The evolution of psychometric theories of intelligence from

Spearman’s g to contemporary CHC

PROF MAKHUBELA
2023
Galton lab and individual differences research (1884-1889)
“Mental test” concept born: James McKeen Cattell (1885-1890)
Charles Spearman (1904)
Spearman g (general intelligence) + s (specific abilities research (1904-1939)
According to Carroll (1993), Spearman and his students eventually began to study
other possible factors beyond g. The Spearman-Holzginer Model, which was
based on Holzinger's development of the "bi-factor" method, suggested g plus five
group factors (verbal, perceptual speed, spatial relations, recognition, and
associative memory) (Spearman, 1939).

Spearman developed a “two-factor theory” (general intelligence factor-g + specific

factors) to account for correlations between measures of sensory-discrimination
(Galton tradition).

Carroll (1993) suggested that it might be better called a "one-general-factor

theory." g was hypothesized to represent a fixed amount of “mental energy.”
Spearman hypothesized that the g factor involved three major mental processes--
apprehension of experience; eduction of relations; eduction of correlates.

Spearman generally credited with introducing the notion of factor analysis to the
study of human abilities.
 g

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

Spearman’s general factor model

(T# = designates different test measures)

 British factor analysis tradition (1909-1961)

According to Gustafsson (1988), Burt’s model was to a great extent

“logically constructed” and thus did not have major impact. In contrast,
Horn stated that Burt’s model was very influential (Horn & Noll, 1997).

Vernon 's (1950, 1961) model, which had a g-factor at the apex of the
hierarchy, and at the next level two major group-factors (verbal-
numerical-educational-v:ed; spatial-practical-mechanical-physical--k:m)
received more widespread attention.

The British models suggested that most of the variance of human

intelligence was attributable to g and to very small group factors, and
that the importance of the broader group factors was meager
(Gustafsson, 1988).
British factor analysis tradition (1909-1961)
American factor analysis tradition (1928-1979)

Thurston (1931) Eckstrom (1979)

American factor analysis tradition (1928-1979)
American factor analysis tradition (1928-1979)
 American factor analysis tradition (1928-1979)

Thurstone posited 7-9 primary mental abilities (PMAs) independent of a higher-order g-factor.

Carroll (1993) reports that Thurstone (1947) was willing to accept the possible existence of a g (general
factor) above his primary mental abilities--and thus, suggests that Thurstone's model of human cognitive
abilities was not fundamentally different from the Spearman--Holzinger g+group factors model.

•The primary difference was the relative importance of the first-order primary mental abilities and the
second-order g-factor Carroll (1993).

1940s-1960s saw many factor studies of human cognitive abilities conducted in the “Thurstone tradtion"
(Carroll, 1993).

•Summaries of the large body of PMA-based factor research suggested over 60 possible separate
primary mental abilities (Ekstrom, French, & Harmon, 1979; French, 1951; French, Eckstrom, & Price,
1963; Guilford, 1967; Hakstian & Cattell, 1974; Horn, 1972).

•The ETS factor-reference group work established the WERCOF (well-replicated common factors)
abilities.

•Most modern hierarchical theories of intelligence have their roots in Thurstone’s PMA theory (Horn &
Noll, 1977)
 American factor analysis tradition (1928-1979)

…etc
PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4

…etc
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

Thurston’s Multiple Factor (Primary Mental Abilities) Model

(T# = designates different test measures)

(PMA# = different “primary mental ability”)
 Original Gf-Gc Theory (1941-1965)

Raymond Cattell was a student and research associate of

Charles Spearman.

