ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥ts

❖✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I = (−∞, +∞)✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = sin x ❤❛s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡✱
y = 1✱ ❜✉t ♠❛♥② ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥ts✱

x = π/2 + 2πk, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡✱ y = −1✱ ❜✉t ♠❛♥② ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥ts✿

x = −π/2 + 2πk, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛t ✐ts ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❧✐♠✐t ♦✉r ❛tt❡♥t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❛✈♦✐❞ t❤❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✕ t❤❡
s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✜♠✉♠ ✕ ❛r❡ ♥❡✈❡r r❡❛❝❤❡❞ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✮✿

❚❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ♦✉r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡✱ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ∆f ♦❢ f✳ ❚❤❡✐r s✐❣♥s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ✇❤❡t❤❡r
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✼✺

t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣♦❡s ✉♣ ♦r ❞♦✇♥ ❢r♦♠ ♥♦❞❡ t♦ ♥♦❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿

∆f
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ∆f ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❝♦♠❡ ❤❛♥❞ ✐♥ ❤❛♥❞✿
∆x

∆f
f (xk ) ≤ f (xk+1 ) ⇐⇒ ∆f (ck ) ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ (ck ) ≥ 0
∆x

❚❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝❛s❡ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞✦ ❲❡ ✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✻✿ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ ❙✐❣♥ ♦❢ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❚❤❡♥✿
• ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ✭str✐❝t❧②✮ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ∆f ✐s
♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✭♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✮✳
• ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ✭str✐❝t❧②✮ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ∆f ✐s
♥♦♥✲♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✭♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✮✳

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② ∆x > 0✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✼✿ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ ❙✐❣♥ ♦❢ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❚❤❡♥✿
• ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ✭str✐❝t❧②✮ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t
∆f
✐s ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✭♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✮✳
∆x
• ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ✭str✐❝t❧②✮ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t
∆f
✐s ♥♦♥✲♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✭♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✮✳
∆x

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ ❜② t❤❡s❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✿

✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✼✻

❍♦✇ ❞♦❡s t❤✐s ❤❡❧♣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ✏❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✑
❝❛s❡❄ ❚❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✕ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r s✐❣♥ ✕ ✇✐❧❧ t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳

❇✉t ✜rst✱ ❧❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇✳

❲❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ■ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ✐ts s❧♦♣❡✿

f (x) = mx + b
f ′ (x) = m
❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡ ✐ts ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❜② ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ✭❛s s❡❡♥ ✐♥
❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✺✮✿

m < 0 =⇒ mu + b > mv + b ✐❢ u < v =⇒ f ✐s str✐❝t❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣

m = 0 =⇒ mu + b = mv + b ✐❢ u < v =⇒ f ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t
m > 0 =⇒ mu + b < mv + b ✐❢ u < v =⇒ f ✐s str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡❞ t❤❛t ♦♥❧② t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♠❛tt❡r✿

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r②✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✽✿ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❆ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s✿

✶✳ str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✱ ❛♥❞

✷✳ str✐❝t❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳

❚❤✐♥❣s ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ✐❢ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❛♥❛❧②③❡ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✿

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, a 6= 0 .
❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ❛❧❧ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛r❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡②
❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ y = x2 ✳ ❲❤❛t ♠❛tt❡rs ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧②✱ ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡
✈❡rt❡① ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✿
b
v=− .
2a
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✼✼

❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ x = v ✐s t❤❡ ❛①✐s ♦❢ s②♠♠❡tr② ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✳
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
• ■❢ a > 0✱ t❤❡♥ f ✐s str✐❝t❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ (−∞, v) ❛♥❞ str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ (v, +∞)✳
• ■❢ a < 0✱ t❤❡♥ f ✐s str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ (−∞, v) ❛♥❞ str✐❝t❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ (v, +∞)✳
❇✉t✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt❡① ✐s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts s✐❣♥ ✦ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱
f ′ (x) = 2ax + b ,

✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❡❛s✐❧② ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

• ■❢ a > 0✱ t❤❡♥ f ′ < 0 ♦♥ (−∞, v) ❛♥❞ f ′ > 0 ♦♥ (v, +∞)✳
• ■❢ a < 0✱ t❤❡♥ f ′ > 0 ♦♥ (−∞, v) ❛♥❞ f ′ < 0 ♦♥ (v, +∞)✳
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♥❦✿

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✾✿ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ ◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❆ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s✿

✶✳ str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✱ ❛♥❞

✷✳ str✐❝t❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳

❚❤❡ t✇♦ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ♠❛t❝❤✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✶✵✿ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡

❋♦r t❤❡ ✜rst ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt❡① ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ ✐s ❛t
0 + 50
v= = 25 .
2
❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s
♦❢ t❤✐s s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✿
• ❆s ✇❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ❢r♦♠ 0✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❛❧s♦ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡s✳
• ❆s t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ r❡❛❝❤❡s 25✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ r❡❛❝❤❡s ✐ts ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ 625✳
• ❆s ✇❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ♣❛st 25✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ st❛rts t♦ ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡✳

❲✐t❤ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣✐♥❣✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ t❛❦❡ ❛♥ ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✿ ❢r♦♠ ❧♦❝❛❧ t♦ ❣❧♦❜❛❧
✳ ❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ♦✉r ✐♥t❡r❡st ✐s t❤❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♥ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❛✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✜rst s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s✿
✶✳ ■s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ str✐❝t❧② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t❄
✷✳ ■s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥t t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ♦r t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡st ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t❄
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✼✽

■♥ ♦✉r s❡❛r❝❤ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❡①tr❡♠❛✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❧♦s❡rs ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♣♦t❡♥t✐❛❧ ✇✐♥♥❡rs ♦❢ t❤✐s
❝♦♥t❡st✿

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥♦✇ ❧❡❛r♥ ❤♦✇ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳
❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ❢♦r ♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❡♥❝♦❞❡s
✐s❧♦❝❛❧ ✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (a, f (a)) ②♦✉ ❦❡❡♣✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
f ′ (a) ❛t t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛r❡ t❤❡ st❡♣♣✐♥❣ st♦♥❡s t♦✇❛r❞ ❛ r❡❛❧✐st✐❝ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ❢♦r ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ✇❤❛t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞
❛❜♦✈❡✳
❚❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ s✉♣♣❧② ✉s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s
♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡✿

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✱ ✐♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st✱ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♠❛tt❡rs✿
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✼✾

▲❡t✬s ♠❛❦❡ ✐t ♣r❡❝✐s❡✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✳✶✶✿ ❧♦❝❛❧❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣
✶✳ ❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❧♦❝❛❧❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛t x = c ✐❢ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ s♦♠❡ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
I ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ f ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ c✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• f (x) ≤ f (c) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x < c✱ ❛♥❞
• f (x) ≥ f (c) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x > c✳
✷✳ ❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❧♦❝❛❧❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛t x = c ✐❢ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ s♦♠❡ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
I ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ f ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ c✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• f (x) ≥ f (c) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x < c✱ ❛♥❞
• f (x) ≤ f (c) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x > c✳
❲❡ ❛❧s♦ s❛② t❤❛t f ✐s ❧♦❝❛❧❧② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❛t t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

x< c <x

f ր f (x) ≤ f (c) ≤ f (x)

f ց f (x) ≥ f (c) ≥ f (x)

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✳✶✷
❉♦❡s t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ❛r♦✉♥❞ c s✉❝❤ t❤❛t f r❡str✐❝t❡❞ t♦ I ✐s
✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦r ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②❄

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

❋✐rst✱ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛r❡ ♥♦t ❛♠♦♥❣ t❤❡ ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s✦
❚❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ s✉♣♣❧② ✉s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ♣♦✐♥t ♦✈❡r ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✱ ✐♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st✱ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♠❛tt❡rs✿
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✽✵

▲❡t✬s ♠❛❦❡ ✐t ♣r❡❝✐s❡✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✳✶✸✿ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥ts
✶✳ ❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❤❛s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t x = c ✐❢ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ s♦♠❡ ♦♣❡♥
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s c✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (c) ≤ f (x) .

✷✳ ❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❤❛s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t x = c ✐❢ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ s♦♠❡

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s c✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (c) ≥ f (x) .

❲❡ ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✱ ♦r ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❛✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ❛r♦✉♥❞ c s✉❝❤ t❤❛t c ✐s t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✭♦r ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✮ ♣♦✐♥t
✇❤❡♥ f ✐s r❡str✐❝t❡❞ t♦ I ✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ✐♥ ❜♦t❤ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲str✐❝t✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ♦✉r ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❛✦

❆ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r❡st ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s r❡❞✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s t♦ ❜❡ ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ s♦♠❡✇❤❡r❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣✐♥❦
❛r❡❛✳
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝❧❛ss✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✶✹✿ ▲♦❝❛❧ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❊①tr❡♠❛
❆t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜♦t❤ ❜❡ ❧♦❝❛❧❧② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❛♥❞
❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠✉♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✳✶✺
●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ♥❡✐t❤❡r ✐s ❧♦❝❛❧❧② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ♥♦r ❤❛s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①✲
tr❡♠✉♠✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ✕ ❧♦❝❛❧ ✕ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts t♦ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ✕ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ✕ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✶✻✿ ❋r♦♠ ▲♦❝❛❧ t♦ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t②
■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✭♦r ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✮ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✱ t❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s ❧♦❝❛❧❧②
✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✭♦r ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✮ ❛t ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ I✳
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✽✶

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✶✼✿ ❋r♦♠ ▲♦❝❛❧ t♦ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ❊①tr❡♠❛

■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✭♦r ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✮ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t x = c✱ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✱ t❤❡♥ x = c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✭♦r ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✮✳

■♥ t❤❡ ✜rst st❛❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t❡st ❢♦r t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❛✱ ✇❡ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛t❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ♣❛rt✐❝✐♣❛♥ts✿

❲❡ ♦♥❧② ❦❡❡♣ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❛✳ ❚②♣✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❧❡❢t ✇✐t❤ ❥✉st ❛ ❢❡✇✳
◆♦✇✱ ❤♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts❄ ❲❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s✿

❚❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♣✐❝t✉r❡ s✉❣❣❡st t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿
✶✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❧♦❝❛❧❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t c✱ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
f ′ (c) ≥ 0✳
✷✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t c✱ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
f ′ (c) = 0✳
✸✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❧♦❝❛❧❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t c✱ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
f ′ (c) ≤ 0✳
❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥✐♥❣ ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐s t❤❛t ✐❢ f ′ (c) 6= 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❡✐t❤❡r f ′ (c) > 0 ♦r f ′ (c) < 0✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ✐♥✱ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♠❡r❣❡s ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♥♦ ♠❛① ♦r ♠✐♥✦
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✶✽✿ ▲♦❝❛❧ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t②

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = c✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✐❢ f ✐s ❧♦❝❛❧❧②

✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦r ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t x = c✱ t❤❡♥✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱
f ′ (c) ≥ 0 ❖❘ f ′ (c) ≤ 0 .

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s t♦ ✇❛t❝❤ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s t♦ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✿
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✽✷

Pr♦♦❢✳

▲❡t✬s s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t f ✐s ❧♦❝❛❧❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛t c✳ ◆♦✇✱ f ′ (c) ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s
t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (c, f (c)) ❛s s❤♦✇♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ❜♦t❤ t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦❢ c
❤❛✈❡ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ s❧♦♣❡s✿
≥0
z }| {
f (c) − f (x)
s❧♦♣❡ = ≥ 0.
c−x
| {z }
≥0

❆♣♣❧② ♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐ts ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✮✿

g(x) ≥ 0 =⇒ lim g(x) ≥ 0 .
x→c

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t f ′ (c) ≥ 0✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✳✶✾

❇❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✜♥✐s❤ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡ ✏■❢ f ′ (c) ≥ 0✱ t❤❡♥ ✳✳✳✳✳✳✳✑

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✳✷✵

❇❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✜♥✐s❤ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡ ✏■❢ f ′ (c) < 0✱ t❤❡♥ ✳✳✳✳✳✳✳✑

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❝r✉❝✐❛❧ ❢♦r ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✷✶✿ ▲♦❝❛❧ ❊①tr❡♠❛ ✭❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✮

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = c✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✐❢ x = c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧

❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ y = f (x)✱ t❤❡♥
f ′ (c) = 0 .

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t♦ ✇❛t❝❤ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s t♦ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✿
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✽✸

Pr♦♦❢✳

▲❡t✬s s✉♣♣♦s❡ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✿ f (c) ≥ f (x) ✇✐t❤✐♥ s♦♠❡ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s c✳ ❆❣❛✐♥✱
f ′ (c) ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (c, f (c))✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢
❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❜✉t s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧② ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦❢ c✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

x< c >x
s❧♦♣❡s ≥ 0 s❧♦♣❡s ≤ 0
t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡
f ′ (c) ≥ 0 ❆◆❉ f ′ (c) ≤ 0
0 ≤ f ′ (c) ≤ 0
t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡
0 = f ′ (c) = 0

❋♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡♥❡ss✱ ✇❡ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② t❤❛t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❡❝❛♥ts ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ s✐❣♥s✳ ❋✐rst✱
t❛❦❡ ❛♥② ✭s❡❝❛♥t✮ ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ (x, f (x)) ❛♥❞ (c, f (c)) ✇✐t❤ x < c✳ ❚❤❡♥ f (x) ≤ f (c) ✇❤❡♥ x ✐s ❝❧♦s❡
❡♥♦✉❣❤ t♦ c✳ ❲❤②❄ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛① ✭r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✮✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
≥0
z }| {
f (c) − f (x)
s❧♦♣❡ = ≥ 0.
c−x
| {z }
>0

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ t❛❦❡ ❛♥② ✭s❡❝❛♥t✮ ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ (x, f (x)) ❛♥❞ (c, f (c)) ✇✐t❤ x > c✳ ❚❤❡♥ f (x) ≤ f (c) ✇❤❡♥ x
✐s ❝❧♦s❡ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ t♦ c✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
≥0
z }| {
f (c) − f (x)
s❧♦♣❡ = ≤ 0.
c−x
| {z }
<0

❚❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐ts ✐s ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞✱ ❥✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♣r♦♦❢✳
❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❢♦r ❛ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r✳ ❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s✉♠♠❛r②✿
✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✽✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✳✷✷

❇❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✜♥✐s❤ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡ ✏■❢ f ′ (c) 6= 0✱ t❤❡♥ ✳✳✳✳✳✳✳✑

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✳✷✸

❇❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✜♥✐s❤ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡ ✏■❢ f ′ (c) = 0✱ t❤❡♥ ✳✳✳✳✳✳✳✑

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

■♥ t❤✐s ❝♦♥t❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❥✉st ❛ ♠❡❛♥s t♦ ❛♥

❡♥❞✳

◆♦✇ ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛❄ ■s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ tr✉❡✱ t❤❛t✿

◮ f ′ (c) = 0✱ t❤❡♥ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ f❄

■t✬s ♥♦t tr✉❡✱ ❛s t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ s❤♦✇s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✷✹✿ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ x3

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r f (x) = x3 ❛t x = 0✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f ′ (x) = 3x2 =⇒ f ′ (0) = 0 ,
❜✉t t❤✐s ✐s ♥♦t ❛♥ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❡✈❡r②✇❤❡r❡✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✳✷✺

❍♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ❛ ✏str✐❝t✑ ▲♦❝❛❧ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✿ ■❢ f ✐s ❧♦❝❛❧❧② str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦r str✐❝t❧② ❞❡✲
❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛t x = c✱ t❤❡♥✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱

f ′ (c) > 0 ♦r f ′ (c) < 0 .

✺✳✶✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✸✽✺

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❆♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣② t♦ ✉s❡ ✐s✿

• ✏❛❜s♦❧✉t❡✑ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ✏❣❧♦❜❛❧✑✱

❛♥❞

• ✏r❡❧❛t✐✈❡✑ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ✏❧♦❝❛❧✑✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✷✻✿ ♠❛①✐♠✐③❡ ♦♣❡♥ ❜♦①

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❚❤❡ ❝♦r♥❡rs ❛r❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❝✉t ❢r♦♠ ❛ 10 × 10 ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢
❝❛r❞❜♦❛r❞ t♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ❜♦① ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡✳

▲❡t✬s ❞❡♥♦t❡ t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐tt❧❡ sq✉❛r❡ ❜② x✳ ❚❤❡♥ x ❜❡❝♦♠❡s t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦① ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤
❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 10 − 2x✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦① ✐s
V = x(10 − 2x)2 = 4x3 − 40x2 + 100x .
❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝✉❜✐❝✦ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭❢♦r 0 ≤ x ≤ 5✮✱ ❜✉t✱
✉♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s♥✬t ♠❛t❝❤❡❞ ❜② ✇❤❛t
✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡s❡✳

■❢ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ❜✉t✱ ✇✐t❤♦✉t s②♠♠❡tr② t♦ r❡❧② ♦♥✱
✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❦♥♦✇ ✐ts ❡①❛❝t ✈❛❧✉❡✿

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❢r♦♠ ❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✜♥❞ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t ❛s ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡❀
✐✳❡✳✱ t❤✐s x s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿
V ′ = (4x3 − 40x2 + 100x)′ = 12x2 − 80x + 100 = 4(3x2 − 20x + 25) = 0 .
❚❤❡♥✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
√
20 ± 202 − 4 · 3 · 25 20 ± 10 5
x= = = 5, .
2·3 6 3
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ♦t❤❡r ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s ❢♦r t❤✐s ♠❛① ♣♦✐♥t✦ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ♦♥❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦
❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ▲♦❝❛❧ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠
✺✳✷✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✽✻

❜② s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤✐s ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✿

V ′ = 4(3x2 − 20x + 25) > 0 .
5
■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ r♦♦ts✱ 5 ❛♥❞ ✱ ❛♥❞ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠ V ′ ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳
3

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞ s♦ ❢❛r✿

∆f df
f (xk ) ≤ f (xk+1 ) ⇐⇒ ∆f (ck ) ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ (ck ) ≥ 0 =⇒ ≥0
∆x dx

❚❤❡ ❧❛st ❛rr♦✇ ❣♦❡s ✐♥ ♦♥❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✦

✺✳✷✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐t❤ ❛ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❛❧❧ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s s♦♠❡
♦t❤❡r ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❲❡ ❛❞❞ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ t♦ ♦✉r ❧✐st✿
◮ ❚❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐t❤ ❛ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡ ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s ❢♦r ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s✐① ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s✿

❚❤❡ ❜❧✉❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t❡st✳ ❚❤❡ s✐① ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❛r❡ st✐❧❧ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✜♥❛❧ ✇✐♥♥❡r ♦r ✇✐♥♥❡rs✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✷✳✶✿ ♠❛①✐♠✐③❡ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜♦①

▲❡t✬s ♠♦❞✐❢② ♦✉r ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❚❤❡ ❝♦r♥❡rs ❛r❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❝✉t ❢r♦♠ ❛ 10 × 20 ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ❝❛r❞❜♦❛r❞
t♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜♦① ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡✳

▲❡t y ❜❡ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦①❀ t❤❡♥ 2x + 2y = 20✱ ♦r y = 10 − x✳ ❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦① ✐s t❤❡♥✿

V = x(10 − 2x)(10 − x) = 2x3 − 40x2 + 100x ,

✇❤❡r❡ x ✐s t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐tt❧❡ sq✉❛r❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥ 0 ≤ x ≤ 5✳ P❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✭✇✐t❤ ❛
s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✮ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠✿
✺✳✷✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✽✼

❲❤❛t ✐s ✐ts ❡①❛❝t ✈❛❧✉❡❄ ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✱ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱
c✱ ❤❛s t♦ s❛t✐s❢② f ′ (c) = 0✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

V ′ (x) = (2x3 − 30x2 + 100x)′ = 6x2 − 60x + 100 .

❚❤❡♥ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

V ′ (x) = 6x2 − 60x + 100 = 0 ,
♦r
3x2 − 30x + 50 = 0 .
❇② t❤❡ ◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
√ √
30 ± 302 − 4 · 3 · 50 30 ± 10 3
c= = .
2·3 6
❚❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥s✇❡r✱ c ≈ 2.1✱ ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✷✳✷✿ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ♦❢ sin

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r f (x) = sin x✳ ❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣❧❛♥✳ ❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛♥❞ s❡t ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0✿
d
(sin x) = cos x = 0 .
dx
❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s✿
x = kπ + π/2, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...

❏✉st ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❛❧♦♥❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t t❡❧❧ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♦♥❡s ❛r❡ ♠❛①✐♠❛ ❛♥❞ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♦♥❡s ❛r❡ ♠✐♥✐♠❛✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱
✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿ (
−1 ✐❢ k ✐s ♦❞❞,
sin (kπ + π/2) =
1 ✐❢ k ✐s ❡✈❡♥.
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♠✐♥✐♠❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠❛✳ ❚❤✐s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❝♦♥✜r♠s ✇❤❛t
✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❈❛♥ t❤❡r❡ ❜❡ ♦t❤❡r ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s ❢♦r ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❛❄

✺✳✷✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✽✽

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❝❛❧❧s ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐t✐♥❣ ♦✉r ❛tt❡♥t✐♦♥ t♦ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✐ts ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❛
❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦♥❧② ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ♦♥❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❲❡ s✐♠♣❧② ❛❞❞ t❤❡ t✇♦ t♦ ♦✉r ❧✐st✿
◮ ❚❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r❡ ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s ❢♦r ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✐❣♥♦r❡❞ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲♠♦st ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✇❡✬❞ ❣✐✈❡ ✉♣ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✿

❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❊①tr❡♠❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛s ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧
♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✿

❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
◮ ❚❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ❛❞❞❡❞ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧✇❛②s ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ ❛❧❧
❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r str❛t❡❣②✳
❙tr✐♣♣❡❞ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡t❛✐❧s ♦❢ ❛ ✇♦r❞ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠
✇✐❧❧ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✷✳✸✿ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❡ ♦♥ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

❋✐♥❞ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢

f (x) = x3 − 3x ♦♥ [−2, 3] .
❙t❡♣ ✶✿ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐t❤ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡✿

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 .

❙❡t ✐t ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0 ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r x✳

3x2 − 3 = 0 =⇒
x2 = 1 =⇒
x = ±1 .
❙t❡♣ ✷✿ ❈♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f ❛t t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧❀ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡st
✺✳✷✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✽✾

❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st✿

❈❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s x f (x) = x3 − 3x = x(x2 − 3) ✈❛❧✉❡s ❝❧❛ss✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥
′
f (x) = 0 1 f (1) = 1(12 − 3) = −2 ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥
f ′ (x) = 0 −1 f (1) = −1((−1)2 − 3) = 2 ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ❧♦❝❛❧ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①
a −2 f (−2) = −2((−2)2 − 3) = −2 ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥
b 3 f (3) = 3(32 − 3) = 18 ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①
❚❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞ ❤♦✇ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝❧❛ss✐✜❡❞ ❛r❡ ✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ♦t❤❡r ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s✳ ❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❧❡❛✈❡s ❛♥ ♦♣t✐♦♥ ♦❢
❛ ♥♦♥✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✷✳✹✿ ♥♦♥✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡
❚❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = |x| ❤❛s ✐ts ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ❛t x = 0❀ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐t✬s ♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✿

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ 
−1
 ✐❢ x < 0,
′
f (x) = ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✐❢ x = 0,


1 ✐❢ x > 0.
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♦♥ ❛♥② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✇✐t❤ a < 0 < b ✐s ❛t x = 0✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧
♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛t a ♦r b✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✳✺
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
✺✳✷✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✾✵

❲❡ ♠❛② ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❛❞❞ t❤♦s❡ t♦ ♦✉r ❧✐st t♦♦✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐t❤ ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡ ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s ❢♦r ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳
❚❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐t❤ ❡✐t❤❡r ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦r ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡ ♦❢t❡♥ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts✑✳

❚❤✉s✱ ♦✉r ❧✐st ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x t♦ ❜❡ ❝❤❡❝❦❡❞ ✐s ❝♦♠♣r✐s❡❞ ♦❢ ❥✉st t✇♦ t②♣❡s✿ t❤❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞ t❤❡
❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ❧✐st✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞✿

• ❚❤❡ x✬s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ y ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠❛✳

• ❚❤❡ x✬s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡st ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ y ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠❛✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✷✳✻✿ ❝✉❜✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧

❆♥❛❧②③❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 1
♦♥ [−2, 3]✳

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

f ′ (x) = 6x2 − 6x − 12 .
❙❡t ✐t ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ③❡r♦ ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

6x2 − 6x − 12 = 0 =⇒
x2 − x − 2 = 0 =⇒p
1 ± 1 − (−2)4
◗❋✿ x =
2
1±3
= = 2, 1 .
2
❈♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✿

❈❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s x f (x) = 6x2 − 6x − 12 y

′ 3 2
f (x) = 0 2 2 · 2 − 3 · 2 − 12 · 2 + 1 = 16 − 12 − 24 + 1 = −19
f ′ (x) = 0 −1 3 2
2 · (−1) − 3 · (−1) − 12 · (−1) + 1 = −2 − 3 + 12 + 1 = 8
a −2 2 · (−2)3 − 3 · (−2)2 − 12 · (−2) + 1 = −16 − 12 + 24 + 1 = −3
b 3 2 · 33 − 3 · 32 − 12 · 3 + 1 = 54 − 27 − 36 + 1 = −8

❆♥s✇❡r✿
• ❚❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛① ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s y = 8 ❛tt❛✐♥❡❞ ❛t x = −1✱ ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛① ♣♦✐♥t✳
• ❚❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s y = −19 ❛tt❛✐♥❡❞ ❛t x = 2✱ ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥ ♣♦✐♥t✳
✺✳✸✳ ❲❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✾✶

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ♥♦t

t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ ♦✉r ♠❡t❤♦❞✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✷✳✼✿ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ❊①tr❡♠❛ ✈✐❛ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b] ❛♥❞ c ✐♥ [a, b] ✐s ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡♥✱

♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♠✉st ❜❡ s❛t✐s✜❡❞✿
✶✳ f ′ (c) = 0✱ ♦r
✷✳ f ′ (c) ✐s ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞✱ ♦r
✸✳ c = a ♦r c = b✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✳✽

❘❡❞♦ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ❛❜♦✉t ♠❛①✐♠✐③✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦① ❜② ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤✐s ♠❡t❤♦❞✳

✺✳✸✳ ❲❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿

❚❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❚❤❡ ❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s♥✬t tr✉❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✐t ❞♦❡s
❛♥❞ ❞♦❡s ♥♦t s❛② ❛❜♦✉t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = c✿

❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ =⇒
x = c ✐s f ′ (c) = 0
❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t 6⇐=

■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▲♦❝❛❧ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s tr✉❡ ❜✉t ❤❛s♥✬t ❜❡❡♥ ♣r♦✈❡♥ ②❡t✿

❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ =⇒
x = c ✐s f ′ (c) ≥ 0
♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ⇐=

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦t❤❡r st❛t❡♠❡♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡s ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ❜✉t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s
♣r♦♣❡rt②❄
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ❜✉t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt②❄
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✱ ❜✉t ❛r❡ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt②❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✳✶

❚❤❡ ✜rst q✉❡st✐♦♥ ❛s❦s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ✕ ♦t❤❡r t❤❛♥ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ ✕ ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❧ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✳ ❚r② ✐t✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✷✿ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

❆♥s✇❡r✐♥❣ ❨❡s t♦ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❛♥❞ t❤✐r❞ q✉❡st✐♦♥s s♦❧✈❡s t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ❛s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r
✺✳✸✳ ❲❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✾✷

✹✿

❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢♦r❝❡ =⇒ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ =⇒ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② =⇒ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❥✉st✐✜❡❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ♦✉r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

1
y(t) = y0 + v0 t − gt2 .
2
❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ tr❛❥❡❝t♦r② ♦❢ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ t❤r♦✇♥ ❢♦r✇❛r❞ ✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✦

❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❡❧♣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r q✉❡st✐♦♥s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✸✿ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣

▲❡t✬s ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✿

• x ✐s t✐♠❡✳
• f (x) ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛t t✐♠❡ x✳
• f ′ (x) ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛t t✐♠❡ x✳
❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛❧✇❛②s ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ s✉❞❞❡♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ♦❢ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱
❜✉♠♣s✱ ♦r ❝r✉s❤❡s ✭❛♥❞ ♥♦ t❡❧❡♣♦rt❛t✐♦♥✦✮✳

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✿

◮ (⇒) ❲❤❡♥❡✈❡r ✇❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢❛rt❤❡st ❢r♦♠ ❤♦♠❡ ♦r ❛♥② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ st♦♣✱ ❛t ❧❡❛st ❢♦r ❛♥
✐♥st❛♥t✳
❇✉t ♥♦t ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✿
◮ (6⇐) ❊✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ st♦♣✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡s✉♠❡ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳

■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ②♦✉✿

• ❧❡❢t ❤♦♠❡ ❛t 1 ♣♠✱
• ❞✐❞ s♦♠❡ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
• ❝❛♠❡ ❤♦♠❡ ❛t 2 ♣♠✳
◗✉❡st✐♦♥✿ ❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ s♦♠❡♦♥❡ ✇❤♦ st❛②❡❞ ❤♦♠❡ ✐♥❢❡r ❛❜♦✉t ②♦✉r s♣❡❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤✐s t✐♠❡❄ ❋♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t②✱
✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ②♦✉ ❞r♦✈❡ ♦♥ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t r♦❛❞✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❛t ♣❡rs♦♥ ❦♥♦✇s ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❚❤❡ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t✐❡s ❛r❡ ♥✉♠❡r♦✉s ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❨♦✉ ♠❛② ❤❛✈❡ ❞r✐✈❡♥ s❧♦✇❧②✱ t❤❡♥ ❢❛st✱ ❜✉t ♦♥❡ t❤✐♥❣ ✐s ❝❡rt❛✐♥✿
②♦✉ ❝❛♠❡ ❜❛❝❦ ❤♦♠❡✳ ❆♥❞ t♦ ❝♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦✱ ②♦✉ ❤❛❞ t♦ t✉r♥ ❛r♦✉♥❞✳ ❆♥❞ t♦ t✉r♥ ❛r♦✉♥❞✱ ②♦✉ ❤❛❞ t♦
st♦♣✳ ❙♦✱ s♣❡❡❞ ✇❛s ③❡r♦ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❝❡✦ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❦♥♦✇❧❡❞❣❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ t❤♦✉❣❤✳

▲❡t✬s ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ♠❛❞❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♣✉r❡❧② ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ t✉r♥ ✐t ✐♥t♦ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✸✳✹✿ ❘♦❧❧❡✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

✶✳ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b]✳
✷✳ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ (a, b)✳
❚❤❡♥✱ ✐❢
f (a) = f (b) ,
✺✳✸✳ ❲❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✾✸

✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f ′ (c) = 0
❋❖❘ ❙❖▼❊ c ✐♥ (a, b) ✳

❲❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t x ✐s t✐♠❡✱ ❧✐♠✐t❡❞ t♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ■♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ★✶ ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ②♦✉ ❞♦♥✬t ❧❡❛♣ ❛♥❞
★✷ ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ②♦✉ ❞♦♥✬t ❝r❛s❤✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ②♦✉✬✈❡ ❝♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦✳ ❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤✐s s♣❡❝✐❛❧
♣♦✐♥t ✐♥ t✐♠❡ ✇❛s ✇❤❡♥ ②♦✉ ✇❡r❡ ❢❛rt❤❡st ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ ❤♦♠❡ ✭✐♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✮❀ ②♦✉ ✇❡r❡♥✬t ♠♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❡♥✳
❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ❤❛s ♦♥ [a, b]✿

• ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛t x = c ❛♥❞
• ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ❛t x = d✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❊①tr❡♠❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭t❤❛t✬s ✇❤② ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❛ss✉♠❡
❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✦✮✳

❈❛s❡ ✶✿ ❊✐t❤❡r c ♦r d ✐s ♥♦t ❛♥ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥t✱ a ♦r b✳ ❲❡ ♥♦✇ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✿ ❊✈❡r② ❣❧♦❜❛❧
❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❤❛s 0 ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t✬s ♥♦t ❛♥ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥t✳ ■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t f ′ (c) = 0 ♦r f ′ (d) = 0✱ ❛♥❞
✇❡ ❛r❡ ❞♦♥❡✳

❈❛s❡ ✷✿ ❇♦t❤ c ❛♥❞ d ❛r❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✱ a ♦r b✳ ❚❤❡♥


f (c) = f (a) ♦r f (c) = f (b)
❇✉t t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✦
f (d) = f (a) ♦r f (d) = f (b)

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
f (c) = f (d) .
❇✉t t❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t
max f = min !
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡ f ♠✉st ❜❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♦♥ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ f ′ (x) = 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ (a, b)✳

❙♦✱ ❛♠♦♥❣ ❛❧❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡s✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ t❤❛t t♦✉❝❤❡s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿
✺✳✸✳ ❲❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✾✹

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ s❛②s t❤❛t ✐❢ ②♦✉ ♣❛ss❡❞ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t✇✐❝❡✱ ②♦✉ ♠✉st ❤❛✈❡ st♦♣♣❡❞ ❛t s♦♠❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t ❞✉r✐♥❣
t❤✐s t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥✱
f (a) = f (b) ,
✐s r❡✇r✐tt❡♥ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
f (b) − f (a) = 0 .
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s ③❡r♦
∆f = 0 .
■t ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ f ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b] ✇✐t❤ n = 1, x0 = a, x1 = b✳ ❍❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦t❤❡r ✇❛②s t♦
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ③❡r♦✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ r✐s❡ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ③❡r♦✳
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ♦✈❡r t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ③❡r♦✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥✱ ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❜❡ r❡✇r✐tt❡♥ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
f (b) − f (a)
= 0.
b−a
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡✱ ✐s ③❡r♦ t♦♦✿
∆f
= 0.
∆x
❍❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦t❤❡r ✇❛②s t♦ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ③❡r♦✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✐s ③❡r♦✳
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦✈❡r t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ③❡r♦✳

❙♦✱ t❤❡ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛r❡ ✈❡r② ❧✐♠✐t✐♥❣✿ ■t ♠✉st ❜❡ ❛ ③❡r♦ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✦ ❈❛♥ ✐t ❜❡ 100 ♠✴❤❄ ▲❡t✬s
✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡✳
❘♦❧❧❡✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ s❛②s✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐s ③❡r♦ =⇒ t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐s ③❡r♦ ❛t s♦♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✐s ③❡r♦ =⇒ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✐s ③❡r♦ ❛t s♦♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ③❡r♦ =⇒ t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ③❡r♦ ❛t s♦♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❡❝❛♥t ❛♥❞ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s ✐s ♦✉t❧✐♥❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✺✳✸✳ ❲❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✾✺

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ♥♦♥✲❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡s t❤❛t ❛❧s♦ t♦✉❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤❄

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✐❢ ✇❡ s❦❡✇ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛❜♦✈❡❄ ■t✬s s✐♠♣❧❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ❡❞✐t✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ s✉❣❣❡sts ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❡♥t✐t✐❡s ♣❛rt✐❝✐♣❛t✐♥❣ ✐♥ ❘♦❧❧❡✬s t❤❡♦r❡♠✿
• ❚❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts t❤❛t ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ✐♥❝❧✐♥❡❞✳
• ❚❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ t❤❛t ❝♦♥♥❡❝ts t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts t❤❛t ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❤❛s ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ✐♥❝❧✐♥❡❞✳
❇✉t t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s ❤❛✈❡ r❡♠❛✐♥❡❞ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ ✦
❙♦✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❧✐♥❦ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿
• t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s ✭t❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✮ ❛♥❞
• t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ (a, f (a)) ❛♥❞ (b, f (b)) ✭t❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✮✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✺✿ s♣❡❡❞✐♥❣

❚♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛✱ ❧❡t✬s r❡✈✐s✐t t❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ♦❢ s♣❡❡❞✐♥❣✳

❆ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ ❝❛t❝❤❡s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ ②♦✉r ❝❛r✳ ❇② ❧❛✇✱ ✐t s❤♦✉❧❞♥✬t ❜❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ 70 ♠✴❤✳
❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥ s❤♦✇s ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ②♦✉✬r❡ ❝❛✉❣❤t✳

◆♦✇✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ r❛❞❛r ❣✉♥✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ ✐♥st❡❛❞ t❤❛t ❛ ♣♦❧✐❝❡♠❛♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❡❞ ②♦✉ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣ ❜② ✭❛t
❛ ❧❡❣❛❧ s♣❡❡❞✮ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥✱ ❛❢t❡r 1 ❤♦✉r✱ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♣♦❧✐❝❡♠❛♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❡❞ ②♦✉ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣ ❜② ✕ ❜✉t 100 ♠✐❧❡s ❛✇❛②✦

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ ②♦✉r ❝❛r ✇❛s 100 ♠✴❤✳ ❉✐❞ ②♦✉ ✈✐♦❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧❛✇❄ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r✐♥❣ t❤❛t ♥♦✲♦♥❡
❝❛♥ t❡st✐❢② t♦ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ ②♦✉ ❞r✐✈❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❝❛♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣♦❧✐❝❡♠❡♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ♥♦t❡s ❛♥❞
♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t ②♦✉ ❞✐❞❄

❚❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✇❡ ♣✉rs✉❡ ❤❡r❡ ❛❧❧♦✇s t❤❡♠ t♦ ✐♥❢❡r t❤❛t✱ ②❡s✱ ②♦✉r ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇❛s 100 ♠✴❤
❛t s♦♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡✐r ❝❛s❡ ❛❣❛✐♥st ②♦✉ r♦❝❦✲s♦❧✐❞✱ t❤❡②✬❞ q✉♦t❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✿

✺✳✸✳ ❲❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✾✻

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✸✳✻✿ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

✶✳ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b]✳
✷✳ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ (a, b)✳
❚❤❡♥
f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (c)
b−a

❋❖❘ ❙❖▼❊ c ✐♥ (a, b) ✳

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ f (a) = f (b) ❤❡r❡❄ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ✐s 0✱ ❤❡♥❝❡ 0 = f ′ (c)✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡
❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❘♦❧❧❡✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ▼❱❚ ✐s ♠♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ t❤❛♥ ❘❚✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r
✐s ❛♥ ✐♥st❛♥❝❡✱ ❛ ♥❛rr♦✇ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ▼❱❚✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ ▼❱❚✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇✐❧❧ r❡❧② ♦♥ ❘❚✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t♦ ✏s❦❡✇✑ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ▼❱❚ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ ❘❚✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s
t❤❡ ♦✉t❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✿

Pr♦♦❢✳

▲❡t✬s r❡♥❛♠❡ f ✐♥ ❘♦❧❧❡✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛s h t♦ ✉s❡ ✐t ❧❛t❡r✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✐ts ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s t❛❦❡ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✿
h ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b]✳
✶✳
✷✳ h ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ [a, b]✳
✸✳ h(a) = h(b)✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ y = L(x) ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ (a, f (a)) ❛♥❞ (b, f (b))✳ ❚❤❡♥✱
✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✿

f (b) − f (a)
L′ (x) = .
b−a

◆♦✇ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ f✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❦❡② st❡♣❀ ❧❡t

h(x) = f (x) − L(x) .

