2.

4 Hypothesis and research model

The results of structural equation modeling of (Hayat et al., 2020) revealed that the
students’ self-efficacy has a significant and positive impact on their academic
performance (𝛽 = 0.166, p < 0.001). In addition, Alhadabi & Karpinski (2020) indicated
that there is a positive effect of self-efficacy on academic performance (𝛽 = 0.15, p <
0.05). Based on these, the following hypotheses is proposed:
H1: Self-efficacy has a positive effect on academic performance.

Earlier literature also confirmed that self-efficacy has a positive association with
student’s engagement and could mediate the relationship amongst self-efficacy and
academic performance. (Wu et al., 2020) also found a positive relation between self-
efficacy and the participating students’ levels of learning engagement (𝛽 = 0.5, p < 0.01).
However, the influence of self-efficacy on learning engagement was not found in (Doo &
Bonk, 2020) (β = −0.008, p < 0.05). Based on the conflict in beta weight, it could be
necessary to investigate this hypothesis:
H2: Self-efficacy influences the student’s engagement.

When analyzing the environment of a classroom, there are three areas on which to focus:
the physical environment, the non-physical environment, and the emotional environment.
Each of these aspects can be modified in different ways to create a stronger atmosphere
that promotes student’s engagement.

Cheryan et al., (2014), have pointed out in their study that the building’s structural
facilities profoundly influence learning; scientific studies reveal the unexpected
importance of a classroom’s symbolic features, such as objects and wall décor, in
influencing student learning and achievement in that environment. Similarly, Hanaysha,
Shriedeh and In’airat, 2023, found that with the improvement of the classroom
environment (e.g., lighting systems, temperature, air quality, ventilation, classroom
architecture, cleaning and maintenance, internal decorations, and physical layout) and
quality of academic staff, the emphasis should be directed towards enhancing the
pedagogies of teaching and boosting the level of teacher’s care at the institution to help
improve student engagement and academic achievement. Furthermore, the integration of
technology in the classroom has been identified as a catalyst for increased engagement. A
study by Pei et al., 2020 highlighted that technology-enhanced learning environment is
useful in improving students’ conceptual understanding and their retention of factual
knowledge. A supportive social environment where positive teacher-student relationships
and collaborative peer interactions positively influences student engagement levels.
Results suggest that motivationally supportive communications and a collaborative
classroom climate are vitally important factors in high school students’ ability to engage
with learning (Shernoff, Ruzek and Sinha, 2017).
Hanaysha, Shriedeh and In’airat, 2023 pointed out that classroom environment has a
positive impact on student engagement (𝛽 = 0.181, p < 0.01). But in relation to the
available literature, few studies have examined the relationship between the influence of
the classroom environment and student engagement. Accordingly, we put forth the
hypothesis:
H3: Classroom environment has a positive impact on student engagement.

There is the correlation between motivation and students’ academic performance (GPA).
The coefficients table shows the effect of an independent variable over the dependent
variable. Analysis of the coefficient table shows that when the independent variable is
constant, we have a t-statistic value of t= -0.683 with a value of P= 0.496, this is
statistically insignificant because P > 0.05. On the other hand, motivation has a t-statistic
value t= 12.149 with P= 0.000. This indicates that the two variables are statistically
significant because P= 0.000, P< 0.05. The unstandardized coefficient measures the
extent to which the independent variable can predict the dependent variable. From the
table, when the independent variable is constant, students’ GPA was predicted to
decrease by 0.161%. However, students’ motivation (independent variable) is predicted
to increase academic GPA (dependent variable) by 0.525%. That shows that for any
additional unit of students’ motivation in learning, their GPA is predicted to increase by
0.525%. The findings revealed that students’ motivation has a positive effect on students’
performance. Similarly, the findings also revealed that motivation serves as a good
predictor of students’ academic performance.

H: Motivation has a positive effect on academic performance.

In the research of Lorena Moreno and Pablo Briñol & Richard E. Petty (2021), they
suppose that metacognition confidence has an impact in academic performance. They
focus on subjective perceptions that one’s thoughts are valid or appropriate to use in
guiding performance. The key idea is that, although there is no actual accuracy, people
still can feel that their thoughts (e.g., about their own strengths and weaknesses, or about
exams, etc.) are the valid ones to use in guiding their performance. And the result of their
research showed a significant interaction between thought valence and perceived validity
of thoughts on participants’ psychology test performance, (β = 0.785, p < 0.01). Analyzed
differently, this interaction also showed that, among participants who were randomly
assigned to generate positive thoughts, as perceived thought validity increased, they have
a better performance (β = 0.411, p < 0.05). In contrast, for participants in the negative
thought condition the effect was the opposite. As perceived validity in negative thoughts
increased, they have a worse performance (β = -0.374, p > 0.04). So that, we give our
hypothesis:
H5: Metacognition has an effect on academic performance

According to Sarwar et al.,(2019), there is a significant positive relationship between

social media use and learner performance (𝛽=0.252, p < 0.001). Al-Rahmi et al.,( 2022)
pointed out that intention to use social media had a positive effect on student academic
performance (𝛽 = 0.381, p < 0.001). Based on the inconsistent in beta weigh, the
following hypotheses are proposed:

H6: Social media has a positive effect on academic performance.

According to Qureshi et al.'s study (2023), the findings indicate that there is a positive
and significant relationship between students’ engagement and learning performance (β =
0.660, p < 0.01). The findings conclude that the more there is the interaction among
group members, the more they will tend to have a high engagement to their curriculum
which eventually improves their learning performance. The findings were in line with the
study of Jones and Carter (2019) which shows that student’s perception of class predicts
their engagement which, in turn, predicts their learning performance.

Additionally, Hanaysha, Shriedeh and In’airat (2023) based on the structural model, the
relationships proposed in the literature review section were verified. According to the
findings, student engagement has a significant effect on academic performance (β =
0.809, p < 0.05). Based on the inconsistent in beta weight, it should be assumed that:

H7: Student’s engagement has a positive impact on academic performance

.
 Fi
gure: Proposed research model