He proposed the original Gf-Gc theory of intelligence (Cattell,

1941, 1943 ), the formal beginning of the Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc theory.
Fluid (Gf) and Crystallized (Gc) intelligence factors were extracted
from second-order factor analysis of first-order (e.g., PMA) abilities

Gf intelligence reflected basic reasoning abilities and higher mental

processes while Gc intelligence reflected what an individual had
learned from exposure to their culture through education and
experiences, via the "investment" of their Gf abilities.
Original Gf-Gc Theory (1941-1965)

Raymond Cattell (1941)

Original Gf-Gc Theory (1941-1965)

Raymond Cattell (1943)

 Original Gf-Gc Theory (1941-1965)

Gf …etc
Gc

…etc
PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4

…etc
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

Cattell Dichotomous Gf-Gc (no g) Model

(T# = designates different test measures)

(PMA# = different “primary mental ability”)
. Cattell & Horn’s Fluid (Gf) and Crystallized (Gc) intelligence factors were extracted
from second-order factor analysis of first-order (e.g., PMA) abilities.
Original Gf-Gc Theory (1941-1965)

According to Carroll
(1993), it wasn't until John
Horn, a student of Cattell's,
completed his dissertation
(Horn, 1965) that there was
"the first clear test of the
theory."
 At the end of Psychometric Period A (Early Psychometric Theory Roots)
Three Dominant Psychometric Models of Intelligence Existed

PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4 …etc

…etc
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

Spearman’s general factor model Thurston’s Multiple Factor (Primary Mental Abilities) Model

Gf Gc …etc

PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4 …etc

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 …etc

Cattell Dichotomous Gf-Gc (no g) Model

 Sidebar note: The icon key below will be used in subsequent slides to
represent the evolution of psychometric theories and tests of intelligence

General Dichotomous Multiple Multiple Multiple

Ability (g) Abilities Cognitive Abilities Cognitive Abilities Cognitive Abilities
(Incomplete; not implicitly (Incomplete; implicitly (“Complete”; implicitly
or explicitly CHC- or explicitly CHC- or explicitly CHC-
organized organized organized

Broad Abilities
 Dashed arrows indicate that IQ
test was not directly linked to
any psychometric theoretical
research listed in timeline. Solid
arrows represent IQ tests
grounded in a particular
psychometric based theory

Binet Terman & Merrill Stanford-Binet LM (1937; 1960; 1972)

Simon Stanford Revision
At the end of this period of
test and Extension
(1905) (1916,1937) psychometric research & theory
development, no individually
administered IQ test had been
Wechsler Bellevue (1939, WPPSI (1967)
1946) WISC (1949)
explicitly based on a
WISC-R (1974)
psychometrically-based theory of
intelligence. The IQ theory-test
gap had not yet been bridged

WJ (1977)
At the end of Psychometric Period A (Early Psychometric Theory Roots) no
applied, practical individually administered IQ test was explicitly grounded in
a psychometric-based theory (IQ theory-test gap)

Stanford-Binet was an atheoretical applied measure that provided a g-type global score.

Wechsler batteries were atheoretical applied measures that provided a g-type global score.

• Wechsler did not consider his verbal/performance dichotomy to represent different abilities, rather
he asserted that the dichotomy “merely implies that these are different ways in which intelligence
may manifest itself “(Wechsler, 1958, p. 64).

WJ battery was an atheoretical applied battery deliberately designed as per a “pragmatic

decision-making model” (Woodcock, 1977). It also provided a g-type global score.

• Four separate ability construct measures (Verbal, Reasoning, Memory and Perceptual Speed)
were more-or-less secondary level interpretation features and not the primary focus of the battery.

• Primary focus was on four academic based differential aptitude clusters used for differential
prediction of achievement and calculation of aptitude-achievement discrepancies.
What was occurring with the formal AAMD/AAMR/AAIDD IQ component of the
definition of MR/ID?

Information extracted from

Greesspan & Switzky
(2006) chapter: “Forty-four
years of AAMR Manuals”

1961 1973 1983

manual manual manual

Mental retardation refers to subaverage general intellectual Mental retardation refers to significantly subaverage
functioning which originates during the developmental general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with
period and is associated with impairment in adaptive deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the
behavior. developmental period
At the end of Psychometric Period A (Early Psychometric Theory Roots)
the intellectual component of official AAMR MR/ID definition focused
on g (general intelligence)

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

Spearman’s general factor model

Mental retardation refers to significantly sub-average

general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with
deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the
developmental period (1983)
Note. Period C (below) is integrated together with Period B in the next set of slides
 Gf-Gc Theory Extended (1965-1998)
Horn, Cattell and others confirm the original Gf-Gc model

•New broad Gv, Gs, Glr, Gsm and Ga factors added to model

Horn's (1976) review in the Annual Review of Psychology provides support for an expanded
Gf-Gc model.