▲❡t✬s ✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❋✐rst✱ h ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b] ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❙❘✮✳ ❈♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ★✶
❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✦

◆❡①t✱ h ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ (a, b) ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❙❘✮✳ ❈♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥
✺✳✸✳ ❲❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ s❛②s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✾✼

★✷ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✦ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡✿

f (b) − f (a)
h′ (x) = f ′ (x) − .
b−a

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (a) = L(a), f (b) = L(b) =⇒ h(a) = 0, h(b) = 0 =⇒ h(a) = h(b) .

❈♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ★✸ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✦

❚❤✉s✱ h s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❘❚✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞ t♦♦✿

h′ (c) = 0

❢♦r s♦♠❡ c ✐♥ (a, b)✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) − = 0.
b−a

●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝❛❧❧②✱ c ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② s❤✐❢t✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✉♥t✐❧ ✐t t♦✉❝❤❡s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✳✼

P❧♦t ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ t❤❡s❡ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ t❛♥❣❡♥ts✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ❞❡r✐✈❡ ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t
❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✽✿ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s tr② ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡s ♠❡♥t✐♦♥❡❞ ✐♥ ❡❛r❧✐❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✿ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ❜✉t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt②❄ ❨❡s✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ′ = 0 ♦♥ [A, B]✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② a < b ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✿
f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (c) = 0 .
b−a
❚❤❡♥✱
f (b) = f (a) .
✺✳✹✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✸✾✽

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✦

✺✳✹✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t②❄
❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t t❤❡ ▲♦❝❛❧ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ st❛t❡s t❤❛t✱ ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = c✱ ✐❢
x = c ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ y = f (x)✱ t❤❡♥ f ′ (c) ≥ 0✳ ■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ♣r♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❧♦❝❛❧ r❡s✉❧t✱
✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ r❡s✉❧t✦
❲❡ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝❛s❡ ❢♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡♥❡ss✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✹✳✶✿ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ ❙✐❣♥ ♦❢ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳ ❚❤❡♥✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✐s ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ I ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ f ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✲
✐♥❣ ♦♥ I ✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✐s ♥♦♥✲♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♦♥ I ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ f ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣
♦♥ I ✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
∆f
✶✳ ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ f ր
∆x
∆f
✷✳ ≤ 0 ⇐⇒ f ց
∆x

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❜❡❧♦✇ s❡❡♠s ❛❧♠♦st ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ❜✉t ✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❥✉st ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ✇✐t❤ ∆x → 0 ❛s
♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s ❜❡❢♦r❡✳ ❲❡✬❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✇❛♥t✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✹✳✷✿ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ ❙✐❣♥ ♦❢ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳ ❚❤❡♥✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✐s ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ I ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ f ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ I ✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✐s ♥♦♥✲♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♦♥ I ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ f ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ I ✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
df
✶✳ ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ f ր
dx
df
✷✳ ≤ 0 ⇐⇒ f ց
dx

Pr♦♦❢✳
(⇐) ■❢ f ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ I ✱ ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t c ✐♥ I ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ f ✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜② t❤❡ ▲♦❝❛❧
▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ f ′ (c) ≥ 0✳
(⇒) ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ a, b ❛r❡ ✐♥ I ❛♥❞ a < b✳ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t f (a) ≤ f (b)✳ ❇② t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (c)
b−a
❢♦r s♦♠❡ c ✐♥ (a, b)✳ ◆♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t c ✐s✱ ❜② ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ✐s
✺✳✹✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✸✾✾

♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

f (b) − f (a)
≥ 0.
b−a
◆♦✇ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❛t ✐♥ t❤✐s ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s b − a > 0✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ♠✉st ❜❡
❛❧s♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✿ f (b) − f (a) ≥ 0✳ ❍❡♥❝❡✱ f (b) ≥ f (a)✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✸✿ t❤r❡❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s t♦ ❛♥❛❧②③❡ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

(1) f (x) = 3x2 + 1 =⇒ f ′ (x) = 6x + 3 =⇒

f ′ (x) < 0 ✐❢ x < −1/2 ❛♥❞ f ′ (x) > 0 ✐❢ x > −1/2 =⇒

fց ♦♥ (−∞, −1/2) ❛♥❞ fր ♦♥ (−1/2, ∞)

1 1
(2) g(x) = =⇒ g ′ (x) = − =⇒
x x2
′
g (x) < 0 ✐❢ x<0 ❛♥❞ g ′ (x) < 0 ✐❢ x > 0 =⇒

gց ♦♥ (−∞, 0) ❛♥❞ gց ♦♥ (0, ∞)

(3) h(x) = ex =⇒ h′ (x) = ex =⇒

h′ (x) > 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x =⇒

hր ♦♥ (−∞, ∞)

❲✐t❤ ❥✉st t❤✐s ❞❛t❛✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❦❡t❝❤ ✈❡r② r♦✉❣❤ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❤♦✇♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦ ♦t❤❡r ❡①tr❡♠❛✱ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡s ❝♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡
✏✇✐❣❣❧❡s✑✳ ❚❤✐s ✐ss✉❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ s❤♦rt❧②✳

❚♦ ✐❞❡♥t✐❢② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t②✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇✐❧❧ r❡q✉✐r❡ ❛ s✐❣♥ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮ ♦❢ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
✺✳✹✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✵✵

❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ t♦♦❧ ✐s t❤❡ ■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✮✿

◮ ■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ ✐ts s✐❣♥ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ✐s ③❡r♦✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✹✿ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤✐s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

f (x) = x3 − 3x .
❖♥ ✇❤❛t ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐s t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣❄

❋✐rst✱
f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 .
■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤♦s❡ x✬s t❤❛t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ f ′ (x) > 0 ♦r
f ′ (x) < 0✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤♦s❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s✳

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ f ′ (x) = 0✱ ❞♦♥❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧②✿

3x2 − 3 = 0 =⇒
x2 − 1 = 0 =⇒
x2 = 1 =⇒
x = ±1 .

❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ❝✉t t❤r❡❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ❧✐♥❡✿
• (−∞, −1),
• (−1, 1),
• (1, ∞).
❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤✳

❙✐♥❝❡ f ′ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ f ′ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❛t −1 ♦r 1✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s❛♠♣❧❡
♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐t❤✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
• P✐❝❦ x = −2✱ t❤❡♥ f ′ (−2) = 3 · (−2)2 − 3 = 9 > 0 ✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ f ′ (x) > 0 ❢♦r x ✐♥ (−∞, −1)✳
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ f ր ♦♥ (−∞, −1)✳
• P✐❝❦ x = 0✱ t❤❡♥ f ′ (0) = −3 < 0✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ f ′ (x) < 0 ❢♦r x ✐♥ (−1, 1)✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ f ց ♦♥
(−1, 1)✳
• P✐❝❦ x = 2✱ t❤❡♥ f ′ (2) = 3 · 22 − 3 = 9 > 0✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ f ′ (x) > 0 ❢♦r x ✐♥ (1, ∞)✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ f ր
♦♥ (1, ∞)✳

▲❡t✬s ♣✉t t❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ✐♥ ❛ t❛❜❧❡✿

x : (−∞, −1) (−1, 1) (1, ∞)
f: ր ց ր

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✦

✺✳✹✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✵✶

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛rr♦✇s ❛r❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ ❢♦r♠✐♥❣ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ❛❢t❡r t❤✐s ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✿

·
f: ր ց ր
·
x: −1 1
max min

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧s♦ ✕ ❛✉t♦♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ✕ ❝❧❛ss✐✜❡❞ t❤❡ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✦

❲❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❜② ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✺✿ s✐♥❡

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r f (x) = sin x ❛❣❛✐♥✳ ❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡ ③❡r♦✱
cos x = 0✱ ❛t t❤❡s❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✿
π
x = + kπ, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
2
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❝♦✉❧❞✱ ♣♦t❡♥t✐❛❧❧②✱ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡✐r
s✐❣♥✦ ❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿

∆ sin(h/2) sin(h/2) d
(cos x) = − · sin x = · (cos x) ,
∆x h/2 h/2 dx

t❤❡② ❝❤❛♥❣❡ s✐❣♥s t♦❣❡t❤❡r✳ ❋r♦♠ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❡✈❡♥ ♠♦r❡ ❛❜♦✉t ❝♦s✐♥❡✱ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ❞♦❡s ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❡✈❡r②
t✐♠❡✿
· · ·
y = sin x : ր ց ր ց ր
· · ·
x : −π/2 π/2 3π/2 5π/2 7π/2 9π/2
y = cos x : 0 + 0 − 0 + 0 − 0 + 0 −
❚❤✐s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❝♦♥✜r♠s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
✺✳✹✳ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✵✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✻✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = ax ❢♦r ❛❧❧ a > 0✳ ❋✐rst t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

f ′ (x) = (ax )′ = ax ln a .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

a>1 =⇒ f ′ (x) > 0
0 < a < 1 =⇒ f ′ (x) < 0

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡✐t❤❡r ❛❧❧ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦r ❛❧❧ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❤❡♥ a > 1✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❛t x = a ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠
❛t b✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✼✿ ❝✉❜❡

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r f (x) = x3 ✳

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s f ′ (x) = 3x2 ✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

♦♥ (−∞, 0) f ′ > 0 =⇒ f ր
❛t 0 f′ = 0
♦♥ (0, +∞) f ′ > 0 =⇒ f ր
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♠♦r❡ ❤❡r❡✿ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
❛t ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t✦

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ♠♦❞✐✜❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✹✳✽✿ ❙tr✐❝t ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ✈✐❛ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡
❤❛✈❡✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♦♥ I ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ f ✐s str✐❝t❧②
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✵✸

✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ I ✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ I ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ f ✐s str✐❝t❧②
❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ I ✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
∆f
✶✳ > 0 ⇐⇒ f ր str✐❝t❧②
∆x
∆f
✷✳ < 0 ⇐⇒ f ց str✐❝t❧②
∆x

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡ ✐s ♠♦r❡ s✉❜t❧❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✹✳✾✿ ❙tr✐❝t ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ✈✐❛ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

✶✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♦♥ I ✱ t❤❡♥ f ✐s str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ I ✳
✷✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ I ✱ t❤❡♥ f ✐s str✐❝t❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ I ✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
df
✶✳ > 0 =⇒ f ր str✐❝t❧②
dx
df
✷✳ < 0 =⇒ f ց str✐❝t❧②
dx

Pr♦♦❢✳

❏✉st r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ❡❛❝❤ ✏ ≥✑ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇✐t❤ ✏ >✑✳
❲❡ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ❢❛✐❧s✳ ❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ❢♦r s✉❝❤ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡
♥♦♥✲str✐❝t ❝❛s❡ ✐s✱ r♦✉❣❤❧②✱ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ ③❡r♦✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✹✳✶✵

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ✐t ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐♥ t✇♦ ✇❛②s✿ ✭❛✮ ❜② ♠♦❞✐❢②✐♥❣
t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✭❜✮ ❜② ❛♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❆ ❜♦♥✉s r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✹✳✶✶✿ ❖♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ❢r♦♠ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✐❢ f ′ > 0 ♦♥ I ♦r f ′ < 0

♦♥ I ✱ t❤❡♥ f ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ♦♥ I ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✹✳✶✷

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✳ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❄

✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❤♦✇ ❡❛s② ✐t ✐s t♦ s❡❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ❜❡❤✐♥❞ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❜② ③♦♦♠✐♥❣ ✐♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢
♦✈❡r❧❛♣♣✐♥❣ ❞♦ts✿
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✵✹

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❞♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r ❛ s✉❜t❧❡r ✐❞❡❛✳ ❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❧❧② r❡✈❡❛❧s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ✉♣✇❛r❞ ❛♥❞
❞♦✇♥✇❛r❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ✿

❲❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ♦r t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✱ ✇❡ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛t❡ t❤❡ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ ✏✇✐❣❣❧②✑ ❝✉r✈❡s✦ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡
❛❜❧❡ t♦ t❡❧❧ ♠❛①✐♠❛ ❢r♦♠ ♠✐♥✐♠❛✳

▲❡t✬s ③♦♦♠ ✐♥✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣♦✐♥ts t❤✐s t✐♠❡✿

❚❤❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ✐s ❝❧❡❛r✿

◮ ■t ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❧✐❡s ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r t✇♦✱ ❛♥❞
❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s ❛❜♦✈❡✳

▲❡t✬s ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛r❡ f (c − h) ❛♥❞ f (c + h)✿
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✵✺

❚❤❡ y ✲✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ✐s t❤❡✐r ❛✈❡r❛❣❡✿

f (c − h) + f (c + h)
.
2
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿
f (c − h) + f (c + h) f (c − h) + f (c + h)
f (c) ≤ ❛♥❞ f (c) ≥ .
2 2
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s❄
▲❡t✬s r❡✲❛rr❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✿
f (c + h) − 2f (c) + f (c − h) ≥ 0 .
❆ ❜✐t ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ s❡❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✿
   
f (c + h) − f (c) − f (c) − f (c − h) ≥ 0 .
■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✭♦r t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❡t❝✳✮✦
❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ✜rst✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✐t ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥❀ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ ✉♣✿
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✵✻

■❢ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿

∆f (c + h/2) − ∆f (c − h/2) ≥ 0 .

■t ♦♥❧② t❛❦❡s ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❜② h > 0✱ t✇✐❝❡✱ t♦ ❛rr✐✈❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛t x = c✿
∆f (c + h/2) ∆f (c − h/2)
−
h h ≥ 0,
h
❚❤✐s ✐s ❥✉st t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✮✿

∆2 f
(c) ≥ 0
∆x2

❙♦✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ♠❛t❝❤✿

• ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ t❡❧❧s ✉s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥
✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✳

• ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ t❡❧❧s ✉s t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ✉♣✇❛r❞ ❛♥❞ ❞♦✇♥✇❛r❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t②✳

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✈✐❡✇✿ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛r❡♥✬t ❡q✉❛❧❧② s♣❛❝❡❞❄

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♣♦✐♥ts A, B, C ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✿

❲❡ st✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❡①♣r❡ss C ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ A ❛♥❞ B✿

C = αA + βB ,

❢♦r s♦♠❡ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs α, β ≥ 0 ✇✐t❤ α + β = 1✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ C ✐s ❛ ✇❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ A ❛♥❞ B✳
❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs α ❛♥❞ β ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✏✇❡✐❣❤ts✑✿

❚♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t❧②✱ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs α ❛♥❞ β ❣✐✈❡ ✉s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ C ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
[A, B]✳
◆♦✇ t❤❡ y ✬s✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✿
X = αf (A) + βf (B) .
❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ✇❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ f (A) ❛♥❞ f (B)✳ ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs α ❛♥❞ β ❛❧s♦ ❣✐✈❡ ✉s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ X ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢♦r♠❡❞ ❜② f (A) ❛♥❞ f (B)✿
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✵✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✶
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤ts r❡♠❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

f (αA + βB) = αf (A) + βf (B) .

❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❄

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② ✇❤❡t❤❡r f (C) ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇ ♦r ❛❜♦✈❡ X ✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✺✳✷✿ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ♦♥ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♥♦❞❡s A, B, C ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ s❛t✐s❢②

C = αA + βB ,

✇✐t❤ α ≥ 0 ❛♥❞ β ≥ 0 ❛♥❞ α + β = 1✳ ❋♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡s❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱

✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣ ❛t B ✇❤❡♥

f (C) ≤ αf (A) + βf (B) .

✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥ ❛t B ✇❤❡♥

f (C) ≥ αf (A) + βf (B) .

❲❤❡♥ α = β = 1/2✱ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✇❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣
♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝t✐♦♥✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♦❝❝❛s✐♦♥❛❧❧② ✉s❡ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿
❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t②
• ⌣ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣
• ⌢ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥

❆❜♦✈❡ ✇❡ ♣r♦✈❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛❧❧② ❞✐str✐❜✉t❡❞ ♥♦❞❡s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✺✳✸✿ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ♦♥ P❛rt✐t✐♦♥
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡♥
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣ ♦♥ [a, b] ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥ ♦♥ [a, b] ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ♥♦♥✲♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✳
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✵✽

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆2 f
1. f ⌣ ⇐⇒ ≥0
∆x2
∆2 f
2. f ⌢ ⇐⇒ ≤0
∆x2

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♥♦❞❡s xi−1 , xi , xi+1 ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ s❛t✐s❢②

xi = αxi−1 + βxi+1 ,

❛♥❞
f (xi ) ≤ αf (xi−1 ) + βf (xi+1 ) ,
❢♦r s♦♠❡ ♣❛✐r α ≥ 0 ❛♥❞ β ≥ 0 ✇✐t❤ α + β = 1✳

▲❡t✬s ✜rst ✜♥❞ α ❛♥❞ β ✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ✜rst ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ r❡✇r✐tt❡♥✿
xi = α(xi − ∆xi−1 ) + β(xi + ∆xi ) .

❈❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

0 = α(−∆xi−1 ) + β(∆xi ) .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
∆xi ∆xi−1
α= , β= .
∆xi−1 + ∆xi ∆xi−1 + ∆xi

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✿

αf (xi−1 ) + βf (xi+1 ) − f (xi ) ≥ 0 .

❲❤❛t ✐s ✐ts ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣❄ ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ α ❛♥❞ β ❛♥❞ ♦✉r ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿

∆xi ∆xi−1
f (xi−1 ) + f (xi+1 ) − f (xi ) ≥ 0 .
∆xi−1 + ∆xi ∆xi−1 + ∆xi
▲❡t✬s r❡❛rr❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ t❡r♠s✿
∆xi f (xi−1 ) + ∆xi−1 f (xi+1 ) − (∆xi−1 + ∆xi )f (xi ) ≥ 0 ,

❛♥❞ ❢❛❝t♦r✿


∆xi−1 f (xi+1 ) − f (xi ) − ∆xk f (xi ) − f (xi−1 ) ≥ 0 .
■♥ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ f ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s [xi−1 , xi ], [xi , xi+1 ]✳
❚♦ s❡❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ❧❡t✬s ❞✐✈✐❞❡ t❤✐s ❜② ∆xi−1 ∆xi ✿
f (xi+1 ) − f (xi ) f (xi ) − f (xi−1 ) ∆f ∆f
− ≥ 0 ♦r (ci ) − (ci−1 ) ≥ 0 .
∆xi ∆xi−1 ∆x ∆x
■t ♦♥❧② t❛❦❡s ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❜② ∆ci t♦ ❛rr✐✈❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿
∆2 f
(xi ) ≥ 0 .
∆x2
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✵✾

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✹✿ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ❘❡❝❛❧❧ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✮ t❤❛t ✐t ❛❧s♦
r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿

∆f ∆f ∆2 f
❚❤❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥s ❢r♦♠ f t♦ ❛♥❞ ❢r♦♠ t♦ ❛r❡ ✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳
∆x ∆x ∆x2

◆♦✇✱ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡ ✿

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✇❤❡♥ ❛♥② ♦❢ ✐ts s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣s ✐s✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ✭✏❝♦r❞s✑✮
❧✐❡ ❡✐t❤❡r ❛❜♦✈❡ ♦r ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❆❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦r❞s✱ ♥♦t ❥✉st t❤❡ ♦♥❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♥♥❡❝t t❤❡ ❡♥❞s✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❝❛r❡❢✉❧❧② ♣❤r❛s❡ t❤❡s❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥ts✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✺✳✺✿ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

✶✳ ■❢ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x ✐♥ I✱ ❡❛❝❤ k, h > 0✱ ❛♥❞ ❛♥② ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ α ❛♥❞ β ✇✐t❤
α + β = 1✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (x) ≤ αf (x − k) + βf (x + h) ,
✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
I✳
✷✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✿

f (x) ≥ αf (x − k) + βf (x + h) ,
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✶✵

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s str✐❝t❧② ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✭✉♣ ♦r ❞♦✇♥✮ ✐❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐s str✐❝t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✻

■s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣ ♦r ❞♦✇♥❄

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♠❛❦❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡① t❤✐♥❣s ❧♦♦❦ s✐♠♣❧❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✺✳✼✿ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s t✇✐❝❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡

❤❛✈❡✿
✶✳ ■❢ f ′′ ≥ 0 ♦♥ I ✱ t❤❡♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣ ♦♥ I ✳
✷✳ ■❢ f ′′ ≤ 0 ♦♥ I ✱ t❤❡♥ f ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥ ♦♥ I ✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

■❢ f ′′ ≥ 0 ♦♥ I✱ t❤❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ f ′ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

f ′ (s) ≤ f ′ (t)

❢♦r ❛❧❧ s<t ✐♥ I✳ ◆♦✇ ❜② t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (c) − f (c − h)
= f ′ (s)
h
❢♦r s♦♠❡ s ✐♥ (c − h, c)✱ ❛♥❞
f (c + h) − f (c)
= f ′ (t)
h
❢♦r s♦♠❡ t ✐♥ (c, c + h)✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
 

f (c + h) − f (c) f (c) − f (c − h)
f (c − h) + f (c + h − 2f (c) = h − = h(f ′ (t) − f ′ (s)) ≥ 0 .
h h

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✽

❉❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✉t ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ✐♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✳
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✶✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✾✿ t❤r❡❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

(1) f (x) = 3x2 + 1 =⇒

f ′ (x) = 6x =⇒
f ′′ (x) =6
f ′′ (x) > 0 =⇒ f ⌣

1
(2) g(x) = =⇒
x
1
g ′ (x) = − 2 ❢♦r x 6= 0 =⇒
x
1
g ′′ (x) = 3 ❢♦r x 6= 0
2x
g ′′ (x) < 0 ❢♦r x < 0 =⇒ g ⌢ ♦♥ (−∞, 0)
g ′′ (x) > 0 ❢♦r x > 0 =⇒ g ⌣ ♦♥ (0, ∞)

(3) h(x) = ex =⇒
h′ (x) = ex =⇒
h′′ (x) = ex
h′′ (x) > 0 =⇒ h ⌣
❯s✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✴❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ ❡❛r❧✐❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❦❡t❝❤

❜② ❤❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✵

P♦✐♥t ♦✉t ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ ✐♥❛❞❡q✉❛t❡✳

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❛r❡ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t✿
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✶✷

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✺✳✶✶✿ ✐♥✢❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥t

❚❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✐♥✢❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥ts ❀
✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ s✉❝❤ ♣♦✐♥ts c t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ♦♥ s♦♠❡ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
(a, c) ✐s ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ♦♥ s♦♠❡ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (c, b)✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛t ✐♥✢❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥ts
❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r②❀ ✐t ✐s 0 ❢♦r f (x) = x3 ❛t 0 ❛♥❞
♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ ❢♦r t❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✷✿ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡

■❢ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❚r✐❣ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛s✿
(sin x)′ = cos x,
(cos x)′ = − sin x.
t✇✐❝❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
(sin x)′′ = − sin x,
(cos x)′′ = − cos x.
❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛❧t❡r♥❛t❡ ✕ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝❛❧❧② ❡✈❡r② π ✕ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✿

+ 0 − + 0 − 0 + 0−

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛❧t❡r♥❛t❡ ✕ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝❛❧❧② ❡✈❡r② π ✕ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥
❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✿
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
ր ց ր ց ր ց
⌣ ⌣ ⌣
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✢❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧s ✇✐t❤ ♦✉r ❛❝t✐✈✐t✐❡s ❡❛r❧✐❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✿

• ❲❤❡♥ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛t❝❤❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✱ ց ♦r ր✱ t♦ t❤❡ s✐❣♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ✱ + ♦r −✳
• ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ ✇❤❡♥ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛t❝❤❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✱ ⌣ ♦r ⌢✱ t♦ t❤❡ s✐❣♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′′ ✱ + ♦r −✳
❚❤❡s❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡s ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✶✸

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ✉s❡ ❛ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❧❡✈❡❧ ♦❢ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✐♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

❚❤❡ ✇✐❣❣❧❡s ❛r❡ ❣♦♥❡✦

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❆s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡✱ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞

❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛r❡ t✇♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝s ♦❢ ❛
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❀ ♦♥❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ♥❡✈❡r tr② t♦ ✜❣✉r❡ ♦✉t ♦♥❡
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s s❡❡♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿ ❆s t❤❡ ✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡
s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❧♦♣❡s✳ ❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱
t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ r♦t❛t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝♦✉♥t❡r✲❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s r♦t❛t❡ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

• ❉❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❧♦♣❡s =⇒ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s r♦t❛t❡ ❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡✳
• ■♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❧♦♣❡s =⇒ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s r♦t❛t❡ ❝♦✉♥t❡r✲❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡✳
✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✹✶✹

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✸✿ ❝❧✐♠❜✐♥❣

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛♣♣r❡❝✐❛t❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❞r✐✈❡ ♦♥ t❤✐s r♦❛❞✿

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❝❧✐♠❜✐♥❣ ✐♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❜❡❛♠s ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✿
• ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥✱ t❤❡ ❤❡❛❞❧✐❣❤ts ♣♦✐♥t ✉♣ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ r♦❛❞✳ ❚❤❡ ❞r✐✈❡r ♠✐❣❤t
❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛t❡ ❧❡ss ♥❡❡❞ ❢♦r ❣❛s✳
• ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣✱ t❤❡ ❤❡❛❞❧✐❣❤ts ♣♦✐♥t ❞♦✇♥ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ r♦❛❞✳ ❚❤❡ ❞r✐✈❡r ♠✐❣❤t
❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛t❡ ♠♦r❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❢♦r ❣❛s✳

❆❧❧ ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡✐❣❤t ♣✐❡❝❡s✱ ❝❧❛ss✐✜❡❞ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✹✿ ♣✐❡❝✐♥❣ t♦❣❡t❤❡r

❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ s❡✈❡r❛❧
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ t❤❡♥ ♣✐❝❦ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ♣✐❡❝❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❛❜❧❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❣❧✉❡ t❤❡♠ t♦❣❡t❤❡r t♦ ❢♦r♠ ❛
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝✉r✈❡✿
✺✳✻✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ✹✶✺

❍❡r❡ ✐s ②❡t ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

✏❢❡❡❧✐♥❣ ✉♣✑ ✏❢❡❡❧✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥✑

⌣
¨ ⌢
¨

✺✳✻✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❛

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s ❛♥❞ ❞♦❡s ♥♦t s❛② ❛❜♦✉t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = c✿

❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ =⇒
x=c ✐s f ′ (c) = 0
♠❛①✴♠✐♥ 6⇐=

❲❤❡♥ ❝❛♥ ✇❡ r❡✈❡rs❡ t❤❡ ❛rr♦✇❄

❲❤❡♥ f ′ (c) = 0✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t✐❡s ❢♦r c✿

max, min, ♥❡✐t❤❡r.

❆t t❤❡✐r s✐♠♣❧❡st✱ t❤❡② ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿

■t ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ t❡❧❧ ♦♥❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❜② ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳
✺✳✻✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ✹✶✻

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✻✳✶✿ ❝✉❜✐❝

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❣❛✐♥✿
f (x) = x3 − 3x .
❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 0 ❢♦r x = ±1 ❛♥❞ ♥♦♥❡ ♦t❤❡rs✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s 0✱ s♦ t❤❡s❡ ♠❛② ❜❡
❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ♦✉t❄ ❲❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ s✐❣♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✿

• f ′ > 0 ❛♥❞ f ր t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ♦❢ −1 ✳
• f ′ < 0 ❛♥❞ f ց t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦❢ −1✳
❚❤✐s ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❤❛♣♣❡♥ ✇❤❡♥ x = −1 ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✳ ❚❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❢♦r x = 1✳

❲❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣❧♦t✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❧❛ss✐❢② ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ❜② ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ✿
րց ցր
max min

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ ✐ts ✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

❲❡ s❡❡ t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ ♦✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳
❚❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✻✳✷✿ ❋✐rst ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❚❡st

■❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts s✐❣♥ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t✱ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s ❛♥ ❡①tr❡♠✉♠✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ♣♦✐♥t x = c✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
✶✳ ■❢ f ′ (x) ≥ 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x < c ❆◆❉ f ′ (x) ≤ 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x > c ✇✐t❤✐♥ I ✱ t❤❡♥ c ✐s
❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t✳
✷✳ ■❢ f ′ (x) ≤ 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x < c ❆◆❉ f ′ (x) ≥ 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x > c ✇✐t❤✐♥ I ✱ t❤❡♥ c ✐s
❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t✳
✺✳✻✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ✹✶✼

✸✳ ■❢ f ′ (x) ≤ 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ I ❖❘ f ′ (x) ≥ 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ I✱ t❤❡♥ c ✐s ♥❡✐t❤❡r ❛

❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♥♦r ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ I = (a, b)✳ ■❢ f ′ (x) ≥ 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ a < x < c✱ t❤❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ f (x) ≤ f (c) ❢♦r
❛❧❧ a < x < c✳ ■❢ f ′ (x) ≤ 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ c < x < b✱ t❤❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ f (x) ≤ f (c) ❢♦r ❛❧❧
c < x < b✳ ❚❤✉s✱ f (x) ≤ f (c) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ a < x < b, x 6= c✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

• ■❢ f ′ (x) ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts s✐❣♥ ❛t x = c ❢r♦♠ + t♦ −✱ t❤❡♥ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t✳
• ■❢ f ′ (x) ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts s✐❣♥ ❛t x = c ❢r♦♠ − t♦ +✱ t❤❡♥ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t✳
❚♦ ❝❧❛ss✐❢② ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ✇✐❧❧ r❡q✉✐r❡ ❛ s✐❣♥ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮ ♦❢ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳ ■t ✇❛s ❞♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢♦r ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳ ■♥ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ t❛❦❡
✐♥t♦ ❛❝❝♦✉♥t t❤❡ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t② t❤❛t ❛ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ s✐❣♥ ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ❛❝r♦ss ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✿

✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✻✳✸✿ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s ❛♥❛❧②③❡ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

x3
f (x) = .
x2 − 3
√
❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s ❛❧❧ x ❡①❝❡♣t ± 3✳

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✿
 ′
′ x3
f (x) =
x2 − 3
3x2 (x2 − 3) − x3 2x
= ❚❤✐s ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ s✉❜❥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ s✐❣♥ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✳
(x2 − 3)2
x4 − 9x2
= ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❢❛❝t♦r ✐t✦
(x2 − 3)2
x2 (x − 3)(x + 3)
= √ √ .
(x − 3)2 (x + 3)2

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♦♥❡s ✇❤❡r❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ t❤✐♥❣s ❤❛♣♣❡♥s✿
• ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✐s ③❡r♦✳ ❲❡ r❡❛❞ t❤❡s❡ ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❢❛❝t♦rs ✭❛s s❡❡♥ ✐♥
❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✿
x = 0, 3, −3 .
• ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s ③❡r♦✳ ❲❡ r❡❛❞ t❤❡s❡ ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❢❛❝t♦rs✿
√ √
x = − 3, 3 .
✺✳✻✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ✹✶✽

❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ❛t t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞ ❛t t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥❧② ♠❛② t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐ts s✐❣♥✳

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❧✐st ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦rs✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ❢♦r ✉s t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ✇❤❡t❤❡r ❛♥❞ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡②
❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡✐r s✐❣♥s✿
❢❛❝t♦rs s✐❣♥s
x2 + + + + + 0 + + + + +
x−3 − − − − − − − − − 0 +
x + 3√ − 0 + + + + + + + + +
(x − √3)2 + + + + + + + 0 + + +
(x + 3)2 + + + 0 + + + + + + +
❞♦♠❛✐♥ ··· • ··· ◦
√ ··· • · · · √◦ · · · • ··· → x
x= −3 − 3 0 3 3
✳✳ ✳✳
f′ + 0 − ✳ − 0 − ✳ − 0 +
✳✳ ✳✳
· ✳ ց ✳
✳✳ ✳✳
f ր ց ✳ · ✳ ց ր
✳✳ ✳✳
✳ ց ✳ ·

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❣♦ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② ❛♥❞ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✉s✐♥❣✿ + · − = −✱ ❡t❝✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣
❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ f ✐s t❤❡♥ ❞❡r✐✈❡❞✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ❛r❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧❧② ❝❧❛ss✐✜❡❞✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞❡t❡❝t t❤❡
t✇♦ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ❝❛♥ s❡r✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❣✉✐❞❡ ❢♦r ❛ r♦✉❣❤ s❦❡t❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❚❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ✐s s✉✣❝✐❡♥t ❢♦r ✉s t♦ ♣❧♦t ❜② ❤❛♥❞ ❛ ❜❡tt❡r ❣r❛♣❤✿

❊✈❡♥ t❤❡♥✱ ❡✈❡r② ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♠❛② ❧✐❡ ❤✐❣❤❡r ♦r ❧♦✇❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡s❡✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡
t❤✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ✇✐t❤♦✉t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✻✳✹✿ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

?
❆ ♣♦✐♥t c ✐s max ♦r min ♦❢ f =⇒ f ′ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts s✐❣♥ ❛t x = c✳
■t ❢❛✐❧s ❛s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ s❤♦✇s✿
✺✳✻✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ✹✶✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✻✳✺

❉❡✈✐s❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢❛✐❧s✳ ❲❤❛t ❞♦ ②♦✉
♥♦t✐❝❡ ❛❜♦✉t f ′ ❄

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❧❛ss✐❢② t❤❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢ ❥✉st t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛t t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✻✳✻✿ ❙❡❝♦♥❞ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❚❡st

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s t✇✐❝❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = c ❛♥❞ s✉♣♣♦s❡ f ′ (c) = 0✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

• ■❢ f ′′ (c) ≤ 0✱ t❤❡♥ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛① ♣♦✐♥t✳
• ■❢ f ′′ (c) ≥ 0✱ t❤❡♥ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥ ♣♦✐♥t✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

■❢ f ′′ (c) = 0✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ t❡st ❢❛✐❧s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✻✳✼

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

• f (x) = x4
• f (x) = x3

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✻✳✽✿ ❝✉❜✐❝✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❣❛✐♥✿

f (x) = x3 − 3x .
❲❡ ❝♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ s❛✈❡❞ s♦♠❡ t✐♠❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇❡ ❢♦✉♥❞✱ x = ±1✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛❞ ❢♦r❣♦♥❡ t❤❡ s✐❣♥
❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ✳ ■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 =⇒ f ′′ (x) = 6x .
❍❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
• f ′′ (−1) = −6 < 0 =⇒ x = −1 ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✳
• f ′′ (1) = 6 > 0 =⇒ x = 1 ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥✳
✺✳✻✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ✹✷✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✻✳✾

❈❛rr② ♦✉t ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✻✳✶✵✿ ❛♥♦t❤❡r r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

▲❡t
x2
f (x) = .
x2 − 1
❍❡r❡ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s✐♠♣❧② ❝❧❛ss✐❢② t❤❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

2x(x2 − 1) − x2 · 2x
f ′ (x) =
(x2 − 1)2
2x − 2x − 2x3
3
=
(x2 − 1)2
2x
=− 2 .
(x − 1)2

❲❡ ❤❛❞ t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② ❛♥❞ ❢❛❝t♦r t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❢❛❝✐❧✐t❛t❡ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥
❛❧s♦ ❡❛s✐❧② ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
f ′ (x) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0 .
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥t✳

❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

2(x2 − 1)2 − 2x · 2(x2 − 1)2x
f ′′ (x) = − .
(x2 − 1)4

◆♦ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢②✦ ❲❡ ❥✉st ♥❡❡❞ ✐ts s✐❣♥ ❛t t❤❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥t✿

2(02 − 1)2 − 2 · 0 · 2(02 − 1)2 · 0
f ′′ (0) = −
(02 − 1)4
= −2 < 0 .

