MFDP1 L02 - Theory of Plasticity - ENIM 2023-24

Mise en forme par déformation plastique 1
MECA 2
Lecture 02: Theory of Plasticity
2023-24
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Sami Chatti
Content
L02 – Theory of Plasticity
Fundamental terms
What is strain?
What is stress?
Yield criterion
Flow curve
Plastic energy
Friction
2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.1
1
Content
Fundamental terms
What is strain?
What is stress?
Yield criterion
Flow curve
Plastic energy
Friction
Fundamental terms
Elasticity Plasticity
The ability of a body to reverse shape and Deformability of solid bodies by external
volume changes caused by external forces forces;
after the action of the force has been plastic (permanent) deformations, which
removed remain – in contrast to elastic deformation –
after the action of force has been removed
Theory of Plasticity
• Section in continuum mechanics, which deals
with the behavior of solids under plastic
deformation
• Allows for the analysis of the stress and strain
state in the workpiece during the forming
process
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Results and benefits of the theory of plasticity
Result Benefit
Stressing of workpiece Detection of failure
Properties of workpiece Determination of component

(e.g. strain hardening) strength
Stressing of tool-system Layout of tool-system
Stressing of machine Layout of machine
Content
Fundamental terms
What is strain?
What is stress?
Yield criterion
Flow curve
Plastic energy
Friction
3
Engineering & true strain
Initial length
0
Current F F
length  d
Final length
1
Engineering strain True strain (deformation)
 
ℓ 
d 1
d
  
𝑑ℓ 𝑑ℓ ℓ − ℓ
𝑑𝜀 = →𝜀= 𝑑𝜀 = →𝜀= d   ln  1 
ℓ ℓ ℓ  
ℓ 0  0 
Remarks on plastic strain
The total strain can be subdivided into:
   elastisch
elastic
  plastisch
plastic
In metal forming the plastic portion of strain is much greater

than the elastic portion:
   plastisch
plastic because  elastisch
elastic
  plastisch
plastic
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MFDP Interactive
Rod 1
𝜀 𝑙 2 𝑙
Rod 2
𝜀 𝑙 0.5 𝑙
Example 1: Engineering strain vs. True strain
A rod with the length 0 is elongated until its length is  = 2 0. Calculate the
values of the engineering strain  and the true strain .
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Example 2: Engineering strain vs. True strain
Up to what final length must a rod with the length l0 be compressed to

achieve the engineering and true strains from example 1?
1) True strains supply the same magnitude of strains for equivalent deformation
in compression and tension
2) True strains are additive
3) Volume changes are related to the sum of three normal strains
𝜀 𝜀
ℓ ℓ ℓ
𝜀 ≠ 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜑 = 𝜑 + 𝜑
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Engineering & true strain
         
  ln  1   ln  0   ln 1    ln 1   

 0   0   0 
2 3
Series expansion:   ln 1         
2 3
Accordingly:  0  
 0.001 0.010 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.0
 0.0009995 0.00995 0.0198 0.0487 0.0953 0.182 0.405 0.693
/ 0.9995 0.995 0.990 0.976 0.953 0.912 0.811 0.693
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Strain rate (1D)
The strain rate is the time derivative of the true strain
d
 
dt
The result for a tensile test is:
dl dl
  l  dt  v
dt l l
v: velocity of jaws of a tensile testing machine

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Strain rate tensor (3D)
Generalisation for the case of three-dimensional deformation:

z
Normal strain components
  xx  xy  xz 
y
(rate of change in length): x
  u v w

ij    yx  yy  yz   xx 
x
 yy 
y
 zz 
z
  zx  zy  zz  u Teilchengeschwindigkeit in x -Richtung
Point velocity in x-direction
  v Teilchengeschwindigkeit
Point velocity in y-direction
in y -Richtung
w Teilchengeschwindigkeit in z-Richtung
Point velocity in z-direction
Shear strain components
(rate of angle change):
1  v u 
 xy   yx    
2  x y 
1  v w  1  w u 
 yz   zy      xz  zx    
2  z y  2  x z 
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Principal strain
y
Direction of
3 1
z
principal strain
x
Element before
Element vor Element
Elementnach
after
der Umformung
forming der Umformung
forming
1  ln  a1 a0 
2  ln  b1 b0 
3  ln  c1 c0 
Before forming After forming
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Equivalent plastic strain
The hardening of metals in a multi-dimensional strain state can be

mapped by the equivalent plastic strain and its rate to a uniaxial tension
case. The equivalent strain rate according to von Mises can be derived as:
2 2
 