Carroll & Maxwell's (1979) review in the Annual Review of Psychology, although not using
classic Gf-Gc or contemporary CHC terms, suggests support for up to 9 different broad Gf-
Gc abilities.

•Carroll & Maxwell discuss (a) Language Abilities and Skills [Gc, Grw], (b) Creativity and Fluency of
Ideation [Glr], (c) Thinking, Reasoning and Problem Solving [Gf], (d) Abilities Concerned with Number
and Quantity [Gq ], (e) Perceptual Skills and Processes in Vision and Audition [Gv, Ga], (f) Memory
Skills and Capacities [Gsm, Glr], and (g) Cognitive Speed [Gs]--[note--insertion of contemporary CHC
broad ability abbreviations provided by --K. McGrew].

The general framework for Carroll's eventual Three-Stratum hierarchical model is outlined in
a 1985 paper presentation by Carroll.

Support for the additional broad G-factors is based on the combination of structural (factor
analytic), developmental, heritability, neurocognitive, and outcome-criterion evidence
research.

Horn (1994) publishes probably his most succinct and understandable overview of extended
Gf-Gc theory in The Encyclopedia of Intelligence (Sternberg, 1994).
 Gf-Gc Theory Extended (1965-1998) Horn & Catell

G1 G2 …etc
G3

…etc
PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4

…etc
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc Hierarchical (no g) Model

(T# = designates different test measures)

(PMA# = different “primary mental ability”)
 Gf-Gc Theory Extended (1965-1998) – Horn & Stankov (1982)

Gf Gc

Gv Gs Ga

Gt

Factor abbreviation print Gsm Glr

clarification (and
translation to contemporary
CHC terms) completed by K.
McGrew 7-11-09
Gf-Gc Theory Extended (1965-1998) – Gustaffson (1988)

Gustaffson (1988) proposed and tested a three-level

hierarchical LISREL model (HILI) model as a general
unifying framework for integrating the British (Spearman,
Burt, Vernon) and American (Thurston, Cattell, Horn)
traditions of psychometric/theoretical research.

According to Gustaffson, most all prior historical models

(e.g., Cattell-Horn; Vernon) can be viewed as “classes” of
models within the general HILI framework.

Suggests that Gf may be identical to g.

 Vz
Gf-Gc Theory
Extended (1965- S Gv
1998) – Gustaffson
(1988)
Cf

Cs

CFR
Gf g
I
Factor abbreviation
clarifications)
completed by K. Ms
McGrew 7-11-09

Ve Ach Gc

Nu Ach
Gf-Gc Theory Extended (1965-1998) – Horn (1994)
 Gf-Gc Theory Extended (1965-1998) – Carroll (1993)

After over a decade of independent research, John "Jack" Carroll (1993) presents the
most comprehensive empirically based synthesis of the extant factor analytic research
(from prior 40+ years) regarding the structure of human cognitive abilities.

The structure includes three hierarchical levels (strata) of abilities (narrow, broad,
general) that differ by breadth of generality.

The resulting summary provided a working taxonomy of human cognitive abilities by

which to guide research and intelligence testing practice.

Carroll's (1993) work is considered a seminal or classic work (see next slide)

After reviewing most all available models of human intelligence, Carroll (1993) concluded
that the Cattell-Horn model was the model most similar to that established from his
review of the extant factor analytic research.