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✻✳✶✶✿ ❛♥♦t❤❡r r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤
x2
f (x) = .
x2 − 1
❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❧♦♦❦ ❢♦r ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✳

❲❡ st❛rt ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠✿

• ❉♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s ❛❧❧ r❡❛❧s ❡①❝❡♣t x = ±1 ✳
• ❱❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✿ x = 1, x = −1 ✳
• ❍♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✿ y = 1 ✳
◆♦✇ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳ ❚❤✐s t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② f ′′ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❢❛❝t♦r✿
2(x2 − 1)2 − 2x · 2(x2 − 1)2x
f ′′ (x) = −
(x2 − 1)4
2(x − 1)(x2 − 1 − 4x2 )
2
=−
(x2 − 1)4
2(x − 1)(x + 1)(3x2 + 1)
= .
(x2 − 1)4
✺✳✻✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❡♠❛ ✹✷✶

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❣♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦rs ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s✐❣♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ ♥♦t❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ❧✐st t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦rs t❤❛t ♠❛② ❝❤❛♥❣❡ s✐❣♥ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✿

❢❛❝t♦rs s✐❣♥s
✳✳ ✳✳
−x + ✳ + 0 − ✳ −
✳✳ ✳✳
f′ + ✳ + 0 − ✳ −
✳✳ ✳✳
f ր ✳ ր ց ց ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳
✳
x−1 − − − − − 0 +
x+1 − 0 + + + + +
✳✳ ✳✳
f ′′ + ✳ − − − ✳ +
✳✳ ✳✳
f ⌣ ✳
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌣ ✳ ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳
❞♦♠❛✐♥ ··· ◦ ··· • ··· ◦ ··· →x
x= −1 0 1
✳✳ ✳✳
ր ✳ ✳ ց
✳✳ ✳✳
f ✳ · ✳
✳✳ ✳✳
✳ ր ⌢ ց ✳

❚❤❡ ❧❛st ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ❝❛♥ s❡r✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❣✉✐❞❡ ❢♦r ❛ r♦✉❣❤ s❦❡t❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❚❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ✐s s✉✣❝✐❡♥t ❢♦r ✉s t♦ ♣❧♦t ❜② ❤❛♥❞ ❛ ❜❡tt❡r ❣r❛♣❤✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✻✳✶✷

❙♦❧✈❡ ❛ r❡✈❡rs❡❞ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
• f ′ > 0 ♦♥ (−∞, 0) ❛♥❞ (1, 2)❀
• f ′ < 0 ♦♥ (0, 1) ❛♥❞ (2, ∞)❀
• f ′′ > 0 ♦♥ (−∞, −1) ❛♥❞ (2, ∞)❀
• f ′′ < 0 ♦♥ (−1, 2)✳
✺✳✼✳ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ✹✷✷

✺✳✼✳ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄

❇❡❢♦r❡ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❧② ❜❡❡♥ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢❛❝ts
❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ s❤♦rt ❧✐st ♦❢ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢❛❝ts ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✮✿

✐♥❢♦ ❛❜♦✉t f ✐♥❢♦ ❛❜♦✉t f′

0 f ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ f ′ ✐s ③❡r♦✳
?
⇐=
1 f ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r =⇒ f ′ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ 0
?
⇐=
2 f ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ =⇒ f ′ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ 1
?
⇐=

❚❤❡ ❛rr♦✇s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ r❡✈❡rs❡ ❛rr♦✇s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝❛❧❧ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳
❇✉t ❛r❡ t❤❡s❡ ❛rr♦✇s r❡✈❡rs✐❜❧❡❄

■❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ❞♦❡s ✐t ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❄ ❨❡s✱ ✇❡ ♣r♦✈❡❞ ✐t ❡❛r❧✐❡r
✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳ ❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ t♦♦❧ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡s❡ ❢❛❝ts✱ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✿ ■❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s
♦♥ [a, b] ❛♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ (a, b)✱ t❤❡♥

f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (c) ,
b−a
❢♦r s♦♠❡ c ✐♥ (a, b).
❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❡❧♣ ✉s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

❲❡ st❛rt ♦✈❡r✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s st❛t❡♠❡♥t ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥✿

◮ ✏■❢ ♠② s♣❡❡❞ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ■ ❛♠ st❛♥❞✐♥❣ st✐❧❧ ✭❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✮✳✑

■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡st❛t❡ t❤✐s ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧②✳

Pr♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ♦✉r t❤❡♦r② ♠❛t❝❤❡s t❤❡ r❡❛❧✐t② ❛♥❞
t❤❡ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ s❡♥s❡✳ ❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t❤r❡❡ st❡♣s st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✼✳✶✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❤❛s ❛ ③❡r♦
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s
❝♦♥st❛♥t ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ [a, b]✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿

∆f = 0 ⇐⇒ f = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.

Pr♦♦❢✳
∆f (ci ) = 0 =⇒ f (xi ) − f (xi−1 ) = 0 =⇒ f (xi ) = f (xi−1 ) .
✺✳✼✳ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ✹✷✸

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✼✳✷✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❤❛s ❛ ③❡r♦
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r ❛❧❧ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤✐s
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ [a, b]✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿

∆f
= 0 ⇐⇒ f = ❝♦♥st❛♥t .
∆x

Pr♦♦❢✳
∆f
(ci ) = 0 =⇒ ∆f (ci ) = 0.
∆x

❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢s ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ s♦ ❡❛s② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ❤❛❞ t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s
♥♦ s✉❝❤ t❤✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✼✳✸✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❆ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ I ✐❢
❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♦♥ I ✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥ I ✿

f ′ = 0 ⇐⇒ f = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.

Pr♦♦❢✳
❚♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t f ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ✐t s✉✣❝❡s t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t

f (a) = f (b) ,

❢♦r ❛❧❧ a, b ✐♥ I ✳ ❆ss✉♠❡ a < b ❛♥❞ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇✐t❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (a, b) ✐♥s✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
I✿
f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (c) ,
b−a
❢♦r s♦♠❡ c ✐♥ (a, b)✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s 0 ❜② ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (b) − f (a)
= 0,
b−a
❢♦r ❛❧❧ ♣❛✐rs a, b✳ ❍❡♥❝❡
f (b) − f (a) = 0 ,
✺✳✼✳ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ✹✷✹

♦r
f (a) = f (b) .
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✇❛s ♣r♦✈❡♥ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✳

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ✐s ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ ✏ =✑ r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤
✏ >✑✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✼✳✹
❲❤❛t ✐❢ f′ = 0 ♦♥ t❤❡ ✉♥✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s❄

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ r✉♥♥❡rs r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣❡❡❞❀ ✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ✇❡ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡✐r ♠✉t✉❛❧
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s❄ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ♥♦t✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ st❛♥❞✐♥❣ st✐❧❧✱ ❜✉t t❤❡② ❛r❡ st✐❧❧ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❧✐❣❤t❧②
❧❡ss ♦❜✈✐♦✉s ❢❛❝t ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥✿

◮ ✏■❢ t✇♦ r✉♥♥❡rs r✉♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠ ✐s♥✬t ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ✭❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡
✈❡rs❛✮✑✳

■t✬s ❛s ✐❢ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❤♦❧❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❡♥❞s ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦❧❡ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣✉❧❧✐♥❣ ♦r ♣✉s❤✐♥❣✳

❚❤❡ ❢❛❝t r❡♠❛✐♥s ✈❛❧✐❞ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ t❤❡② s♣❡❡❞ ✉♣ ❛♥❞ s❧♦✇ ❞♦✇♥ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡② ♠♦✈❡ ❛s ✐❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❜♦❞②✿

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s y = F (x) ❛♥❞ y = G(x) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡✐r ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡st❛t❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛
♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ♦✉r t❤❡♦r② ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t❤r❡❡ st❡♣s
st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✼✳✺✿ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s

❚✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡②❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆F (c) = ∆G(c) ⇐⇒ F (x) − G(x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✼✳✻✿ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts

❚✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡② ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
✺✳✼✳ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ✹✷✺

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆F ∆G
(c) = (c) ⇐⇒ F (x) − G(x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.
∆x ∆x

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤✐s ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❡❛s② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ❤❛❞ t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❋♦r
❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✇❡✬❞ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ❍❡r❡ ✐♥st❡❛❞✱ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠
❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥❝② ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ✉s❡❞✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✼✳✼✿ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s
❚✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐❢ ❛♥❞
♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡② ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

F ′ (x) = G′ (x) ⇐⇒ F (x) − G(x) = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.

Pr♦♦❢✳
❉❡✜♥❡
h(x) = F (x) − G(x) .
❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

h′ (x) = (F (x) − G(x))′ = F ′ (x) − G′ (x) = 0 ,

❢♦r ❛❧❧ x✳ ❚❤❡♥ h ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✇❛s ♣r♦✈❡♥
✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✳

■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②✳ ❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ s❛②s✿
◮ ■❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ y = F (x) ❛♥❞ y = G(x) ❤❛✈❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x✱ t❤❡♥
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ F ✐s ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ s❤✐❢t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ G ✭❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✮✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ❛ t✉♥♥❡❧ ❛♥❞ ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✇❤♦s❡ ❤❡❛❞ ✐s t♦✉❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝❡✐❧✐♥❣✳ ■❢ t❤❡
❝❡✐❧✐♥❣ ✐s s❧♦♣❡❞ ❞♦✇♥✱ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❤❡ ❜❡ ❝♦♥❝❡r♥❡❞ ❛❜♦✉t ❤✐tt✐♥❣ ❤✐s ❤❡❛❞❄ ◆♦t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ✐s s❧♦♣❡❞ ❞♦✇♥ ❛s
♠✉❝❤✦ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✉♥♥❡❧✬s t♦♣ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ❛t ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱
t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ t✉♥♥❡❧ r❡♠❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t ✐ts ❧❡♥❣t❤✳
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ F ′ = f ✿
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✷✻

❙♦✱ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ F ′ ✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠❛♥② ♦t❤❡rs ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s G = F +C ❢♦r ❛♥② ❝♦♥st❛♥t r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r C ✳ ❆r❡ t❤❡r❡ ♦t❤❡rs❄ ◆♦t ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡
t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
■t✬s ♦♥❧② tr✉❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

❇❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ✉♣❞❛t❡ t❤✐s ❧✐st ♦❢ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❜✉t ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❛❝ts✿

✐♥❢♦ ❛❜♦✉t f ✐♥❢♦ ❛❜♦✉t f′

0 f ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ⇐⇒ f ′ ✐s ③❡r♦✳
1 f ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ ⇐⇒ f ′ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ 0
2 f ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳ ⇐⇒ f ′ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ 1
... ...

❲❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡ ❛ ♣❛tt❡r♥✿ f ✐s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ n ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ f′ ✐s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ n − 1✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ ❢❛❝ts t♦ ❥✉st✐❢② ♦✉r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✿
❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡
❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ =⇒
❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ =⇒
❚❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✼✳✽
❉❡r✐✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ tr❛❥❡❝t♦r② ♦❢ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ t❤r♦✇♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❛♥ ❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✳

✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❊✈❡r② ❣♦♦❞ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❤❛s ❛ ✏r❡✈❡rs❡❞✑ ❝♦✉♥t❡r♣❛rt✱ ✉s✉❛❧❧② ❤❛r❞❡r✳ ❚❤✐s ♦♥❡ ✐s ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✽✳✶✿ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✷✼

t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

∆F
(c) = f (c)
∆x

❢♦r ❛❧❧ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s c✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f✳

■♥ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❝❤❛♣t❡rs✱ ✇❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿

pn+1 − pn
vn = =⇒ pn+1 = pn + vn ∆t .
∆t
■t✬s ♣✉r❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✦

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡ ✐s ❜② ❢❛r ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✽✳✷✿ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ I t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

dF
(x) = f (x)
dx

❢♦r ❛❧❧ x✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ ✏❛♥✑ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥
❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✐❢ F ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s F + C✱ ✇❤❡r❡ C ✐s ❛♥② ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✐s
tr✉❡ ♦♥❧② ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

●✐✈❡♥ f, s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F ●✐✈❡♥ f, s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F

∆F dF
=f =f
∆x dx

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✸✿ x2
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ t❛s❦ ♠❛② ❜❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

F ′ (x) = x2 .

❆s ✐t ✐s ♦❢t❡♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ✇✐t❤ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t❤❛t ❞✐r❡❝t❧② ❣✐✈❡s ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦
❧✐♠✐t ❡✐t❤❡r✳❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t❤❡♥ t♦ tr② t♦ r❡❝❛❧❧ ♣r✐♦r ❡①♣❡r✐❡♥❝❡s ✇✐t❤ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥
✳ ❊✈❡♥ ✐❢
2
②♦✉✬✈❡ ♥❡✈❡r ✜♥✐s❤❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♥❣ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ x ❛s t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✱ ②♦✉ ♠✐❣❤t ❤❛✈❡ ❞♦♥❡ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣
❝❧♦s❡✿
(x3 )′ = 3x2 .
❆❧♠♦st✦ ❚♦ ❣❡t r✐❞ ♦❢ 3✱ tr② t♦ ❞✐✈✐❞❡✿ ♠❛②❜❡ x3 /3❄ ▲❡t✬s t❡st✿

(x3 /3)′ = (x3 )/3 = 3x2 /3 = x2 .

❆s ✐t ✐s ♦❢t❡♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ✇✐t❤ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ tr✐❛❧✲❛♥❞✲❡rr♦r ♠✐❣❤t ❥✉st ✇♦r❦✦

✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✷✽

❲❡ ❝❛♥ r❡st❛t❡ t❤❡ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✽✳✹✿ ❙❡t ♦❢ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ F ✐s ❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✐s

{F + C : C r❡❛❧ } .

❆s ✐t ✐s ♦❢t❡♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ✇✐t❤ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡r❡ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ♠❛♥② ✭✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥②✮ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✳ ❇✉t ❛ ✈❡r②
✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ✐t s✉✣❝❡s t♦ ✜♥❞ ❥✉st ♦♥❡ ❛♥t✐✲❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✦
❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ F + C ✇♦r❦s ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤✐s s❡t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✿

■t ✐s t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐t ♠❛② ❜❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✺✿ x3
❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ F t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿
F ′ (x) = x3 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✻

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ f ♥❡✈❡r ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✳
✷✳ ❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) ✇✐t❤ x ✇✐t❤✐♥ I✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♣❛ss❡s
t❤r♦✉❣❤ ✐t✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ t❤❡♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F✱ ❡✐t❤❡r

∆F
• ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✱ ♦r
∆x
dF
• ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✳
dx
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ r❡❝♦♥str✉❝t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ✏✜❡❧❞ ♦❢ s❧♦♣❡s✑✿
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✷✾

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ❛ ✢♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐q✉✐❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛t ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤
♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡❄ ❚❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ♦❢ r❡❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♥❣ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ F ✱ ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ f ✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥t✐✲
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ s♦❧✈❡❞ ♦♥ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ♦❝❝❛s✐♦♥s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✱ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝❛s❡ ✕ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②
❢r♦♠ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✕ ✈✐❛ t❤❡s❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✿

F (xn+1 ) = F (xn ) + f (cn )∆xn .

❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ✉♣ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ r❡♣❡❛t✿

■❢ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❝❧♦s❡ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✱ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❢♦r♠ ❝✉r✈❡s✿

❋♦r t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❍♦✇ ❞♦❡s ♦♥❡ ♣❧♦t ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ t❤❛t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡s❡
✕ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ✕ t❛♥❣❡♥ts❄
❚♦ ❜❡❣✐♥ ✇✐t❤✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st tr② t♦ r❡✈❡rs❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ tr② t♦ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ t❤❡♦r② ♦❢ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥
t❤❛t ♠❛t❝❤❡s ✕ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✕ t❤❛t ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✸✵

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s❤♦rt ❧✐st ♦❢ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✮✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ −→ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
xr rxr−1
1
ln x
x
ex ex

sin x cos x

cos x − sin x

❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ←− ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚♦ ✜♥❞ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ r❡✈❡rs❡ t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r✿

◮ ❘❡❛❞ ❡❛❝❤ ❧✐♥❡ ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t✦
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✼✿ sin ❛♥❞ cos
❲❤❛t ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ cos x❄ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F ✿
F ′ (x) = cos x .

❏✉st ✜♥❞ cos x ✐♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❝♦❧✉♠♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ✐s sin x✳ ❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✿
F (x) = sin x✦

❲❤❛t ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ sin x❄ ❙♦❧✈❡✿

F ′ (x) = sin x .

❏✉st ✜♥❞ sin x ✐♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❝♦❧✉♠♥✳ ■t✬s ♥♦t t❤❡r❡✳✳✳ ❜✉t − sin x ✐s✦ ❚❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡
❧❡❢t ✐s cos x✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✭❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✮ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♠✉st ❜❡ − sin x✳

■t ✐s t❤❛t s✐♠♣❧❡✦ ❲❡ ❥✉st ♠❛② ♥❡❡❞ s♦♠❡ t✇❡❛❦✐♥❣ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛❜♦✉t t♦ ❡♠❡r❣❡ ❛s ❡❛s② t♦ ❛♣♣❧②
❛s t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ♦♥❡s✳
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❧❡t✬s ✜♥❞ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ xn ✳ ❯s❡ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✭t❤❡ ✜rst r♦✇✮✱ ❞✐✈✐❞❡
❜② r✱ ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ✿
 ′
r ′ r−1 1 1 r
(x ) = rx =⇒ (xr )′ = xr−1 =⇒ x = xr−1 .
r r
❲❡ t❤❡♥ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ❜② s❡tt✐♥❣ r − 1 = s✿
 ′
1 s+1
x = xs .
s+1

√
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✽✿ 3

❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F ✿ √
F ′ (x) = 3
x = x1/3 .
❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ s = 1/3 ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
1 3
F (x) = x1/3+1 = x4/3 + C .
1/3 + 1 4
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✸✶

❲❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡
❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

1 s+1
❆♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ xs ✐s x ✱ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ s 6= −1✳
s+1
❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ s = −1❄ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ r❡❛❞ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧✐♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✿

❆♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ x−1 ✐s ln |x|✳

❙♦✱ t❤❛t t❤❡ r✉❧❡ ✏t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 1 ❧♦✇❡r✑ ❤❛s ❛♥ ❡①❝❡♣t✐♦♥✱
t❤❡ 0✲♣♦✇❡r✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r✉❧❡ ✏t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 1 ❤✐❣❤❡r✑ ❤❛s
❛♥ ❡①❝❡♣t✐♦♥ t♦♦✳

❚❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ r♦✇s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ♦♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ −→ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

1 s+1
xs x , s 6= −1
s+1
1
ln |x|
x
ex ex

sin x − cos x

cos x sin x

❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ←− ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✾✿ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s

❊❛❝❤ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ♦♥❧② ✈❛❧✐❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
1
• ln(x) ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (0, +∞)✱ ❛♥❞
x
1
• ln(−x) ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (−∞, 0)✳
x

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

❋✐rst✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✮✿ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s❀ ✐✳❡✳✱
(f + g)′ = f ′ + g ′ .
▲❡t✬s r❡❛❞ t❤❛t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✽✳✶✵✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❆♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

✐❢

F ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ❛♥❞

G ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ g✱
t❤❡♥

F +G ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f + g✳
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✸✷

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❋♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠✿

(F (x) + G(x))′ = F ′ (x) + G′ (x) = f (x) + g(x) .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✶✶

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✶✷✿ s✉♠s

❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F ✿
F ′ (x) = x2 + sin x .
❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞ ❜② s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✿

❢♦r G : G′ (x) = x2 ❛♥❞ ❢♦r H : H ′ (x) = sin x .

❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✿

1
G(x) = x3 ❛♥❞ H(x) = − cos x .
3
❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛♥s✇❡r✿
1
F (x) = x3 − cos x .
3

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✶✸

❯s✐♥❣ t❤✐s r✉❧❡✱ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ln x2 ✳

❈♦♠♣❛r❡✿
❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
❚❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ♠✐s♠❛t❝❤ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ✏ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✑ ❛♥❞ ✏ t❤❡

❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✑ ✐s♥✬t ❛❝❝✐❞❡♥t❛❧✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✮✿ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s
t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡❀ ✐✳❡✳✱
(cf )′ = cf ′ .
▲❡t✬s r❡❛❞ t❤❛t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✽✳✶✹✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❆♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

✐❢

F ✐s ❛♥❞ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ❛♥❞

c ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱
t❤❡♥

cF ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ cf ✳
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✸✸

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❋♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✿

(cF (x))′ = cF ′ (x) = cf (x) .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✶✺

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✶✻✿ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡s

❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F ✿
F ′ (x) = 3 sin x .
❲❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

❢♦r G : G′ (x) = sin x .

❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✿

G(x) = − cos x .
❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛♥s✇❡r✿

F (x) = 3(− cos x) .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✶✼

❯s✐♥❣ t❤✐s r✉❧❡✱ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ex+3 ✳

❈♦♠♣❛r❡✿
❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳
❚❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❤❛♥❞❧❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❥✉st ❛s ❡❛s✐❧② ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ ❲❡ r❡❛❞ t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r
❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✮ ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t✿
d
f (mx + b) = mf ′ (mx + b) ,
dx
♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✽✳✶✽✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

■❢

F ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ❛♥❞

m 6= 0, b ❛r❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts✱
t❤❡♥
1
F (mx + b) ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (mx + b)✳
m

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✿
 ′
1 1 1
F (mx + b) = (F (mx + b))′ = mF ′ (mx + b) = F ′ (mx + b) = f (mx + b) .
a m m
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✸✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✶✾
❯s✐♥❣ t❤✐s r✉❧❡✱ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ e2x+1 ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✷✵
❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✮❄

❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ❡✈❡r② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♠❡s ✇✐t❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧②
♠❛♥② ♦t❤❡rs✿
F → F +C ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② r❡❛❧ C,
♦♥ ❡✈❡r② ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❚♦❣❡t❤❡r t❤❡② ❢♦r♠ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✷✶✿ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛❦❡ ♦✉r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ♠♦r❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝✿

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡

❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿ a = −g ✳ =⇒

❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✿ v = −gt + C ✳ =⇒
❚❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✿ p = −gt2 /2 + Ct + K ✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts C ❛♥❞ K ❝♦✈❡r ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ tr✐♣s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧✳

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f✿

❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
Z
f dx
Z
❍❡r❡✱ ✐s r❡❢❡rr❡❞ t♦ ❛s t❤❡

✏✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s✐❣♥✑✳

■t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ❛ str❡t❝❤❡❞ ❧❡tt❡r ✏❙✑✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ st❛♥❞s ❢♦r ✏s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥✑✿

❚❤❡ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡✐♥❣ r❡❢❡rr❡❞ t♦ ❤❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❛♥t✐✲❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

F (xn+1 ) = F (xn ) ✰ f (c )∆x

n n .

❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐❞❡❛ ❢♦r ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♠❛t❝❤❡s t❤❛t ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ✐♥ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ✇❛②✿

d

3x2 + cos x = 6x − sin x .
dx
❲❡ s❡❡ t❤❡ ✏♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s✑ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞✿
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✸✺

❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

Z ↓ ↓


3x2 + cos x dx = x3 + sin x + C
↑ ↑ ↑
❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ r✐❣❤t ✏♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s✑ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦t❤❡rs

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❧✐st✿

Z
1 s+1
xs dx = x + C, ❢♦r s 6= −1
Z s+1
1
dx = ln x + C
Z x
ex dx = ex + C
Z
sin x dx = − cos x + C
Z
cos x dx = sin x + C

❲❡ r❡st❛t❡ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s t♦♦✳

❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✿
Z Z Z
(f + g) dx = f dx + g dx

❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✿

Z Z
(cf ) dx = c f dx

▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡✿

Z Z
1
f (mx + b) dx = f (t) dt
m t=mx+b

❲✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s✱ ✇❤❡♥ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✱ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✷✷✿ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥

❋✐♥❞ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢
3x2 + 5ex + cos x .
❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❡✬❞ ❞♦ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ st❡♣s ❜✉t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐✲
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛♥❞ r✉❧❡s ✉s❡❞ ✐♥st❡❛❞✳

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿
(3x2 + 5ex + cos x)′ = (3x2 )′ + 5(ex )′ + (3 sin x)′ ❙❘
= 3(x2 )′ + 5(ex )′ + 3(sin x)′ ❈▼❘
= 3 · 6x + 5ex + 3 cos x . ❚❛❜❧❡
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✸✻

❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿
Z Z Z Z
2 x ′ 2 x
(3x + 5e + cos x) dx = (3x ) dx + 5(e ) dx + (3 sin x)dx ❙❘
Z Z Z
2 x
= 3 (x ) dx + 5 (e ) dx + 3 (sin x)dx ❈▼❘

= 3 · x3 /3 + 5ex + 3(− cos x) + C . ❚❛❜❧❡

❏✉st ❛s ✇❤❡♥ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❡❛s✐❧② ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✇❡r❡ ❝♦rr❡❝t✱ ❜② s✉❜st✐✲
t✉t✐♦♥✳ ■♥ t❤✐s ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✿
(x3 + 5ex + 3 sin x)′ = (x3 )′ + 5(ex )′ + (3 sin x)′
= 3x2 + 5ex + 3 cos x .

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦ ❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❝❤❡❝❦s ♦✉t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✷✸

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ 5e3x+2 − ee ✳

❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠s t♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r❛❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿

R R
′ ′
f,
g ←−−−− f, g f ←−−−− f′

   
+ + ·c ·c
y y y y
R R
′ ′
f + g ←−−−− f + g cf ←−−−− cf ′

❚❤❡ ❛rr♦✇s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ r❡✈❡rs❡❞✦ ❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛t t♦♣ r✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞
✐♥ t✇♦ ✇❛②s✿

• ❧❡❢t✿ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡♠✱ t❤❡♥ ❞♦✇♥✿ ❛❞❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts❀ ♦r

• ❞♦✇♥✿ ❛❞❞ t❤❡♠✱ t❤❡♥ ❧❡❢t✿ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts✳

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦

❙♦ ❢❛r✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ str❛t❡❣② ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥❝✉r✳ ❙♣❧✐t ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥
✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✱ t❤❡♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✱ t❤❡♥ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡
r❡s✉❧ts t♦ t❤❡s❡ ♣✐❡❝❡s✳

❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r✐t✐❡s st♦♣✳

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥

❜❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❡♠s❡❧✈❡s✳
❚❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥♥♦t
❜❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❡♠s❡❧✈❡s✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧② t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✱ ♥♦r t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✱ ❢♦r ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

❚❤✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❤❛s ♣r♦❢♦✉♥❞ ❝♦♥s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❥✉st t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

xs , sin x, ex .

❚❤❡♥ ✕ ❜② ❛♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ✐♥✈❡rt✐♥❣ ✕ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ ❣r❡❛t
✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡♠ ✏❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✑✳ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛② t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞✱ ❛❧❧ ♦❢
t❤❡♠ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ t❤✉s ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ♦t❤❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✭❧❡❢t✮✿
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✸✼

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❝♦♥tr❛r② t♦ ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❧✐st ♠✐❣❤t s✉❣❣❡st✱ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ♦❢t❡♥ t❛❦❡ ✉s ♦✉ts✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
r❡❛❧♠ ♦❢ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ●❛✉ss ❡rr♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ♠✉st
❜❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❢♦r t❤✐s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
Z
2 2
erf(x) = √ e−x dx .
π

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❡①❝❧✉❞❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✏❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✑ ❡✐t❤❡r t❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
♦r t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡ ♠♦r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐st✳

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❧❛✐♠ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛❧❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢
t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♥ ♦✉r ❧✐st✱ ♦✈❡r ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ♦❢ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✽✳✷✹✿ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f✱ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ♦✈❡r ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✐s
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜②✿ Z
f dx = F (x) + C ,

✇❤❡r❡ F ✐s ❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ♦♥ I✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ F′ = f✱ ✉♥❞❡rst♦♦❞ ❛s ❛ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥

♦❢ ❛❧❧ s✉❝❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦✈❡r ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs C✳ ❚❤✐s ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧s♦
❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ ❤♦✇ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✿

Z
d
f →  dx → F →  → f
dx
Z
d
F →  → f →  dx → F +C
dx

d
■♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t ✐s♥✬t ✐♥✈❡rt✐❜❧❡ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✸✮✳
dx
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✷✺✿ ❤♦✇ ♠❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s❄
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❜✉t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♠♦r❡ t♦ ✐t✳ ▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❝❛r❡❢✉❧ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ♦♥❡
❧✐♥❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐st✿ Z
1 ❄❄❄
dx === ln |x| + C, x 6= 0 .
x

❚❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ✐♥t❡♥❞❡❞ t♦ ♠❡❛♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

✶✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝❛♣t✉r❡❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ✕ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r C ✕ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
✷✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝❛♣t✉r❡❞ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡♠✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ♦♥❧② t♦ ♦♥❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✸✽

❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ 1/x ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ t✇♦ r❛②s (−∞, 0) ❛♥❞ (0, +∞)✳ ❆s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②
♦♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ 1/x ❛r❡✿
• ln(−x) + C ♦♥ (−∞, 0)✱ ❛♥❞
• ln(x) + C ♦♥ (0, +∞)✳
❇✉t ✐❢ ♥♦✇ ✇❡ ✇❡r❡ t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥t♦ ♦♥❡✱ F ✱ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ (−∞, 0)∪(0, +∞)✱
✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t✱ ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✿ ❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣
t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✦ ❲❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ✇r♦♥❣ ✭✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡✮ ❛♥s✇❡r ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦♥❡ ♦♥
t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✿

❚❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✱ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇❡ st❛rt❡❞ ✇✐t❤✱ ♠✐❣❤t s✉❣❣❡st t❤❛t ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s
❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❡✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t s❤♦✇s ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✭✐♥ r❡❞✮ ❜✉t
1
✐ts t✇♦ ❜r❛♥❝❤❡s ❞♦♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♠❛t❝❤✦ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✕ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✕
x
✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤✐s ♣✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡✲❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
(
ln(−x) + C ❢♦r x ✐♥ (−∞, 0),
F (x) =
ln(x) + K ❢♦r x ✐♥ (0, +∞).

■t ❤❛s t✇♦ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡rs ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉s✉❛❧ ♦♥❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✷✻
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ 1/x✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✷✼
■♥ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❢❛s❤✐♦♥✱ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❢♦r s < −1✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✷✽✿ ✜♥❞ ❣r❛♣❤s

❚❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦♥ ♦✉r ❧✐st ✇❡r❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❜② r❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❜❛❝❦✇❛r❞s✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r ❣r❛♣❤s✳

❇❡❧♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✬s ❣r❛♣❤ ✭❣r❡❡♥✮ ✇❛s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭r❡❞✮ ❜② ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡
♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ f ✿ ❡✐t❤❡r f ′ > 0 ♦r f ′ < 0✱ ❛♥❞ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✿ f ′ = 0✳
✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✸✾

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ց, ր ♦❢ f t♦ ✜♥❞ +, − ♦❢ f ′ ✳

■♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t +, − ♦❢ f ′ t♦ ✜♥❞ ց, ր ♦❢ f ✳

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

❚♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ s❤♦✇ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✷✾

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✢❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

❚❤✐s st✉❞② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡s ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸■❈✲✶✳

✺✳✽✳ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✹✵

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✭❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡✮ t♦ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦st ❝r✉❝✐❛❧ ✐❞❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦✿

 
❞✐s❝r❡t❡
lim = ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
∆x→0 ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✻✿ ❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✻✳✶ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹✶
✻✳✷ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✶
✻✳✸ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✷
✻✳✹ ❙♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✿ ❜✐s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✼
✻✳✺ P❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✼✶
✻✳✻ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✼✽
✻✳✼ ▼♦t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❢♦r❝❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✽✸
✻✳✽ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✽✾
✻✳✾ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✾✺

✻✳✶✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡

❍♦✇ ❞♦❡s ♦♥❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦r t❤❡ ✏str❡♥❣t❤✑ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♥ ❛ ❧❛r❣❡ s❝❛❧❡❄

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❧❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ s❛② x ✈s✳ x2 ✱ ♦r x2 ✈s✳ x3 ✿

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ♦✈❡rt❛❦❡s t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ✐♥❝♦♠♣❛r❛❜❧❡ ❤✐❣❤❡r✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡
❛♥s✇❡r ✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡r t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r✱ t❤❡ str♦♥❣❡r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❆ s✐♠✐❧❛r r✉❧❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡r t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡✱ t❤❡ str♦♥❣❡r t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳

❇✉t ✇❤❛t ❞♦❡s ✏str♦♥❣❡r✑ ♠❡❛♥❄

❚♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡ ✜rst t❤✐♥❣ t♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❜② t❤✐s
st❛♥❞❛r❞✱
x2 ❛♥❞ x2 + x
✻✳✶✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✹✹✷

❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ❢❛r ❛♣❛rt✦ ❆t ❧❡❛st✱ t❤❛t✬s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳

■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❣❛✐♥✿

x2 ❛♥❞ x2 + x .

❇② t❤✐s st❛♥❞❛r❞✱ t❤❡② ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦ ❆t ❧❡❛st✱ t❤❛t✬s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s r❛t✐♦ ✐s ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿

x2
→1 ❛s x → ∞.
x2 + x

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✶✿ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s

❲❡ ❡♥❝♦✉♥t❡r❡❞ t❤✐s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t❧② ✇❤❡♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t② ♦❢ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✮✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✇❡ ✉s❡❞✿ ❲❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜♦t❤ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ❜② t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡
♣♦✇❡r✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
3x3 + x − 7 3x3 + x − 7 /x3
=
2x3 + 100 2x3 + 100 /x3
3 + x−2 − 7x−3
=
2 + 100x−3
3
→ ❛s x → ∞.
2
❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱

f (x) = 3x3 + x − 7 ❛♥❞ g(x) = 2x3 + 100 ,

❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ✏s❛♠❡ ♣♦✇❡r✑ ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡✐r ❣r❛♣❤s st❛② t♦❣❡t❤❡r ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❣♦❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥ r❡♠❛✐♥s ✈✐s✐❜❧② 3 t♦ 2✿

❲❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ str❡t❝❤✦ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜❡❤❛✈❡ r♦✉❣❤❧② t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳
✻✳✶✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✹✹✸

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✇✐t❤ 4✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤✐s✿

f (x) 3x4 + x − 7
=
g(x) 2x3 + 100
3x4 + x − 7 /x4
=
2x3 + 100 /x4
3 + x−3 − 7x−4
=
2x−1 + 100x−4
→∞ ❛s x → ∞.

❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t 3x4 + x − 7 ✐s ✏str♦♥❣❡r✑ ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t② t❤❛♥ 2x3 + 100✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ q✉✐❝❦❧② t❤❡
❢♦r♠❡r r✉♥s ❛✇❛② ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤✐s ✐s♥✬t ❛ str❡t❝❤✦ ❋✉rt❤❡r ❡♥❧❛r❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ♣❧♦t t♦ s❤r✐♥❦ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② ❛♥❞ t❤❡
s♠❛❧❧❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳

❚❤✉s t♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ✱ ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t② ♦r ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✇❡ ❢♦r♠ ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡♠ ❛♥❞ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡
t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦✿
f (x)
lim =?
g(x)
◆♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t✬s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦①✱ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✻✳✶✳✷✿ ♦r❞❡rs ♦❢ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ✇✐t❤
x → ±∞ ♦r x → a± ,
✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ♦r ✐ts r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ✐s ③❡r♦✱

f (x) g(x)
lim =∞ ♦r lim = 0,
g(x) f (x)

✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t f ✐s ♦❢ ❤✐❣❤❡r ♦r❞❡r t❤❛♥ g✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❛ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱
✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♦r❞❡r✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛s❡✿

❍✐❣❤❡r ♦r❞❡r
f >> g
g = o(f )
❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡❛❞s ✏❧✐tt❧❡ ♦✑✳

❲❤❡♥ ♠❛❣♥✐✜❡❞✱ t❤❡✐r ❣r❛♣❤s ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤♦s❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
✻✳✶✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✹✹✹

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝❛s❡✿

❊q✉❛❧ ♦r❞❡r
f ∼g

❲❤❡♥ ♠❛❣♥✐✜❡❞✱ ❡✐t❤❡r ❣r❛♣❤ ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ❛ str❡t❝❤❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✿

❖♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✉s❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✿
∆y
f ′ (a) = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x

❯s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✐t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡✇r✐tt❡♥ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

 
∆y ′
lim − f (a) = 0 ,
∆x→0 ∆x
♦r
∆y − f ′ (a)∆x
lim = 0.
∆x→0 ∆x
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱
∆y − f ′ (a)∆x << ∆x ❛s ∆x → 0 .
❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡s❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✐♥t❡r❛❝t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿
✻✳✶✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✹✹✺

❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✻✳✶✳✸✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✈✐❛ ▲✐tt❧❡ ♦

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢✿

∆y = f ′ (a)∆x + o(∆x)

❚❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ❥✉st✐❢② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❤✐❡r❛r❝❤② ❛t +∞✿
√ √
... >> xn >> ... >> x2 >> x >> x >> 3
x >> ... >> 1

❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ ♣♦✇❡rs ❜❡❧♦✇ 1 ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❛♥❞ ❛❜♦✈❡ 1 ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✿

❚❤❡ r✐❣❤t ✐s t♦ ❜❡ ❛♣♣❡♥❞❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✳

❆♠♦♥❣ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✱ t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣❧❛②s t❤❡ r♦❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✻✳✶✳✹✿ ▲✐tt❧❡ ♦ ❢♦r P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s

❆ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❤❛s ❛ ❤✐❣❤❡r ♦r❞❡r t❤❛♥ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ✐ts ❞❡❣r❡❡ ✐s ❤✐❣❤❡r✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s P ❛♥❞ Q✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

P = o(Q) ⇐⇒ deg P < deg Q .