3    xx   yy2   zz2   2 xy2   yz2   xz2  
The total equivalent plastic strain is:
    dt
t
2 2
Expressed in principal strains: 
3
 1  22  32 
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Constant volume condition (1)
The volume of the formed body remains constant during the

plastic deformation (experimental finding).
Before forming After forming
V  a0  b0  c0  a1  b1  c1  const dV
    0
Ausgangsvolumen
Initial volume Endvolumen
Final volume dt
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Example 3: Constant volume rule
A cylinder with the height h0 = 100 mm and a diameter of d0 = 20 mm is

compressed to the height h1= 25 mm. What is the value of diameter d1?
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9
MFDP Interactive
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𝑎 ·𝑏 ·𝑐 =𝑎 ·𝑏 ·𝑐
dV d
 0   a1  b1  c1 
dt dt
dV  da   db   dc 
 0   1   b1  c1  a1   1   c1  a1  b1   1  a1b1c1
dt  dt   dt   dt 
da1 db1 dc1
0   
a1dt b1dt c1dt
 0   xx   yy   zz
0  1  2  3 
Tensor !
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10
Incompressibility of material
Forming processes: Plastic deformations large compared

to elastic deformations
Elastic deformations neglectable

(exception: springback)
Experimental investigations: Plastic deformation leads not

to a change in material volume
Material is incompressible during plastification
𝜑 + 𝜑 +𝜑 =0 resp. 𝜑̇ + 𝜑 ̇ + 𝜑 ̇ = 0
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Homogeneous forming
Plastic strains in different directions can be combined by using the

incompressibility law
ℓ
𝑉 =ℎ ℓ 𝑏 =ℎ ℓ 𝑏 = 𝑉 = =1
ℓ
Use of the logarithm leads to:

ℓ
ln = ln + ln + ln = 𝜑 + 𝜑ℓ + 𝜑 = ln 1 = 0
ℓ
Summation of plastic strains in all 3 directions (homogeneous

forming) results in zero.
Respectively the amount of major plastic strain is equal to the sum of
other strains.
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Content
Fundamental terms
What is strain?
What is stress?
Yield criterion
Flow curve
Plastic energy
Friction
22
Engineering & true stress
Assuming that the axial stress is uniform over the cross

section, the stresses can be defined as follows:
F Measured force is related to the
Engineering stress: 0  initial cross section of the specimen.
A0
Measured force is related to the
F current cross section of the
True stress:  specimen. In the theory of plasticity
A the true stress is always considered.
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Stress state at a point
Stress at point P:
 xx  xy  xz 
 
 ij    yx  yy  yz 
  zx  zy  zz 
 
Due to the equilibrium of

moments:
Remark: All shown
components are positive!  xy =  yx ,  yz   zy ,  zx   xz
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Example 4: Stress tensor
The pictured cuboid is exposed to the shown forces. Give the components of
the three- dimensional stress tensor σij in the shown coordinate system
depending on the force F and the length l. Assume that the force effects the
cuboid surfaces evenly distributed and that the system is at equilibrium.
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Special stress states
Uniaxial stress
 xx 0 0
 ij   0 0 
Example:
Only 𝜎 ≠ 0⇒ 0 tensile test
0 0 0 

Plane stress (biaxial stress):
 zz  0   xx  xy 0 
   Example:
 zx  0   ij   yx  yy 0  sheet metal
 0 0 0 
forming
 zy  0  
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Three-dimensional Mohr‘s circle
 Location of all possible

stress states
3 2 1 
Principal stress state:
1 0 0 
 ij   0  2 0 
0 0  
 3
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14
Principal stresses
ez n3 1 0 0 
 ij   0  2 0 
0 0  
𝜎 𝜎
𝜏  3
𝜏 𝜏
𝜎 ey Rotation of
𝜏 𝜎
𝜏 coordinate syst. n2
𝜎 𝜏 𝜎
n1
ex
(Arbitrary) standard basis Principal coordinate system
Whether there are only normal stresses or also shear stresses in a body
does therefore not depend on the load but on the coordinate system that
is used to characterise the stress state.
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Set of equilibrium equations in three dimensions
 xx  yx  zx
 Fx  0: x

y

z
0
Assumption:
 xy  yy  zy
y
No inertia forces and
F  0 :   0 no local moments in
x y z
physical body.
  