•There were some differences between the Cattell-Horn and Carroll models, with
the most salient point of disagreement being the inclusion (Carroll) or omission
(Cattell-Horn) of a stratum-level general intelligence (g) ability at the apex of the
structure of human cognitive abilities.
Gf-Gc Theory Extended (1965-1998) – Carroll (1993, 1997)
 Gf-Gc Theory Extended (1965-1998) – Carroll 1993)
Arrows from g to each test
Stratum III (rectangle) have been
g omitted for readability

Stratum II
G1 G2 …etc

Stratum I …etc
PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4

…etc
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

Carroll’s Schmid-Leiman Hierarchical Three-Stratum Model

(T# = designates different test measures)

(PMA# = different “primary mental ability”)
 The verdict is unanimous re: the importance of Carroll’s (1993) work

Richard Snow (1993):

“John Carroll has done a magnificent thing. He has reviewed and reanalyzed the world’s literature on
individual differences in cognitive abilities…no one else could have done it… it defines the taxonomy of
cognitive differential psychology for many years to come.”

Burns (1994):
Carroll’s book “is simply the finest work of research and scholarship I have read and is destined to be the
classic study and reference work on human abilities for decades to come” (p. 35).

John Horn (1998):

A “tour de force summary and integration” that is the “definitive foundation for current theory” (p.
58). Horn compared Carroll’s summary to “Mendelyev’s first presentation of a periodic table of
elements in chemistry” (p. 58).

Arthur Jensen (2004):

“…on my first reading this tome, in 1993, I was reminded of the conductor Hans von Bülow’s
exclamation on first reading the full orchestral score of Wagner’s Die Meistersinger, ‘‘It’s impossible, but
there it is!’’

“Carroll’s magnum opus thus distills and synthesizes the results of a century of factor analyses of mental
tests. It is virtually the grand finale of the era of psychometric description and taxonomy of human
cognitive abilities. It is unlikely that his monumental feat will ever be attempted again by anyone, or that
it could be much improved on. It will long be the key reference point and a solid foundation for the
explanatory era of differential psychology that we now see burgeoning in genetics and the brain
sciences” (p. 5).
 Gf-Gc Theory Extended (1965-1998) – Woodcock (1998)

(1998)

Addition of Grw (general

reading/writing broad factor),
similar to “English language
use” factor/ability suggested by
Horn over a number of years
 Gf-Gc Theory Extended (1965-1998) – Woodcock (1999)

Addition of Gq
(quantitative knowledge)
broad factor/ability as
distinct from quantitative
reasoning under Gf
broad factor.
This period of psychometric research resulted
in a flurry of test revisions and the introduction
of new intelligence batteries measuring multiple
cognitive abilities

Venerable Wechsler and SB batteries revised

to reflect research that suggested a number of
broad cognitive abilities (between g and narrow
abilities). Both moved to four-factor/index
models. Note that arrows are still dashed as
these developments were not explicitly based
on a “complete” psychometric theoretical model
of intelligence. Same designation holds for
original DAS (1990)

Movement in IQ test development was clearly SB-IV

the embracing of more broad multiple cognitive (1986)
abilities as most all (excluding KAIT) new tests
provided at least four cluster/composite ability
measures.
WAIS-R WISC-III(1991)
Note solid arrows for K-ABC and CAS as they WAIS-III (1997)
(1981)
were theory-based, albeit on non-psychometric
models of intelligence (Luria-Das). KAIT also
noted with bold arrow as it was grounded in
Cattell’s original dichotomous Gf-Gc theoretical
model K-ABC CAS (1997)
(1983) DAS
Due to space limitations the most significant IQ (1990)
test development event (Ext. Gf-Gc theory
based WJ-R) is reported separately (a few
slides later)
KAIT (1993)
 The fortuitous March, 1986 “meeting of the minds” – the CHC
Intelligence-to-Theory “flash point”

“a moment where the interests and wisdom of a leading applied test developer
(Woodcock), the leading proponent of Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc theory (Horn), and one
of the preeminent educational psychologists and scholars of the factor analysis
of human abilities (Carroll) intersected (see section C in Table 1), was the flash
point that resulted in all subsequent theory-to--practice bridging events that led
to today’s CHC theory and related assessment developments. A fortuitous set of
events had resulted in the psychometric stars aligning themselves in perfect
position to lead the way for most all subsequent CHC assessment related
developments.” (McGrew, 2004, 2005)
 WJ-R
(1989)
John Horn and John “Jack” Carroll
were theoretical consultants on the
1989 WJ-R and 2001 WJ III