❆♥❞✱ ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱

P ∼ Q ⇐⇒ deg P = deg Q .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✳✺

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

✻✳✶✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✹✹✻

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❡①♣❛♥❞❡❞ ♦✉r ❤✐❡r❛r❝❤②✿

... >> nt❤ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ >> ... >> 2♥❞ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ >> 1st ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡rs t❤❛t ✇❡ st❛rt❡❞ ✇✐t❤❄ ❚❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✐t❡♠ ✐♥ t❤❡
n
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈❡✱ x ✱ ♦❢ ❛ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❝❧❛ss ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ nt❤ ❞❡❣r❡❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✳✻
√
❈❛♥ ②♦✉ ❢✉rt❤❡r ❡♥❧❛r❣❡ t❤❡ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡❄ ❍✐♥t✿ ❛❞❞ x✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✳✼

❙✉❣❣❡st ❛ ✏▲✐tt❧❡ ♦ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❋♦r ❘❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✑✳ Pr♦✈❡ ✐t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✽✿ ♦r❞❡r ❛t ex

❲❤❡r❡ ❞♦❡s ex ✜t ✐♥ t❤✐s ❤✐❡r❛r❝❤②❄ ❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ex ❛♥❞ x100 ✿

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r s❡❡♠s str♦♥❣❡r ❜✉t✱ ✉♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ♦❢ ❞✐✈✐❞✐♥❣ ❜② t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡r ♣♦✇❡r ❞♦❡s♥✬t
❛♣♣❧② ❤❡r❡✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢♦r ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♠❡t❤♦❞✳

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❤♦✇ t♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢
✉s✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤✐s r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ♦r❞❡r ❛♣♣❧✐❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✾✿ ♦r❞❡r ❛t 0

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❢♦r♠ t❤✐s ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ 0✿

3 + x−2 − 7x−3 7
−3
→− ❛s x → 0.
2 + 10x 10
❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ✏s❛♠❡ ♦r❞❡r✑ ❛t 0✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✐s ♦❢
❤✐❣❤❡r ♦r❞❡r ❛t 0 t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✿

3 + x−2 − 7x−4
→∞ ❛s x → 0.
2 + 10x−3

❲❡ ❛r❡ t❤✉s ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❥✉st✐❢② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❤✐❡r❛r❝❤② ❛t 0✿

1 1 1 1 1
... >> n
>> ... >> 2 >> >> √ >> √ >> ... >> 1
x x x x 3
x

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✶✵✿ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s

❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ 1/x ❛♥❞ 1/x2 ✿

✻✳✶✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✹✹✼

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ❢❛✐❧s ❢♦r ♦t❤❡r t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❞♦❡s ln x ✜t ✐♥ t❤✐s ❤✐❡r❛r❝❤②❄
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢♦r ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♠❡t❤♦❞✳
▲❡t✬s ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②✮ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② ✐ts ❝❤❛♥❣❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✳ ❙♦✱
❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ✐❞❡❛✿
◮ ❚♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡✐r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✐♥st❡❛❞✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿
∆f
lim (x) .
x→∞ ∆g

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❄ ❚❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦rs ❝❛♥❝❡❧✿

∆f
∆x ∆f
∆g
= .
∆x
∆g

❙♦✱ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ✐s ❥✉st ❛s ✈❛❧✐❞✿

◮ ❚♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡✐r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✐♥st❡❛❞✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿
∆f
(x)
lim ∆x
∆g
.
x→∞
∆x
(x)

❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② ✐ts r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❣r♦✇t❤✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ t♦
t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧❡✈❡❧✿
◮ ❚♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✐♥st❡❛❞✳
❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❜② ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ s♦ ♠❛♥② ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❜② ♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✇❡
❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ s♦♠❡ ♦t❤❡r ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿
df
dx
(x)
lim dg .
x→∞
dx
(x)

❲❤❡t❤❡r x ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ♦r ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✻✳✶✳✶✶✿ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢

t❤❡ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts✿
x → ±∞ ❛♥❞ x → a± ,
✻✳✶✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✹✹✽

✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′
g(x) g (x)

✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts ✭❛s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t②✮✱ ❛♥❞ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡
❧❡❢t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✿

lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0 ,

♦r
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = ∞ .

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✐s ♥♦t t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ✭♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts

♦r ♦❢ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✮✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ❛ ✇❛② t♦

r❡s♦❧✈❡ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❝② t❤❛t ♣r❡❝❧✉❞❡s ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❥✉st✐❢② t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ❝❛s❡✳ ▲❡t c ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✇❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞ ✐♥ ❛♥❞
s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ✇✐t❤✿

f (c) = g(c) = 0 .

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝❛♥ ✐♥s❡rt t❤❡s❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s ✐♥t♦ t❤❡✐r r❛t✐♦✿

f (x)−f (c)
f (x) f (x) − 0 f (x) − f (c) x−c
= = = g(x)−g(c)
.
g(x) g(x) − 0 g(x) − g(c)
x−c

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❜♦t❤ ❜② g(x) − g(c)✱ ❢♦r x 6= c✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts✿
f (x) f ′ (c)
→ ′ ,
g(x) g (c)

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❡①✐st ❛♥❞ g ′ (c) 6= 0✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✶✷✿ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥

❈♦♠♣✉t❡
x2 − 3
lim .
x→∞ 2x2 − x + 1

■t✬s ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡✱ ∞/∞✳ ❚❤❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✐s t♦ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ♣♦✇❡r✳ ■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧②
▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✿
2x
= lim .
x→∞ 4x − 1
❇✉t ✐t✬s st✐❧❧ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡✦ ❚❤❛t✬s ❛ ❣♦♦❞ ♥❡✇s✿ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛♣♣❧② ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✦ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡
r❡s✉❧t✿
2 1
= lim = .
x→∞ 4 2
✻✳✶✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✹✹✾

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❇❡❢♦r❡ ②♦✉ ❛♣♣❧② ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡✱ ✈❡r✐❢② t❤❛t t❤✐s

✐s ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✶✸✿ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥

❈♦♠♣✉t❡
ln x ∞
lim ❘❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥ ? ❆♣♣❧② ▲❘✳
x→1 x−1 ∞
1
x
= lim
x→1 1
1
= lim
x→1 x

= 1.

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✶✹✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❈♦♠♣✉t❡
ex ∞
lim ❘❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥ ? ❆♣♣❧② ▲❘✳
x→∞ x2 ∞
ex ∞
= lim ❘❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥ ? ❆♣♣❧② ▲❘✳
x→∞ 2x ∞
ex
= lim
x→∞ 2

= ∞.
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
ex >> x2 .

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ ❤✐❣❤ t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ✐s✱ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❝♦♠❡s t♦ ③❡r♦ ❛❢t❡r ❛ s✉✣❝✐❡♥t ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥✲
t✐❛t✐♦♥s✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✿
ex
lim= ∞.
x→∞ xn

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♦✉r ❤✐❡r❛r❝❤② ❛♣♣❡♥❞❡❞✿

√ √
ex >> ... >> xn >> ... >> x2 >> x >> x >> 3
x >> ... >> 1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✶✺✿ ❧❛r❣❡r t❤❛♥ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧

■s t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ❧❛r❣❡r ♦♥❡ t❤❛♥ ex ❄ ❨❡s✱ e2x ✳ ▲❛r❣❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❛t❄ ❨❡s✱ ex ✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳
2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✳✶✻
❆❞❞ ♠♦r❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐st✳ ❖♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t t♦♦✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✳✶✼
■s t❤❡r❡ ❛ ❧❛r❣❡st ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✳✶✽
■s ✐t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ✐♥s❡rt ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❤✐s ❧✐st❄
√
x2 >> f >> x ❛♥❞ x >> g >> x
✻✳✶✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✹✺✵

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ♦t❤❡r ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s❄ ❇❡❧♦✇ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts t❤❛t ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞ t♦
❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✿

• ♣r♦❞✉❝ts✿
0·∞

• ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✿
∞−∞

• ♣♦✇❡rs✿
00 , ∞0 , 1∞

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❆♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ♦♥ ✐ts ♦✇♥ ✐s ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣✲

❧❡ss✳ ❲❤❡♥ ✐t ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t t♦ ❜❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞✱

✐ts ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ✐s ❉❊❆❉ ❊◆❉✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t♦ ❝♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡♠ t♦ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✶✾✿ ♣r♦❞✉❝ts

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿
lim x ln x =?
x→0+

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ❤❡r❡❄ ❲❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt t♦ ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ ❜② ❞✐✈✐❞✐♥❣ ❜② t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧✿

ln x ∞
= lim+ 1 ❘❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥ ? ❆♣♣❧② ▲❘✳
x→0
x
∞
1
x
= lim+ ❙✐♠♣❧✐❢②✦
x→0 − x12
= lim+ −x = 0 .
x→0

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✷✵✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥ts

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡
1
lim x x =?
x→∞

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt t♦ ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥❄ ❯s❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✦

1 1
ln x x = ln x .
x
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✭t❤❡ ✏♠❛❣✐❝ ✇♦r❞s✑✮✿

 1
  1

ln lim x x = lim ln x x
x→∞ x→∞  
1
= lim ln x ❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✦
x→∞ x
ln x ∞
= lim ❘❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥ .
x→∞ x
1
∞
▲❘ x
=== lim = 0.
x→∞ 1
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
1
lim x x = e0 = 1 .
x→∞
✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✺✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✳✷✶

❲❤❛t ♣r♦♣❡rt② ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ❞✐❞ ✇❡ ✉s❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✳✷✷
√
Pr♦✈❡ x >> ln x >> x ❛t ∞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✳✷✸

1
❈♦♠♣❛r❡ ln x ❛♥❞ ❛t 0✳
xn

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✶✳✷✹✿ ♠✐s❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t❤❛t r❡q✉✐r❡s t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ t♦ ❜❡ ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ♠✉st ❜❡ ✈❡r✐✜❡❞✳

❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ❤❛♣♣❡♥ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❣❡t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

′
1 + x1 ▲❘❄ 1 + x1 − x12 1
lim 1 == = = lim
′ = lim 2 = lim x = +∞ .
x→+∞ 1 + 2
x
x→+∞ 1 + 1
2
x→+∞ − 3
x
2 x→+∞
x

❇✉t t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✦ ❚❤✐s ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r
❧✐♠✐ts ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✿

1 + x1 ◗❘ limx→+∞ 1 + x1 1
lim 1 === 1

= = 1.
x→+∞ 1 + 2
x limx→+∞ 1 + x2 1
❆ ♠✐s♠❛t❝❤✦ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✐s ✐♥❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r
♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ ❡①✐st ✦ ❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

x2 ▲❘❄ 2x
lim ==== lim = 2.
x→1 x x→1 1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✳✷✺

❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤✐s ❝❧❛ss ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ o(1)✳

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐t ✐s ♦♥❧② ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ r♦✉t❡s✿

lim f
◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ →
lim g
ր
f
lim
g
ց
lim f ′
▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ →
lim g ′

✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s

■t ✐s ❛ r❡❛s♦♥❛❜❧❡ str❛t❡❣② t♦ ❛♥s✇❡r ❛ q✉❡st✐♦♥ t❤❛t ②♦✉ ❞♦♥✬t ❦♥♦✇ ❤♦✇ t♦ ❛♥s✇❡r ❜② ❛♥s✇❡r✐♥❣ ✐♥st❡❛❞
❛♥♦t❤❡r ♦♥❡ ✕ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ✕ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛♥s✇❡r✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
√
• ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ♦❢ 4.1❄ ■ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t 4 = 2✱ s♦ ■✬❧❧ s❛② t❤❛t ✐t✬s ❛❜♦✉t 2✳
✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✺✷

• ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ♦❢ 4.3❄ ■t✬s ❛❜♦✉t 2✳

• ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ♦❢ 3.9❄ ■t✬s ❛❜♦✉t 2✳
❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ r❡❛s♦♥❛❜❧❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡s✱ ❜✉t t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿
x 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2
y 2 2 2 2 2
√
❖✉r ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ s♣❡❛❦ ♦❢ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x ❜② ❛
❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ C(x) = 2✿

■t ✐s ❛ ✈❛❧✐❞ ❜✉t ❝r✉❞❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✦

❆♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❥✉st ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚♦ ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡ ♦❢ ✐t✱ ❧❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ♦❢ ❛♥
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❋♦r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡
❡rr♦rs ❛r❡ ✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛s t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ②❡❧❧♦✇ ❣❛♣ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s✿

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ♦❢ ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

E(x) = |f (x) − C| .
❇✉t ✇❤❛t C ❞♦ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡❄ ❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s✱ ❧❡t✬s r✉♥ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t ❛♥②✇❛②✳
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ✇❡ ♣✉t ❢♦r✇❛r❞✿
◮ ❚❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤❡s ❛s x ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ a✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t♦ ❜❡ s❛t✐s✜❡❞✿
E(x) = |f (x) − C| → 0 ❛s x → a .
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ r❡q✉✐r❡✿
f (x) → C ❛s x → a .
❲❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t ✐t s✉✣❝❡s t♦ ❛s❦ f t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t a ❛♥❞ t♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ C = f (a)✦ ❲❡ ❛r❡ ❞♦♥❡✳
▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ t❤✐s t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧❡✈❡❧✿
✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✺✸

◮ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❞♦ ❜❡tt❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❄

❉❡✜♥✐t❡❧②✿

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✏❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s✑ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❀ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✐t ✇❛s ❞❡s✐❣♥❡❞ t♦
❞♦ t❤❛t ❡①❛❝t❧②✦ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✇❛s t❤❛t ✇❤❡♥ ②♦✉ ③♦♦♠ ✐♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♠❡r❣❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤✿

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠❛♥② str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s t❤❛t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡✱ ✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡✿

❲❤❛t ✐s s♦ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡❄

❲❡ ❛r❡ ❛❜♦✉t t♦ st❛rt ✉s✐♥❣ ♠♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❧❛♥❣✉❛❣❡✳ ❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✲s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦r♠ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r
✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✺✹

✶P❈✲✷✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ (x0 , y0 ) ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ m ❛s ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✿

y − y0 = m(x − x0 ) .

❙♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ r❡q✉✐r❡ t❤❡ ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡s t♦ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♣❛ss t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r❡st✿

x0 = a, y0 = f (a) .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
y − f (a) = m(x − a) .
❆t t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ ❛♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t st❡♣ ❛♥❞ st♦♣ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤✐s ❛s ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ❜✉t ❛s ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛
❢♦r ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✿
L(x) = f (a) + m(x − a)
■t ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ ❚❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ x ✐s 1✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡rs ❛r❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤② ✐t ✐s
❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f ❛t x = a✳
◆♦✇✱ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ❧❡t✬s ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❡rr♦r✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

E(x) = |f (x) − L(x)| .

❆❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t a✦ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✇✐❧❧ ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤ ❛s x ✐s ❣❡ts ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ a✿

E(x) = |f (x) − L(x)| → 0 ❛s x → a.

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❡✈❡r② ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = L(x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❛❜♦✈❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♣❛ss t❤❡ t❡st t❤❛t ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡
t❤❡ ❜❡st ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❛t✬s ♥♦t ❣♦♦❞ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ❛♥②♠♦r❡✦

▲❡t✬s ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ y = L(x)✱ ❛s ❛ ❣r♦✉♣✳ ❲❤❡♥ ②♦✉ ③♦♦♠ ✐♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✇❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡
❛♥❣❧❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s ✐s ♣r❡s❡r✈❡❞ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ♠❛❣♥✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✿

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ✏❜❡st✑ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥❄ ❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❛♠♦♥❣ t❤❡♠ ✐s ❤♦✇ ❢❛st t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✐s
❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤✐♥❣✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥✿

◮ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣✐♥❣ t♦ 0 t❤❡ ❢❛st❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳

❙♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✇✐t❤ t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

E(x) = |f (x) − L(x)| → 0 ✈s✳ |∆x| = |x − a| → 0 .

✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✺✺

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ✏s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✑❄

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❢r♦♠ ♦✉r st✉❞② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❡❛r❧✐❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✿ ▲♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r r❛t✐♦✦ ❚❤❡♥✱ E(x) ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❢❛st❡r t❤❛♥ |∆x| ✐❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s r❛t✐♦ ✐s ③❡r♦❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

f (x) − L(x)
→0 ❛s x → a.
x−a
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (x) − L(x) = o(x − a) .
❙✉r♣r✐s✐♥❣❧②✱ t❤✐s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s✉✣❝✐❡♥t t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ m ♦❢ L s♣❡❝✐✜❝✦

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✻✳✷✳✶✿ ❇❡st ▲✐♥❡❛r ❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a ❛♥❞

L(x) = f (a) + m(x − a)

✐s ❛♥② ♦❢ ✐ts ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡♥✱

f (x) − L(x)
lim = 0 ⇐⇒ m = f ′ (a) .
x→a x−a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❆s x → a✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (x) − (f (a) + m(x − a)) f (x) − f (a)
= −m
x−a x−a
→ f ′ (a) −m .

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦❢t❡♥ s✐♠♣❧②

❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✏❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✑✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✷✳✷✿ r♦♦t

√
▲❡t✬s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ 4.1✳
√ √
❲❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ x ❜② ❤❛♥❞✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ♦♥❧②
√ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ x = 4.1 ✐s t❤❛t ✐t ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r t❤❛t
2
x = 4.1✳ ■♥ t❤❛t s❡♥s❡✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x ✐s ✿ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥

√ √
❏✉st ❛ ❢❡✇ ❡①❝❡♣t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ f (4) = 4 = 2✱ f (9) = 9 = 3✱ ❡t❝✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛s ✏❛♥❝❤♦rs✑✳
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝❧❛r❡✿
√
4.1 ≈ 2 .
❲❡ ❛r❡ ❞♦♥❡ ✐❢ t❤❡ q✉❛❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s✉✣❝✐❡♥t✳
✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✺✻

√
❏✉st ❛s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x ✐s ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✱ s♦ ✐s ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

1
f ′ (x) = √ .
2 x

❇✉t✱ ❥✉st ❛s f ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛t x = 4✱ s♦ ✐s f ′✿

1 1
f ′ (4) = √ = .
2 4 4

❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ✇❡ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥❄

❚❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡♥s❡ t❤❛t✱ ❛s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞
❜② ❤❛♥❞✿

L(x) = f (a) +f ′ (a)(x − a)

1
=2 + (x − 4) .
4
√
❚❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ r❡♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❢♦r f (x) = x ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✏❛♥❝❤♦r ♣♦✐♥t✑ x = 4✳

❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❤❛♥❞ ✿

1
L(4.1) = 2 + (4.1 − 4)
4
1
= 2 + · .1
4
= 2 + 0.025

= 2.025 .

❖✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

√
4.1 ≈ 2.025 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✳✸
√
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♥❞ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ f (x) = 3.99✳

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❉♦♥✬t ♣❧✉❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥t♦

t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✳✹

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = x1/3 ❛t a = 1✳ ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ 1.11/3 ✳
✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✺✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✷✳✺✿ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡

❋✐♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛♠♦✉♥ts t♦ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❙♦♠❡ ❛r❡
❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇♥✿

▲❡t✬s r❡❞♦ t❤❡♠✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ y = sin x y = cos x

❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❛t 0: sin x x=0

= sin 0 = 0 cos x x=0
= cos 0 = 1

′
′
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿ sin x = cos x cos x = − sin x

′
′
❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❛t 0: sin x x=0
= cos 0 = 1 cos x x=0
= − sin 0 = 0

t❛♥❣❡♥ts✿ y − 0 = 1 · (x − 0) y − 1 = 0 · (x − 0)

❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✿ L(x) = x l(x) = 1

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
sin .2 ≈ .2, sin −.01 ≈ −.01, ❡t❝✳

❛♥❞
cos .2 ≈ 1, cos −.01 ≈ 1, ❡t❝✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✳✻
❲❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✳✼
√ p
❯s❡ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = sin x t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ sin π/2 ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✷✳✽✿ ♣✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡✲❞❡✜♥❡❞

■❢ ✇❡ ✇❡r❡ t♦ ❞❡s✐❣♥ ❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t♦r✱ ✇❡✬❞ ♥❡❡❞ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ✏❛♥❝❤♦r✑ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✲
√
✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡✱ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✱ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❋♦r f (x) = x✱ ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐s ✏❝❧♦s❡✑ t♦
√ √ 4✱
✇❡ ✉s❡ ✐t ♦r ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❢♦r ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♥✉♠❜❡r ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❦♥♦✇♥ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱
√ √ .99 ≈ 1 = 1✱
10 ≈ 9 = 3✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳

❋♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ s✇✐t❝❤ ❤❛❧❢✲✇❛② ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✿

✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✺✽

❋♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ s✇✐t❝❤ ✇❤❡r❡✈❡r t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥ts ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✳✾
❲❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r♦✉♥❞ 0 s❡❡♠ t♦ ❜❡ ♣♦♦r❄

❘❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥s ♠❛❦❡ ❛ ❧♦t ♦❢ t❤✐♥❣s
♠✉❝❤ s✐♠♣❧❡r✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✷✳✶✵✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ❛r❡ r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ✈✐❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❆r❡ t❤❡✐r ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s r❡❧❛t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❛t ♠❛♥♥❡r❄ ❨❡s✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❡①❛❝t❧②✳
✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✺✾

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿
d
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ sin x →→ cos x
dx
d
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✿ x → → 1
dx
d
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r → → ❝♦♥st❛♥t
dx

■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✿ Z
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ sin x → → − cos x + C
Z
1 2
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✿ x → → x +C
Z 2
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r → → q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝

❚❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ sin x ✐s t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ − cos x✿

▲✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥s ♠❛② ❤❡❧♣ ❡①♣❧❛✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛s ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t②✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✷✳✶✶✿ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②

❆❧❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ L(x) = mx + b, m 6= 0✱ ❛r❡✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐♥
t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✮✱ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ε ❛♥❞ δ ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡✿ ❚♦ ❡♥s✉r❡
|x − a| < δ =⇒ |L(x) − L(a)| < ε ,

✇❡ s✐♠♣❧② ❝❤♦♦s❡✿
1
δ= ε.
m
✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✻✵

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✱ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✿

• δ = ∆x ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ x✳
• ε = ∆y ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ y = L(x)✳
❚❤❡♥✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
∆y = m∆y ♦r ∆y = L′ (a)∆y .

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r✱ ❜✉t t❤✐s t✐♠❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡✱ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥f ✿
◮ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛❦❡ ∆y = f (a + ∆x) − f (a) ❛s s♠❛❧❧ ❛s ✇❡ ❧✐❦❡ ❜② ❝❤♦♦s✐♥❣ ∆x s♠❛❧❧ ❡♥♦✉❣❤✳
❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤✐s ∆x❄ ❲❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐③❡ ✿

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛t x = a ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s
❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t♦ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
dy ∆y
f ′ (a) = ≈ .
dx ∆x
x=a
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❧② ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✿

∆y ≈ f ′ (a) ∆x

▼♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡❧②✱ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♦r❞❡r ❛s ❡①♣❧❛✐♥❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✿

∆y ∼ f ′ (a) ∆x .

❍♦✇ ✇❡❧❧ t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✇♦r❦s ✐s ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧s ✿

dy = f ′ (a) dx

❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡✐r ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✷✳✶✷✿ ❡rr♦r ❡st✐♠❛t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐s✐t t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ A = f (x) = x2 ♦❢ sq✉❛r❡ t✐❧❡s ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s
❛r❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 10 × 10✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ 100✱ ❜✉t ❤♦✇ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ tr✉t❤ ✐s t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r❄ ❚❤❡
q✉❡st✐♦♥ ♠❛② ❜❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢♦r ♣❛ss✐♥❣ ❛ q✉❛❧✐t② ✐♥s♣❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢
t❤❡ s✐❞❡ x✿
✻✳✷✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✻✶

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡s✐r❡❞ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ A ✐s ∆A = 5✱ ✇❤❛t s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ∆x ♦❢ x❄ ❇② ❜r✉t❡ ❢♦r❝❡✱
✇❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ t❤❛t ∆x = .2 ✐s ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡✿

A = (10 ± .2)2
= 102 ± 2 · 10 · .2 + .22
♦r 100.04 ± 4 .

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ❣❡t ❛ q✉✐❝❦ ✏❜❛❧❧♣❛r❦✑ ✜❣✉r❡ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = x2 ❛t x = 10✳
❲❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ 2x✱ ❛t x = 10✿

f ′ (10) = 2 · 10 = 20 .

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✿

L(x) = 10 + 20(x − 10) .

❚❤❡♥
|∆A| = |A(10) − A(x)| ≈ |L(10) − L(x)| = |20(x − 10)| = 20|∆x| .
❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
|∆x| ≈ 5/20 = .25 .
❙♦✱ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❛❝❤✐❡✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ 4 sq✉❛r❡ ✐♥❝❤❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ 10 × 10 t✐❧❡✱
♦♥❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ 1/4✲✐♥❝❤ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✐❧❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✳✶✸

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ❢♦r t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ✐s .03❄
✻✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✹✻✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✳✶✹

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝✉♠❢❡r❡♥❝❡ ✭t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤✮ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐❢ ✐ts r❛❞✐✉s ✐s
❢♦✉♥❞ t♦ ❜❡ 20 ± 1 ✐♥❝❤❡s❄ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✳✶✺

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❊❛rt❤ ✐❢ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ t♦ ❜❡
6, 360 ± 30 ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs❄ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡❄

❆s ❛ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❛tt❡♠♣t t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (1, 1) ✇✐t❤
❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✜rst✿ ❢r♦♠ t❤♦s❡ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤✐s ❧✐♥❡ t❤❡♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s
♦♥❡ ♦❢ ♠❛♥② ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ t❤❛t ♣❛ss t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✿ ❢r♦♠ t❤♦s❡ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡
t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ st❡♣s ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

■♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸■❈✲✺✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❥✉st t❤❡ t✇♦ ✜rst st❡♣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳

✻✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥

❆♥ ✏❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✑ ✐s ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣❧❡ss ✐❢ ✐t ❝♦♠❡s ❛s ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ ♠♦r❡ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r ✉s❡❢✉❧✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❤♦✇ ❝❧♦s❡ ✐s 3.14 t♦ π ❄ ❊✈❡♥
♠♦r❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✐s t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥✿ ❤♦✇ ❝❧♦s❡ ✐s π t♦ 3.14❄ ❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r t♦ t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ π ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❡
r❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✿

❲❤❛t✬s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✐s t❤❛t π ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❛♥②✇❤❡r❡ ❡❧s❡✦

✻✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✹✻✸
√
❖r✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ❤♦✇ ❝❧♦s❡ ✐s 4.1 t♦ 2.025❄
❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✇✐❧❧ t❡❧❧ ✉s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ tr✉t❤ ❧✐❡s✱ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝❡rt❛✐♥t② ✐❢ ♥♦t ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✳
❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳
❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡s ✇✐t❤ y = C = f (a) ❛t x = a✱ ✐t ♠❛② r✉♥ ❛✇❛② ✈❡r② ❢❛st ❛♥❞
✈❡r② ❢❛r ❛❢t❡r✇❛r❞s✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛r❄ ❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❧✐♠✐t ✐s t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❣r♦✇t❤ ♦❢ f ✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣r❡❞✐❝t t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ f ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t |f |✳ ′

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❢♦r f (x)✱ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x✦ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥♥❡❧ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ ✭✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✮
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x)✿

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ t❤❛t

|f (x) − C(x)| = |f (x) − f (a)| = |f ′ (t) · (x − a)| = |f ′ (t)| · |x − a| ≤ K|x − a| ,

✐❢ ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t |f ′ (t)| ≤ K ❢♦r ❛❧❧ t ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ a ❛♥❞ x✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✸✳✶✿ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t

√ √
❍♦✇ ❝❧♦s❡ ✐s 4.1 t♦ 2❄ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = x✳ ❍❡r❡ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ ✐♥t♦
❛❝❝♦✉♥t t❤❛t f ′ ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐ts ❧❛r❣❡st ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣✿
1 1
f ′ (t) = √ ≤ √ ≤ .25 .
2 t 2 4
√
❚❤❛t ❝♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ K ✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ 4.1✿
√
| 4.1 − 2| ≤ .25 · |4.1 − 4| = .025 .

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ √
4.1 ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ [2 − .025, 2 + .025] = [1.975, 2.025] .

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ❜❡❧♦✇ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❜✉t t❤❡ ✜rst ♦♥❡ s❡❡♠s ❜❡tt❡r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞✿
✻✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✹✻✹

❲❤❛t ❝❛✉s❡s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡❄ ❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s ♠♦r❡ ❝✉r✈❡❞ ✭❝♦♥❝❛✈❡✮✦ ❚❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t② t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛♥❛❧♦❣②✿
• ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ✜rst ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳
• ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳
❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r t❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✻✳✸✳✷✿ ❊rr♦r ❇♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r ❇❡st ▲✐♥❡❛r ❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s t✇✐❝❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a ❛♥❞ L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) ✐s ✐ts

❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛t a✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

1
E(x) = |f (x) − L(x)| ≤ K(x − a)2
2

✇❤❡r❡ K ✐s ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢r♦♠ a t♦ x✱ ✐✳❡✳✱

|f ′′ (t)| ≤ K ❢♦r ❛❧❧ t ✐♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧.

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❝❧❛✐♠s t❤❛t

E = o (x − a)2

❖♥❝❡ K ✐s ✜①❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)✦ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ❛ ❢✉♥♥❡❧
t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ ✭✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✮ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x)✿
✻✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✹✻✺

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❡❞❣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥♥❡❧ ❛r❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛s✿

1
y = L(x) ± K(x − a)2 .
2
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ K ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❢✉♥♥❡❧ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧❧② ✇✐❞❡r ♦r ♥❛rr♦✇❡r✳
❚❤❡ ♣r❛❝t✐❝❛❧ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✱ t❤✐s ❡rr♦r ❜♦✉♥❞✱
1
ε(x) = K(x − a)2 ,
2
✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡♥s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ y✲❛①✐s
 
L(x) − ε(x), L(x) − ε(x)

❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ tr✉❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ f (x)✳ ❲❡ s❡❡ t❤✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥♥❡❧✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✸✳✸✿ r♦♦t

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

√
4.1 ≈ L(4.1) = 2.025 .

❖♥❝❡
√ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r
√ ✐s ✉♥s❛t✐s❢❛❝t♦r② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t r❡❛❧❧② t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ tr✉❡ ✈❛❧✉❡
♦❢ 4.1✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ 4.1 6= 2.025✦
▲❡t✬s ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
√ 1
f (x) = x =⇒ f ′ (x) = √ =⇒
 ′  2 x
′
1 1 −1/2
′′
f (x) = √ = x ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✳
2 x  2
1 1
= − x−1/2−1
2 2
1 −3/2
=− x .
4
✻✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✹✻✻

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

1 −3/2
|f ′′ (x)| = x
4
♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [4, 4.1]✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡✱ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
1 −3/2 1
|f ′′ (x)| ≤ |f ′′ (4)| = 4 = = 0.03125 .
4 32
❚❤✐s ✐s ♦✉r ❜❡st ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ❢♦r K ✦ ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ♦✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ♦❢ t❤❡
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❧❛r❣❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
1
E(x) = |f (x) − L(x)| ≤ 0.03125 · (x − 4)2 .
2
❙♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧②✱
√ 1
E(4.1) = 4.1 − L(4.1) ≤ 0.03125 · (4.1 − 4)2 ,
2
♦r √
4.1 − 2.025 ≤ 0.00015625 .
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
√ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
◮ 4.1 ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ε = 0.00015625 ❢r♦♠ 2.025 ✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
√
2.025 − 0.00015625 ≤ 4.1 ≤ 2.025 + 0.00015625 ,

♦r √
2.02484375 ≤ 4.1 ≤ 2.02515625 .
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❛t ✐s ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢♦r✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✸✳✹✿ s✐♥

❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ sin .01✳ ◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s sin .01 ≈ sin 0 = 0✳ ❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ a = 0✳
◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿
f (x) = sin x
f ′ (x) = cos x =⇒ L(x) = 0 + cos x (x − 0) =⇒ L(x) = x
x=0
f ′′ (x) = − sin x =⇒ |f ′′ (x)| = sin x =⇒ |f ′′ (x)| ≤ 1 = K
❚❤✉s✱
sin .01 ≈ .01 ,
❛♥❞✱ ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✐s ❛t ✇♦rst
1
ε = K(x − a)2 = .5 · 1 · .012 = .00005 .
2
✻✳✹✳ ❙♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✿ ❜✐s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✹✻✼

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
.01 − .00005 = .00995 ≤ sin .01 ≤ .01005 = .01 + .00005 .

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ K ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✇❛s ❜❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✇❛s✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛ ✇♦rst✲❝❛s❡
s❝❡♥❛r✐♦✳ ■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st✱ ❤❡r❡ K = 1 ✐s♥✬t t❤❡ ❜❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡✳ ❇② ❧✐♠✐t✐♥❣ ♦✉r ❛tt❡♥t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡
r❡❧❡✈❛♥t ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ |f ′′ | ✇❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r ❛ ❜❡tt❡r ✈❛❧✉❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞ K = .01 ✳ ❚❤✐s ✐♠♣r♦✈❡s
t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦❢ .01 ✳

❑♥♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❝✉ts t❤❡ ❢✉♥♥❡❧ ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢✳

❯♥❞❡r t❤❡ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

• ❲❤❡♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ f ′′ > 0✮✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x ✐♥ [a, b]✿
1
L(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ L(x) + K(x − a)2 .
2

• ❲❤❡♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ f ′′ < 0✮✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x ✐♥ [a, b]✿
1
L(x) − K(x − a)2 ≤ f (x) ≤ L(x) .
2

✻✳✹✳ ❙♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✿ ❜✐s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s

♠❡t❤♦❞

❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s ✐t ♠❡❛♥ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❄ ▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✺✮✳
❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤✿
◮ ●✐✈❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)✱ ✜♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛ d t❤❛t f (d) = 0✳
●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ s♣❡❛❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
✻✳✹✳ ❙♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✿ ❜✐s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✹✻✽

❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ❛r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ❛♣♣❧② t♦ ❛ ✈❡r② ♥❛rr♦✇ ❝❧❛ss ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭s✉❝❤ ❛s ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢
❞❡❣r❡❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ 5✮✳ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❄ ❙♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✏♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✑ ♠❡❛♥s
t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

◮ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs dn s✉❝❤ t❤❛t dn → d ❛♥❞ f (d) = 0✳

❚❤❡♥ dn ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ d✳
▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✮✳ ❲❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡❞ t❤✐s ♣r♦♦❢ ❛s ❛♥
✐t❡r❛t❡❞ s❡❛r❝❤ ❢♦r ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ f (x) = 0✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥❡st❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❜②
❝✉tt✐♥❣ t❤❡♠ ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❛♥❞ ❛❣❛✐♥✳ ■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❜✐s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛♥❞ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✇✐t❤

f (a) < 0, f (b) > 0 .

❲❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

d ✐♥ [a, b] s✉❝❤ t❤❛tf (d) = 0.

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❛❧✈❡s ♦❢ [a, b]✿

   
1 1
a, (a + b) ❛♥❞ (a + b), b .
2 2

❖✈❡r ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ✭♦r ❜♦t❤✮✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts s✐❣♥✳ ❚❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

   
1 1
f (a) · f (a + b) < 0 ❖❘ f (a + b) · f (b) < 0 .
2 2

❲❤✐❝❤❡✈❡r ✐t ✐s✱ ✇❡ r❡♥❛♠❡ t❤❡ ❡♥❞s ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ a1 ❛♥❞ b1 ✿

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❤❛❧✈❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s
t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿
an ❛♥❞ bn .
✻✳✹✳ ❙♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✿ ❜✐s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✹✻✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✹✳✶

❲r✐t❡ ❛ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳

❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❢♦r♠ ❛ ✏♥❡st❡❞✑ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿

[a, b] ⊃ [a1 , b1 ] ⊃ [a2 , b2 ] ⊃ ...