 Fz  0 : xxz  yyz  zzz  0
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MFDP Interactive
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Hydrostatic stress
The hydrostatic stress is defined as:
 xx   yy   zz
h 
3
𝜎 +𝜎 +𝜎
Remark: 𝜎 =
3
 h 0 0  1 0 0
The hydrostatic stress    0  h 0    h  0 1 0 

h
ij

state is:  0 0   0 0 1
 h  
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Hydrostatic stress:
Further remarks
A material subjected to a hydrostatic stress state

does not deform plastically.
(because there are no shear stresses, example: ball in ocean 2000m)
However, the formability of materials increases with

increasing hydrostatic pressure.
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Deviatoric stress tensor
The true stress tensor can be additionally subdivided

into:
 ij   ij   ij
h
With the deviatoric stress tensor:
  xx - h   xy  xz 
 
 ij   ij   ij    yx
 h
 yy -h   yz 

  zx  zy  zz - h  
The deviatoric stress is responsible for plastic deformation!
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Example 5: Hydrostatic and deviatoric stress tensors
 20 30 40 
The components of the stress tensor are given as  ij   30 50 10  MPa
 40 10 60 
a) Determine the components of the hydrostatic stress tensor.

b) Determine the components of the deviatoric stress tensor.
c) Which of these stress tensors results in plastic deformation? Why?
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How to construct a Mohr’s circle (1)

1D Stress tensor
Uniaxial stress: Only 𝜎 ≠ 0⇒  xx 0 0

 ij   0 0 0

0 0 0 

1 Define the coordinate system for
the normal and shear axes
𝜏
2 Plot 𝜎 on the 𝜎-axis
𝜏 = 𝜎 /2
3 Plot the circle center 𝑐 at 𝜎 /2
4 Draw the circle around 𝑐 and through
𝜎 =𝜎 =0
the point (𝜎 , 0) and (0,0).
𝑐 𝜎 𝜎
5 The principal stresses 𝜎 = 𝜎 and
𝜎 = 𝜎 = 𝜎 = 0 can now be
determined
6𝜏 = 𝜎 /2 𝜎
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18
Example 6: Mohr’s circle of uniaxial stress tensor
A bar is loaded and plastically deformed by a tensile force F in axial

direction, as shown in the figure below. The flow stress is kf = 300 MPa. Give
the components of the stress tensor in the depicted coordinate system.
Draw the Mohr’s circle for this stress state and mark all principal stresses.
36

2D Stress tensor
Plane stress (biaxial stress):  zz  0   xx  xy 0 

  
 zx  0   ij   yx  yy 0 
 zy  0  0 0 0 
 
𝜏
2 Plot 𝜎 and 𝜎 on the 𝜎-axis 𝜏 =𝑅
𝜏
3 Plot the circle center 𝑐 at (𝜎 + 𝜎 )/2
4 Plot 𝜏 at 𝜎 = 𝜎
5 Plot 𝜏 at 𝜎 = 𝜎 with negative sign 𝜎 =0
6 Draw the circle around 𝑐 and through 𝜎 𝑐 𝜎 𝜎
the points (𝜎 , 𝜏 ) and (𝜎 , −𝜏 ). 𝜎
The circle radius 𝑅 corresponds to the
amount of the maximum shear stress 𝜏
7 The principal stresses 𝜎 = 𝜎 and
𝜎
𝜎 =𝜎 can now be determined
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Example 7: Mohr’s circle of biaxial stress tensor
𝜎 𝜏 𝜏 400 200 0
The following stress tensor is given: 𝜏 𝜎 𝜏 = 200 100 0 MPa
𝜏 𝜏 𝜎 0 0 0
Draw the Mohr‘s stress circle (for the plane x-y) and determine the principal
stresses and the maximal shear stress.
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Construction of the stress directions and

rotation angle
Direction of 𝝈2
𝜏
Direction of 𝝈1
𝜏 =𝑅
𝜏
𝜎 =0 𝝰 2𝝰 𝝰
𝜎 𝑐 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎
𝜏
𝜎
A rotation of the coordinate system by the angle 𝛼 as a result of the transformation equations
to eliminate shear stresses corresponds to a rotation by 2𝛼 in the Mohr’s circle.
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3D Stress tensor
Three-dimensional stress:
2 Plot 𝜎 , 𝜎 and 𝜎 on the 𝜎-axis
3 Plot the circle center 𝑐 between the outer sigmas 𝜏 𝜏 = (𝜎 +𝜎 )/2
4 Plot 𝜏 and 𝜏 at 𝜎 = 𝜎
5 Plot 𝜏 and 𝜏 at 𝜎 = 𝜎 (negative sign) 𝜏 𝜏
6 Plot 𝜏 and 𝜏 at 𝜎 = 𝜎
7 Draw the 3 circles going through the 𝜏
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
plotted points. The 2 inner cercles must
𝜎 𝑐 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
meet at the middle stress (here 𝜎 ) and
meet the outer cercle at the outer points
8 The principal stresses 𝜎 = 𝜎 , 𝜎 and 𝜎
𝜎 =𝜎 can now be determined
9 The amount of the maximum shear 𝜎 𝜎
stress is (𝜎 +𝜎 )/2
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Example 8: Mohr’s circle of triaxial stress tensor
−100 0 200
Following stress state tensor 𝜎 in the x,y,z- 𝜎 = 0 200 0 MPa
coordinate system is given: 200 0 300
Determine the principal stresses 𝜎 , 𝜎 and 𝜎 graphically using Mohr’s
circle. Mark the determined principal stresses clearly in your drawing.
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21
Mohr’s circle – special cases
Uniaxial tension Pure shear All-side compression