Thus, the WJ-R was the first IQ

WJ III
battery to bridge the contemporary (2001)
intelligence theory/research and
assessment practice gap
 What was occurring with the formal AAMD/AAMR/AAIDD IQ component of the
Information extracted from
Greesspan & Switzky
(2006) chapter: “Forty-four
years of AAMR Manuals”
Note. Both 1992 and 2002
AAMR models dropped the
word “general” from “general
intellectual functioning” –
result was reference only to
intellectual functioning.
definition of MR/ID?
1992 2002
manual manual
Mental retardation refers to substantial limitations in Mental retardation is a disability
present functioning. It is characterized by characterized by significant
significantly subaverage intellectual functioning , limitations in intellectual
existing concurrently with related limitations in two or functioning and adaptive
more of the following applicable adaptive skill areas; behavior as expressed in
communication, self-care, home living, social skills, conceptual, social, and practical
community use, self-direction, health and safety, living skills. This disability
functional academics, leisure and work. Mental originates before age 18.
retardation manifests itself before age 18
 At the end of Extended Gf-Gc Period the intellectual component of
official AAMR MR/ID definition focused on intellectual functioning and
not “general” intellectual functioning…almost..but…

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

Spearman’s general factor model

According to Greenspan & Switzky (2006), an innovation in the 2002 manual was an effort to conceptually
define intelligence as “a general mental ability [that] includes reasoning, planning, solving problems, thinking
abstractly, comprehending complex ides, learning quickly, and learning from experience” (p. 51)

However, intellectual functioning was operationally defined as being based on a “general functioning IQ”

The manual (correctly, IMHO) noted the movement among intelligence scholars, as reflected in the above
referenced psychometric period of research and theory (as defined by current author—Kevin McGrew), away
from a reliance on a single measure of “g” (general intelligence). But…….

“until more robust instruments based upon one of the many promising multifactor theories of intellectual
abilities are developed and demonstrated to be psychometrically sound, we will continue to rely on a
global (general factor) IQ [score]. (p. 66).
 What was occurring with the formal AAMD/AAMR/AAIDD IQ component of the
definition of MR/ID?

The 2002 manual correctly noted the movement among

intelligence scholars, away from a reliance on a single
measure of “g” (general intelligence). But…the manual
was incorrect in the following conclusion

“until more robust instruments based upon one of

the many promising multifactor theories of
intellectual abilities are developed and
demonstrated to be psychometrically sound, we
will continue to rely on a global (general factor) IQ
[score]. (p. 66).

Instruments based upon the then recognized Extended

Gf-Gc theory had “bridged” the intelligence theory-IQ 1992 2002
assessment gap 13 years earlier, and had been manual manual
advanced further in 2001.

WJ-R WJ III
(1989) (2001)
Contemporary Psychometric Intelligence
Theory—AAMR MR Def. Gap
National Research Council, Committee on
Disability Determination for Mental
Retardation(2002). In D. J. Reschly, T. G.
Meters, & C. R. Hartel (Eds.), Mental
retardation: Determining eligibility for Social
Security benefits. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press

In 2002, a national panel of MR

experts recognized the clear CHC
movement in the design and
revision of IQ tests used to identify
MR/ID. More importantly, there
was a recognition of a movement
(based on solid psychometric
theory research) on part scores
and less reliance on a g-based full
scale total composite IQ score
 At the end of Extended Gf-Gc Period B the intellectual component of official
AAMR MR/ID definition was still “stuck on g” (general intelligence)…and a
contemporary intelligence theory-AAMR MR definition gap now existed

Three and 13 years prior to the publication of the 1992 and 2002 AAMR manuals respectively, the first-ever IQ
(+ ACH) battery (WJ-R) explicitly based on the then known and validated Extended Gf-Gc theory, was
published (1989), a battery that measured 9 broad Gf-Gc abilities and also provided general intelligence (g)
composite scores (Broad Cognitive Ability)

The 1992 manual made no mention of Ext. Gf-Gc theory nor the WJ-R. The manuals list of IQ instruments
included the SB-IV, Wechsler batteries, and K-ABC (p. 37) and not the 1989 WJ-R.