❲❤❛t ✐s s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐s t❤❛t ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ f ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ✐ts s✐❣♥✿

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (an ) < 0, f (bn ) > 0 ♦r f (an ) > 0, f (bn ) < 0 .

❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✈❛❧✉❡✱

an → d, bn → d .

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ f✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✿

f (an ) → f (d), f (bn ) → f (d) .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ d ✐s ❛♥ ✭✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✮ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✿

f (d) = 0 .
❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✹✳✷✿ sin x = 0

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❜✐s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❤♦❞ s♦❧✈❡s ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

sin x = 0 .
❲❡ st❛rt❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a1 , b1 ] = [3, 3.5] ❛♥❞ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r an ✿
❂■❋✭❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✸❪✯❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✹❪❁✵✱❘❬✲✶❪❈✱❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✶❪✮
❛♥❞ bn ✿
❂■❋✭❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✶❪✯❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✷❪❁✵✱❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪✱❘❬✲✶❪❈✮
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✻✳✹✳ ❙♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✿ ❜✐s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✹✼✵

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ an , bn ❛r❡ ✈✐s✐❜❧② ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ π ✭❛♥❞ s♦ ❞♦❡s dn ✱ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✮ ✇❤✐❧❡
t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f (an ), f (bn ) ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ 0✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✹✳✸

❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ sin x = .2✳

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦t❤❡r ♠❡t❤♦❞s ❢♦r s♦❧✈✐♥❣ f (x) = 0✳ ❖♥❡ ✐s t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f ❛s ❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡✱ ♦♥❡ s✉❝❤
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ x0 ♦❢ ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ d ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ f (x) = 0✳ ❲❡
r❡♣❧❛❝❡ f ✐♥ t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ L ❛t t❤✐s ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ♣♦✐♥t✿

L(x) = f (x0 ) + f ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) .

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ L(x) = 0 ❢♦r x✿

L(x) = f (x0 ) + f ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) = 0 .

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✿

❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✱ ✐s ❡❛s② t♦ s♦❧✈❡✳ ❚❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ✐s

f (x0 )
x1 = x0 − .
f ′ (x0 )

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ r❡♣❡❛t t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ❢♦r x1 ✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳✳✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ♠❡t❤♦❞✳ ■t ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❣✐✈❡♥ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✿

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn −
f ′ (xn )

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ❢❛✐❧s ✇❤❡♥ ✐t r❡❛❝❤❡s ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡

❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ✭♦r ❡✈❡♥ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦✮ 0✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✹✳✹✿ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ♠❡t❤♦❞

▲❡t✬s ✉s❡ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ♠❡t❤♦❞ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛❜♦✈❡✿

sin x = 0 .

❚❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r xn ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✲❙■◆✭❘❬✲✶❪❈✮✴❈❖❙✭❘❬✲✶❪❈✮

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ x0 = 3✳ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ π ✈❡r② q✉✐❝❦❧② ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

✻✳✺✳ P❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✹✼✶

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛s ♦✉r ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ x0 ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❛♥❞ ❣❡ts ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ π/2✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x1 ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❧❛r❣❡r ❛♥❞ ❧❛r❣❡r✳
■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✐t ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ s♦ ❧❛r❣❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇♦♥✬t ✉❧t✐♠❛t❡❧② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ π ❜✉t t♦ 2π, 100π ✱ ❡t❝✳ ■❢
✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ x0 = π/2 ❡①❛❝t❧②✱ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✐s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ❜r❡❛❦s ❞♦✇♥✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✹✳✺

❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ sin x = .2✳

✻✳✺✳ P❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇

Pr❡✈✐♦✉s❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❤♦✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♣♣❡❛r ❛s ❞✐r❡❝t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s
❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❛♥ ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t ❞❡s❝r✐♣t✐♦♥✳
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t✬s ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳
❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✭♦r t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡✮ ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳
❆ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ ❛♥❞ ❥✉st ❛s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t✱ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❡♠❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s ✢♦✇s ♦❢ ❧✐q✉✐❞s✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❛t ❤❡r❡
t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ t❛s❦ ✐s t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✭❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✮ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇ ♦❢ ❧✐q✉✐❞✿

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ♠♦❞❡❧ ❛♥❞ ❧✐♠✐t ♦✉rs❡❧✈❡s t♦ t❤❡ 1✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝❛s❡✿ ♣✐♣❡s ❛♥❞ ❝❛♥❛❧s✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ♣✐♣❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ str❡❛♠ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ s♦♠❡❤♦✇ ❛t ❡❛❝❤ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ t❤✐s
✐s ❛ ❝❛♥❛❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✇❛t❡r t❤❛t ❤❛s t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t s❛♠❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✕ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧ ✕ ❛t ❛❧❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❛❝r♦ss ✐t✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦♥❧② ✈❛r✐❡s ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣✐♣❡ ♦r t❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧✿
✻✳✺✳ P❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✹✼✷

❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦♥❡✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✳

❖✉r ❣♦❛❧ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
◮ ❚r❛❝❡ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s str❡❛♠✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s✐♠♣❧② ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿

❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t = ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t .

❆ ✜①❡❞ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ∆t ✐s s✉♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❛❤❡❛❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✐♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✐t ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳
❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ♠♦❞❡❧ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t✿
• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ t✐♠❡ t0 ✱ ❛♥❞
• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ p0 ✳
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst r♦✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡❀ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

✐t❡r❛t✐♦♥ n t✐♠❡ tn ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ pn

✐♥✐t✐❛❧✿ 0 3.5 −− 22

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❲❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱
✐♥ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts✳
❆s ✇❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss ✐♥ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ s♣❛❝❡✱ ♥❡✇ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t r♦✇ ♦❢ ♦✉r s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇
t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇✱ n = 1, t1 = t0 + ∆t✱ ✐s ✜♥✐s❤❡❞✳
❚❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v1 ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝❡❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦✇ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ p0 ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❡❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st
r♦✇✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝❡❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ r♦✇ ♦❢ ♦✉r s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿
◮ ♥❡①t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ = ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ + ❝✉rr❡♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✳
❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❡st ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♠❛♥♥❡r✳
❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ❢♦r ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ r♦✇ n + 1 ❢r♦♠ r♦✇ n✿
❋✐rst ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✐s t❤❡ t✐♠❡ tn ✿
◆❡①t ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡ = ❧❛st ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡ + t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✳
tn+1 = tn + ∆t
❙❡❝♦♥❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn ✿
◆❡①t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s r♦✇✳
vn+1 = ❛♥② ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ tn , vn , pn
❚❤✐r❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ pn ✿
◆❡①t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ = ❧❛st ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ + ❝✉rr❡♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✳
pn+1 = pn + vn+1 · ∆t
❚❤✐s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❢♦r ∆t = .1✿

✐t❡r❛t✐♦♥ n t✐♠❡ tn ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ pn

✐♥✐t✐❛❧✿ 0 t0 = 3.5 −− p0 = 22
↓ ւ ↓
1 t1 = 3.5 + .1 → v1 = 33 → p1 = 22 + 33 · .1
↓ ւ ↓
2 t2 =? → v2 =? → p2 =?
↓ ւ ↓

❆❧s♦✱ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ✕ s♦♠❡❤♦✇ ✕ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t t✐♠❡ ♦r ✐ts ✭❧❛st✮
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛s ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❛rr♦✇s✳ ❚❤✐s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦r ✐t ♠❛② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡
✐♥str✉♠❡♥ts✬ r❡❛❞✐♥❣s✳
✻✳✺✳ P❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✹✼✸

❆s ✇❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss ✐♥ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ s♣❛❝❡✱ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐s s✉♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ♦❢ ♦✉r

s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ♦♥❡ r♦✇ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

tn , vn , pn , n = 1, 2, 3, ...

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛①❡s t ✭❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✮ ❛♥❞ p ✭✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✮✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛

s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣✐♥❣ ♦♥❡ r♦✇ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡ t❤❛t ♠✐❣❤t ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ ❣r♦✇✐♥❣ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s✿

✐t❡r❛t✐♦♥ n t✐♠❡ tn ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ pn

✐♥✐t✐❛❧✿ 0 3.5 −− 22
1 3.6 33 25.3
... ... ... ...
1000 103.5 4 336
... ... ... ...

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛② ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s t❤r❡❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s tn , vn , pn ♦r ❛s t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✳ ❚❤❡

❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♠✐❣❤t ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿

▲❡t✬s t❡st ❛ ❢❡✇ ✐♥st❛♥❝❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿

❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰❘❈❬✲✶❪✯✭❘❈❬✲✷❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✷❪✮

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✺✳✶✿ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ str❡❛♠ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣✐♣❡ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

vn+1 = .5 .

❚❤❡ s✐♠✉❧❛t✐♦♥ s❤♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss❡s ✐♥ ❛ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ❢❛s❤✐♦♥✿

✻✳✺✳ P❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✹✼✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✺✳✷

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✺✳✸✿ ❝✉r✈❡❞ ♣✐♣❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s♦✉r❝❡ ♦❢ ✇❛t❡r ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣✐♣❡ ❜✉t ✐t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❜❡♥t ❞♦✇♥ s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡
s♣❡❡❞ ✐s ❤✐❣❤❡r ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿

❙♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ str❡❛♠ ✐s ❞✐r❡❝t❧② ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠
t❤❡ s♦✉r❝❡✿
vn+1 = .5 · pn .
❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ s✐♠✉❧❛t✐♦♥✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✺✳✹

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✺✳✺

▼♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✿ ∆tn+1 = tn+1 − tn ✳

◆❡①t✱ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✢♦✇✳

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡❄ ❚❤❡ t✐♠❡ t ✈❛r✐❡s ♦✈❡r ❛ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [t0 , ∞) ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐s ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♥❣
✻✳✺✳ P❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✹✼✺

❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ s♣❛❝❡ p = y(t)✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r❀ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥❄
❲❡ ♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿
◮ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ z = f (y)
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ J ♦❢ s♣❛❝❡✳ ■s t❤❡r❡ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢
t✐♠❡ y = y(t) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ♦❢ t✐♠❡❄
❲❡ st❛rt ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝❛s❡✳
❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ r❡❝❛st ♦✉r r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✱
pn+1 = pn + vn+1 · ∆t ,

❛s ✐❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y ✿

pn = y(tn ) .

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡✿

vn = f (pn ) .
❚❤✐s ❤♦❧❞s ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ∆t > 0✳ ❍❡r❡ f ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ✇❤✐❧❡ y ✐s ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✳
❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇✐t❤ t = tn ✱ t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿
y(t + ∆t) = y(t) + f (y(t + ∆t)) · ∆t .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
y(t + ∆t) − y(t)
= f (y(t + ∆t)) .
∆t
❚❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦✈❡r ∆t → 0 ❣✐✈❡s ✉s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
y ′ (t) = f (y(t)) ,

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐st ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✳

❚❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳ ■ts ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

y ′ = f (y)

❚❤❡ ❛tt✐t✉❞❡ ✐s ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ t♦ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r y ❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r y

dy dy
= x2 = y2
dx dx

❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s❧② ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①✦

❙✉❝❤ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛♥❞ t❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✳
❚❤❡ t②♣✐❝❛❧ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥ts ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡❞ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
• y = y(t) ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳
• z = f (y) ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ J ✳
✻✳✺✳ P❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✹✼✻

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✺✳✻✿ ❝✉r✈❡❞ ♣✐♣❡✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞

■❢ t❤❡ ♣✐♣❡✬s s❧♦♣❡ ✈❛r✐❡s ❢r♦♠ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✇✐❧❧ ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥
t♦♦✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ♣✐♣❡ ✐s ❝✉r✈❡❞ ❞♦✇♥✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❤✐❣❤❡r t❤❡ ❢❛rt❤❡r ❛✇❛②
t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳ ▲❡t✬s ❛❣❛✐♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿
vn+1 = .5 · pn .
❋♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

y ′ = .5 · y .

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ ✐ts s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✿

y(t) = Ce.5t ,
❢♦r ❛♥② C ✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ✢♦✇s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♥♦✇✳

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❡ ✢♦✇ ♦❢ r❛✐♥✇❛t❡r ❞♦✇♥ ❛ ♠♦✉♥t❛✐♥ t❡rr❛✐♥✿

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❜❛❧❧ r♦❧❧✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✿
❈♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥❛❧❧②✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✭✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✕ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✮✱ ♦✉r t❛❜❧❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉r ♠❛✐♥ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s✿

✐t❡r❛t✐♦♥ t✐♠❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ...

n t v x u y ...
0 3.5 −− 22 −− 3 ...
1 3.6 33 25.3 4 3.5 ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ...

❚♦ s❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ str❡❛♠✱ ✇❡ ♦♥❧② s❤♦✇ t❤❡ t✇♦ s♣❛t✐❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ❛♥❞ ❤✐❞❡ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✿
✻✳✺✳ P❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✹✼✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✺✳✼✿ ❝✉r✈❡❞ s✉r❢❛❝❡

❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♣✐♣❡✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ t❡rr❛✐♥✬s s❧♦♣❡ ✈❛r✐❡s ❢r♦♠ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✢♦✇
✇✐❧❧ ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t♦♦✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ t❡rr❛✐♥ ✐s ❝✉r✈❡❞ ❞♦✇♥✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✢♦✇
✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❤✐❣❤❡r t❤❡ ❢❛rt❤❡r ❛✇❛② t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t♦♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦✉♥t❛✐♥✿

▲❡t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❜❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❜♦t❤ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✳✿

vn+1 = .2 · xn ❛♥❞ un+1 = .2 · yn .

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐♠✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t✇♦ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡s✿

❚❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡s ❛r❡ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r✱ ❢❛st❡r ❛♥❞ ❢❛st❡r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✺✳✽✿ ✇❤✐r❧

❋♦r ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❛tt❡r♥s✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✐♥t❡r❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♠❛② ❜❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧
t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿

vn+1 = .2 · yn ❛♥❞ un+1 = −.2 · xn .

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐♠✉❧❛t✐♦♥✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✺✳✾

❲❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♠♦❞❡❧s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✢♦✇s ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s❄ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡♠✳
✻✳✻✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✹✼✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✺✳✶✵
❙✉❣❣❡st ♠♦❞❡❧s ♦❢ ✢♦✇ ❢♦r ♦t❤❡r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤✐s s✉r❢❛❝❡✳

✻✳✻✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ r❡✈✐❡✇ ❛♥❞ s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡ ♦✉r ❡♥❝♦✉♥t❡rs ✇✐t❤ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✳
❆ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t❤❛t r❡❧❛t❡s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s
✈❛❧✉❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✻✳✶✿ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s✿
f ′ (x) = 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x .

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✿

• ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✳
• ❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ♦♥❧② ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✻✳✷✿ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❝❛♥ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ 0 ✇✐t❤ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
f ′ (x) = g(x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x .

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✿

• ❆ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ f ❤❛s t♦ ❜❡ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ g ✳
• ❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ♦♥❧② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ g ❛r❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✳

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛♥ ❡q✉❛❧✐t② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ♠❛② ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳ ❚♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡
❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② ✐t✳
▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢r❡s❤ ❡②❡✳
❋♦r t❤❡ ✜rst ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s y = y(x) t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱
y ′ (x) = g(x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x .

❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ y ′ (x) ♦❢ y ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t x✱ ❜✉t ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❦♥♦✇
t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ y(x) ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐ts❡❧❢✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛t (x, y(x))✳
❆s y(x) ✐s ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✱ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛✱ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) ♦♥ ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥
✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧✐♥❡✿
✻✳✻✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✹✼✾

❚❤✉s✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x = c✱ ✇❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ α✱ ✇✐t❤ g(c) = tan α✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡
✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = y(x) ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ x = c✳
■t ✐s ❛s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ❢❛❜r✐❝ ❢r♦♠ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ t❤r❡❛❞s✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♦♥❡s ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❜❡❡♥ ♣❧❛❝❡❞✱
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇❛② ❛t ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ t❤r❡❛❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ t②♣❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ❜❡ ✇❡❛✈❡❞ ✐♥ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡❞✳
❚❤❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ✐s t♦ ❞❡✈✐s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❝r♦ss t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s ❛t t❤❡s❡ ❡①❛❝t ❛♥❣❧❡s✳
■s ✐t ❛❧✇❛②s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄ ❨❡s✱ ❛t ❧❡❛st ✇❤❡♥ g ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡♠❄
❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✻✳✸✿ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②

❆ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v(x) = y ′ (x) ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛t ❛♥②
♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡ x ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ y = y(x) ✐s t♦ ❜❡ ❢♦✉♥❞✳

❚❤❡s❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ✜❧❧ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❥✉st t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② s❤✐❢t❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥s ♦❢ ♦♥❡
♦❢ t❤❡♠✳

❆♥♦t❤❡r ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♠♦r❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣✐♥❣✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❲❡ ❛r❡ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s y = y(x) t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱
y ′ (x) = h(y(x)) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x .

❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ y ′ (x) ♦❢ y ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤
✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ y(x) ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐ts❡❧❢✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② y ✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡
❛t (x, y)✳ ❆s y(x) ✐s ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✱ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛✱ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t (x, y)
♦♥ ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡✿
✻✳✻✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✹✽✵

❚❤✉s✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ y = d✱ ✇❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ α✱ ✇✐t❤ h(d) = tan α✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡
✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = y(x) ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ x = c ✇✐t❤ y(c) = d✳
■t ✐s ❛s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ❢❛❜r✐❝ ❢r♦♠ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ t❤r❡❛❞s✳ ❚❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♦♥❡s ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❜❡❡♥ ♣❧❛❝❡❞
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇❛② ❛t ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ t❤r❡❛❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ t②♣❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ❜❡ ✇❡❛✈❡❞ ✐♥ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡❞✳
■s ✐t ❛❧✇❛②s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄ ❨❡s✱ ❛t ❧❡❛st ✇❤❡♥ h ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ✐s t♦
❞❡✈✐s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❝r♦ss t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s ❛t t❤❡s❡ ❡①❛❝t ❛♥❣❧❡s✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡♠❄ ■t ✐s ❤❛r❞ ♦r
✐♠♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✺✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺❉❊✲✶✮✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✻✳✹✿ ✢♦✇
❆♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ str❡❛♠ ♦❢ ❧✐q✉✐❞ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛t ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ y ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ tr❛❝❡
t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❛t ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ♣❧❛❝❡ y0 ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✻✳✺✿ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ❣r♦✇t❤

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿
y′ = y .
❚❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ❞♦✉❜❧❡s ❡✈❡r② ✉♥✐t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✦

❚♦ s♦❧✈❡✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡❄ ■t✬s t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t y = ex ✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱
❛❧❧ ♦❢ ✐ts ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡s y = Cex ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✿
✻✳✻✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✹✽✶

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤❡s❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ✜❧❧ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♥❣✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✻✳✻
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ t❤❛t ❝r❡❛t❡s ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❝✉r✈❡s ❢r♦♠ ♦♥❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✻✳✼
❈❛♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❜❡ r❡❛❧❧② ✏❡q✉❛❧✑ t♦ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✻✳✽
❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

y ′ = ky?

❈♦♠♣❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥tr❛st✿

❉❊✿ y ′ (x) = g(x) y ′ (x) = h(y(x))

t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛❧♦♥❣ ❛♥② ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡
t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛t ❛♥② t✐♠❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❤❛✈❡ ♥❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥s✿

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ♦❢ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❤❡r❡ ✭s❡❡ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✺✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺❉❊✲✶✮✱
♦♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐t ✐s ❡❛s② t♦ t❡st ✐t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✻✳✾✿ ❛♥t✐❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥

❚❤✐s ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ ❛♥t✐❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ s♦ ❢❛r✳ ❙♦❧✈❡✿

2
y ′ (x) = xex .

▲❡t✬s tr②✿
1 2
y = ex .
2
❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✭✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✮ ❝♦♥✜r♠s t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s✱ ✐♥❞❡❡❞✱ ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✿

 ′
′ 1 x2 1 2 2
y (x) = e = 2xex = xex .
2 2

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✻✳✶✵✿ ♠✐❣r❛t✐♦♥

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r✿
y ′ = my + b, m 6= 0 .
✻✳✻✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✹✽✷

■t ❝❛♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ❣r♦✇t❤✴❞❡❝❛② ❛❝❝♦♠♣❛♥✐❡❞ ❜② ♠✐❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❛t ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t r❛t❡✳ ❚r②✿

b
y(x) = − + Cemt ,
m
✇❤❡r❡ C ✐s ❛♥② r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿
 ′
b
′
− + Cemt = Cemt = Cmemt .
m

❲❡ ♥♦✇ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ ✐t ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

 
b
m − + Cemt + b = −b + mCemt + b = Cmemt .
m

❈♦♥✜r♠❡❞✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✻✳✶✶

❈♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = r + Ce−kt ✐s ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ y ′ = k · (r − y) .

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ♦♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧② ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s✱ ✐t ✐s ❡❛s② t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐t ❝❛♠❡ ❢r♦♠✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✻✳✶✷✿ ❝✐r❝❧❡s

❲❤❛t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧② ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr✐❝ ❝✐r❝❧❡s ❛r♦✉♥❞ 0 s❛t✐s❢②❄

❚❤✐s ❢❛♠✐❧② ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿

x2 + y 2 = r2 , r❡❛❧ r .
❲❡ s✐♠♣❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✮✿
x2 + y 2 = r2 =⇒ 2x + 2yy ′ = 0 .

❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✻✳✶✸✿ ❤②♣❡r❜♦❧❛s

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s ❢❛♠✐❧② ♦❢ ❤②♣❡r❜♦❧❛s❄

✻✳✼✳ ▼♦t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❢♦r❝❡s ✹✽✸

❚❤✐s ❢❛♠✐❧② ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿

xy = C, r❡❛❧ C.
❆❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧②✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

y + xy ′ = 0 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✻✳✶✹
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡s❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛s y = x2 +C ❄ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t y = Cx2 ❄ ❖r x+C = y 2 ❄

✻✳✼✳ ▼♦t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❢♦r❝❡s

■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ◆❡✇t♦♥✐❛♥ ♣❤②s✐❝s✱ ✐♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 1✱ ✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✻✳✼✳✶✿ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ♦❢ ◆❡✇t♦♥✐❛♥ ♣❤②s✐❝s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦r ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏t✐♠❡✑ ❛♥❞
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✧ ♦r ✏♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✑✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t❡❞ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❛r❡
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

q✉❛♥t✐t② ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♥♦❞❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♣❤②s✐❝s ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿ r ♣r✐♠❛r② r

❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✿ D = ∆r s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② D = dr
∆r dr
✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿ v= s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② v= = ṙ
∆t dt
♠♦♠❡♥t✉♠✿ p = mv s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② p = mv

✐♠♣✉❧s❡✿ J = ∆p ♣r✐♠❛r② J = dp
2
∆r d2 r
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✿ a= ♣r✐♠❛r② a= 2 = r̈
∆t2 dt

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ✉♣✇❛r❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✿
✻✳✼✳ ▼♦t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❢♦r❝❡s ✹✽✹

▲❡t✬s st❛t❡ s♦♠❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ◆❡✇t♦♥✐❛♥ ♣❤②s✐❝s✳

◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ❋✐rst ▲❛✇

■❢ t❤❡ ♥❡t ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

F = 0 =⇒ v = ❝♦♥st❛♥t

❚❤❡ ❧❛✇ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡st❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ✐♥✈♦❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ♥❡t ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t

∆r ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

F = 0 =⇒ ∆r = ❝♦♥st❛♥t .
❚❤❡ ❧❛✇ s❤♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t②♣❡ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❢♦r❝❡✲❧❡ss ❡♥✈✐r♦♥♠❡♥t ✐s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐t ✐s ❛

r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✿

r(t + ∆t) = r(t) + c .

◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ❙❡❝♦♥❞ ▲❛✇

❚❤❡ ♥❡t ❢♦r❝❡ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ♠♦♠❡♥t✉♠ p✿

∆p
F = ♦r F = ṗ
∆t

◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ❚❤✐r❞ ▲❛✇

■❢ ♦♥❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❡①❡rts ❛ ❢♦r❝❡ F1 ♦♥ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♦❜ ❥❡❝t✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r s✐♠✉❧t❛♥❡♦✉s❧② ❡①❡rts ❛ ❢♦r❝❡ F2 ♦♥ t❤❡

❢♦r♠❡r✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢♦r❝❡s ❛r❡ ❡①❛❝t❧② ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡✿

F1 = −F2

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✻✳✼✳✷✿ ▲❛✇ ♦❢ ❈♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ▼♦♠❡♥t✉♠

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ♦❜❥❡❝ts ✐s ✏❝❧♦s❡❞✑✿

• ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❡①❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ♠❛tt❡r ✇✐t❤ ✐ts s✉rr♦✉♥❞✐♥❣s✳
• ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ❡①t❡r♥❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡s✳
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t✉♠ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

p= ❝♦♥st❛♥t

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱

J = dp = 0 .
✻✳✼✳ ▼♦t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❢♦r❝❡s ✹✽✺

Pr♦♦❢✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t✇♦ ♦❜❥❡❝ts ✐♥t❡r❛❝t✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳ ❇② t❤❡ ❚❤✐r❞ ▲❛✇✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠ ❛r❡
❡①❛❝t❧② ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡✿
F1 = −F2 .
❉✉❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❙❡❝♦♥❞ ▲❛✇✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t
p′1 = −p′2 .

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

(p1 + p2 )′ = 0 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✼✳✸

❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✲♠❛ss s②st❡♠ ✭s✉❝❤ ❛s ❛ r♦❝❦❡t✮✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ❆♣♣❧② t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞
❧❛✇ t♦ t❤❡ ❡♥t✐r❡✱ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✲♠❛ss s②st❡♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✼✳✹

❈r❡❛t❡ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t t❤❛t ❝♦♠♣✉t❡s ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡s ❛✛❡❝t✐♥❣ ❛ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t✳ ❍♦✇ ❝❛♥ ✇❡ ♣r❡❞✐❝t ✐ts ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s❄
❆ss✉♠✐♥❣ ❛ ✜①❡❞ ♠❛ss✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s ♦✉r ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭✐✳❡✳✱
❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✮ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿
• t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
• t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳
❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ ❤♦✇ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ✢✉✐❞
✢♦✇ ❡❛r❧✐❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳ ❚❤✐s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✲✉♣✳
❇❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ♠♦❞❡❧ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳
❆ ✜①❡❞ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ∆t ✐s s✉♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❛❤❡❛❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✐t ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳
❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤r❡❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❡t✉♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥✿
• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ t✐♠❡ t0 ✱
• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v0 ✱ ❛♥❞
• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ p0 ✳
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❝❡❧❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst r♦✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✿
✐t❡r❛t✐♦♥ n t✐♠❡ tn ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ pn
✐♥✐t✐❛❧✿ 0 3.5 −− 33 22

❆♥♦t❤❡r q✉❛♥t✐t② t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❡t✉♣ ✐s

◮ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ a1 ✳
■t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t r♦✇✳
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❲❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢
t✐♠❡✱ ✐♥ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts✳
❆s ✇❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss ✐♥ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ s♣❛❝❡✱ ♥❡✇ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t r♦✇ ♦❢ ♦✉r t❛❜❧❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇✱ n = 1, t1 = t0 + ∆t✱ ✐s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡❞✳
❚❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ a0 ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝❡❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇✳ ❚❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v1 ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛♥❞
♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝❡❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇ ♦❢ ♦✉r t❛❜❧❡✿
✻✳✼✳ ▼♦t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❢♦r❝❡s ✹✽✻

◮ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② = ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② + ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ · t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✳

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ q✉❛♥t✐t② ✇❡ ✉s❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ p0 ✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❝❡❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞
r♦✇✿
◮ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ = ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ + ❝✉rr❡♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✳
❚❤✐s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✐t❡r❛t✐♦♥ n t✐♠❡ tn ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ pn
✐♥✐t✐❛❧✿ 0 3.6 −− 33 22
↓ ↓
❝✉rr❡♥t✿ 1 t1 66 → v1 → p1

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✱ ❥✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✳

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❡st ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♠❛♥♥❡r✳ ❆s ✇❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss ✐♥ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ s♣❛❝❡✱ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ s✉♣♣❧✐❡❞
❛♥❞ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ♦❢ ♦✉r s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ♦♥❡ r♦✇ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

tn , an , vn , pn , n = 1, 2, 3, ...

❚❤❡ ✜rst q✉❛♥t✐t② ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ r♦✇ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ✐s t❤❡ t✐♠❡✿

tn+1 = tn + ∆t .

❚❤❡ ♥❡①t ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an+1 ✇❤✐❝❤ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✭s✉❝❤ ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢r❡❡✲❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t✮ ♦r ♠❛②
❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s r♦✇✳
❲❤❡r❡ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠❄ ■t ♠❛② ❝♦♠❡ ❛s ♣✉r❡ ❞❛t❛
✿ ❚❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✐s ✜❧❧❡❞ ✇✐t❤
♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛❤❡❛❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ♦r ✐t ✐s ❜❡✐♥❣ ✜❧❧❡❞ ❛s ✇❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss ✐♥ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ s♣❛❝❡✳
❚❤❡r❡ ♠❛② ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t✱ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✭♦r t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡✮ ♦♥ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡
q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♠❛② ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
✶✳ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t t✐♠❡✱ ❡✳❣✳✱ an+1 = sin tn+1 s✉❝❤ ❛s ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ s♣❡❡❞ ✉♣ t❤❡ ❝❛r✱ ♦r
✷✳ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❡✳❣✳✱ an+1 = 1/p2n s✉❝❤ ❛s ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡t✱ ♦r
✸✳ t❤❡ ❧❛st ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❡✳❣✳✱ an+1 = −vn s✉❝❤ ❛s ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛✐r r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡ ✇♦r❦s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢
t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱
✹✳ ♦r ❛❧❧ t❤r❡❡✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✼✳✺

❉r❛✇ ❛rr♦✇s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡s❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❡s✳

❙✐♠♣❧❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❝❛s❡ ✶ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛r❡ ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ▼♦r❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❝❛s❡ ✶ ❛r❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱
❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸■❈✲✶✱ ❛♥❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ s❡tt✐♥❣ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹❍❉✲✷✳ ❈❛s❡ ✷ ❛♥❞ ❝❛s❡ ✸ ❛r❡
❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ ❢✉rt❤❡r ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✺✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺❉❊✲✶✳
❚❤❡ nt❤ ✐t❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞✿
• ❈✉rr❡♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② = ❧❛st ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② + ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ · t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✱
• vn+1 = vn + an · ∆t✳
❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r t❛❜❧❡✳
❚❤❡ nt❤ ✐t❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ pn ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞✿
• ❈✉rr❡♥t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ = ❧❛st ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ + ❝✉rr❡♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✱
• pn+1 = pn + vn · ∆t✳
✻✳✼✳ ▼♦t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❢♦r❝❡s ✹✽✼

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r t❛❜❧❡✳
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ ❣r♦✇✐♥❣ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s✿

✐t❡r❛t✐♦♥ n t✐♠❡ tn ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ pn

✐♥✐t✐❛❧✿ 0 3.5 −− 33 22
1 3.6 66 38.5 25.3
... ... ... ... ...
1000 103.5 666 4 336
... ... ... ... ...

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛② ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s ❢♦✉r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s tn , an , vn , pn ♦r ❛s t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✼✳✻

■♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✿ ∆tn+1 = tn+1 − tn ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✼✳✼✿ r♦❧❧✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧

❆ r♦❧❧✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s ✉♥❛✛❡❝t❡❞ ❜② ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡s✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ an = 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✳ ❚❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s
❢♦r t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♠♦t✐♦♥ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
• ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn+1 = vn + an · ∆t = vn = v0 ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
• ❚❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ pn+1 = pn + vn · ∆t = pn + v0 · ∆t ❣r♦✇s ❛t ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ♦♥ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✼✳✽✿ ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧

❆ ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s ✉♥❛✛❡❝t❡❞ ❜② ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿ an = a ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✳ ❚❤❡
✜rst ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♠♦t✐♦♥ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
• ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn+1 = vn + an · ∆t = vn + a · ∆t ❣r♦✇s ❛t ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts✳
• ❚❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ pn+1 = pn + vn · ∆t ❣r♦✇s ❛t ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts✳
■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ♦♥ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✳

❲❡ ♥♦✇ t✉r♥ t♦ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 2 s✉❝❤ ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛♥❣❧❡❞ ✢✐❣❤t✳

❖♥❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡rs t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✿ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ts✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r✲
♠♦r❡✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ✭❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✕ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✮✱ t❤❡r❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ s✐① ♠❛✐♥ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ✿

t✐♠❡ ❤♦r✐③✳ ❤♦r✐③✳ ❤♦r✐③✳ ✈❡rt✳ ✈❡rt✳ ✈❡rt✳ ...

❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ...
n t an vn xn bn un yn ...
0 3.5 −− 33 22 −10 5 3 ...
1 3.6 66 38.5 25.3 −15 4 3.5 ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
1000 103.5 666 4 336 14 66 4 ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

❲❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ ♥✐♥❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠♦❞❡❧ ✐s t❤r❡❡✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t t❤r♦✇♥
✇✐t❤ ❛ s✐❞❡ ✇✐♥❞✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✼✳✾✿ ❝❛♥♥♦♥

❆ ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s ✉♥❛✛❡❝t❡❞ ❜② ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

x : an+1 = 0; y : bn+1 = −g .

◆♦✇ r❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ s❡t✉♣ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧②✿ ❋r♦♠ ❛ 200 ❢❡❡t ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✐s ✜r❡❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧②
❛t 200 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳
✻✳✼✳ ▼♦t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❢♦r❝❡s ✹✽✽

❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❢♦r x ❛♥❞ y r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿

• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿ x0 = 0 ❛♥❞ y0 = 200✳

• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿ v0 = 200 ❛♥❞ yu0 = 0✳
❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✿

x: vn+1 = v0 , xn+1 = xn +vn ∆t

y: un+1 = un −g∆t yn+1 = yn +un ∆t

■♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛s t❤❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❞✐❞

❜❡❢♦r❡✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✼✳✶✵✿ ✏s♦❧❛r s②st❡♠✑

❚❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✭✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✮ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢r❡❡✲❢❛❧❧ ♠♦❞❡❧✿

■❢ ✇❡ ♥♦✇ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ s♦❧❛r s②st❡♠✱ ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② ❜❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t t♦♦❄ ▲♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❊❛rt❤✱ ✐t

❝❡rt❛✐♥❧② s❡❡♠s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✿

❚❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ♠❛tt❡r✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✼✳✶✶

■♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t t❤❡ ♠♦❞❡❧ ❛♥❞ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ tr❛ ❥❡❝t♦r✐❡s✳

✻✳✽✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✹✽✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✼✳✶✷

❙✉❣❣❡st ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✇♦✉❧❞ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ s✉❝❤ ❛ s♣✐r❛❧
tr❛❥❡❝t♦r②✿

✻✳✽✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✽✳✶✿ ❧♦♥❣❡st s❤♦t

■♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ ✕ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧② ✕ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ❦♥♦✇❧❡❞❣❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t 45 ❞❡❣r❡❡s ✐s t❤❡ ❜❡st
❛♥❣❧❡ t♦ s❤♦♦t ❢♦r ❧♦♥❣❡r ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✿

▲❡t✬s ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✮ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t✳
❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ♦❢ t❤✐s ♠♦t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥
❛s t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡ t✿ (
x = x0 +v0 t
1
y = y0 +u0 t − gt2
2
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ s✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿
• x0 ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❞❡♣t❤✱
• v0 ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱
• y0 ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ ❛♥❞
• u0 ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳

❲❡ s❤♦♦t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ❛t ③❡r♦ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✿

x0 = y0 = 0 .

