S tructural S teel

Design
T hird E dition

Abi Aghayere
Drexel University

Jason Vigil
Consulting Engineer, Rochester, New York

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 APPENDIX

Plastic Analysis and

Design of Continuous Beams and
Girders
In Chapter 6, we covered the design of statically determinate (i.e., simply supported single span) beams and
girders using the ASD and LRFD methods, and the load effects such as the moment and shear demands
were calculated using elastic analysis. In this chapter, we cover the design of statically indeterminate or
continuous beams and girders using the plastic design (PD) method that was first introduced in Chapter
2. Plastic design is an economical method for the design of statically indeterminate beams, girders, and
frames, and it is covered in Appendix 1 of the AISC Specification [1]. In plastic design, the structure is
assumed to undergo inelastic deformations under the factored loads from the formation of plastic hinges
[2]. The only difference between the plastic design (PD) method and the LRFD method is in the analysis
procedure that is used to determine the load effects. In fact, the LRFD load combinations introduced in
Chapter 2 apply to both methods. In plastic design, the load effect (e.g., required plastic moment strength)
is determined using plastic structural analysis, whereas the LRFD method uses elastic structural analysis
to determine the required moment strength or factored moment, Mu (see Chapter 6). For both design
methods, the moment capacity or design moment strength, φMn, of the member is determined in exactly
the same way. In this text, the focus will be on the plastic design of continuous beams and girders. More
extensive coverage of plastic design of statically indeterminate frames can be found in Reference [3].
The process of plastic hinge formation is as follows: when a steel member is subjected to a bending
moment, M, the stress in the critical section increases from zero, as the load is increased, until the yield
stress is reached at the extreme fibers at the critical section when the moment reaches My, the yield
moment. As the load is further increased, the extreme fiber stress at this critical section can no longer
increase beyond the yield stress, Fy, but the yielding spreads further into the section between the neu-
tral axis and the extreme fibers (see Figure A-1). As the load or moment is increased further, the yield-
ing at the critical section continues to spread until the whole section reaches the yield stress, Fy. At this
stage, the critical section is in the plastic state and a plastic hinge forms. Beyond this stage, this section
where plastification has occurred can no longer participate in resisting any increase in the applied load
or moment, and any further increase in load now has to be resisted, through a process of redistribution
of moments and stresses, to other sections that have not yet reached plastification, although there will
be increased strain or rotations at the sections that have already achieved plastification.
This process of plastification is continued until a sufficient number of plastic hinges are formed at all
the critical sections within the beam span to create a collapse mechanism. The principle of equilibrium

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 FIGURE A-1  Process of plastic hinge formation

or the principle of virtual work can then be used to determine the plastic moment strength
or capacity of the structural member. It should be noted that in order for the plastic moment
capacity to be reached, the ductility of the beam must be ensured, and lateral-torsional buckling
must be prevented by adequately bracing the compression zone of the beam. If plastic design
is used, the maximum permitted unbraced length for the compression flange of I-shaped mem-
bers to avoid lateral torsional buckling is obtained from equation (A-1-5) in Section 1.2.3(2c) of
Appendix 1 of the AISC specification as

  M    E 
L pd  0.12  0.076  1     ry , (A-1)
  M 2    Fy 
    

where
M1 = Smaller moment at the end of the unbraced length of the beam, in.-kips,
M2 = Larger moment at the end of the unbraced length of the beam, kip-in. = Mu,p,
ry = Radius of gyration about the weak axis,
M1′ = effective moment at end of unbraced length
M
When the moment anywhere within the unbraced length ≥ M2, use 1   1
M2

M1  M 2
When M mid  , use M1  M1
2
M1  M 2
When M mid  , use M1  (2 M mid  M 2 )  M 2
2

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 M1 and Mmid are positive (+) when they cause compression in the same flange as M2, and
they are negative otherwise.
E = modulus of elasticity of steel = 29,000 ksi.

Additionally, the section has to be a compact shape (i.e., it must not be susceptible to local
buckling). Table 6-2 (i.e., AISC Specification Table B4.1b (case 10 and case 15)) provides the
bf 65 h 640
limits required for compact I-shaped sections as follows: ≤ and ≤ , where Fy is
2tf F tw F
the yield stress of the steel in ksi. y y

Other requirements include the following:

• Fy should be less than or equal to 65 ksi, and
• the design axial strength in compression should be no greater than 0.75φAg Fy (AISC
Specification, Section 1.3.2d).
If the maximum permitted unbraced length in equation (A-1) cannot be satisfied, the load
effects on the member must be obtained using elastic analysis and not plastic analysis. The
principle of virtual work is used in this text for plastic analysis and involves the following steps:

1. Based on the elastic moment distribution, determine where the plastic hinges (i.e.,
apart from the naturally occurring hinges at rollers or pinned supports) need to form
within a span to create a mechanism in that span. Note that each beam span is consid-
ered separately and independently of the other spans.
2. Assume a virtual vertical displacement at the plastic hinge within the span; also
assume that rotations can only occur at the plastic hinges and at roller or pinned sup-
ports. Therefore, the member segments between the plastic hinges and roller or pinned
supports deflect rigidly (i.e., linearly between the hinges).
3. Determine the virtual rotations at the hinges resulting from the applied virtual
displacement.
4. At each formed hinge, excluding pinned or roller supports at the ends of a member,
calculate the internal work done by the plastic moment, Mu,p.
5. Determine the external work done by the applied loads acting through the applied
virtual displacement. For a concentrated load, the external work done is the product of
the factored concentrated load and the virtual vertical displacement at that load. For a
uniform load, the external work done is the product of the factored uniform load and
the area of the virtual displacement diagram within the extent of the uniform load.
6. Sum up the external work done by all of the applied factored loads within the span.
7. Sum up all of the internal work done by the plastic moment, Mu,p, at the formed hinges
(i.e., excluding pinned or roller supports at the exterior end of the span).
8. Using the principle of virtual work, equate the total internal work done to the total
external work done, and solve for the required plastic moment strength, Mu,p, as a
function of the applied factored loads. Mu,p is calculated for each span separately and
independently of the other spans, and the largest value is the required plastic moment
strength for the continuous beam or girder.
9. Determine the required plastic section modulus, Zx, using the limit states design rela-
tionship that the required plastic moment strength, Mu,p, shall not be greater than the
design strength, φMn; that is, Mu,p ≤ φMn = φZxFy.

The plastic analysis and design of continuous beams and girders will now be illustrated with
several examples.

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 EXAMPLE A-1
Plastic Load Capacity for Statically Indeterminate Beams
Determine the plastic load capacity for the statically indeterminate beams shown in Figure A-2.

FIGURE A-2  Statically indeterminate beams for Example A-1

Solution
a. For the beam in Figure A-2a, two plastic hinges are necessary to create a collapse
mechanism (i.e., an unstable structure that will continue to undergo deflection without
any increase in load). The plastic hinges will form at points A and B. Because point C is
already a hinge, these hinges will result in a mechanism or an unstable structure.

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 From the elastic moment distribution shown in Figure A-3, the plastic hinge will first
form at point A because point A has the higher elastic moment compared with point B.
Figure A-4 shows the beam in its deflected shape with plastic hinges formed at points A
and B. The member segments between the hinges are assumed to deflect rigidly.

FIGURE A-3  Elastic moment distribution for figure A-2a

To determine whether there are sufficient hinges to form a mechanism or an unstable

structure, the reader should recall from structural analysis that Figure A-4 is an
unstable structure, and thus a mechanism. Assuming that point A rotates through an
angle, θ, as shown, the rotation at point C, by geometry, will also be θ, and the rotation
at point B will therefore be 2θ (i.e., θ + θ).

FIGURE A-4  Virtual displacement of the beam in Figure A-2a due to plastic hinges

The total internal work done by the plastic moments at the plastic hinges is the sum
of the product of the plastic moments and the corresponding rotations at the hinges.
Thus, the total internal work done is Mu,p θ + Mu,p (2θ) = 3Mu,p θ.
The total external work done by the applied factored loads is S(Factored concentrated
load × Vertical displacement of the mechanism at the load) = Pu (L/2)θ = PuLθ/2.
Using the principle of virtual work, the internal work done must be equal to the exter-
nal work done; thus,
3 M u, p   Pu L / 2.
Therefore, the required plastic moment strength, Mu,p = PuL/6.
A steel section can be selected that will provide this required plastic moment.

b. For the beam in Figure A-2b, the plastic hinges will form at point A and at point B or C.
Reviewing the applied loads, it is more likely that the plastic hinge will form at point B
rather than at point C.

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 FIGURE A-5  Virtual displacement of the beam in Figure A-2b due to plastic hinges

From Figure A-5, the total internal work done at the plastic hinges is Mu,p θ +
Mu,p(1.5θ) = 2.5 Mu,p θ.
The total external work done by the factored loads is ∑ (Factored concentrated load ×
Vertical displacement of the mechanism at the load) = 3Pu(L/3)θ + 2Pu(L/6)θ =
1.33PuLθ.
Using the principle of virtual work, the internal work done must be equal to the exter-
nal work done; thus,
2.5 M u, p   1.33Pu L.
Therefore, the required plastic moment capacity is Mu,p = 0.533PuL.
A section can be selected that will provide this required plastic moment.
c. For the beam in Figure A-2c, plastic hinges will form at point A and at point B or C,
depending on the elastic moment distribution. Given the higher load applied at point C,
it is more likely that a plastic hinge will form there first before forming at point B.
From Figure A-6a, the total internal work done at the plastic hinges is Mu,pθ + Mu,p(3θ) =
4Mu,pθ.