σ 0 0 0 𝜏 0 𝜎 0 0 −𝑝 0 0
𝜎= 0 0 0 𝜎= 𝜏 0 0 or 𝜎 = 0 −𝜎 0
𝜎= 0 −𝑝 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −𝑝
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
𝜏 = 𝜎/2 𝜏 =𝜏
𝜎/2 𝜎 (𝜎 +𝜎 )/2 = 0 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 =0 𝜎 =𝜎 𝜎 =−𝜏 𝜎 =𝜏 𝜎 =𝜎 =−𝑝
𝜎 =−𝜎 𝜎 =𝜎
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Content
Fundamental terms
What is strain?
What is stress?
Yield criterion
Flow curve
Plastic energy
Friction
43
22
Plastic flow at uniaxial state of stress
xx 5
  xx 0 0
 ij   0 
kf = flow stress
k f,1 0 0
2
F F 0 0 0 
3  
k f,0
1: Elastic range
2: Plastic range (Flow stress k f,0 )
3: Unloading
1 4 4: Elastic reload
5: Plastic range ( Flow stress k f,1 )
 xx
xx  pl
Transition into the plastic range at the end of path 1 at:  xx  k f ,0
Transition into the plastic range at the end of path 4 at:  xx  k f ,1
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Hardening
If:
k f ,1  k f ,0 Material exhibits hardening
k f ,1  k f ,0 Material exhibits softening
k f ,1  k f ,0  const. Material is perfectly plastic
Generally, the flow stress kf depends on various factors:
kf= f (previous plastic strain, current strain rate, current

temperature, existing microstructure, current stress state,
material history, current loading direction)
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23
Equivalent stress and loading
Real loading
F
Loading during experiment
F F
Principal stress Principal stress

(3 Components) (1 Component)
 III
 II
I I
I =V
 II I =V
III
Equivalent stress,
resp. flow condition
k f =V
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Multidimensional hypothesis of the yield criterion
Hypothesis:
The initiation of yielding can be specified by components of the

current state of stress and a constant.
Thus, yielding starts at: f  ij   c
where
c = f (previous plastic strain, current strain rate, current temperature,

existing microstructure)
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24
Yield criterion according to Tresca (1)
According to Tresca (1864) yielding starts at:  max  c
To determine the constant c, the uniaxial tensile test is considered:
 xx kf kf
 max   , c 
2 2 2
On the other hand, the maximum shear stress can be expressed through
the principal stress:
 max   min kf
 max   ,  max   min  k f
2 2
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Yield criterion according to Tresca (2)
In the same way, the constant c can also be determined by using the
shear test. Here plastic flow starts at
 k
where k is the shear flow stress (depends on material). Thus
 max    k or: ck

Hence, the yield criterion results in  max   min  2k
Side note: For the tensile test kf
 max  k f , min  0  k
2
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25
Example 9: Tresca yield criterion
A workpiece from a material with the initial flow stress kf0 = 720 MPa is
subjected to the following principal stress tensor σ in the principal
coordinate system 1,2,3:
𝜎 0 0 450 0 0
σ = 0 𝜎 0 = 0 90 0 MPa
0 0 𝜎 0 0 −180
Check whether plastic flow is caused by the tensor σ . Use the flow
criterion according to Tresca for this.
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Yield criterion according to Tresca at plane stress
Plane Stress: II = 0!

 III II I
 III
I kf
III I
I
 III  III
-kf kf
Area max
Region min
I I  I   III  0 k f  I
I II  III   I  0 k f   III
IV I
VI III  III  0   I k f   III   I
 III
-kf  III IV 0   III   I k f   I
I 0   I   III k f   III
V V
plastic VI  I  0   III k f   I   III
 III
51
26
Von Mises yield criterion (1)
According to von Mises, yielding starts

as stated in the following equation:
 max,1 c
1
 
2
  max,2    max,3  
2 2
3  
max,1
 max,3  max,2
Here, the constant c is determined by