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ s♣❡❡❞ ✐s 1 ❛♥❞ t❤❛t ✇❡ s❤♦♦t ✉♥❞❡r ❛♥❣❧❡ α✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝
✻✳✽✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✹✾✵

❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ♦❢ t❤✐s ✢✐❣❤t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿


v0 = cos α
u0 = sin α

❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡✿ (
x = cos α · t
1
y = sin α · t − gt2
2
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥♦✇ ❡①♣r❡ss t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❤♦t ❛s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ α✳

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ✐s r❡❛❝❤❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t t ✇❤❡♥ y = 0✳ ❲❡✱ t❤❡♥✱ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s s②st❡♠ ♦❢
❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✿ (
x = cos α · t
1
0 = sin α · t − gt2
2
❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐s ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✳ ❲❡ ❞✐s❝❛r❞ t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♠♦♠❡♥t✱ t = 0✱ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② t 6= 0✿
1
sin α − gt = 0 .
2
❲❡ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r t✱
2
t= sin α ,
g
❛♥❞ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r x✿
2
x = cos α · t = cos α · sin α .
g
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ✜♥❛❧ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❤♦t ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ α✿
2
D(α) = sin α cos α
g

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ α t❤❛t ♠❛①✐♠✐③❡s D✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ D(0) = D(π/2) = 0✱ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥
t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✿
2
2
D′ (α) = cos α cos α + sin α(− sin α) = (cos2 α − sin2 α) .
g g
❲❡ s❡t ✐t ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0 ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
π
D′ (α) = 0 =⇒ cos2 α = sin2 α =⇒ cos α = sin α =⇒ α = .
4

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✽✳✷

❯s❡ ❛ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t♦ ✜♥✐s❤ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✽✳✸

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ s❤♦♦t ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❤✐❧❧❄

✻✳✽✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✹✾✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✽✳✹✿ ❧❛②✐♥❣ ❛ ♣✐♣❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ❧❛② ❛ ♣✐♣❡ ❢r♦♠ ♣♦✐♥t A t♦ ♣♦✐♥t B ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ♦♥❡ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡r ❡❛st ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡r
♥♦rt❤ ♦❢ A✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦st ♦❢ ❧❛②✐♥❣ ❛ ♣✐♣❡ ✐s ♥♦r♠❛❧❧② $50 ♣❡r ♠❡t❡r✱ ❡①❝❡♣t ❢♦r ❛ r♦❝❦② str✐♣ ♦❢ ❧❛♥❞ 200
♠❡t❡rs ✇✐❞❡ t❤❛t ❣♦❡s ❡❛st✲✇❡st❀ ❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ✐s $100 ♣❡r ♠❡t❡r✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦✇❡st ❝♦st t♦ ❧❛② t❤✐s
♣✐♣❡❄

❋✐rst ✇❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t ✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ♣❛t❝❤ ✐s ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❝r♦ss
✐t ✜rst✳ ❲❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ❢r♦♠ A t♦ ♣♦✐♥t P ♦♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛t❝❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t♦ B ✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦st
C ✐s
C = |AP | · 100 + |P B| · 50 .
❲❡ ♥❡①t ❞❡♥♦t❡ ❜② x t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ P t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❞✐r❡❝t❧② ❛❝r♦ss ❢r♦♠ A✳ ❚❤❡♥
√ p
|AP | = 2002 + x2 ❛♥❞ |P B| = (1000 − x)2 + 8002 .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ♠✐♥✐♠✐③❡ t❤❡ ❝♦st ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

√ p
C(x) = 2002 + x2 · 100 + (1000 − x)2 + 8002 · 50 .

◆♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥t♦ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❂❙◗❘❚✭✷✵✵✂✷✰❘❈❬✲✶❪✂✷✮✯✶✵✵✰❙◗❘❚✭✭✶✵✵✵✲❘❈❬✲✶❪✮✂✷✰✽✵✵✂✷✮✯✺✵

P❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ③♦♦♠✐♥❣ ✐♥✱ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t t❤❡ ♦♣t✐♠❛❧ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ❢♦r x ✐s ❛❜♦✉t 81.5 ♠❡t❡rs
✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦st ❛❜♦✉t $82, 498.50✿
✻✳✽✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✹✾✷

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐t❤ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✿

√ p ′
C ′ (x) = 2002 + x2 · 100 + (1000 − x)2 + 8002 · 50
2x −2(1000 − x)
= √ · 100 + p · 50 .
2
2 200 + x 2 2 (1000 − x)2 + 8002

❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ C ′ (x) = 0 ♣r♦✈❡s ✐ts❡❧❢ t♦♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① t♦ ❜❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ ❡①❛❝t❧②✳

■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❜❛❝❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ t♦ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ✐♥ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛s ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s✐❞❡s ♦❢
t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s✿
[
C ′ (x) = cos AP \
C · 100 − cos BP D · 50 .
❚❤❡♥✱ C ′ = 0 ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢
[
cos AP C 50
= .
\
cos BP D 100
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ♦♣t✐♠❛❧ ♣r✐❝❡ ✐s r❡❛❝❤❡❞ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛♥❣❧❡s ❛t P ❛r❡
❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣r✐❝❡s✳ ■♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ♠❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❧❛②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣✐♣❡ ❛❝r♦ss t❤❡ ♣❛t❝❤
♠♦r❡ ❡①♣❡♥s✐✈❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♠❛❦❡ t❤✐s ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ t♦ ❝r♦ss ♠♦r❡ ❞✐r❡❝t❧②✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ✐s ❛ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ (0, π/2)✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t BP\ D ✐s ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ✉♥✐q✉❡❧② ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ AP[ C✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✽✳✺

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t✱ ✐♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ str✐♣ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♠❛tt❡r✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ●❡♦♠❡tr②✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✽✳✻✿ r❡❢r❛❝t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❧✐❣❤t ✐s ♣❛ss✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ♦♥❡ ♠❡❞✐✉♠ t♦ ❛♥♦t❤❡r✳ ■t ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ ❧✐❣❤t t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡
✜rst ✐s v1 ✱ ❛♥❞ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ v2 ✳ ❲❡ r❡❧② ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡ t❤❛t ❧✐❣❤t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ ❢❛st❡st
s♣❡❡❞ ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ r❡❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✳ ❆ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❜✉t s✐♠♣❧❡r s❡t✲✉♣✿
✻✳✽✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✹✾✸

▲❡t x ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡r✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐t t❛❦❡s t♦ ❣❡t ❢r♦♠ A t♦ B ✐s✿
|AP | |AP |
T (x) = +
v2 p
√v1
1+x 2 1 + (1 − x)2
= + .
v1 v2
❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✱ ❥✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
1 x 1 −(1 − x)
T ′ (x) = √ + p
v1 1 + x2 v2 1 + (1 − x)2
1 [ 1 \
= cos AP C − cos BP D.
v1 v2

❆♥❞ T ′ = 0 ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢

[
cos AP C v1
= .
\
cos BP D v2
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❧✐❣❤t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛♥❣❧❡s ❛t P ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦
♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛t✐♦♥ s♣❡❡❞s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✽✳✼

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (1, 1) t♦ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ y = −x2 ❜② t✇♦ ♠❡t❤♦❞s✿ ✭❛✮ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♠✐♥✐♠❛❧
❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✭❜✮ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛♥❞ ✐ts
❧❡♥❣t❤✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✽✳✽✿ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♠✐❣❤t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ s♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① t❤❛t s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ f ′ = 0 ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝❛❧❧②
✐s ✐♠♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳ ■♥ t❤❛t ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛♣♣❧② ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐t❡r❛t✐✈❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞
❡❛r❧✐❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳

❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ❞❡s✐❣♥ ❛ ♣r♦❝❡ss t❤❛t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ✐t ❛❧✇❛②s ♣♦✐♥ts ❛t t❤❡
♥❡❛r❡st ♠❛①✐♠✉♠✿
✻✳✽✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✹✾✹

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥✿

• ❲❡ st❡♣ r✐❣❤t ✇❤❡♥ f > 0✳
′

• ❲❡ st❡♣ ❧❡❢t ✇❤❡♥ f ′ < 0✳

❲❡ r❡✈❡rs❡ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❢♦r ❛ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✳ ❲❡ ♠❛❦❡ ❛ st❡♣ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
s♦ t❤❛t ✐ts ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ❛❧s♦ ♠❛tt❡rs❀ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ❢❛st❡r ✇❤❡♥ ✐t✬s ❤✐❣❤❡r✳

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ s❧♦✇ ❞♦✇♥ ❛s ✇❡ ❣❡ts ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡st✐♥❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t✳
❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧② ✿
xn+1 = xn + h · f ′ (xn ) ,

✇❤❡r❡ h ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♦❢ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧✐t②✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❢♦r f (x) = sin x✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
xn+1 = xn + h · cos(xn ) .

❚❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s✿

❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰❘✷❈✯❈❖❙✭❘❬✲✶❪❈✮
✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✹✾✺

❊s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹❍❉✲✸✮✱ t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡
❣r❛❞✐❡♥t ❞❡s❝❡♥t ✭✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡s t❤❡ ❛s❝❡♥t✮✳

✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✾✳✶✿ ❝❛tt❧❡ ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✮✿ ❆ ❢❛r♠❡r ✇✐t❤ 100 ②❛r❞s ♦❢ ❢❡♥❝✐♥❣ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ✇❛♥ts t♦ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛s ❧❛r❣❡
❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡ ❛s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❢♦r ❤✐s ❝❛tt❧❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s st❛rts✳

❚❤❡ s❝♦♣❡ ♦❢ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t✐❡s ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✿

❲❡ ❛r❡ s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✕ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤ ✕ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st
❛r❡❛✳

❲❡ st❛rt ❜② r❛♥❞♦♠❧② ❝❤♦♦s✐♥❣ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ✐ts ❛r❡❛ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡
❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
❆r❡❛ = ✇✐❞t❤ · ❞❡♣t❤ .
❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ✇✐❞t❤ 20 ❛♥❞ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤✿
• 20 ❜② 20 ❣✐✈❡s ✉s ❛♥ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ 400 sq✉❛r❡ ②❛r❞s✳
• 20 ❜② 30 ❣✐✈❡s ✉s ❛♥ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ 600 sq✉❛r❡ ②❛r❞s✳
• 20 ❜② 40 ❣✐✈❡s ✉s ❛♥ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ 800 sq✉❛r❡ ②❛r❞s✱ ❡t❝✳
❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❜✐❣❣❡r ❛♥❞ ❜✐❣❣❡r❀ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ 30 ❜② 30 ❣✐✈❡s ✉s 900✦ ❚❤❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ✐s ✉♥❝❧❡❛r✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t ♠♦r❡ ❞❛t❛✳ ▲❡t✬s s♣❡❡❞ ✉♣ t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ❲❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿
• w ✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤✱ ❛♥❞
• d ✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤✱ t❤❡♥
✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✹✾✻

• a ✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛r❡❛✿

a = w · d.
❲❡ ✜rst ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✐❧❡ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ✭❝♦❧✉♠♥ W ✮ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤ ✭❝♦❧✉♠♥
D✮✳ ❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ❣♦ ❡✈❡r② 10 ②❛r❞s✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✱ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧②✱ r✉♥ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡s❡ 11
♥✉♠❜❡rs✿
✇✐❞t❤ = 0, 10, 20, ..., 100 ❛♥❞ ❞❡♣t❤ = 0, 10, 20, ..., 100 .
❚♦❣❡t❤❡r✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ 11 · 11 = 121 ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s✳

❚❤❡ ✜rst ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ✐s t♦ ❧✐st ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♣t❤s ✐♥ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st
❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t♦ ✜① ♦♥❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ w✱ st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ 0✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ st❛rt ✈❛r②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ d ✉♥t✐❧ ✇❡ r❡❛❝❤
10✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ s❡t w ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 10 ❛♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ❖♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡♠ ❛❧❧✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s t♦♦❀ ✇❡
❥✉st ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛✱ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ A✱ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❂❘❈❬✲✷❪✯❘❈❬✲✶❪

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❚❤✐s ❧✐st ❛rr❛♥❣❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ✐s ✐♥❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t✳ ❚♦ ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡✱ ❧❡t✬s ♣❧♦t t❤❡s❡ ♣❛✐rs ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❚♦✲
❣❡t❤❡r✱ t❤❡② ❢♦r♠ ❛♥ 11 × 11 sq✉❛r❡ ♦❢ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♣t❤ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣
t♦ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡✦ ■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ❜❡tt❡r t♦ ❛rr❛♥❣❡ t❤❡s❡ ♣❛✐rs ✐♥ ❛ t❛❜❧❡
t❤❛♥ ✐♥ ❛ ❧✐st✳

❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ❡✈❡r② 10 ②❛r❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ s❡ts ♥❛♠❡❞ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ q✉❛♥✲
t✐t✐❡s✿
W = {0, 10, ..., 100} ❛♥❞ D = {0, 10, ..., 100} .
❚❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ t❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✿
W \D 0 10 ... 100
0
1
✳✳
✳
100

❲❡ ♣✉t t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ✐♥ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣
t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
❂❘❈✷✯❘✷❈
r❡❢❡rr✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r♦✇ ❛♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳
❆s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ✐s ✜❧❧❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✭s❤♦✇♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ 11 × 11 t❛❜❧❡✮✿
✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✹✾✼

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ t❛❜❧❡ ✭101 × 101✮✿

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❝♦❧♦r ✕ ❛✉t♦♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ✕ t❤❡ ❝❡❧❧s ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐t ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞s t♦✿

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❣r♦✇s ❛s ✇❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ♦r t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ ❢❛st❡st ❣r♦✇t❤ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡
✐♥ s♦♠❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❆♥② ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ st✉❞✐❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ♠❛♥♥❡r✿

a = wd ♦r z = x + y ,

❙✉❝❤ ❛♥ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

g(w, d) = wd ♦r f (x, y) = x + y .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✾✳✷✿ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

▲❡t
f (x, y) = x + y .
❲❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❋✐rst✱ ❜② ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ✕ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧② ✖ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✇❡
❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✭❧❡❢t✮✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡ ❝♦❧♦r t❤✐s ❛rr❛② ♦❢ ❝❡❧❧s ✭♠✐❞❞❧❡✮ s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦❧♦r
♦❢ t❤❡ (x, y)✲❝❡❧❧ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ z ✿
✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✹✾✽

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ z ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t t❤❛t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❡rr❛✐♥ ✿

❊❛❝❤ ❧✐♥❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✾✳✸✿ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡

❚❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✺✮ ❝r❡❛t❡s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢
t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✿✿
p
z = x2 + y 2 .

❙❧✐❣❤t❧② s✐♠♣❧❡r ✐s t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✿

z = x2 + y 2 .

❲❡ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ✐♥ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❂❘❈✶✂ ✷✰❘✶❈✂ ✷

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦❧♦r t❤❡ ❝❡❧❧s✿

❚❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ z ❛r❡ ✐♥ ❜❧✉❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥ r❡❞✳ ❚❤❡ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛r ♣❛tt❡r♥ ✐s ❝❧❡❛r✳

❚❤❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ♠❛❞❡ ❢r♦♠ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr✐❝ ❝✐r❝❧❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s t❤❛t ✈❛r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ z✿

❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ z✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ x ❛♥❞ y✳

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ p ❞✐❛❣r❛♠♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ❛s ❛ ❜❧❛❝❦ ❜♦① t❤❛t ♣r♦❝❡ss❡s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛♥❞ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡
✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✹✾✾

♦✉t♣✉t✿
✐♥♣✉ts ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t
x
ց
p → z
ր
y
■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ s❡❡ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ (x, y)✱ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s❡❞ ✐♥t♦ t✇♦ x ❛♥❞ y t♦ ❜❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss❡❞
❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡ ✿
(x, y) → p → z
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ ✉♥t✐❧ ♥♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t✳

❙♦✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ s♣❡❛❦ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♠❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

◮ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s❡t ✭❞♦♠❛✐♥✮ ❛♥❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r s❡t ✭❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥✮✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛ss✐❣♥s t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t
♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s r❡✢❡❝t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ✉s❡✿

F :X→Z

♦r
F
X −−−−→ Z

❆ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ✇❛② t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡ts ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜②
♠❡r❡ ❧✐sts ✕ ✐s t♦ ❞r❛✇ s❤❛♣❡❧❡ss ❜❧♦❜s ❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ ❜② ❛rr♦✇s✿

■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s ❛ s✉❜s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ (x, y)✲♣❧❛♥❡✳
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r f (x, y) = x + y ✿

(0, 0) → 0, (0, 1) → 1, (1, 0) → 1, (1, 1) → 2, (1, 2) → 3, (2, 1) → 3 ...

❊❛❝❤ ❛rr♦✇ ❝❧❡❛r❧② ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❡s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✕ ❛♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ X ✕ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ❜② ✐ts ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t
✕ ❛♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ Z ✕ ❜② ✐ts ❡♥❞✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✐s x✿
■♥♣✉t ❛♥❞ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

F (x, y) = z
♦r
F : (x, y) → z
■t r❡❛❞s ✏ F ♦❢ (x, y) ✐s z ✑✳

❲❡ st✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡✿
F( ✐♥♣✉t )= ♦✉t♣✉t

❛♥❞
F : ✐♥♣✉t → ♦✉t♣✉t .
✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✺✵✵

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✳ t❤r❡❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✱ ❜✉t t❤✐s r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✉♥❡q✉❛❧✿
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡
❚❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠❡ ✜rst ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✐s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t✳ ❚❤❛t ✐s ✇❤② ✇❡
s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✾✳✹✿ ✢♦✇❝❤❛rts r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❢♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥♣✉t (x, y)✱ ✇❡ ✜rst s♣❧✐t ✐t✿ x ❛♥❞ y ❛r❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥♣✉ts✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡
❞♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧②✿
• ❛❞❞ x ❛♥❞ y✱
• ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❜② 2✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
• sq✉❛r❡✳
❙✉❝❤ ❛ ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❧② ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ✏✢♦✇❝❤❛rt✑✿

(x, y) → x+y → u → u·2 → z → z2 → v

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ ♠❛♥② s♦✉r❝❡s ❛♥❞ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❢♦r♠s✿

• ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ✐♥str✉❝t✐♦♥s ✭❛♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠✮

• ❛♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛

• ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛♥❞ ♦✉t♣✉ts

• ❛ ❣r❛♣❤

• ❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥

❆♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡①❡♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ❜② z = x2 y ✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♣r♦♣❡r❧② ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ t❤✐s ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡

❣✐✈❡ ✐t ❛ ♥❛♠❡✱ s❛② f✱ ❛♥❞ ✇r✐t❡✿
f (x, y) = x2 y .
▲❡t✬s ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤✐s ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

z = f ( x, y ) = x2 y
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑↑
♥❛♠❡✿ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✾✳✺✿ ♣❧✉❣ ✐♥ ✈❛❧✉❡s

■♥s❡rt ♦♥❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐♥ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❜♦①❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ✐♥ t❤♦s❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

2x2 y − 3y + 7
f (x) = ,
y 3 + 2x + 1
❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✉♥❞❡rst♦♦❞ ❛♥❞ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤✐s ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✿

22 −3 +7
f () = 3
.
+ 2 + 1

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ f (3, 0) ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞✿

2
  23 ✵−3✵ +7
f 3, ✵ = 3
.
✵ +23 +1

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱

◮ ✏ x✑ ❛♥❞ ✏ y ✑ ✐♥ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ s❡r✈❡ ❛s ❛ ♣❧❛❝❡❤♦❧❞❡rs ❢♦r✿ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✺✵✶

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ st✉❞② ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s❄ ❲❡ ✉s❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❆❜♦✈❡ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡s✳ ❆♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s ❛ s✉r✈❡②✐♥❣
♠❡t❤♦❞✿

◮ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ st✉❞② ❛ t❡rr❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✳

■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❞r✐✈❡ s♦✉t❤✲♥♦rt❤ ❛♥❞ ❡❛st✲✇❡st s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧② ✇❛t❝❤✐♥❣ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❞r✐✈❡ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛ ❝✐t② ♦♥ ❛ ❤✐❧❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡s❡ tr✐♣s ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ str❡❡t ❣r✐❞✿

❊❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ tr✐♣s ❝r❡❛t❡s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ x ♦r y✳

❚♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ♣❧♦t ♦❢ F (x, y) = sin(xy) ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✿

❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ❛s ❛ ✏✇✐r❡✲❢r❛♠❡✑ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳ ❊❛❝❤ ✇✐r❡ ✐s ❛ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ tr✐♣✳

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❧✐❝❡s ❝✉t ❜② t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡s ❛❧✐❣♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❛①❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡
t❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ F✿
✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✺✵✷

❆s ❛ ✜rst st❡♣✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ st✉❞② t❤❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✾✳✻✿ s❛❞❞❧❡

▲❡t✬s ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

z = xy .

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❢♦r ✈❛r✐♦✉s z ✬s❀ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝✉r✈❡s ❝❛❧❧❡❞
❤②♣❡r❜♦❧❛s ✿

■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ✜① ♦♥❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳

❲❡ ✜① y ✜rst✿
♣❧❛♥❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❝✉r✈❡
y =2 z =x·2 ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 2
y =1 z =x·1 ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 1
y =0 z =x·0=0 ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 0
y = −1 z = x · (−1) ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 1
y = −2 z = x · (−2) ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ − 2
❚❤❡ ✈✐❡✇ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✿
✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✺✵✸

❚❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❧✐♥❡ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ x✲❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ z ✲❝♦❧✉♠♥s✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s ❣✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s ♦❢ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s t❡rr❛✐♥ ✐♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ s❛②✱ ❡❛st✲✇❡st ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s
❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ ❝✉tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜② ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ xz ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳

❲❡ ✜① x s❡❝♦♥❞✿
♣❧❛♥❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❝✉r✈❡
x=2 z = 2 · y ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 2
x=1 z = 1 · y ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 1
x=0 z = 0 · y = 0 ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 0
x = −1 z = (−1) · y ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 1
x = −2 z = (−2) · y ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ − 2
❚❤✐s ✐s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ ❝✉tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜② ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ yz ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ ✈✐❡✇ s❤♦✇♥
❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✿

❚❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❧✐♥❡ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ y ✲r♦✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ z ✲r♦✇s✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s
❣✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s ♦❢ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s t❡rr❛✐♥ ✐♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ s❛②✱ ♥♦rt❤✲s♦✉t❤ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✻✳✾✳✼✿ ❛♥♦t❤❡r s✉r❢❛❝❡

▲❡t✬s tr② ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

z = y − x2 .

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❛rr❛② ♦❢ ✭❝♦❧♦r❡❞✮ ♦✉t♣✉ts ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

■❢ y ✐s ✜①❡❞ ❛t y = b✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✿

b − x2 .

■ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x ✐s −2x✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ✇❡ ❣♦ ✉♣ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
❞♦✇♥ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❡r❡ t❤✐s ❧✐♥❡ ✐s✳ ■t✬s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✦

■❢ x ✐s ✜①❡❞ ❛t x = a✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ y ✿

y − a2 .

■ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ y ✐s 1✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✱ ✇❡ ❣♦ ✉♣ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❡r❡
t❤✐s ❧✐♥❡ ✐s✳ ■t✬s ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✦
✻✳✾✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✺✵✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✾✳✽

✶✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛s ❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ✐t✳

✷✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ ✇✐t❤ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s ❧❡❛♥❡❞ ❛❣❛✐♥st ✐t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✾✳✾

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ✳

❚❤✐s st✉❞② ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸■❈✲✹✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹❍❉✲✸✳
 ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡ts✱ ❧♦❣✐❝✱ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✵✺

✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✵✾

✸ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✶✸

✹ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✶✹

✺ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✶✼

✻ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✷✵

✼ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❋❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ ❣r❛♣❤s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✷✸

✽ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✷✾

✾ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✸✵

✶✵ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✸✸

✶✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❈♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✸✺

✶✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✸✼

✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡ts✱ ❧♦❣✐❝✱ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡t ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡t✲❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ♥♦✲ ❲❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♠❛①✱ ♠✐♥✱ ❛♥❞ ❛♥② ❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡t

t❛t✐♦♥✿ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs❄ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t R❄

X = [0, 1] ∪ [2, 3] = ?

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹

■s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ tr✉❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t tr✉❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺
❙✐♠♣❧✐❢②✿

■s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ tr✉❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t

{x > 0 : x ✐s ❛ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r }. tr✉❡❄
✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡ts✱ ❧♦❣✐❝✱ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✺✵✻

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✺

❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s st❛t❡♠❡♥t✿ ✏❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ●✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳
♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ tr✉❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✐s tr✉❡✑✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✻

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✼ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❝♦st ✐s f (x) ❞♦❧❧❛rs ❢♦r ❛ t❛①✐ tr✐♣ ♦❢ x
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡s❡ s❡ts ❛s ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✉♥✐♦♥s✿ ♠✐❧❡s✳ ■♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ st♦r✐❡s ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ f✳
✶✳ (0, 5) ✶✳ ▼♦♥❞❛②✱ ■ t♦♦❦ ❛ t❛①✐ t♦ t❤❡ st❛t✐♦♥ 5 ♠✐❧❡s
❛✇❛②✳
✷✳ {3}
✷✳ ❚✉❡s❞❛②✱ ■ t♦♦❦ ❛ t❛①✐ t♦ t❤❡ st❛t✐♦♥ ❜✉t t❤❡♥
✸✳ ∅
r❡❛❧✐③❡❞ t❤❛t ■ ❧❡❢t s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❛t ❤♦♠❡ ❛♥❞
✹✳ {x : x > 0 ❖❘ x ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r} ❤❛❞ t♦ ❝♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦✳

✺✳ {x : x ✐s ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❜② 6} ✸✳ ❲❡❞♥❡s❞❛②✱ ■ t♦♦❦ ❛ t❛①✐ t♦ t❤❡ st❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞

■ ❣❛✈❡ ♠② ❞r✐✈❡r ❛ ✜✈❡ ❞♦❧❧❛r t✐♣✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽
✹✳ ❚❤✉rs❞❛②✱ ■ t♦♦❦ ❛ t❛①✐ t♦ t❤❡ st❛t✐♦♥ ❜✉t t❤❡
❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ 0 = 1 =⇒ 0 = 1❄ ❞r✐✈❡r ❣♦t ❧♦st ❛♥❞ ❞r♦✈❡ ✜✈❡ ❡①tr❛ ♠✐❧❡s✳

✺✳ ❋r✐❞❛②✱ ■ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ t❛❦✐♥❣ ❛ t❛①✐ t♦ t❤❡ st❛✲

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✾
t✐♦♥ ❛❧❧ ✇❡❡❦ ♦♥ ❝r❡❞✐t❀ ■ ♣❛② ✇❤❛t ■ ♦✇❡

Pr♦✈❡ ♦r ❞✐s♣r♦✈❡✿ t♦❞❛②✳

max{max A, max B} = max(A ∪ B) . ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❡①tr❛ ❝❤❛r❣❡ ♣❡r r✐❞❡ ♦❢ m ❞♦❧✲
❧❛rs❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✵ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✼

✭❛✮ ■❢✱ st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ❛ st❛t❡♠❡♥t A✱ ❛❢t❡r ❛ s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ ▲❡t f : A → B ❛♥❞ g : C → D ❜❡ t✇♦ ♣♦ss✐✲
❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ②♦✉ ❛rr✐✈❡ t♦ 0 = 1✱ ✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ ❝♦♥✲ ❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱
❝❧✉❞❡ ❛❜♦✉t A❄ ✭❜✮ ■❢✱ st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ❛ st❛t❡♠❡♥t st❛t❡ ✇❤❡t❤❡r ♦r ♥♦t ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ f ◦ g✿
A✱ ❛❢t❡r ❛ s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ②♦✉ ❛rr✐✈❡ t♦ 0 = 0✱
✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❛❜♦✉t A❄ • D⊂B

• C⊂A
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✶
• B⊂D
❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✏■❢ ✐t r❛✐♥s✱ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ❣❡ts ✇❡t✑✳ ❉♦❡s
✐t ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ✐s ✇❡t✱ ✐t ❤❛s r❛✐♥❡❞❄ • B=C

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✽
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✷
❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ s♦♠❡
❆ ❣❛r❛❣❡ ❧✐❣❤t ✐s ❝♦♥tr♦❧❧❡❞ ❜② ❛ s✇✐t❝❤ ❛♥❞✱ ❛❧s♦✱ ✐t
♦❢ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ▼❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦♥t♦✳
♠❛② ❛✉t♦♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② t✉r♥ ♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t s❡♥s❡s ♠♦t✐♦♥
❞✉r✐♥❣ ♥✐❣❤tt✐♠❡✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐❣❤t ✐s ❖❋❋✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦ ②♦✉ x −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡❄ y = f (x) −1 4 5 2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✸ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✾

■❢ ❛♥ ❛❞✈❡rt✐s❡♠❡♥t ❝❧❛✐♠s t❤❛t ✏❆❧❧ ♦✉r s❡❝♦♥❞✲

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ s♦♠❡
❤❛♥❞ ❝❛rs ❝♦♠❡ ✇✐t❤ ✇♦r❦✐♥❣ ❆❈✑✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❡❛s✲
♦❢ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ❆❞❞ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t
✐❡st ✇❛② t♦ ❞✐s♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡❄
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳

x −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✹
y = f (x) −1 0 5 0
❚❡❛❝❤❡rs ♦❢t❡♥ s❛② t♦ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t✬s ♣❛r❡♥ts✿ ✏■❢ ②♦✉r
st✉❞❡♥t ✇♦r❦s ❤❛r❞❡r✱ ❤❡✬❧❧ ✐♠♣r♦✈❡✑✳ ❲❤❡♥ ❤❡
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✵
✇♦♥✬t ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣❛r❡♥ts ❝♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡
t❡❛❝❤❡r✱ ❤❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛♥s✇❡r✿ ✏❍❡ ❞✐❞♥✬t ✐♠♣r♦✈❡✱ t❤❛t ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h(x) = sin2 x + sin3 x ❛s
♠❡❛♥s ❤❡ ❞✐❞♥✬t ✇♦r❦ ❤❛r❞❡r✑✳ ❆♥❛❧②③❡✳ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ g ◦ f ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s y = f (x)
✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡ts✱ ❧♦❣✐❝✱ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✺✵✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✽
❛♥❞ z = g(y)✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♣❡r❢♦r♠s t❤❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥✿ ✏t❛❦❡
t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠ ❜❛s❡ 2 ♦❢ ✑✱ ❛♥❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ♣❡r❢♦r♠s✿
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✶
✏t❛❦❡ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ♦❢ ✑✳ ✭❛✮ ❱❡r❜❛❧❧② ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ✐ts ✈❛❧✲ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r

✉❡s✳ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❛♥❞ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐t ❜② ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r t❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ✭❝✮ ●✐✈❡ t❤❡♠ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ❛♥❞

t❛❜❧❡✳ ❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥s✳
x 0 1 2 3 4
y = f (x) 0 1 2 4 3
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✾

p
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✷ ✶✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h(x) = x2 − 1 ❛s
t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ✳
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ✭❛✮ f (x) = (x + 1)3 ❀ ✭❜✮ g(x) = ln(x3 )✳ ✷✳ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ y =
2
f (g(x)) ♦❢ f (u) = u + u ❛♥❞ g(x) = 2x − 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✸
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✵
❆r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥✈❡rt✐❜❧❡❄ ✭❛✮ y = f (n)
✐s t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ st✉❞❡♥ts ✐♥ ②♦✉r ❝❧❛ss ✇❤♦s❡ ❜✐rt❤✲ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥
√ y = f (g(x))
❞❛② ✐s ♦♥ t❤❡ nt❤ y = f (t) ✐s
❞❛② ♦❢ t❤❡ ②❡❛r✳ ✭❜✮ ♦❢ f (u) = sin u ❛♥❞ g(x) = x✳
t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛❝❝✉♠✉❧❛t❡❞ r❛✐♥❢❛❧❧ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s t ♦♥ ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥
❞❛② ✐♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✶

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ y = f (g(x))

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✹
♦❢ f (u) = u2 − 3u + 2 ❛♥❞ g(x) = x✳
●✐✈❡♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡s ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f, g ✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢
✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f ◦ g✿
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✷

x y = g(x) y z = f (y) ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝✲

0 0 0 4 t✐♦♥ f (x) = 3x2 + 1❄ ❍✐♥t✿ ❈❤♦♦s❡ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡
1 4 1 4 ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✳
2 3 2 0
3 0 3 1
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✸
4 1 4 2
√
❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st r♦✇s ✇❡r❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣❄ ✶✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h(x) = x − 1 ❛s t❤❡
❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
p
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✺ ✷✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ k(t) = t2 − 1 ❛s t❤❡
❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥
p
f ◦g ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
✸✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ p(t) = sin t2 − 1 ❛s
p t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
h(x) = 2x3 + x .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✹
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✻
✭❛✮ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ f ◦ g ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h(x) = 2 sin3 x + sin x + 5 2
❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② f (u) = u + u ❛♥❞ g(x) = 3❄ ✭❛✮ ❲❤❛t
❛s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s
✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ f ◦ g ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②
tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝✳
√
f (u) = 2 ❛♥❞ g(x) = x❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✼
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✺

x3 −1
✭❛✮ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h(x) = e ✱ ❛s t❤❡ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ✐ts ✈❛❧✲
❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ✳ ✭❜✮ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ✉❡s✳ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❛♥❞ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐t ❜② ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r
❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✳
t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ✏t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠ ❜❛s❡ 2 ♦❢ ✑ ❛♥❞ x 0 1 2 3 4
✏t❛❦❡ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ♦❢ ✑✳ y = f (x) 1 2 0 4 3
✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡ts✱ ❧♦❣✐❝✱ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✺✵✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✻
✐♥✈❡rs❡❄
●✐✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡✐r ♦✇♥ ✐♥✲
x 0 1 2 3 4
✈❡rs❡s✳
y = f (x) 7 5 3 4 6

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✼
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✸
P❧♦t t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ✐❢
♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✿ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s y = f (x) ❛♥❞ u = g(y) ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇
❜② t❛❜❧❡s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ Pr❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❝♦♠✲
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ u = h(x) ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜② ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r
t❛❜❧❡✿
x 0 1 2 3 4
y = f (x) 1 1 2 0 2
y 0 1 2 3 4
u = g(y) 3 1 2 1 0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✽
❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ s♦♠❡
♦❢ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ❆❞❞ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t
P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦ ♦♥❡✳
♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✿
x −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = f (x) −1 4 5 2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✺

1
P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = ❛♥❞
x−1
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢② ✐ts ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❡❛✲
t✉r❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✻

✭❛✮ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✱ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✾
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ h(x) = tan(2x) ❛s t❤❡
❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s x ❛♥❞ y ✳
✐s ♥♦t ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳ ✭❜✮ ●r❛♣❤✐❝❛❧❧②✱ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g(x) = 2x+1 ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳ ✭❝✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡
✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ g ✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✼

❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✕ ❜♦t❤ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝❛❧❧② ❛♥❞ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ✕

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✵
t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡ ❛ 1 × 1
x3 + 1 sq✉❛r❡ ✐♥t♦ ❛ 2 × 3 r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✳
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ h(x) = , ❛s t❤❡
x3 − 1
❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s x ❛♥❞ y ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✶

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ✐ts

✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ■s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥❡✲t♦ ♦♥❡❄ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts
✐♥✈❡rs❡❄
x 0 1 2 3 4
y = f (x) 0 1 2 1 2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✷

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ✐ts

✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ■s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥❡✲t♦ ♦♥❡❄ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts
✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✺✵✾

✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✵

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ♣❛ss✐♥❣ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❚❤❡ t❛①✐ ❝❤❛r❣❡s $1.75 ❢♦r t❤❡ ✜rst q✉❛rt❡r ♦❢ ❛ ♠✐❧❡
♣♦✐♥ts (−1, 1) ❛♥❞ (−1, 5)✳ ❛♥❞ $0.35 ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ✜❢t❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✐❧❡✳ ❋✐♥❞
❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♠♦❞❡❧s t❤❡ t❛①✐ ❢❛r❡ f ❛s ❛
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♠✐❧❡s ❞r✐✈❡♥✱ x✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷

❋♦r t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts P = (0, 1)✱ Q = (1, 2)✱ ❛♥❞ R =

(−1, 2)✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts t❤❛t ❛r❡ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝
✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ❛①✐s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ABC ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✇❤❡r❡ A =
(3, 2)✱ B = (3, −3)✱ C = (−2, −2)✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡
❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ k s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡
♣♦✐♥ts (−6, 0) ❛♥❞ (k, −5) ✐s ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡
❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts (4, 3) ❛♥❞ (1, 7)✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷

■s t❤✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹

❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ x s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts

(3, −8) ❛♥❞ (x, −6) ✐s 5✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣❡r✐♠❡t❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❡s

❛t (3, −1)✱ (3, 6)✱ ❛♥❞ (−6, −5)✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✸

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❜② ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts t❤❛t ❧✐❡ 2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✻ ✉♥✐ts ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (−1, −2) ❛♥❞ ❜② ♥♦ ♦t❤❡r
♣♦✐♥ts✳
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s t❤❛t ✐s ❡q✉✐❞✐st❛♥t
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts (−1, 5) ❛♥❞ (6, 4)✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✼
❋♦r t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❣r❛♣❤❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧✲
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝✲ ❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = 6 ✇✐t❤ t❤❡
❛①❡s✳ 1 2 3
s♠❛❧❧❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡
s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ✐s ♦❞❞✴❡✈❡♥
❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✿
(
x − y = −1,
2x + y = 0.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾

❆ ♠♦✈✐❡ t❤❡❛t❡r ❝❤❛r❣❡s $10 ❢♦r ❛❞✉❧ts ❛♥❞ $6 ❢♦r

❝❤✐❧❞r❡♥✳ ❖♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❞❛② ✇❤❡♥ 320 ♣❡♦♣❧❡ ♣❛✐❞ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✺

❛♥ ❛❞♠✐ss✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ r❡❝❡✐♣ts ✇❡r❡ $3120✳ ❍♦✇ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡✲
♠❛♥② ✇❡r❡ ❛❞✉❧ts ❛♥❞ ❤♦✇ ♠❛♥② ✇❡r❡ ❝❤✐❧❞r❡♥❄ ❧♦✇✿
✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✺✶✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✶