FIGURE A-6a  Virtual displacement of the beam in Figure A-2c due to plastic hinges at points A and C

The total external work done by the factored loads is ∑ (Factored concentrated load ×
Vertical displacement of the mechanism at the load) = 2Pu(L/3)θ + 3Pu(2/3Lθ) =
2.67PuLθ.
Using the principle of virtual work, the internal work done must be equal to the exter-
nal work done; thus,
4 M u, p   2.67Pu L.
Therefore, the required plastic moment capacity, Mu,p = 0.667PuL.

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 As a check, it can be verified that the plastic hinge does occur at point C and not at
point B. If a plastic hinge were assumed to form at point B instead of point C, the
deflected shape of the mechanism would be as shown in Figure A-6b.

FIGURE A-6b  Virtual displacement of the beam in Figure A-2c due to plastic hinges at points A and B

From Figure A-6b, the total internal work done at the plastic hinges is Mu,pθ +
Mu,p(1.5θ) = 2.5Mu,pθ.
The total external work done by the factored loads is ∑ (Factored concentrated load ×
Vertical displacement at the load) = 2Pu(L/3)θ + 3Pu(L/6)θ = 1.17PuLθ.
Using the principle of virtual work, the internal work done must be equal to the exter-
nal work done; thus,
2.5 M u, p   1.17Pu L.
Therefore, the required plastic moment capacity, Mp = 0.467 PuL, which is less than the
plastic moment capacity of 0.667PuL required for the plastic hinge forming at point C.
Therefore, the condition with the plastic hinge at point C requires a higher capacity and
thus governs the design, as expected.
d. For the beam in Figure A-2d, based on the elastic moment distribution (see Figure A-7),
the plastic hinges will form at points A, B, and C to create a mechanism.
From Figure A-8, the total internal work done at the plastic hinges is Mu,pθ + Mu,p(2θ) +
Mu,pθ = 4Mpθ.

FIGURE A-7  Elastic moment distribution for Figure A-2d

FIGURE A-8  Virtual displacement of the beam in Figure A-2d due to plastic hinges

Appendix — Plastic Analysis and Design of Continuous Beams and Girders — 9 21

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 The total external work done by the factored uniformly distributed loads is ∑ (Factored
uniform load × Area of the deflected shape of the mechanism under the load) = wu
(1/2L)(L/2)θ = wuL2θ/4.
Using the principle of virtual work, the internal work done must be equal to the exter-
nal work done; thus,
4 M u, p   wu L2  / 4.
Therefore, the required plastic moment capacity, Mu,p = wuL2/16.

EXAMPLE A-2
Plastic Moment Capacity for a Girder with Uniform Loads
Determine the required plastic moment, Mu,p, for the statically indeterminate three-span girder
shown in Figure A-9 with a typical span of 40 ft. The girder is part of a floor framing with a
uniformly distributed dead load of 3.0 kips/ft. and a uniformly distributed live load of 3.0 kips/ft.
Select a W-shaped section to support this load. Assume ASTM A992 Grade 50 steel.

FIGURE A-9  Statically indeterminate beam for Example A-2

Solution
Based on the elastic moment distribution (see Figure A-10), the collapse mechanism will form
first in the end spans with plastic hinges at points B (not at midspan), and C or at points E and
F (not at midspan). If plastic hinges were to form in the middle span, based on the symmetrical
loading, they would form at points C and E and at the midspan between points C and E.
Considering span EFG, assume that the distance from the plastic hinge at point F to the first
interior support is xp.

FIGURE A-10  Elastic moment distribution for Figure A-9

 L 
From Figure A-11, the total internal work done at the plastic hinges is M  M u, p   .
u, p   L  xp 
 
The total external work done by the factored uniformly distributed loads is ∑ (Factored
1
uniform load × Area of the deflected shape of the mechanism under the load)   L  x p  wu.
2
 
Using the principle of virtual work, the internal work done must be equal to the external
work done; therefore,

1  2L  x p 
Lx pwu   M u, p   .
2  L  xp 
 
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 FIGURE A-11  Virtual displacement of the beam in Figure A-9 due to plastic hinges in span EFG

2 M u , p  2L  x p 
Thus, the plastic uniform load capacity, wu   .
L  Lx p  x 2p 
 
The distance xp required to obtain the maximum load capacity can be determined using cal-
dwu
culus principles by requiring that = 0, which yields xp = 0.586L.
dx p
Therefore, the required plastic moment capacity is obtained by solving the above equation:

1  2L  0.586L 
L  0.586L  wu  M u, p  .
2  L  0.586L 

Thus, M u, p = 0.0858wu L2.