standard experiments.
52
𝜎 − 𝜎 𝜎 − 𝜎 𝜎 − 𝜎
𝜏 , = 𝜏 , = 𝜏 , =
2 2 2
 max,1 1
    max,2    max,3  
2 2 2
c 
3  
max,1
 max,3  max,2
Applied on tensile test (𝜎 = 𝑘 , 𝜎 = 𝜎 = 0)
1 𝑘 −0 𝑘 −0 0−0
𝑐= + +
3 2 2 2
𝑘 1 𝜎 − 𝜎 𝜎 − 𝜎 𝜎 − 𝜎
𝑐= 𝑘 = 6𝑐 = 6 + +
6 3 2 2 2
1
1   2    2  3    3  1  
2 2 2
kf 
2 
53
27
Von Mises yield criterion can also be expressed as:
1
1   2    2  3    3  1  
2 2 2
kf 
2 
More general:
1
   yy    yy   zz    zz   xx   6  xy2   yz2  zx2 
2 2 2
kf 

 
2  xx
  
 v. M .
Here, von Mises equivalent stress is defined as:
1
 xx   yy    yy   zz    zz   xx   6  xy2  yz2  zx2 
2 2 2
 v. M .  
2 
54
When using the von Mises yield criterion for the shear test,
the following equation holds true:
We get:
 2 2 2
 
1      
kf   xx   yy     yy   zz     zz   xx   6  xy2   yz2   zx2 
2             
 0 0   0 0   0 0   k2 0 
kf
or: k
3
55
28
Von Mises yield criterion at plane stress
Plane Stress:
 II   2  0! III
kf
45°
-kf kf I
-kf
Yielding starts if k f   v.M .   I2   I  III   III

2
56
Example 10: Von Mises yield criterion
A workpiece from a material with the initial flow stress kf0 = 300 MPa is
subjected to the following stress tensor σ in the coordinate system x,y,z:
𝜎 𝜏 𝜏 150 110 70
σ = 𝜏 𝜎 𝜏 = 110 −180 −20 MPa
𝜏 𝜏 𝜎 70 −20 100
Check whether plastic flow is caused by the tensor σ . Use the flow criterion
according to Von Mises for this:
1
𝑘𝑓 = 𝜎 −𝜎 + 𝜎 −𝜎 + 𝜎 −𝜎 +6 𝜏 +𝜏 +𝜏
2
57
29
Comparison of Tresca and v. Mises (1)
Maximum deviation in
equivalent stress between
both criteria : 15.5 %
 III
kf
1.155 kf
-kf 45°
kf  I
Tresca
v. Mises
-kf
1.155 kf
58
3 Surface of flow-condition
v. Mises
Hydrostatic axis (σ1 = σ2 = σ3)
2

1
3
Tresca
Hydrostatic axis
2 (σ1 = σ2 = σ3)
1
59
30
xx
Common characteristics
kf,tension
of both criteria: F
both are independent of kf,0
hydrostatic pressure
both are symmetrical with
respect to the stress direction
(no Bauschinger effect!) xx
both can be expressed
with invariants kf,compression Stress-strain curve F
with Bauschinger
effect
60
Different types of strain hardening
Isotropic Anisotropy (initial)

hardening
HILL anisotropy ('90)
II Following flow area II

Initial flow area
I Kinematic I Universal
hardening anisotropy
Following Flow area Following flow area

Initial flow area
II
I
HILL anisotropy ('48)
I
 II
Initial flow area Initial flow area
61
31
Example 11: Use of Von Mises yield criterion
6 2
A shear test should be carried out for a sample with

a material with an initial yield stress kf 0 = 200 MPa.
What is the minimum required shear force F for
F
40
plastic flow to take place in the shear zone?
y
Assume that the forming zone is limited to the 40
mm x 6 mm x 2 mm shear zone. Use the von Mises F
x
flow criterion for this:
1
𝑘 = 𝜎 −𝜎 + 𝜎 −𝜎 + 𝜎 −𝜎 +6 𝜏 +𝜏 +𝜏
2
62
Content
Fundamental terms
What is strain?
What is stress?
Yield criterion
Flow curve
Plastic energy
Friction
63
32
Definition of the flow curve
The flow curve of metals for the plastic region is defined by the following
function:
k f ( , , T )
According to the yield criterion by v. Mises the following holds true (see slides
1.16 and 1.55):
Flow stress:
1
 xx   yy    yy   zz    zz  xx   6  xy2  yz2  zx2  
2 2 2
k f   v.Mises  
2  
2 2
Strain rate:  
3  xx   yy2  zz2   2 xy2   yz2  zx2  
Equivalent plastic
strain:     dt 
3

2 2
1   22   32  T - Temperature
 - Equivalent stress
 - Equivalent plastic strain
t
64
Influencing factors
  const   const
Flow stress kf in N/mm2
Flow stress kf in N/mm2
cold
 cold 
hot
hot
True strain  Strain rate  in 1/s Forming temperature T
The flow curve is generally specified as a function of true strain, in which

temperature and strain rate are kept constant: k f  f  
65
33
Importance of the flow curve
The flow curve specifies the new flow stress after plastic forming.
The formability of a metal is evaluated by means of the flow curve.
The flow curve characterises the hardening of metals during plastic
forming as a function of true strain, strain rate and temperature.
66
Determination of flow curves
In theory, the flow curve can be determined by microstructure models.