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❡❞ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

x−1
ln(x2 + 1) sin x .
x+1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✷

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❡❞ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

(x − 1)(x2 + 1)2x .
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✻

❆ ❢❛❝t♦r② ✐s t♦ ❜❡ ❜✉✐❧t ♦♥ ❛ ❧♦t ♠❡❛s✉r✐♥❣ 240 ❢t

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✸
❜② 320 ❢t✳ ❆ ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❞❡ r❡q✉✐r❡s t❤❛t ❛ ❧❛✇♥
♦❢ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥ ❛r❡❛ t♦ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r② ❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡✿ ✏■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢❛✐❧s t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥✲
♠✉st s✉rr♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r②✳ ❲❤❛t ♠✉st t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ t❡st✱ t❤❡♥✳✳✳✑
♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛✇♥ ❜❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✹
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✼
❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
❆ ❢❛❝t♦r② ♦❝❝✉♣✐❡s ❛ ❧♦t ♠❡❛s✉r✐♥❣ 240 ❢t ❜② 320
❢t✳ ❆ ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❞❡ r❡q✉✐r❡s t❤❛t ❛ ❧❛✇♥ ♦❢ ✉♥✐✲
r √
x−1 x−1
❢♦r♠ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥ ❛r❡❛ t♦ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r② ♠✉st ❛♥❞ √ .
x+1 x+1
s✉rr♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r②✳ ❲❤❛t ♠✉st t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡
❧❛✇♥ ❜❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✺
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✽
❈❧❛ss✐❢② t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

✭❛✮ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ (x2 + 1)(x + 1)(x − 1) = 0✳

2 ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❞❞ ❡✈❡♥ ♦♥t♦ ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡
✭❜✮ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② (x + 1)(x + 1)(x − 1) > 0✳
f (x) = 2x − 1
g(x) = −x + 2
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✾ h(x) = 3
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳
✭❛✮ ❋✐♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛ y t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (2, y) ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✻
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ x t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (x, 3)
❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ✭❝✮ ❋✐♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ x t❤❛t t❤❡ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x) ✐s ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤
♣♦✐♥t (x, x) ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ❙❤♦✇ ②♦✉r ❞r❛✇✲ y = −f (x + 5) − 6✳
✐♥❣✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✼

■s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❛r❡ ♦❞❞✲

✴❡✈❡♥ ♦❞❞✴❡✈❡♥❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✵

▼❛❦❡ ❛ ✢♦✇❝❤❛rt ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✽
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛ ♣❛r❦✐♥❣ ❢❡❡
❢♦r ❛ st❛② ♦❢ x ❤♦✉rs✳ ■t ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
❢r❡❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✜rst ❤♦✉r ❛♥❞ $1 ♣❡r ❤♦✉r ❜❡②♦♥❞✳ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ✭❛✮ f (x) = (x + 1)3 ❀ ✭❜✮ g(x) = ln(x3 )✳
✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✺✶✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✾ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✸

❖♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❛t ♦❢ y = arctan x✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛r❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛s✳ ❖♥❡ ✐s y = x2 ✳
❲❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡rs❄ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✹
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✵
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡✲ f (x) = A sin x + B ❢♦r s♦♠❡ A ❛♥❞ B✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡s❡

❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = 2f (3x) ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳

y = f (−x) − 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✺

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✶
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = 2f (x + 2) + 2✳ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ❤♦✇ ②♦✉ ❣❡t

✐t✳

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❞r❛✇♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♦❧✐❞ ❧✐♥❡ ✐s y = x3 ✳ ❲❤❛t

❛r❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r t✇♦❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✻

❇② tr❛♥s❢♦r♠✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = ex ✱ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤

♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = 2ex−3 ✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢② t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✱
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✷
t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s y = ex ✳

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✼

❍❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡✲

❧♦✇❀ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❤❛❧❢✿

✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✺✶✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✽ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✹

❍❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❞❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❛❜♦✈❡❀ ●✐✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ♦❞❞ ❛♥❞ ❡✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t

♣r♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❤❛❧❢✳ ❛r❡♥✬t ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✾ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✺

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡✲ ■s t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❞❞✴❡✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❞❞✴❡✈❡♥❄

❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = 2f (x) ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥

y = 2f (x) − 1✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✻

❇② tr❛♥s❢♦r♠✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = sin x✱ ♣❧♦t t❤❡

❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = 2 sin(x − 3)✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢②

✐ts r❛♥❣❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✼

●✐✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥ ♦❞❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱

❛♥❞ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t✬s ♥❡✐t❤❡r✳ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✵

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✳ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✶

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡✲

1
❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x) ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
2
1
y = f (x − 1)✳
2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✷

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✸

P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✐s ❜♦t❤ ♦❞❞ ❛♥❞

❡✈❡♥✳
✸✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✺✶✸

✸✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✾

Pr❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ✜rst 5 t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ ■♥ t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ②❡❛r✱ ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥ ♣✉ts $5000
✐♥ ❛ ❜❛♥❦ t❤❛t ♣❛②s 3% ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❛♥♥✉❛❧❧②✳ ❍♦✇
a1 = 1, an+1 = −(an + 1) . ♠✉❝❤ ❞♦❡s ❤❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❢t❡r 15 ②❡❛rs❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✵
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐♥ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿ ❆♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ r❡st ✐♥ ❛ ✈❛❝✉✉♠ ❢❛❧❧s ❛♣✲
♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❧② 16 ❢❡❡t t❤❡ ✜rst s❡❝♦♥❞✱ 48 ❢❡❡t t❤❡
−1 − 2 − 3 − 4 − 5 − ... − 10 . s❡❝♦♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞✱ 80 ❢❡❡t t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ s❡❝♦♥❞✱ 112 ❢❡❡t
t❤❡ ❢♦✉rt❤ s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛r ✇✐❧❧ ✐t ❢❛❧❧ ✐♥
11 s❡❝♦♥❞s❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✉♠✿ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✶

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✿

−1 − 2 − 3 − 4 − 5 − ... − 10 .
(−1)n
lim .
n→∞ n
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✹

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡✲ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✷

q✉❡♥❝❡✿  
n
−1, 2, −4, 8, −5, .. . ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿ lim ln ✳
n→∞ n+1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✸

4
X ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧✲
❈♦♠♣✉t❡ n2 ✳ ❧♦✇✐♥❣✿ ✭❛✮ an → 0 ❛s n → ∞✱ ✭❜✮ an → 1 ❛s
n=1
n → ∞✱ ✭❝✮ an → +∞ ❛s n → ∞✱ ✭❞✮ an ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s
❜✉t ♥♦t t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻

n ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✹
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❲❤❛t
n+1 ❲r✐t❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ nt❤ t❡r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿
n+1
❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❄ ●✐✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ✐♥✲
n 1 3 7 15 31
❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ − , , − ,
2 4 8 16
, − , ...
32

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✺

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ✐t❡♠ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ❧✐st✿ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ✇❤② t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t lim sin n ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✳
n→∞

✶✳ 7, 14, 28, 56, 112, ...

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✻
✷✳ 15, 27, 39, 51, 63, ...
✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ✭❜✮ ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠✲
✸✳ 197, 181, 165, 149, 133, ... ♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✼
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽
Pr❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ✜rst 5 t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❡❧❧ ✐❢
❆ ♣✐❧❡ ♦❢ ❧♦❣s ❤❛s 50 ❧♦❣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ❧❛②❡r✱ 49 ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✿
❧♦❣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧❛②❡r✱ 48 ❧♦❣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧❛②❡r✱ ❛♥❞
s♦ ♦♥✱ ✉♥t✐❧ t❤❡ t♦♣ ❧❛②❡r ❤❛s 1 ❧♦❣✳ ❍♦✇ ♠❛♥② ❧♦❣s a1 = 1, an+1 = (an − 1)2 .
❛r❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣✐❧❡❄
✹✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✺✶✹

✹✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶
❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞❛t❛✿
❚❤r❡❡ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s s♦
s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡♠❄ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡✐r s❧♦♣❡s✳ x y = f (x)
−1 0
0 2
1 3
2 −1
3 −2
4 0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✻

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥

❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞❛t❛✿
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✷
x y = f (x)
❚❤r❡❡ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡✐r
−1 2
❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✳
1 2
3 3
5 3
7 −2
9 5

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼

P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧✲

❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸

✭❛✮ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst 2 s❡❝♦♥❞s ♦❢ ✐ts ✢✐❣❤t

❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ♣r♦❣r❡ss❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ♣♦✐♥t (0, 0) t♦ (1, 0) t♦
(2, 0)✳ ❲❤❛t ✇❛s ✐ts ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥❄ ✭❜✮ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♣♦✐♥t ✐s (1, 1)
✐♥st❡❛❞❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✹
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✽
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t ✐s t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ x ✐s t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❜r❡❛❞✳ ❲❤❛t
❲❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡
❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s❄ ❇❡ ❛s s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❛s
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = |x|❄
♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✾

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡

♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t a✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ ✐t ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
f (x) = x2 + 3 ❛t a = 1 ❛♥❞ h = .5✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✵
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✺
❚❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛r❡ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ P❧♦t t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳
✹✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✶
❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡❞ ❣r❛♣❤ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢
♠♦sq✉✐t♦❡s ✐♥ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❛r❡❛ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞ ♦❢ 150
❞❛②s✳ ❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ t♦ ✭❛✮ t❤❡ ♠♦sq✉✐t♦ ♣♦♣✉❧❛✲
t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✭❜✮ ✐ts r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❣r♦✇t❤❄ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✷
❊❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ ❞r♦✇♥ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t✇♦
♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡② t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✸
✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡
♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t ♣♦✐♥t x = a✳ ✭❜✮ ❙❦❡t❝❤ ❛♥ ✐❧❧✉s✲
tr❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❢♦r f (x) = x2 ✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✹
❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡❞ ❣r❛♣❤ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ✭✐♥
t❤♦✉s❛♥❞s ♦❢ ❢❡❡t✮ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ❛t
✺✶✺
t✐♠❡ x ✭✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s✮✳ ✭❛✮ ❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❄ ✭❜✮ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞
t♦ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✺
❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x2 + 1 ❛t a = 2
✇✐t❤ h = .2 ❛♥❞ h = .1✳ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✻
✭❛✮ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❢♦r t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = 3x2 − x ❛t a = 1 ❛♥❞ h = .5✳
✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
♦❢ y = f (x) ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤✐s ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢
❝❤❛♥❣❡✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✼
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐✲
∆f
♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r
∆x
x = 0, 4, ❛♥❞ 6 ❛♥❞ ∆x = .5✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✽
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊s✲
t✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r
x = 2, 4, 9 ❛♥❞ ∆x = 1✳
✹✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✺✶✻

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✾

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐♠❛t❡

∆f
t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r x=1
∆x
❛♥❞ ∆x = 2, 1, .5✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✷✵

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤✐s ♣✐❝t✉r❡✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✷✶

❚❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡✲

❧♦✇✳ ❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡② t❡❧❧ ②♦✉ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛✲
❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t x = 0❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✷✷

❨♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ r❡❝❡✐✈❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡♠❛✐❧ ❢r♦♠ ②♦✉r

❜♦ss✿ ✏❚✐♠✱ ▲♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐♥ t❤✐s s♣r❡❛❞✲
s❤❡❡t✳ ❚❤✐s st♦❝❦ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ✐♥❝❤✐♥❣ ✉♣✳✳✳ ❉♦❡s
✐t❄ ■❢ ✐t ❞♦❡s✱ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st❄ ❚❤❛♥❦s✳ ✕ ❚♦♠✑✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡
②♦✉r ❛❝t✐♦♥s✳
✺✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✺✶✼

✺✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽

P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)✱ ✇❤❡r❡ x ✐s ✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡
t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ✭✐♥ t❤♦✉s❛♥❞s ♦❢ ❞♦❧❧❛rs✮ ❛♥❞ f (x) ✐s t❤❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t lim x3 = +∞✳
x→+∞
t❛① ❜✐❧❧ ✭✐♥ t❤♦✉s❛♥❞s ♦❢ ❞♦❧❧❛rs✮ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ♦❢
x✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿ ♥♦ t❛① ♦♥ t❤❡ ✜rst
$10, 000✱ t❤❡♥ 5% ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥❡①t $10, 000✱ ❛♥❞ 10%
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✾
❢♦r t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡✳ ■♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞
❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
1
f (x) = 3 − .
x
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷

P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)✱ ✇❤❡r❡ x ✐s

t✐♠❡ ✐♥ ❤♦✉rs ❛♥❞ y = f (x) ✐s t❤❡ ♣❛r❦✐♥❣ ❢❡❡ ♦✈❡r ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✵

x ❤♦✉rs✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿ ❢r❡❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❇② ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r② ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
✜rst ❤♦✉r✱ t❤❡♥ $1 ♣❡r ❡✈❡r② ❢✉❧❧ ❤♦✉r ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
3 ❤♦✉rs✱ ❛♥❞ ❛ ✢❛t ❢❡❡ ♦❢ $5 ❢♦r ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣ ❧♦♥❣❡r✳
■♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳ f (x) =
x
.
(x − 1)(x + 2)2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✶
❆ ❝♦♥tr❛❝t♦r ♣✉r❝❤❛s❡s ❣r❛✈❡❧ ♦♥❡ ❝✉❜✐❝ ②❛r❞ ❛t ❛
t✐♠❡✳ ❆ ❣r❛✈❡❧ ❞r✐✈❡✇❛② x ②❛r❞s ❧♦♥❣ ❛♥❞ 4 ②❛r❞s ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
✇✐❞❡ ✐s t♦ ❜❡ ♣♦✉r❡❞ t♦ ❛ ❞❡♣t❤ ♦❢ 1.5 ❢♦♦t✳ ❋✐♥❞ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✿ x = 0 ❛♥❞ x = 2✳
❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r f (x)✱ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❝✉❜✐❝ ②❛r❞s ♦❢
❣r❛✈❡❧ t❤❡ ❝♦♥tr❛❝t♦r ❜✉②s✱ ❛ss✉♠✐♥❣ t❤❛t ❤❡ ❜✉②s
10 ♠♦r❡ ❝✉❜✐❝ ②❛r❞s ♦❢ ❣r❛✈❡❧ t❤❛♥ ❛r❡ ♥❡❡❞❡❞✳ ■♥✲ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✷

✈❡st✐❣❛t❡ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳ ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧
❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✿ y = −1✱ ❛♥❞ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✿
x = 2✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✹

1
❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ✇❤② t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t lim sin ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✸
x→0 x
■❞❡♥t✐❢② ❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❣r❛♣❤✿
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡

❞✐✛❡r❡♥t t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t✐❡s✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡s❡
❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ❧✐♠✐ts✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✻

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ε✲δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡

❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t lim x2 = 0✳
x→0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✼
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✹
✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐✲ ❊①♣r❡ss t❤❡ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ❧✐♠✐ts
t✐♦♥ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t lim x3 6= 3✳ ❛♥❞ ✐❞❡♥t✐❢② ♦t❤❡r ♦❢ ✐ts ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❡❛t✉r❡s✿
x→0
✺✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✺✶✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✵

❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏■❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, ∞)✱ t❤❡♥ f

✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ [a, ∞)✑❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✶

❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏❊✈❡r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ ❛

❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✑❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✷

❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥

❛ ❝❧♦s❡❞✴♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡♥ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s ❛

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✺ ❝❧♦s❡❞✴♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✑❄ ❨♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉r ♦♣t✐♦♥s t♦

❝♦♥s✐❞❡r✳
❊①♣r❡ss t❤❡ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ❧✐♠✐ts
❛♥❞ ✐❞❡♥t✐❢② ♦t❤❡r ♦❢ ✐ts ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❡❛t✉r❡s✿
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✸

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

x
f (x) = .
(x − 1)(x + 2)2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✹
√
❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t lim x❄
x→0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✻
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✺
❲❤❛t ✐s s♦ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇❄
✭❛✮ ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t
❲❤❛t ✐s ✐ts ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❄
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳ ✭❜✮ ❲❤② ❝❛♥✬t ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛✈❡ ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ ♦♥❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✻

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇

❛t x = −1 x = 3✿
❛♥❞

 −x + 1 ✐❢ x < −1
f (x) = x2 + 1 ✐❢ −1≤x<3
 x
e ✐❢ x>3

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✼
❇② ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧

❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏■❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ (a, b)✱ t❤❡♥ f ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ (a, b)✑❄

3x3 − 1
f (x) = .
x(5x2 − 7)
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✽

❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏■❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ f ✐s ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✽

❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ [a, b]✑❄ ❚❤❡ ❜❛s❡ s❛❧❛r② ♦❢ ❛ s❛❧❡s♠❛♥ ✇♦r❦✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❝♦♠♠✐s✲

s✐♦♥ ✐s$20, 000✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ $10, 000 ♦❢ s❛❧❡s ❜❡②♦♥❞
$50, 000✱ ❤❡ ✐s ♣❛✐❞ ❛ $1, 000 ❝♦♠♠✐ss✐♦♥✳ ▲❡t f (x)
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✾
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❤✐s s❛❧❛r② ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡✈❡❧ ♦❢ ❤✐s
❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏■❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b)✱ t❤❡♥ f s❛❧❡s x✳ ✭❛✮ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ✭❜✮
✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ [a, b)✑❄ ❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ f✳
✺✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✺✶✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✾
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t a = 0
❚❤❡ ❜❛s❡ s❛❧❛r② ♦❢ ❛ s❛❧❡s♠❛♥ ✇♦r❦✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❝♦♠✲ ❛♥❞ a = 3✿
♠✐ss✐♦♥ ✐s $20, 000✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ $10, 000 ♦❢ s❛❧❡s ❜❡✲ 
②♦♥❞ $50, 000✱ ❤❡ ✐s ♣❛✐❞ ❛ $1, 000 ❝♦♠♠✐ss✐♦♥✳ ▲❡t
 x+1 ✐❢ x<0
f (x) = x2 + 1 ✐❢ 0≤x<3
y = f (x) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❤✐s s❛❧❛r② ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ 
10 ✐❢ x>3
❧❡✈❡❧ ♦❢ ❤✐s s❛❧❡s x✳ ✭❛✮ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ✭❜✮ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐❢✲
❢❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ f✳ ✭❝✮ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✺

✏❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ $1 ♦❢ s❛❧❡s ❜❡②♦♥❞ $50, 000✱ ❤❡ ✐s ♣❛✐❞ ❛

❯s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ε✲ δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t
$1 ❝♦♠♠✐ss✐♦♥✑❄

lim (−x + 1) = 0 .
x→1
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✵

❋♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ✜♥❞ ✐ts ❧❛r❣❡ s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✱ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✻
✐✳❡✳✱ f (x) → ... ❛s x → ±∞✳
❆ ❤♦✉s❡ ❤❛s 4 ✢♦♦rs ❛♥❞ ❡❛❝❤ ✢♦♦r ❤❛s 7 ✇✐♥❞♦✇s✳

2x2 ❲❤❛t ✇❛s t❤❡ ②❡❛r ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♦r♠❛♥✬s ❣r❛♥❞✲

f (x) = . ♠♦t❤❡r ❞✐❡❞❄
7x2 −x+1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✼
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✶
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✉t ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞♥❡ss ♦❢ ❛
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ■t ❤❛s ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢❛✐❧s ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✐s
❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡♠ ❛s ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ✉s❡ ❜♦t❤ +∞ ❛♥❞
♦♠✐tt❡❞✿ ✭❛✮ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ ✭❜✮ t❤❡
−∞✳
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s♥✬t ❝❧♦s❡❞✱ ✭❝✮ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s♥✬t ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✽

■❧❧✉str❛t❡ ✇✐t❤ ♣❧♦ts ✭s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✮ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡

❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✿ ✭❛✮ f (x) → +∞ ❛s x → 1❀ ✭❜✮
f (x) → −∞ ❛s x → 2+ ❀ ✭❝✮ f (x) → 3 ❛s x → −∞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✾

❋♦r t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ f (x) = −2x(x − 2)2 (x + 1)3 ✱

✜♥❞ ✐ts x✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣ts ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❧❛r❣❡ s❝❛❧❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✱
✐✳❡✳✱ f (x) → ... ❛s x → ±∞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✷
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✹✵

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❛t ②♦✉✬✈❡

●✐✈❡♥ f (x) = −(x − 3)4 (x + 1)3 ✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣
❢♦✉♥❞❄
t❡r♠ ❛♥❞ ✉s❡ ✐t t♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ❧♦♥❣ t❡r♠ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r
3x2 − 7
lim ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
x→∞ 5x2 + x

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✹✶
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✸
✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❙❛♥❞✇✐❝❤ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ✭❜✮ ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①✲
✭❛✮ ●✐✈❡♥ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t
❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✳
x = a✱ ❞♦❡s f +g ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a❄
✭❛✮ ●✐✈❡♥ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f
g ♦♥❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛♥❞
❛♥❞
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✹✷
t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛tx = a✱ ❞♦❡s f +g ❤❛✈❡ t♦
❜❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦r ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a❄ ✭❛✮ ●✐✈❡♥ ✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ✭❜✮
t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a✱ ❞♦❡s ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✳
f + g ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✹

✭❛✮ ❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡✿ ✏❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s

❛t x = a ✐❢✳✳✳✑ ✭t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✮✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡❢✲
✐♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ ♦r ❞✐s♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡
✻✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✺✷✵

✻✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✻

■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ ❞♦ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❤❛✈❡ ✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
t♦ ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦♦❄ f ❛t ♣♦✐♥t x = a ❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ✭❜✮ ❙❦❡t❝❤ ❛♥ ✐❧❧✉str❛✲
t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❢♦r f (x) = x2 ❛♥❞ a = 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✼

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (2, 1) t♦ ❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡❞ ❣r❛♣❤ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ✭✐♥
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤♦✉s❛♥❞s ♦❢ ❢❡❡t✮ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ❛t
ex ✳
2
t✐♠❡ x ✭✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s✮✳ ✭❛✮ ❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❄ ✭❜✮ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞
t♦ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✸

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝✲

t✐♦♥ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t a✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = x2 + 3 ❛t a = 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✹

❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡❞ ❣r❛♣❤ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢

♠♦sq✉✐t♦❡s ✐♥ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❛r❡❛ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞ ♦❢ 150
❞❛②s✳ ❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ t♦ ✭❛✮ t❤❡ ♠♦sq✉✐t♦ ♣♦♣✉❧❛✲
t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✭❜✮ ✐ts r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❣r♦✇t❤❄ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✽

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝✲

t✐♦♥ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t a✳ ✭❜✮ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❣r❛♣❤✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛✲
t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✾

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝✲

t✐♦♥ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t a✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = 2x2 + x − 1 ❛t a = 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✵
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✺
❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢
❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡s❡ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝✲ f (x) = x2 + 1 ❛t a = 2✳
t✐♦♥❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✶

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢✉♥❝✲

x
t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = ✳
x+1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✷

✭❛✮ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = 3x2 − x ❛t

a = 1 ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✮✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞
t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢
y = f (x) ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t♦ a = 1✳
✻✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✺✷✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✸

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐✲

♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ (x) ❢♦r x = 0, 4,
❛♥❞ 6.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✾

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡

❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛t (0, −1)✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✹

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐✲

♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ (x) ❢♦r x = 2, 4,
❛♥❞ 9✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✵

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ✭❛✮ ❆t

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✺
✇❤❛t ♣♦✐♥ts ✐s f ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❄ ✭❜✮ ❆t ✇❤❛t ♣♦✐♥ts ✐s
❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡❄
f (x) = 2x2 − 1 ❛t a = 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✻

1
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ②♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = ✳ ✭❛✮
x+1
f (h) − 1
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t✿ lim . ✭❜✮ ❲❤❛t ✐s ✐t
h→0 h
t❤❛t ②♦✉✬✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞❄ ■❧❧✉str❛t❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✼

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐♠❛t❡

t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ (x) ❢♦r x = −3, 1✱
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✶
❛♥❞ 5✳
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐✲
♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ (x) ❢♦r x = 1, 3✱
❛♥❞ 6✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✽

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐♠❛t❡

t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ❢♦r x = 0 ❛♥❞ x = 4✳
❙❤♦✇ ②♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✳
✻✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✺✷✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✷

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ y = f (x) ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s s❦❡t❝❤❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇

✭✐t✬s ♥♦t ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✮✳ ❇❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱ ❡st✐♠❛t❡
t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ♦❢ f ❢♦r x = 0 ❛♥❞
x = 5✳ ❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t f ′′ ❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✸

❚❤❡ ❜❛s❡ s❛❧❛r② ♦❢ ❛ s❛❧❡s♠❛♥ ✇♦r❦✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❝♦♠♠✐s✲

s✐♦♥ ✐s $20, 000✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ $10, 000 ♦❢ s❛❧❡s ❜❡②♦♥❞
$50, 000✱ ❤❡ ✐s ♣❛✐❞ ❛ $1, 000 ❝♦♠♠✐ss✐♦♥✳ ▲❡t f (x)
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❤✐s s❛❧❛r② ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡✈❡❧ ♦❢ ❤✐s
s❛❧❡s x✳ ✭❛✮ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ✭❜✮
❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ f ✳ ✭❜✮ ❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r✲
❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ f ✳
✼✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❋❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ ❣r❛♣❤s ✺✷✸

✼✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❋❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ ❣r❛♣❤s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✻

❆ s❦❡t❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡✲ ■s sin x + cos πx ❛ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ■❢ ✐t ✐s✱ ✜♥❞
❧♦✇✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✐ts ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✉s✐♥❣ ✇♦r❞s ✐ts ♣❡r✐♦❞✳ ❨♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❥✉st✐❢② ②♦✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❛❧✲
✏❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✑ ❛♥❞ ✏✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✑✳ ❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✼

1
■s sin x + sin 2x ♦r sin x + sin x ❛ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝ ❢✉♥❝✲
2
t✐♦♥❄ ■❢ ✐t ✐s✱ ✜♥❞ ✐ts ♣❡r✐♦❞✳ ❨♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❥✉st✐❢②
②♦✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✽

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ✭❜✮

●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷
Pr♦✈❡✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) =
●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥ ♦❞❞ ❢✉♥❝✲ x2 + 1 ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢♦r x > 0✳
t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t✬s ♥❡✐t❤❡r✳ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❢♦r♠✉✲
❧❛s✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✵

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸ ✭❛✮ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳ ✭❜✮ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦♥
✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦r ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✳ ✭❝✮
❚❡st ✇❤❡t❤❡r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡✈❡♥✱
♦❞❞✱ ♦r ♥❡t❤❡r✿ ✭❛✮
3
f (x) = x + 1❀ ✭❜✮ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
Pr♦✈✐❞❡ x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ♦❢ ✐ts r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ♠❛①✐♠❛ ❛♥❞
♠✐♥✐♠❛✳ ✭❞✮ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ s❤✐❢t❡❞ ♦♥❡ ✉♥✐t
✉♣❀ ✭❝✮ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❣r❛♣❤✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✹
■❢ ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s 10 ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✱
❤♦✇ ♠❛♥② ❜r❛♥❝❤❡s ❞♦❡s ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ❤❛✈❡❄
❋✐♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✷

❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡

tr✉❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❛r❡ ❢❛❧s❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✺ ✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ sin x ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ (−π, π) ❤❛s

❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✇❤✐❝❤ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ s♠❛❧❧❡st
■s sin x/2 ❛ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ■❢ ✐t ✐s✱ ✜♥❞ ✐ts
♦✉t♣✉t ✈❛❧✉❡✳
♣❡r✐♦❞✳ ❨♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❥✉st✐❢② ②♦✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣❡✲
❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✳ ✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x3 ✇✐t❤ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ (−3, 3)
✼✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❋❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ ❣r❛♣❤s ✺✷✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✼
❤❛s ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✇❤✐❝❤ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛
❧❛r❣❡st ♦✉t♣✉t ✈❛❧✉❡✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) s❛t✐s❢②✐♥❣ t❤❡
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿ lim− f = 1✱ lim+ f = 3✱ f ✐s
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x3 ✇✐t❤ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ [−3, 3] x→2 x→2
❤❛s ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✇❤✐❝❤ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ (−1, 0)✱ lim f = −1✱ lim f = ∞✳
x→−∞ x→+∞
❧❛r❣❡st ♦✉t♣✉t ✈❛❧✉❡✳
✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x3 ✇✐t❤ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ [−3, 3] ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✽
❤❛s ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✇❤✐❝❤ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ▲✐st ❛t
s♠❛❧❧❡st ♦✉t♣✉t ✈❛❧✉❡✳ ❧❡❛st ✜✈❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ♠❛✐♥ ❢❡❛t✉r❡s✳
✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ sin x ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ [−π, π] ❤❛s
❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✇❤✐❝❤ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ s♠❛❧❧❡st
♦✉t♣✉t ✈❛❧✉❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✸

●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✐s ❜♦t❤ ♦❞❞ ❛♥❞

❡✈❡♥ ❜✉t ♥♦t ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✹
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❛s②♠♣✲
t♦t❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡♠ ❛s ❧✐♠✐ts✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✾
❆ s❦❡t❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳
Pr♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ f t❤❛t ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✐ts
❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✺

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷✵
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢② ❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞ ❆ s❦❡t❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳
❢❡❛t✉r❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ▲✐st ❛t ❧❡❛st ✜✈❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ♠❛✐♥ ❢❡❛t✉r❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✻

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ❢❡❛t✉r❡s✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷✶
✭❛✮ f ❤❛s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛t x = 2❀ ✭❜✮ g ❤❛s ❛
✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ x = 1❀ ✭❝✮ h ❤❛s ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡
❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ y = −1✳ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡
✼✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❋❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ ❣r❛♣❤s
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢② ❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷✷
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢② ❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷✸
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢② ❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷✹
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢② ❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤✳
✺✷✺
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷✺
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢② ❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷✻
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢② ❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷✼
✭❛✮ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✳ ✭❜✮ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐✲
③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛✛❡❝ts t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ✭❝✮ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧
❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✈s✳ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡❄
✼✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❋❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ ❣r❛♣❤s ✺✷✻

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷✽

❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡✲

❧♦✇✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸✶

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❋♦r ✇❤❛t ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢

x ❛r❡ f (x), f ′ (x), f ′′ (x) ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✱ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦r ③❡r♦❄
❋✐❧❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜❧❛♥❦s ✇✐t❤ +✱ −✱ ♦r 0✿

x f (x) f ′ (x) f ′′ (x)

−1.5
0
1
2
2.5

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷✾

❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸✵

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❈♦♠♣❧❡t❡❧② ❞❡✲

s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ s✉❝❤
✇♦r❞s ❛s ✏✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✴❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✑✱ ✏❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣✴✲
❞♦✇♥✑✱ ✏♠❛①✴♠✐♥✑✱ ✏❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✑✱ ❡t❝✳
✼✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❋❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ ❣r❛♣❤s ✺✷✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸✷
❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❋♦r ✇❤❛t ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢
x ❛r❡ f (x), f ′ (x), f ′′ (x) ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✱ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦r ③❡r♦❄
❋✐❧❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜❧❛♥❦s ✇✐t❤ +✱ −✱ ♦r 0✿
x f (x) f ′ (x) f ′′ (x)
−1.5
0
1
2
2.5

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸✼

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥

❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f
✐ts❡❧❢ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ′ ✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢②
❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸✸

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢

f (x), f ′ (x), f ′′ (x)✿

x f (x) f ′ (x) f ′′ (x)

−1 + + +
0 − 0 −
1 + − ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸✽
2 0 −
3 − +
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥
❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f
✐ts❡❧❢ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ′ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸✹ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ t❤❛t f (0) = 0✳
❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f t❤❛t ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s
♦♥ [1, 5] ❛♥❞ ❤❛s ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ❛t 1✱ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐✲
♠✉♠ ❛t 5✱ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛t 2✱ ❛♥❞ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠
❛t 4✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸✺

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✲

✐♥❣ ❢❡❛t✉r❡s✿ ✭❛✮ ✐t ❤❛s ❛ r❡♠♦✈❛❜❧❡ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②
❛t x = −1❀ ✭❜✮ ✐t ❤❛s ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ x = 1❀
✭❝✮ ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❜✉t ♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ x = 3❀
✭❞✮ ✐t ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❡✈❡r②✇❤❡r❡ ❡❧s❡❀ ✭❡✮ ✐t ❤❛s ♥♦
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸✻
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥
❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f
✐ts❡❧❢ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ′ ✳ ■❞❡♥t✐❢②
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ②♦✉ ❛r❡ t♦✇✐♥❣ ❛ tr❛✐❧❡r✲❤♦♠❡✳ ❉✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡
✜rst ❢❡✇ ♠✐♥✉t❡s✱ ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡ ②♦✉ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ r❡❛r
✈✐❡✇ ♠✐rr♦r ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❧♦✇❡r ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡
❤♦♠❡✳ ▲❛t❡r✱ ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡ ②♦✉ ❧♦♦❦ ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ♦♥❧②
t❤❡ t♦♣ ♣❛rt✳ ❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ ♣r♦✜❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞✳
✼✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❋❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ ❣r❛♣❤s ✺✷✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✹✵

❲❤✐❧❡ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣✱ ②♦✉ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛ ❢❡✇ s❡❝♦♥❞s

②♦✉r ❤❡❛❞❧✐❣❤ts ♣♦✐♥t ❛t t❤❡ ❝❛r ♦♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡
❧❛♥❡✳ ❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ r♦❛❞❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✹✶

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡

′
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ♦❢ f ✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✹✷

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f t❤❛t

❤❛s ❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛t −1✱ ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛t
2✱ ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ❛t 5✱ ❛♥ ✐♥✢❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t 4✱
❛♥❞ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ y = 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✹✸

✭❛✮ ❆♥❛❧②③❡ t❤❡ ✜rst ❛♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x4 −2x2 ✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦ s❦❡t❝❤
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✹✹

✭❛✮ ❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✏■❢ h′ (x) = 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x

✐♥ (a, b)✱ t❤❡♥✳✳✳✑✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✏■❢
f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ (a, b)✱ t❤❡♥✳✳✳✑✳ ✭❝✮ ❯s❡
♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ ♣❛rt ✭❜✮✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✹✺

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ♦❢ t❤❡

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡♠ ❛s ❧✐♠✐ts✿

2x2
f (x) = .
x2 − 1
✽✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥ ✺✷✾

✽✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✶

●✐✈❡ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣✲
❜❡❧♦✇ ❛t x=5 ❛♥❞ ❛t x = 2✿ ♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✷

❯s❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = sin x t♦ ❡st✐✲

♠❛t❡ sin .02.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✸

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = ln x ❛t

a = 1✳ ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ln .99✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✹
√
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢
√ f (x) = x ❛t
a = 1. ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ 1.1.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✺

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = sin 3x ❛t

a = 0. ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ sin −.02.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✻
√
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢
√ f (x) = 1 + 3x
❛t a = 0. ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ 1.03.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✼
√
3
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ 26.9.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✽

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = x1/3 ❛t

1/3
a = 1✳ ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ 1.1 ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✾

❯s❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ sin π/2✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✵

❯s❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ sin π/4✳

✾✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s ✺✸✵

✾✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✽

❚❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐t② ❤❛s ❞♦✉❜❧❡❞ ✐♥ 10 ②❡❛rs✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ②♦✉r ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ❞✉r✐♥❣ ❛ tr✐♣ ♦♥
❆ss✉♠✐♥❣ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❣r♦✇t❤✱ ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ❞♦❡s ✐t ❛ ❋❡rr✐s ✇❤❡❡❧✳
t❛❦❡ t♦ tr✐♣❧❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷

❚❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐t② ❤❛s ❞♦✉❜❧❡❞ ✐♥ 10 ②❡❛rs✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✾

❆ss✉♠✐♥❣ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❣r♦✇t❤✱ ❤♦✇ ♠✉❝❤ ❞♦❡s ✐t
❣r♦✇ ❡✈❡r② ②❡❛r❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✸
Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣ r❛❞✐♦❛❝t✐✈❡ ❞❡❝❛②✳
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢✲❧✐❢❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❄
❆ ❝✉♣ ♦❢ ❤♦t ❝❤♦❝♦❧❛t❡ ❤❛s t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ 80 ❞❡❣r❡❡s
✐♥ ❛ r♦♦♠ ❦❡♣t ❛t 20 ❞❡❣r❡❡s✳ ❆❢t❡r ❛♥ ❤♦✉r t❤❡
❝❤♦❝♦❧❛t❡ ❝♦♦❧s t♦ 60 ❞❡❣r❡❡s✳ ✭✶✮ ❆ss✉♠✐♥❣ ◆❡✇✲
t♦♥✬s ▲❛✇ ♦❢ ❈♦♦❧✐♥❣✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❝❤♦❝♦❧❛t❡ ❛❢t❡r ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❤♦✉r✳ ✭✷✮ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡
❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ▲❛✇ ♦❢ ❈♦♦❧✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❡①♣❧❛✐♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✹

❚❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐t② ❞❡❝❧✐♥❡s ❜② 10% ❡✈❡r② ②❡❛r✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✵
❍♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ✇✐❧❧ ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❞r♦♣ t♦ 50% ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t
♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥❄ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛t t✐♠❡ t ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②
v(t) = 1 + 3t2 . ■❢ ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 1 t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ❛t
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ x = 4, ✇❤❡r❡ ✐s ✐t ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 0❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✺

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭✐♥ ♠✐❧❡s✮ ♦❢ ❛ ❤✐❦❡r ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡
✭✐♥ ❤♦✉rs✮✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❤✐❦❡r✬s ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r✲
❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✶

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛

♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✇❤❛t ✐s
❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✻

❆ ❝✐t② ❧♦s❡s 3% ♦❢ ✐ts ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ❡✈❡r② ②❡❛r✳ ❍♦✇

❧♦♥❣ ✇✐❧❧ ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❧♦s❡ 20%❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✼
❆ ❝❛r st❛rt ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❡❛st ❢r♦♠ t♦✇♥ ❆ ❛t ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t
s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ 60 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥ ❤♦✉r✳ ❚♦✇♥ ❇ ✐s ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ 10
♠✐❧❡s s♦✉t❤ ♦❢ ❆✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t♦✇♥
❇ t♦ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✷
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛
♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✇❤❛t ✐s
❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣✳
✾✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s ✺✸✶

♦❢ f ✳
x ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
0 0 +
1 + −
2 0 −
3 − −

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✾

❚❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❜❡❡t❧❡s ✐♥ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✸
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡✱ ✐♥ ♠❡t❡rs✱ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s
❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t2 + t✱ ✇❤❡r❡ t ✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✐♥
s❡❝♦♥❞s✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ✐s
12 ♠❡t❡rs❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✹
♣r♦❥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ ❣r♦✇ ❛t t❤❡ r❛t❡ 10, 000 + 2, 000x2 ♣❡r
♠♦♥t❤✱ ✇❤❡r❡ x ✐s t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♠♦♥t❤s ♣❛ss❡❞
s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤✐s ②❡❛r✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦✲
❥❡❝t❡❞ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ ❉❡❝❡♠❜❡r ♥❡①t ②❡❛r
✐❢ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐s 1, 000, 000❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷✵
❚❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ✭✐♥ ❢❡❡t✮ t s❡❝♦♥❞s ❛❢t❡r ✐t ✐s
t❤r♦✇♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② f (t) = −16t2 + 8t + 6✳ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥
t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs −16, 8, 6✳

❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛t t✐♠❡ t ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷✶

v(t) = 1 + et . ■❢ ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 0 t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ❛t
x = 2, ✇❤❡r❡ ✐s ✐t ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 1❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✺
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ❝❛r ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳
P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐s✲
t❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t✳

❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛t t✐♠❡ t ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②

a(t) = 3t. ■❢ ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 1 t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s
❛t v(1) = −1, ✇❤❛t ✐s ✐t ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 0❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✻

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ s(t) r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡

❛t t✐♠❡ t ❛♥❞ v(t) ✐ts ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ■❢ v(t) = sin t − cos t
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s(0) = 0, ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥
s(1).