10 years later (2002) the red manual recognized and referenced the seminal work of Carroll (1993) yet (a)
referenced outdated articles for Horn & Cattell (1963, 1966) that reflected a lack of awareness of Ext. Gf-Gc
Theory, (b) did not recognize that the Carroll and Cattell-Horn models were very similal models (major
difference was over validity of g) and both were descendants of the Spearman psychometric tradition, (c) listed
only non-Gf-Gc developed IQ batteries (Wechslers, SB-IV, CAS, K-ABC, and other special purpose tests) and
omitted the 1989 (WJ-R) which had been published 13 years previously, and (d) failed to recognize a sizeable
number of Cattell-Horn, Carroll, and WJ-R focused journal publications, books and book chapters published
well before the 2002 manual revision. [See illustrative, but not exhaustive, WJ (and select Gf-Gc/CHC model references)
reference list and examples on next set of slides].

Contemporary Psychometric Intelligence Theory—AAMR MR Def. Gap

(1998) (2000) (2001)
(McGrew, 1997) – Integrated Cattell-
Horn and Cattell Gf-Gc Model
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
 (1997)

Origin of combined Cattell-Horn

and Carroll models into
Integrated Gf-Gc model
framework..later to be called
Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory
(CHC)
Cattell-Horn Carroll

Gf
Fluid Fluid

Gf
Intelligence Intelligence
g

Quantitative

Gq
Knowledge

Crystallized Crystallized
Gc

Gc
Intelligence Intelligence

Gen. Memory
Gy

Short-Term
& Learning

Gsm
Memory

Broad Visual
Gv

Visual
Gv

Processing Perception

Broad Auditory
Gu

Auditory
Perception
Ga

Processing

Broad Retrieval
Gr

Long-Term
Glr

Retrieval Ability
Comparison

Processing Broad Cognitive

Gs

Gs

Speed Speediness

Dec/Reaction
Gt

Correct Time/Speed
CDS

Decision Speed
Carroll and Cattell-Horn Model

Reading/
Grw

Writing
(McGrew, 1997) – Integrated Cattell-Horn and Cattell Gf-Gc Model
 Stratum III
g?

…etc
Stratum II
G1 G2 G3

Stratum I …etc
PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4

…etc
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

Consensus Cattell-Horn-Carroll Hierarchical Three-Stratum Model

(T# = designates different test measures)

(PMA# = different “primary mental ability”)
Note…details from this period (E) not dealt with in current slide show
McGrew, K. S. (2005). The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of
cognitive abilities: Past, present and future. In D. Flanagan, & McGrew, K. (2009). Editorial: CHC theory and the human cognitive
Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, abilities project: Standing on the shoulders of the giants of psychometric
tests, and issues (p.136-202). New York: Guilford Press. intelligence research, Intelligence, 37, 1-10.
 g Summary of evolution of psychometric intelligence theories

PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4 …etc

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 …etc

(1a) Spearman’s general Factor model (1b) Thurston’s Multiple Factor (Primary Mental Abilities) Model

Arrows from g to each test

Stratum III (rectangle) have been
g omitted for readability

Stratum II
G1 G2 G3 …etc G1 G2 …etc

PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4 …etc Stratum I PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4 …etc

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 …etc T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 …etc

(1c) Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc Hierarchical Model (1d) Carroll’s Schmid-Leiman Hierarchical Three-Stratum Model

Stratum III g?
Note: Circles represent
latent factors. Squares
Stratum II G1 G2 …etc represent manifest
G3
measures (tests; T1..).
Single-headed path
Stratum I PMA1 PMA2 PMA3 PMA4 …etc arrows designate factor
loadings. Double
headed arrows designate
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 …etc latent factor correlations