However, this is not done in practice today and the flow curve is still
determined experimentally.
(see lecture Materials Characterisation)
The flow curve is an individual, characterising feature for each material.
Determination of
flow curves
Universal testing device

- Tension tests
- Compression tests
- Shear tests
-…
67
34
Demands on the flow curve
According to theory, different experiments with different stress and strain

states must result in the same flow curve for the same strain rates and
temperatures.
Equivalent plastic strains and strain rates which occur in metal

forming processes:
Bulk forming:   up to 3.0 - 4.0 (local)
  up to 10 2 s 1 (local)
Sheet metal forming:   up to 1.0 (local)

  up to 10 -1 s 1 (local)
→ Therefore, the yield curve should be determined up to these true
strains and strain rates.
68
Limits and problems regarding the determination of

flow curves
It is not possible to experimentally determine flow curves up to the required true
strains and strain rates.
Experiments with homogeneous deformation are difficult to perform.
Flow curves gained by different tests lead to different results.
Flow stress kf in MPa
Example:
Sheet metal
(Multiphase steel)
Kessler
Equivalent plastic strain 
69
35
Reasons for differing flow curves gained by
different tests
Flow curve Relation
Flow curve – Yield locus
Yield
locus
Model assumptions:
• Uniaxial tension
• isotropic yield locus
according to v. Mises
• Isotropic hardening

Influence of stress state

Influence of equivalent stress definition
Influence of anisotropy
Influence of experimental source of errors (e.g. friction)
Influence of temperature (heating of specimens during forming)
General shortcomings of theory
70
Example 12: Relation between flow curve and

yield locus
A rod with initial length ℓ0 = 80.0 mm is elongated up to length ℓ1 = 88.4 mm.

The flow curve of the material is given. Calculate the true strain and
determine the flow stress kf1. Sketch in the given diagram the initial and the
new yield locus according to Tresca (isotropic hardening).
ℓ ℓ
σ2 in MPa
400
kf in MPa
300
200
100
0.1 0.2 0.3 
σ1 in MPa
71
36
Content
Fundamental terms
What is strain?
What is stress?
Yield criterion
Flow curve
Plastic energy
Friction
72
Energetic quantities (1)
The total necessary forming work 𝑊total is composed of :
W total  W plastic  W friction

W p𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖c: "inner“ by stresses and strains (or strain rates) caused energy. It is
therefore also called plastic work.
W friction : Frictional work which occurs between the tool surfaces and the
workpiece. It can be desirable or non-desirable.
F F
 d
Tensile test: the associated plastic increase in work dW pl can be expressed

in the x-direction as: dW  F ×dl (plastic increase in work)
pl
If this infinitesimal increase in work is divided by the current bar volume
𝑉 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑙, the specific increase in work dwpl results in
dWpl F dl
dwpl = = × (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘)
V A l
73
37
dW F dl
dwpl = V pl = A × l  xx × dxx
The integration of the true stress over the total deformation yields the
specific plastic work wpl:
w pl  ∫  xx dxx (specific plastic work)
xx
If the specific work is related to an infinitesimal time increment dt, the result
is the specific power ppl (also called plastic power density):
dwpl
ppl = = wpl = 𝜎 = 𝜎 𝜑̇ (specific power)
For the general 3D case, the proportions of the different spatial directions
have to be added up accordingly:
𝑝 = 𝑤 = 𝜎 𝜑̇ ; 𝑃 = 𝑊 = 𝜎 𝜑̇ 𝑑𝑉
74
In order to reduce a spatial state of stress and strain in terms of energy