The factored load, wu = 1.2wD + 1.6wL = 1.2(3.0 kips/ft.) + 1.6(3.0 kips/ft.) = 8.4 kips/ft.
2
Therefore, M u, p  0.0858  8.4 kips / ft. 40 ft.  1153 ft.-kips  M n  Z x Fy.
M u, p 1153 ft.-kips 12 in./ft.
Hence, the section modulus required, Z x    307.5 in3.
Fy  0.9 50 ksi 
Therefore, use W30 × 99 (Zx = 312 in.3) (see AISCM Table 3-2).

EXAMPLE A-3
Plastic Moment Capacity for a Girder with Concentrated Loads
Determine the required plastic moment capacity Mp, for the statically indeterminate three-span
girder shown in Figure A-12 with a typical span of 35 ft. and the service loads shown. Select a
W-shaped section to support this load. Assume ASTM A992 Grade 50 steel.

FIGURE A-12  Statically indeterminate beam for Example A-3

Solution
We will investigate the maximum load required for mechanisms to develop in spans ABC, CDE,
and EFG. The mechanism that yields the highest required plastic moment will be the governing
mechanism.

Appendix — Plastic Analysis and Design of Continuous Beams and Girders — 9 2 3

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 Span ABC:
For this span, the factored concentrated load at midspan, Pu = 1.2PD + 1.6PL = 1.2(20 kips) +
1.6(40 kips) = 88 kips.
The location of the hinges in this span will be at the concentrated load at point B and at
point C as shown in Figure A-13.
From Figure A-13, the total internal work done at the plastic hinges is Mu,pθ + Mu,p(2θ) =
3Mu,pθ.
The total external work done by the factored concentrated loads is ∑ (Factored concentrated
L 
load × Vertical displacement of the mechanism at the load) = Pu, ABC    .
2 
Using the principle of virtual work, the internal work done must be equal to the external
work done; thus,

L   35 ft. 
3 M u, p   Pu, ABC      88 kips    .
2   2 
Therefore, Mu,p = 513.3 ft.-kips.

FIGURE A-13  Virtual displacement in span ABC

Span CDE:
For this span, the total factored concentrated load at midspan, Pu = 1.2PD + 1.6PL =
1.2(40 kips) + 1.6(80 kips) = 176 kips.
The location of the hinges in this span will be at the concentrated load at point D and at
points C and E as shown in Figure A-14.
From Figure A-14, the total internal work done at the plastic hinges is Mu,pθ + Mu,p(2θ) +
Mu,pθ = 4Mu,pθ.

FIGURE A-14  Deflected shape of beam after formation of plastic hinges in span CDE

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 The total external work done by the factored concentrated loads is ∑ (Factored concentrated
L 
load × Vertical displacement of the mechanism at the load) = Pu,CDE   . Using the principle
2 
of virtual work, the internal work done must be equal to the external work done; thus,
L   35 ft. 
4 M u, p   Pu,CDE     176 kips    .
 2   2 
Therefore, Mu,p = 770 ft.-kips. Governs

Span EFG:
The location of hinges for this span will be similar to that for span ABC and thus the required
plastic moment will also be Mu,p = 513.3 ft.-kips.
The highest required plastic moment for all three spans will govern the capacity of the
girder, therefore, Mu,p = 770 ft.-kips.
Using the limit states design equation (Mu,p ≤ φMn) yields

770 ft-kips  M n  Z x Fy .
M u, p 770 ft.-kips 12 in./ ft.
The required section modulus, Z x    205.3 in.3.
Fy 0.9  50 ksi 
Therefore, use W24 × 84 (Zx = 224 in.3).

References
[1] American Institute of Steel Construction, “Steel construction manual, 15th ed., AISC,
Chicago, IL, 2017.
[2] Bhatt, P., and Nelson, H. M., “Marshall and Nelson’s structures,” 3rd ed., Longman,
London, U.K, 1990.
[3] Disque, R. O., “Applied design in steel,” Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1971.

Exercises
A-1. Determine the required plastic moment capacity, Mu,p, for the statically indeterminate
two-span girder shown in Figure A-15. Select a W-shaped section to support this load. Use
ASTM A992 Grade 50 steel.

FIGURE A-15  Statically indeterminate beam for Exercise A-1

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