(1e) Consensus Cattell-Horn-Carroll Hierarchical Three-Stratum Model

Figure 1: Major stages in the evolution of psychometric theories from Spearman’s g to Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory
 Stratum III Ca rroll and Cattell-Horn Broad Ability Corr esponden ce
g A. Carroll Three-Stratum Model
(general) (ver tica lly-aligned ovals represent simi lar broad domains)

Gf Gc Gy Gv Gu Gr Gs Gt 80+ Stratum I (narrow) abilities have been

identi fied under the Stratum II broad abilities. They
are not li sted here due to space limitations
(see Table 1)
Stratum II (broad)
B. Cattell-Horn Extended Gf-Gc Model

SAR TSR
Gf Gc Gsm Gv Ga Glm Gs CDS Grw Gq

C. Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Integr ated Model

D. Tentatively identified S tratum II (broad)

g domains

Gf Gc Gsm Gv Ga Glr Gs Gt Grw Gq Gkn Gh Gk Go Gp Gps

(Missing g-to-broad ability arrows acknowl edges that Carroll and Cattell-Horn disagreed on the validity of the general fa ctor)

CHC Broad (S tratum II) Abilit y Domains

Gf Fluid reasoning Gkn General (domain-specific) knowledge

Gc Co mprehension-knowledge Gh Tactil e abiliti es
Gsm Short-term memory Gk Kinestheti c abili ties
Gv Visual processing Go Olfactory abil ities
Ga Auditor y processing Gp Psycho motor abiliti es
Glr Long-ter m storage and retrieval Gps Psycho motor speed
Gs Co gnitive processing speed
Gt De cisio n and reaction speed (see Table 1 for d efinitions)
Grw Re ading and writing
Gq Quanti tative knowledg e
 CHC-IQ test design bandwagon begins:
Other major IQ tests are revised and place the
CHC model as the center of each batteries
design blueprint.

SB5 (Roid, 2003) CHC-based revision includes composite scores for 5 broad
abilities (Gf, Gc, Gq, Gsm, Gv), via verbal and nonverbal tests.

Kaufman & Kaufman (2004) revise the KABC-II with a dual theoretical model
(Luria-Das and CHC) blueprint, but with the CHC model recommended as the
primary organizational structure to use.

Elliott (2007) revises the Differential Abilities Scales--II (DAS-II) with a heavy
CHC influence.

WISC-IV (2003) and WAIS-IV (2008), although not explicitly based on CHC
theory, were implicitly influenced by CHC theory.
 WJ III
(2001)

CHC IQ test bandwagon

SB-V KABC-II
(2003) (2004)

DAS-II
(2007)

WISC-IV WAIS-IV
(2003) (2008)
National Research Council, Committee on
Disability Determination for Mental
Retardation(2002). In D. J. Reschly, T. G.
Meters, & C. R. Hartel (Eds.), Mental
retardation: Determining eligibility for Social
Security benefits. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press

In 2002, a national panel of MR

experts recognized the clear CHC
movement in the design and
revision of IQ tests used to identify
MR/ID. More importantly, there
was a recognition of a movement
(based on solid psychometric
theory/research) on part scores
and less reliance on a g-based full
scale total composite IQ score
 AAIDD 11th edition
(green manual)
published 2010

“Stuck on g”

Quotes from manual (emphasis via underline added by K. McGrew)

Intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning

and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social and practical adaptive skills. This
disability originates before age 18 (p. 5)

Intelligence is a general mental ability (p.31)

Intelligence is a single trait (p.32).