or to be able to describe the power level with the yield stress from the
uniaxial tensile test, the requirement for the use of comparison values
according to the following equation is justified:
𝑝 = 𝜎 𝜑̇ = 𝑘 𝜑̇
75
38
Plastic energy (1)
3 3
Consequently: p   ij ij  k f 
i j
The total specific plastic work 𝑤 is defined as:
𝑑𝜑
𝑤= 𝑝 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘 𝜑̇ ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑑𝜑
𝑑𝑡
Consequently: 𝑊= 𝑤 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑉
76
Plastic energy (2)
Assuming homogeneous forming and using the mean value theorem:
𝑘 ⋅ 𝑑𝜑 = 𝑘 . 𝜑 (𝑘 : 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)
The total plastic energy 𝑊𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 is calculated as:
𝑊𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑘 . 𝜑 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑘 . 𝜑 . 𝑉
77
39
Heat generation (1)
85 - 95% of the plastic energy is irreversible and is thus converted into heat.
Assuming adiabatic conditions, i.e., if no heat exchange with the system
environment is permitted, then the temperature rise ΔT of a workpiece of
mass m due to the deformation can be determined using the specific heat
capacity c:
𝑊 𝑑𝑊
𝑐= or 𝑐=
𝑚 . ∆𝑇 𝑑𝑉. 𝜌. ∆𝑇
The specific heat capacity c describes the thermal energy Wheat that is
required to heat 1 kg of the material by 1 K. Assuming in the entire
workpiece volume V a constant specific heat capacity c and a constant
density ρ, it follows
Total thermal energy: 𝑊 = 𝜌 . 𝑐 . ∆𝑇 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌 . 𝑐 . ∆𝑇 . 𝑉
78
Heat generation (2)
heat   0.85 - 0.95 Wplastic

WWärme
→ 𝜌 . 𝑐 . ∆𝑇 . 𝑉 = (0.85 – 0.95) 𝑘 . 𝜑 . 𝑉
The temperature increase in the formed component can be calculated as

follows:
(0.85  0.95)  k f  
T 
r c 𝑘 : Middle flow stress
𝜑: Equivalent strain
r : Density
c : Specific heat capacity
79
40
Examples
r c kf T
kg/dm3 J/(kg K) N/mm2
Steel approx. 7.8 approx. 500 400-1200 100-300°C
Aluminium approx 2.7 approx. 1000 100-300 35-100°C
Copper approx. 8.7 approx. 400 200-400 50-100°C
Titanium approx. 4.5 approx. 600 750-1500 250-500°C
Before compression After compression

80
Example 13: Temperature change during forming
A cylinder made of a steel material with a yield stress kf =

𝐹
850 MPa and with the radius of r0 = 20 mm and the
height of h0 = 50 mm is compressed at room temperature
(T0 = 20 °C) to the height of h1 = 30 mm. The density of h0
steel is r = 7.8 kg/dm3 and its specific heat capacity is c
= 500 J/(kg K). 90% of the plastic energy is irreversible h1
and will be converted into heat. Determine the Δ𝑇
temperature T1 of the cylinder at the end of forming.
81
41
Content
Fundamental terms
What is strain?
What is stress?
Yield criterion
Flow curve
Plastic energy
Friction
82
Friction
Friction is the physical phenomenon in which forces arise between

two bodies, which counter or prevent the relative movement
between these bodies.
Example: Wtotal
Ftotal
Punch force Ftotal
Cold forging Wideal
ppunch
a Fshear FFC
F max
b FFD
Fid
Punch travel h
Ftotal = Fideal + Fshear + Ffriction container + Ffriction die-shoulder
Source: K. Lange
83
42
Friction types and -models in metal forming
Friction types:
Solid state friction Mixed friction Hydrodynamic

friction
Lubricant
Friction models:
• Friction model according to Coulomb
• Shear friction model (Tresca)
84
Friction model according to Coulomb
The friction counteracts the relative movement of contacting bodies.

It can be characterised by means of the friction coefficient , which
is defined as the ratio of the absolute values of the friction force FR
and the normal force FN.
FR    FN
F
n Opposite body
 R    N
FR
FN
FN
0 ≤ 𝜇 ≤ 0.5 (0.577) FR
Base body
85
43
MFDP Interactive
86
Limiting values for friction
1 0.7
𝜏 =𝑘= 𝑘
Maximum friction coefficient μ max
,
μ = 1.0 (Tresca) 2
1.0 k 0.6
Friction shear stress R
μ = 0.5 0.5
0.8 k
μ = 0.2
0.4
0.6 k
μ = 0.1 0.3
0.4 k 0.25
0.2
0.125
0.2 k 0.1
elastic plastic elastic plastic
0 0
0 kf 2 kf 3 kf 4 kf 0 kf 2 kf 3 kf 4 kf 5 kf 6 kf
Normal stress N Normal stress N
k is the shear flow stress (depends on material)
87
44
Shear friction model
Bulk forming: High surface pressure

→ Shear friction model
R  mk
0  m 1 (friction factor)
The shear friction stress is limited by the shear yield limit of the softer material.
Yield criterion according to Tresca: k = 0.5 kf
Yield criterion according to v. Mises: k = 0.577 kf
88
Combined shear-coulomb models
Coulomb friction model