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✼ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ ❛ ❝❛r ✇❛s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✲

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ ❛ ❝❛r ✇❛s ❣r♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✲
♦✉s❧② ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ r✉❧❡ 55 + 5t ♣❡r ❤♦✉r✱ ✇❤❡r❡ t ✐s
t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❤♦✉rs ♣❛ss❡❞ s✐♥❝❡ ✐t ✇❛s 250 ♠✐❧❡s
❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❝✐t②✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛r ✐s ✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝✐t② ❛❢t❡r
3 ❤♦✉rs ♦❢ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣ t♦✇❛r❞s ✐t❄
♦✉s❧② ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ r✉❧❡ 60 − t2 ♣❡r ❤♦✉r✱ ✇❤❡r❡ t ✐s
t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❤♦✉rs ♣❛ss❡❞ s✐♥❝❡ ♥♦♦♥✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡
❛✈❡r❛❣❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ 1 ♣♠ ❛♥❞ 3 ♣♠✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷✸

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡✱ ✐♥ ♠❡t❡rs✱ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✽ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
▲❡t x r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ♣❛ss❡❞ s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❧❡❢t y = t2 + t, t ≥ 0,
t❤❡ ❝✐t②✳ ❚❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❡❧❧s ❢♦r ✇❤❛t ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢
x t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❛r❡ ✇❤❡r❡ t ✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✐♥ s❡❝✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇❤❡♥
♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✱ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✱ ♦r ③❡r♦✳ ▲❡t f (x) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ✐s 12 ♠❡t❡rs❄
❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝✐t②✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
✾✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s ✺✸✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷✹ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷✺

10% ❡✈❡r② ②❡❛r✳

❚❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐t② ❞❡❝❧✐♥❡s ❜② ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛t ❛ r❛t❡ ♦❢ 5 sq✉❛r❡
❍♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ✇✐❧❧ ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❞r♦♣ t♦ 50% ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❝❡♥t✐♠❡t❡rs ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ❆t ✇❤❛t r❛t❡ ✐s t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s

♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥❄ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐s 2 ❝♠❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷✻

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ♦❜ ❥❡❝t

❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ❞❛t❛✿

✶✵✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✺✸✸

✶✵✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✾

√
✭❛✮ ❆♥❛❧②③❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = xe−x ✳
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦ s❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❏✉st✐❢② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜② st✉❞②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ f ✳
f✳
x2 + 7x + 3
f (x) = . ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✵
x2
✭✶✮ ❙t❛t❡ ❘♦❧❧❡✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♥❞ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ ✐t ✇✐t❤ ❛
s❦❡t❝❤✳ ✭❜✮ ◗✉♦t❡ ❛♥❞ st❛t❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✭s✮ ♥❡❝❡s✲
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷
s❛r② t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ ✐t✳ ✭❝✮ ❲❤❛t t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠

❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = ✐t❄

3
2x − 6x + 7✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✶

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ✜rst ❛♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✸
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x3 − 3x ❛♥❞ ✉s❡ t❤❡♠ t♦ s❦❡t❝❤
′
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s f (x) = ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✳
ln x + ln x2 ✳ ✭❛✮ ❖♥ ✇❤❛t ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✐❢ ❛♥②✱ ✐s ❢ ✐♥✲
❝r❡❛s✐♥❣❄ ✭❜✮ ❖♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✐❢ ❛♥②✱ ✐s f ❝♦♥✲
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✷
❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥❄ ❍✐♥t✿ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② ✜rst✳

✭❛✮ ❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✏■❢ h′ (x) = 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥

(a, b)✱ t❤❡♥✳✳✳✑✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐♥ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✹
♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t ✐❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ❤❛✈❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛✲

❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠❛ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t✐✈❡s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

f (x) = x3 − 3x − 1✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✸

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✺ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ Pr♦✲
✈✐❞❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❢❡❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿
✭❛✮ ❆♥❛❧②③❡ t❤❡ ✜rst ❛♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x4 −2x2 ✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦ s❦❡t❝❤ x2 + 7x + 3
f (x) = .
✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✳ x

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✹
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✻
✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ✭❜✮ ❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✳ x
✭❛✮ ❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✏■❢ h′ (x) = 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❤②♣♦t❤❡s❡s
x+2
✐♥ (a, b)✱ t❤❡♥✳✳✳✑✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✏■❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [1, 4]✳
f (x) = g ′ (x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ (a, b)✱ t❤❡♥✳✳✳✑✳
′

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✼ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x4 − x2 ✳

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❢❡❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳
✭✶✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♥❞ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡
✐t ✇✐t❤ ❛ s❦❡t❝❤✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t
✐❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✻
❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
❋✐♥❞ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠❛ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱
f (x) = x3 − 3x ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [−2, 10]✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✼
❯s❡ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ❢♦r f (x) = x5 + 2 ✇✐t❤
x1 = −1 t♦ ✜♥❞ x3 ✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ✭❜✮ ●✐✈❡ ❛♥
②♦✉✬✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞❄ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✳
✶✵✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✺✸✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✽

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢

t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x3 − 3x✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✾

■❢ ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x) ✐s ❛ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧

♣♦✐♥t✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷✵

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ✭❛✮ ❆t

✇❤❛t ♣♦✐♥ts ✐s f ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❄ ✭❜✮ ❆t ✇❤❛t ♣♦✐♥ts
❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ❡①✐st❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷✶

✭❛✮ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = 3x2 − x ❛t

a = 1 ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✮✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞
t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢
y = f (x) ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t♦ a = 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷✷

■♥❞✐❝❛t❡ ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s

tr✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡ ✭♥♦ ♣r♦♦❢ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✮✿
✶✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s f −1 .
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛♥ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✳
✸✳ ■❢ f ′ (c) = 0✱ t❤❡♥ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♦r ❛
❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♦❢ f ✳
✹✳ ■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ t❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥✲
t✐♥✉♦✉s✳
✺✳ ■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s
❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❡q✉❛❧✳
✻✳ ■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ t❤❡✐r ❛♥t✐✲
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❡q✉❛❧✳
✶✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❈♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✺✸✺

✶✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❈♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✶

❈❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ dy

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ ❢♦r y = sin e2x .
dx
x2
f (x) = .
x2 − 1
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷ ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ♦❢ f (x) = xesin x .

p
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h(x) = x2 − 1 ❛s t❤❡
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✸
❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ′ (1) = 2✱ g ′ (2) = 3✱ ❛♥❞ h′ (1) = 6✱ ✇❤❡r❡
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✸
h = g ◦ f ✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s f (1)❄

❈❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = xπ + π x + x + π

✐♥❞✐❝❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ②♦✉ ✉s❡✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✹

■s ✐t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❛t ❜♦t❤ F (x) ❛♥❞ F (2x) ❛r❡ ❜♦t❤

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✹
❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❄
❈❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = logπ x + logx π
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✺
✐♥❞✐❝❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ②♦✉ ✉s❡✳
■s sin x + 3x ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ cos x2 ❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✻
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f (1) = 3 ❛♥❞ f ′ (1) = 2✳ ❯s❡ t❤✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛✲
t✐♦♥ t♦ ✜❧❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜❧❛♥❦s✿ ■s ✐t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❛t ❜♦t❤ F (x) ❛♥❞ F (2x) ❛r❡ ❜♦t❤

′ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❄
f −1 ( ) = .
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✼
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✻
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = x2 ex ✳
❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤✐s✿
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✽
g(t) = t cos t sin t .
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ h(x) = x2 + x + 1.
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✼ ❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s ✐t t❡❧❧ ②♦✉ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
♦❢ f ?
❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✿
ln(sin x)
.
x ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✾

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ h(x) = 2xπ ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✽

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = ex ✳

2 +3x
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷✵

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = ln(3x + 2)✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✾

d
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷✶
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ sin x · ex+1 ✳
dx ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ h(x) = xex ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✵
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷✷
d

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ cos t + et ✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ✇❛t❝❤ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐✲ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ✭❛✮ 3xe + eπ ✱
dx
❛❜❧❡s✳ ✭❜✮ 7 ln x + (1/x) − ln 2.
✶✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❈♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✺✸✻

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷✸

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ √
g(t) = x cos x .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷✹

dy
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ ❢♦r
dx
√
y= ex .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷✺

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s t♦ t❤❡ ❡❧❧✐♣s❡

x2 + 2y 2 = 1 ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ❝r♦ss❡s t❤❡
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ y = x✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷✻

❯s❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ x1/2 + xy = 2 ♣❛ss✐♥❣
t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (1, 1)✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷✼

dy
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ ❢♦r y = sin cos(−x)✳
dx

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷✽

❋✐♥❞ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡

xy = 1 ♣❛ss✐♥❣ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (1, 1).

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷✾

dy
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ x sin y + y 2 = x✳ ❋✐♥❞ ✳
dx
✶✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✺✸✼

✶✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✵

❆ ❧❛❞❞❡r 10 ❢t ❧♦♥❣ r❡sts ❛❣❛✐♥st ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✇❛❧❧✳ ■❢ ▲❡t A = f (r) ❜❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ r❛❞✐✉s
t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛❞❞❡r s❧✐❞❡s ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧ r ❛♥❞ r = h(t) ❜❡ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❛t t✐♠❡
❛t t❤❡ r❛t❡ 1 ❢t✴s❡❝✱ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st ✐s t❤❡ t♦♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛❞✲ t✳ ❲❤✐❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts ❝♦rr❡❝t❧② ♣r♦✲
❞❡r s❧✐❞✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈✐❞❡s ❛ ♣r❛❝t✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥
❧❛❞❞❡r ✐s 6 ❢t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧❄ f (h(t))❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ❛t t✐♠❡ t✳

❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛t ❛ r❛t❡ ♦❢ 5 ✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❛t t✐♠❡ t✳
2
❝♠ ✴s❡❝✳ ❆t ✇❤❛t r❛t❡ ✐s t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛r❡❛
✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐s 2 ❝♠❄
A = f (r) ❛t t✐♠❡ t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✸ ✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❛t t✐♠❡ t ❤❛s

r❛❞✐✉s h(t)✳
❯s❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ x2 + y 2 = x ♣❛ss✐♥❣ ✺✳ ❚❤❡ t✐♠❡ t ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ A = f (r)✳
t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (0, 0)✳
✻✳ ❚❤❡ t✐♠❡ t ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ r = h(t)✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✹ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ✐t❡♠s ✶✲✻✳

❚✇♦ ❝❛rs st❛rt ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❖♥❡ tr❛✈❡❧s

♥♦rt❤ ❛t 60 ♠✐✴❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r tr❛✈❡❧s ❡❛st ❛t 25
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✶
♠✐✴❤✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛st ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠ ✐♥✲
❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ t✇♦ ❤♦✉rs ❧❛t❡r❄ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s 100 sq✳ ❢❡❡t✳ ✭❛✮ ❊①♣r❡ss
t❤❡ ♣❡r✐♠❡t❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ✐ts ✇✐❞t❤✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✺ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♠✐♥✐♠❛❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♣❡r✐♠❡t❡r✳ ✭❝✮ ❋✐♥❞
t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠❛❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♣❡r✐♠❡t❡r✳
❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✉❜❡ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛t ❛ r❛t❡ ♦❢ 24
3
❝♠ ✴♠✐♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛st ✐s t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉❜❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✲
3
✐♥❣ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✐s 8 ❝♠ ?
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✻ ❘❡st❛t❡ ✭❜✉t ❞♦ ♥♦t s♦❧✈❡✮ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❛❧✲
❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✿ ✏❲❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t✲
2 3 dy
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ xy + x y = 1✳ ❋✐♥❞ ✳ ❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♣❡r✐♠❡t❡r ❛♥❞ ❛r❡❛
dx ✜①❡❞ ❛t 100❄✑

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✼

❋✐♥❞ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✸

x sin y = x ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (1, π/2)✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ y 2 = 2x t❤❛t ✐s
❝❧♦s❡st t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (1, 4)✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✽

❯s❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ 3x + 2y = 7 ♣❛ss✐♥❣ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✹

t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (1, 2)✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = 3
t❤❛t ✐s ❝❧♦s❡st t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✾

❚❤❡ ♣❡r✐♠❡t❡r ♦❢ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s 10 ❢❡❡t✳ ✭❛✮ ❊①♣r❡ss

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✺
t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ✐ts ✇✐❞t❤✳ ✭❜✮
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♠✐♥✐♠❛❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❛r❡❛✳ ✭❝✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛①✲ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ ❧❛r❣❡st ❛r❡❛
✐♠❛❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❛r❡❛✳ t❤❛t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✐♥s❝r✐❜❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1✳
✶✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✺✸✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✻ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✻

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ y 2 = 2x t❤❛t ✐s ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞

❝❧♦s❡st t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (2, 2)✳ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = 2x3 − 6x + 5 ♦♥ t❤❡
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [−2, 5].

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✼
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✼
❆ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ✇✐r❡ 10 ♠ ❧♦♥❣ ✐s ❝✉t ✐♥t♦ 2 ♣✐❡❝❡s✳ ❖♥❡
❆ ❢❛r♠❡r ✇✐t❤ 750 ❢t ♦❢ ❢❡♥❝✐♥❣ ✇❛♥ts t♦ ❡♥❝❧♦s❡ ❛
♣✐❡❝❡ ✐s ❜❡♥t ✐♥t♦ ❛ sq✉❛r❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ✐s ❜❡♥t ✐♥t♦
r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❛r❡❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ✐t ✐♥t♦ ❢♦✉r ♣❡♥s
❛♥ ❡q✉✐❧❛t❡r❛❧ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✳ ❍♦✇ s❤♦✉❧❞ t❤❡ ✇✐r❡ ❜❡ ❝✉t
✇✐t❤ ❢❡♥❝✐♥❣ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ ♦♥❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✳
s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛ ❡♥❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐s ✭❛✮ ❛ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠❄
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r
✭❜✮ ❛ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠❄
♣❡♥s❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✽ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✽

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ y = 1 − 2x t❤❛t ✐s ❝❧♦s❡st ❋✐♥❞ t✇♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳ ✜rst ♥✉♠❜❡r ❛♥❞ ❢♦✉r t✐♠❡s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐s
1000 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ❛s ❧❛r❣❡ ❛s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✾
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✾
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ y = −2x t❤❛t ✐s ❝❧♦s❡st
t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳ ❋✐♥❞ t✇♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs x, y ✇❤♦s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ✐s
100 ❛♥❞ ✇❤♦s❡ s✉♠ ✐s ❛ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✵
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✸✵
❆ ❢❛r♠❡r ❤❛s 100 ②❛r❞s ♦❢ ❢❡♥❝✐♥❣✳ ❲❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✲
❙❡t ✉♣ ❜✉t ❞♦ ♥♦t s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠
♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡ t❤❛t ❤❛s t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ❛r❡❛❄
❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✿ ✏■❢ 1200 ❝♠2 ♦❢ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧
✐s ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ ❛ ❜♦① ✇✐t❤ ❛ sq✉❛r❡ ❜❛s❡ ❛♥❞

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✶ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ t♦♣✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❜♦①✳✑
■t ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ t❤❛t ❛ ❢❛r♠❡r ✇✐t❤ 100 ②❛r❞s ♦❢ ❢❡♥❝✐♥❣
s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❛ 25✲❜②✲25 ②❛r❞ ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✸✶
❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ❛r❡❛✳ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ ❤❡ ❤❛s 200 ②❛r❞s❄

❙❡t ✉♣ ❜✉t ❞♦ ♥♦t s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠

❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✿ ✏❆ ♣♦st❡r ✐s t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✷ 2
❛r❡❛ ♦❢ 180 ✐♥ ✇✐t❤ 1✲✐♥❝❤ ♠❛r❣✐♥s ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠
❆ ❢❛r♠❡r ❤❛s 100 ②❛r❞s ♦❢ ❢❡♥❝✐♥❣✳ ❲❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐❞❡s ❛♥❞ ❛ 2✲✐♥❝❤ ♠❛r❣✐♥ ❛t t❤❡ t♦♣✳ ❲❤❛t
❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡♥❝❧♦s✉r❡ t❤❛t ❤❛s t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ♣r✐♥t❡❞ ❛r❡❛❄✑
♣❡r✐♠❡t❡r❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✸✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✸ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
♥✉♠❜❡r ❛♥❞ ✐ts r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ✐s ❛s s♠❛❧❧ ❛s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳
❋✐♥❞ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs x, y ✇❤♦s❡ s✉♠ ✐s 2 ❛♥❞ ✇❤♦s❡
♣r♦❞✉❝t ✐s ❛ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✸✸

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✹ ❙❡t ✉♣ ❜✉t ❞♦ ♥♦t s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠

❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✿ ✏❆♠♦♥❣ ❛❧❧ r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥✲
❙❡t ✉♣ ❜✉t ❞♦ ♥♦t s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠
❣❧❡s ✇✐t❤ ❛r❡❛ 10✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡st
❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✿ ✏❆♠♦♥❣ ❛❧❧ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s
♣❡r✐♠❡t❡r✑✳
✐♥s❝r✐❜❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s ✶✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤
t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ❛r❡❛✑✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✸✹

■❢ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ❜♦① ✐s t♦ ❜❡ ♠❛❞❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛ t✐♥ s❤❡❡t 8 ✐♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✺
sq✉❛r❡ ❜② ❝✉tt✐♥❣ ♦✉t ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ sq✉❛r❡s ❢r♦♠ ❡❛❝❤
❙❡t ✉♣ ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦r♥❡r ❛♥❞ ❜❡♥❞✐♥❣ ✉♣ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✢❛♣s✱ ❞❡t❡r✲
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✿ ✏❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ❜♦① t❤❛t ❝❛♥ ❜❡
y=π t❤❛t ✐s ❝❧♦s❡st t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳✑ ♠❛❞❡✳
✶✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✺✸✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✸✺

❆ ❢❛r♠❡r ✇❛♥ts t♦ ❢❡♥❝❡ ❛♥ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ 1.5 ♠✐❧❧✐♦♥

sq✉❛r❡ ❢❡❡t ✐♥ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ✜❡❧❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❞✐✈✐❞❡
✐t ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢❡♥❝❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡s ♦❢
t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✳ ❍♦✇ ❝❛♥ ❤❡ ❞♦ t❤✐s s♦ ❛s t♦ ♠✐♥✐♠✐③❡
t❤❡ ❝♦st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❡♥❝❡❄
◆❡①t✳✳✳
 ■♥❞❡①
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✷✹✵✱ ✹✽✸
❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ❛♥❞ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✱ ✶✹✼
❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ❋✐♥✐t❡ ❛♥❞ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✻✶
❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✻✶
❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s✱ ✻✶✱ ✶✸✾
❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✸✾
❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛t ■♥✜♥✐t②✱ ✶✾✺
❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✺✸✱ ✽✾✱ ✶✸✽
❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t✱ ✷✶✵
❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✹✺
❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✹✷✺
❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ✹✷✹
❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ✹✷✹
❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✹✸✹✱ ✹✸✺
❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✹✷✼
❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✹✷✻
❛r❝❝♦s✐♥❡✱ ✶✻✾
❛r❝s✐♥❡✱ ✶✻✾
❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥✱ ✷✺✱ ✹✸
❆r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ Pr♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥✿ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✷✺
❆s②♠♣t♦t❡s ♦❢ ■♥✈❡rs❡✱ ✶✾✶
❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✷✷✺
❜❛s❡ ♦❢ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✱ ✾✶
❇❡st ▲✐♥❡❛r ❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ✹✺✺
❇♦❧③❛♥♦✲❲❡✐❡rstr❛ss ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✼✼
❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛♥❞ ❛❜♦✈❡ s❡ts✱ ✼✸
❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✽✶
❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✼✼
❇♦✉♥❞❡❞♥❡ss ♦❢ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✹✾
❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✸✶✹
❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ✸✶✸
❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ✸✶✸
❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✶✵
❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✼✶
❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✻✺
❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ✼✾✱ ✽✵✱ ✶✺✽✱ ✶✻✶✱ ✶✻✷✱ ✷✵✾✱ ✸✵✽✱ ✸✶✸✱ ✸✶✹
❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts✱ ✶✻✶
❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✱ ✽✷
❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✹✵✾
❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✹✵✼
❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ♦♥ P❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✹✵✼
❈♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✹✶✵
❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✹✷✸
❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ✹✷✷
❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✹✷✸
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✹✸✷
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✸✵✷
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ✸✵✶
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ✸✵✶
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✺✷
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❩❡r♦ ▲✐♠✐t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✹✽
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✸✾
❝♦♥st❛♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✹✷
❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✱ ✶✷✷✱ ✶✹✶✱ ✶✺✷✱ ✶✺✸✱ ✷✵✵
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✻✾
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✺✸
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ■♥✈❡rs❡✱ ✶✻✽
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ▲♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✱ ✶✻✾
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ◆❛t✉r❛❧ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✺✷
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛♥❞ ❘❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱
✶✹✾
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❘♦♦ts✱ ✶✻✽
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡✱ ✶✺✺
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t✱ ✶✺✻
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❆❧❣❡❜r❛✱ ✶✹✽
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✉♥❞❡r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✻✷
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✈✐❛ ▲✐♠✐t✱ ✶✸✷
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✈✐❛ ❖♥❡✲❙✐❞❡❞ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✱ ✶✸✽
❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✱ ❡♣s✐❧♦♥✲❞❡❧t❛✱ ✷✵✷
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✷✷✱ ✶✸✷✱ ✶✸✽✱ ✶✹✶✱ ✶✹✼✕✶✹✾✱ ✶✺✺✱
✶✺✻✱ ✶✻✽✱ ✶✼✻✱ ✶✼✽✱ ✶✼✾✱ ✶✽✹✱ ✷✺✺✱ ✸✾✷✱ ✸✾✻
❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ▼❡❛♥s ❇♦✉♥❞❡❞✱ ✶✽✷
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✶✽✶
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✱ ✸✼
❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦ ❩❡r♦✱ ✹✻
❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ▼❡❛♥s ❇♦✉♥❞❡❞✱ ✶✽✶
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✸✹✱ ✸✼
❝♦s✐♥❡✱ ✶✵✸✱ ✶✺✹✱ ✶✺✺
❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✸✼✷✱ ✸✼✻✱ ✸✼✼
❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✸✼✾
❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✷✵✹
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ✶✶✵
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✷✻✵✱ ✷✻✶✱ ✷✻✺✱ ✷✾✾✱ ✸✵✷✱ ✸✵✽✱ ✸✶✹✱ ✸✾✷✱ ✸✾✻
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✷✹✺
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ◆❡❡❞s ❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✱ ✷✺✺
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✻✶
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✽✺
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❚❤❛t ❉✐✛❡r ❜② ❈♦♥st❛♥t✱ ✷✻✺
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ●❡♥❡r❛❧ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✸✶✼
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ■♥✈❡rs❡✱ ✸✺✸✱ ✸✺✺
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ ✸✵✹
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❘❛t✐♦♥❛❧ P♦✇❡rs✱ ✸✺✼
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❘❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ P♦✇❡rs✱ ✸✺✼
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡✱ ✷✽✽
❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✈✐❛ ▲✐tt❧❡ ♦✱ ✹✹✺
❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✻✶
❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✽✹
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✷✽✱ ✷✻✶✱ ✷✻✹✱ ✷✾✾✱ ✸✶✸✱ ✸✷✵
❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❚❤❛t ❉✐✛❡r ❜② ❈♦♥st❛♥t✱ ✷✻✹
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✷✷✵✱ ✷✷✶✱ ✸✵✶✱ ✸✷✷
❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡✱ ✷✽✼
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✷✸✶✱ ✷✸✻✱ ✷✹✷✱ ✷✻✺✱ ✷✾✾✱ ✸✵✶✱ ✸✶✸
❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✻✶

❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✽✹
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✻✶
❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❚❤❛t ❉✐✛❡r ❜②
❈♦♥st❛♥t✱ ✷✻✺
❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ■♥✈❡rs❡✱ ✸✺✸
❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡✱ ✷✽✽
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✺✺✱ ✸✾✷✱ ✸✾✻
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧✱ ✷✼✺
❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✶✻✱ ✶✶✾✱ ✶✷✷✱ ✷✵✸
❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✱ ✷✷✽✱ ✹✽✸
❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ ✸✻
❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✉♥❞❡r ❆❞❞✐t✐♦♥✱ ✶✹✺
❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✸✹✱ ✸✼
❉◆❊✱ ✹✷✱ ✶✸✷
❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✶✵
❡✱ ✾✼✱ ✾✽
❡ ❛s ▲✐♠✐t✱ ✾✼
❊q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t✱ ✷✵✺
❊rr♦r ❇♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r ❇❡st ▲✐♥❡❛r ❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ✹✻✹
❊①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❙✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ■♥✜♠✉♠✱ ✼✹
❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✱ ✾✶
❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✾✹✱ ✾✺✱ ✾✽✱ ✶✺✶✕✶✺✸✱ ✶✻✾✱ ✸✶✼
❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❆r♦✉♥❞ ✵✱ ✾✺
❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ▲✐♠✐t✱ ✾✽
❡①tr❡♠❛✱ ✸✼✸
❊①tr❡♠❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✶✽✹
❋❛♠♦✉s ▲✐♠✐t ❢♦r ❈♦s✐♥❡✱ ✶✵✼
❋❛♠♦✉s ▲✐♠✐t ❢♦r ❊①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧✱ ✶✵✵
❋❛♠♦✉s ▲✐♠✐t ❢♦r ❙✐♥❡✱ ✶✵✻
❋❛♠♦✉s ▲✐♠✐t ❢♦r ❚❛♥❣❡♥t✱ ✶✵✽
❋❛♠♦✉s ▲✐♠✐ts✱ ✶✹✹
❋❡r♠❛t✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✸✽✷
❋✐rst ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❚❡st✱ ✹✶✻
❋r♦♠ ▲♦❝❛❧ t♦ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ❊①tr❡♠❛✱ ✸✽✶
❋r♦♠ ▲♦❝❛❧ t♦ ●❧♦❜❛❧ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t②✱ ✸✽✵
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✶✵✱ ✶✶✶
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣♦❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ ✶✾✵
❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✹✸✼
❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❣r♦✇t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝❛②✱ ✷✺
❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥✱ ✷✺✱ ✷✻✱ ✹✹
●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ Pr♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥✿ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✷✻
●❧♦❜❛❧ ❊①tr❡♠❛ ✈✐❛ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✸✾✶
❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✶✽✸
❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ✈❛❧✉❡✱ ✶✽✹
❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✶✽✸✱ ✸✼✸
❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡✱ ✶✽✹✱ ✸✼✸
❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✶✽✸✱ ✸✼✸
❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡✱ ✶✽✹✱ ✸✼✸
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✶✶
❣r❡❛t❡st ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✱ ✼✸
❍✐❣❤❡st ❚❡r♠s ♦❢ ❇✐♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❊①♣❛♥s✐♦♥✱ ✷✼✾
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✱ ✶✾✵
✐♠♣✉❧s❡✱ ✹✽✸
✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✸✼✷✱ ✸✼✻✱ ✸✼✼
✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✸✼✾
✺✹✸
✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✷✷✹
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ✶✶✵
✐♥❞✐❝❡s ♦❢ t❡r♠s ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✷✶
✐♥✜♠✉♠✱ ✼✸
✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✸✻✱ ✸✼✱ ✹✷
✐♥✢❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✹✶✷
■♥t❡❣❡r P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✷✽✶
■♥t❡❣❡r P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ✷✽✶
■♥t❡❣❡r P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✷✽✶
■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ P♦✐♥t ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✼✻
■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✶✼✻✱ ✹✻✽
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✼✻
✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✻✻✱ ✶✻✽✱ ✶✾✶✱ ✸✺✸✱ ✸✺✺
▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡✱ ✹✹✼
▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✷✻✵
▲❛✇ ♦❢ ❈♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ▼♦♠❡♥t✉♠✱ ✹✽✹
❧❡❛st ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✱ ✼✸✱ ✼✹
▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✷✻✵
❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✱ ✶✸✹
❧✐♠✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✱ ✶✸✹
▲✐♠✐t ✐♥ ❚❡r♠s ♦❢ ❖♥❡✲❙✐❞❡❞ ▲✐♠✐ts✱ ✶✸✺
▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡✱ ✻✽✱ ✶✼✹
▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❆r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ Pr♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥✱ ✹✸
▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✹✵
▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✹✷
❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✸✶✱ ✶✸✷✱ ✶✸✽✕✶✹✵✱ ✶✹✺✱ ✶✼✷✱ ✶✽✶✱
✶✾✹✱ ✷✵✽✱ ✷✶✵✱ ✷✹✺
❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✶✸✵
▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ Pr♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥✱ ✹✹
▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ■❞❡♥t✐t② ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✹✵
▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✵✻
▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✹✸
❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✸✵✱ ✸✹✱ ✹✶✱ ✶✸✽
▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❙✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✻✹
▲✐♠✐t ✉♥❞❡r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ✷✵✾
▲✐♠✐ts ❆r❡ ▲♦❝❛❧✱ ✶✸✼
▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛t ■♥✜♥✐t②✱ ✺✻✱ ✶✾✽
▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❘❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛t ■♥✜♥✐t②✱ ✺✾✱ ✶✾✾
▲✐♥❡❛r ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ■✱ ✸✵✽
▲✐♥❡❛r ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ■■✱ ✸✵✽
▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✹✸✸
❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✶✹✱ ✸✼✻✱ ✸✼✼
▲✐♥❡❛r✐t② ♦❢ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ✸✵✸
▲✐♥❡❛r✐t② ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✺✺
▲✐tt❧❡ ♦ ❢♦r P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✱ ✹✹✺
▲♦❝❛❧ ❊①tr❡♠❛✱ ✸✽✷
❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❛✱ ✸✽✵
❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✸✽✵
❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✸✽✵
▲♦❝❛❧ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t②✱ ✸✽✶
▲♦❝❛❧ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❊①tr❡♠❛✱ ✸✽✵
❧♦❝❛❧❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✱ ✸✼✾
❧♦❝❛❧❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✱ ✸✼✾
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✹✽✸
❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✱ ✶✻✾
❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✱ ✼✸
▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✸✾✻
 ✺✹✹

♠♦♠❡♥t✉♠✱ ✹✽✸ ❘♦❧❧❡✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✸✾✷

▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✼✶ ❘✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❊①♣♦♥❡♥ts✱ ✾✹
♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✸✼✷✱ ✸✼✻✱ ✸✼✼
♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✼✶ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✸✸✵
▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ ❙✐❣♥ ♦❢ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✸✾✽ ❙❡❝♦♥❞ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❚❡st✱ ✹✶✾
▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ ❙✐❣♥ ♦❢ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ✸✼✺ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✸✷✽
▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ ❙✐❣♥ ♦❢ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✸✼✺✱ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ ✷✷✺
✸✾✽ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✷✶✱ ✶✶✶
▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✸✼✻ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ✷✷✵✱ ✸✷✷
▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ ◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✸✼✼ ❙❡t ♦❢ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✹✷✽
s✐♥❡✱ ✶✵✸✱ ✶✺✹✕✶✺✻
♥ t✐♠❡s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✸✸✸ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡ ❆r♦✉♥❞ ✵✱ ✶✵✺
♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✾✽ s❧♦♣❡✱ ✷✶✷✱ ✷✶✹✱ ✸✼✻✱ ✸✼✼
♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✻✾ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ ✹✵✾
♥❡st❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✼✶✱ ✼✸✱ ✶✼✼✱ ✹✻✽ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✼✷
◆❡st❡❞ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✼✷ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✻✼
◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ❋✐rst ▲❛✇✱ ✹✽✹ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❩❡r♦ ▲✐♠✐t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✹✾
◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ❙❡❝♦♥❞ ▲❛✇✱ ✹✽✹ ❙tr✐❝t ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ✈✐❛ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✹✵✸
◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ❚❤✐r❞ ▲❛✇✱ ✹✽✹ ❙tr✐❝t ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ✈✐❛ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✹✵✷
♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✹✷ str✐❝t❧② ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✸✼✷
♥♦❞❡ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✷✷✸ str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✸✼✷
◆♦t ▲✐♠✐t✱ ✷✵✽ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✻✹✱ ✼✼
♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✶✶ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✱ ✽✵✱ ✶✺✽
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✻✹✱ ✶✺✾
♦♥❡✲s✐❞❡❞ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ✶✸✹
❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts✱ ✶✾✺
❖♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ❢r♦♠ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✹✵✸
♦r❞❡rs ♦❢ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✹✹✸ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✹✸✶
❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✷✾✾
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✷✷✸✱ ✷✷✺✱ ✷✷✽ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ✷✾✾
P♦✐♥t✲❙❧♦♣❡ ❋♦r♠ ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡✱ ✷✶✹ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ✷✾✾
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ ✺✻✱ ✶✼✽ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✺✵
♣♦✇❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✹✸ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❩❡r♦ ▲✐♠✐t ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✹✼
♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ ✷✷✺ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✸✾
Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✸✷✶ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠✱ ✼✸✱ ✼✹
Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ✸✷✵
Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ✸✷✵ t❛♥❣❡♥t✱ ✶✺✻
Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✹✵ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✵✸
Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✺✶ ❚r✉♥❝❛t✐♦♥ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✻✸
P✉s❤ ❖✉t ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✼✺
P✉s❤ ❖✉t ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✼✵ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✸✶
❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✹✵✱ ✹✶
◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✸✷✸ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ❙✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ■♥✜♠✉♠✱ ✼✹
◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ✸✷✷ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✱ ✼✸
◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ✸✷✷
◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✹✵ ❱❛❧✐❞✐t② ♦❢ ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❙✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❈♦s✐♥❡✱ ✶✺✹
◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✺✷ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✺✵✵
✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ✷✹✵✱ ✹✽✸
❘❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✼✾ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✱ ✶✾✵
r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✺✻✱ ✺✾
r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡✱ ✷✸✱ ✷✺ ①✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t✱ ✶✼✽
r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✱ ✾✶ ①✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣ts ♦❢ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✶✼✽
r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✾✶ ①✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣ts ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ ✶✼✽