R
𝑘 Shear friction model m=1

3 N
Combined friction model
n
R
kf N
T. Wahnhein and N. Bay
89
45
Influences on the friction coefficient
Material properties of
workpiece and tool F
HB
Surface expansion
Load Temperature
F 100 T
Influences on the
friction coefficient  50
Lubricant
V1
V2
Relative movement
90
MFDP Interactive
91
46
Example 14: Friction in rolling
Consider the following rolling process. Between the rolls and the material
there is the friction coefficient .
Which minimum value must the friction coefficient  have so that the rolls
can grip the material in its first contact (so-called “bite condition”) and pull it
through the forming zone?
h0
h1
First contact with rolls Forming by rolling
92
Example 14: Friction in rolling
93
47
Appendix: French for Production Engineers
English French English French

Bulk Metal Courbe
Formage massif Flow Curve
Forming d’écrouissage
Déformation
Elastic Strain Flow Rule Loi d’écoulement
élastique
Elasticity Elasticité Formability Ductilité
Engineering Déformation
Friction Frottement
Strain nominale
Contrainte
Engineering Coefficient de
nominale, Friction Coefficient
Stress frottement
conventionnelle
Equilibrium Equations
Friction Model Modèle de frottement
Equations d’équilibre
Equivalent Déformation
Hardening Ecrouissage
Plastic Strain généralisée
.
94

Hot, Warm, Formage à chaud,
Plasticity Plasticité
Cold Forming à mi-chaud, à froid
Hydrodynamic Frottement
Principal Stress Contrainte principale
Friction hydrodynamique
Hydrodynamic Frottement Principal Stress Etat de contrainte
Friction hydrodynamique State principale
Hydrostatic Contrainte
Residual Stress Contrainte propre
Stress hydrostatique
Sheet Metal
Mixed Friction Frottement mixte Formage de tôles
Forming
Plane Stress Etat de contrainte
Springback Retour élastique
State plane
Déformation Déformation
Plastic Strain Principal Strain
plastique principale
95
48

Allongement,
Strain Yield Criterion Critère de plasticité
déformation
Vitesse de Surface (locus)
Strain Rate Yield Locus
déformation d’écoulement
Contrainte
Stress Contrainte Yield Stress
d‘écoulement
Méthode des
Theory of
tranches, théorie
Plasticity
de plasticité
True Strain Déformation vraie
Contrainte vraie,
True Stress
rationnelle
Volume Conservation de
Constancy volume
96
49

MFDP1 L02 - Theory of Plasticity - ENIM 2023-24

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Mise en forme par déformation plastique 1

Lecture 02: Theory of Plasticity

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Sami Chatti

L02 – Theory of Plasticity

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.1

L02 – Theory of Plasticity

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.2

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.3

Stressing of workpiece Detection of failure

Properties of workpiece Determination of component

Stressing of tool-system Layout of tool-system

Stressing of machine Layout of machine

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.4

L02 – Theory of Plasticity

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.5

Engineering strain True strain (deformation)

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.6

Remarks on plastic strain

The total strain can be subdivided into:

In metal forming the plastic portion of strain is much greater

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.7

Example 1: Engineering strain vs. True strain

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.9

Up to what final length must a rod with the length l0 be compressed to

Engineering & true strain

 0.0009995 0.00995 0.0198 0.0487 0.0953 0.182 0.405 0.693

/ 0.9995 0.995 0.990 0.976 0.953 0.912 0.811 0.693

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.11

The strain rate is the time derivative of the true strain

The result for a tensile test is:

v: velocity of jaws of a tensile testing machine

Strain rate tensor (3D)

Generalisation for the case of three-dimensional deformation:

  u v w

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.14

Equivalent plastic strain

The hardening of metals in a multi-dimensional strain state can be

The total equivalent plastic strain is:

The volume of the formed body remains constant during the

Before forming After forming

Example 3: Constant volume rule

A cylinder with the height h0 = 100 mm and a diameter of d0 = 20 mm is

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.17

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.18

Constant volume condition (2)

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.19

Forming processes: Plastic deformations large compared

Elastic deformations neglectable

Experimental investigations: Plastic deformation leads not

Material is incompressible during plastification

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.20

Constant volume condition (4)

Plastic strains in different directions can be combined by using the

Use of the logarithm leads to:

Summation of plastic strains in all 3 directions (homogeneous

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.21

L02 – Theory of Plasticity

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.22

Engineering & true stress

Assuming that the axial stress is uniform over the cross

Due to the equilibrium of

2023-24 Sami Chatti MFDP1 L02 Theory of Plasticity 2.24

Example 4: Stress tensor