A single dimension of intelligence continues to garner the most support within the scientific
community…Thus, until such measures of multiple intelligences can be assessed reliably and
validly, it is the position of AAIDD that intellectual functioning…is best conceptualized and
captured by a general factor of intelligence (g) (p, 34)
 Not to be
covered in
current
presentation

National MR/ID
expert panel
recognized 2010
CHC theory and manual
trend toward 2002
CHC-based IQ
WISC-IV WAIS-IV
tests (2008)
(2003)

SB-V KABC-II
(2003) (2004)
DAS-II
Contemporary Psychometric Intelligence (2007)
Theory—AAIDD MR Def. Gap WJ III
(2001)
The current AAIDD ID definition is still “stuck on g” (general intelligence)…and continues to be out of
step with contemporary psychometric intelligence theory. A major intelligence theory-- AAIDD ID
definition gap exists. This gap has potentially serious consequences for individuals with disabilities

Despite the widespread acceptance and recognition of the contemporary CHC (aka Extended Gf-Gc) theory of
intelligence by intelligence scholars, a 2002 national panel of MR/ID experts, and the clear movement in applied
IQ test development to test batteries grounded in the CHC framework, AAIDD continues to be “stuck on g”

The AAIDD definition of intelligence is out-of-date. A major intelligence theory—AAIDD ID definition gap
exists

Contemporary intelligence scholars, experts, and test developers recognize that although g (general
intelligence) may exist at the apex of the CHC taxonomy of human cognitive abilities, there are broad (stratum
II) abilities that are important (i.e., have differential validities) that can be assessed and, when interpreted
appropriately, can provide a more valid and multidimensional picture of an individuals intellectual functioning.

AAIDD’s continued use of the statement (with regard to measurement of multiple cognitive abilities) that “until
such measures of multiple intelligences can be assessed reliably and validly, it is the position of AAIDD that
intellectual functioning…is best conceptualized and captured by a general factor of intelligence” is simply
wrong! Reliable and valid measures of the broad CHC ability domains exist and have been published in most
intelligence batteries published from 1989 to 2008.

The AAIDD g-position is at odds with the known heterogeneity of abilities within the ID (and general) population
and fails to recognize that although a g-based total composite score may often represent the best single index of
a person’s intellectual functioning, often the g-based composite score may lead to inaccurate conclusions
regarding a person’s intellectual functioning and in these cases more attention should be focused on the
component part scores. The stuck on g position has the potential to result in serious consequences for
individuals, such as denial of special education services; denial of SS benefits, and unjust execution as in
“Atkins MR/ID death penalty cases”.

Contemporary Psychometric Intelligence Theory—AAIDD ID Def. Gap

 Summary Continuum of Progress: Intelligence Theories and Test Batteries

General Dichotomous Multiple Multiple Multiple

Ability (g) Abilities Cognitive Abilities Cognitive Abilities Cognitive Abilities
(Incomplete; not implicitly (Incomplete; implicitly (“Complete”; implicitly
AAIDD MR or explicitly CHC- or explicitly CHC- or explicitly CHC-
intelligence g focus organized organized organized
definition
g 2010
Broad Abilities
(Neuropsych. Psychometric)
Primary Theories

Spearman Original Gf-Gc Thurstone PMAs Cattell-Horn Carroll (CHC)

Theory of Cognitive Abilities
AAIDD MR Def. /IQ Theory Gap
Simultaneous- PASS
Successive (Planning, Attention,
Simultaneous, Successive)

WJ (1977) WJ-R (1989) WJ III (2001)

WJ III NU (2005 )
Stanford- SB-IV (1986) SB-V(2003)
Applied IQ Batteries

Binet LM Note: This is an adaptation (9-29-09) by

(1937; 1960; Kevin McGrew of Figure 2.1 in Flanagan,
1972) WPPSI-R (1989) WPPSI-III (2002) McGrew & Ortiz (2000).
WISC-R (1974) WISC-III 1991)
Bold font designates most current version of
W-B (1939; 1946) WAIS-III (1997) battery.
WAIS-R (1981)
WISC-IV (2003) Bold Italic font designates batteries with
adult norms.
WAIS-IV (2008)
Placement of WISC-IV/WAIS-IV recognizes
that although only providing four broad
K-ABC (1983) KABC-II (2004) composite scores, the revisions implicitly
KAIT (1993) incorporated aspects of CHC theory

CAS (1997) WJ III NU reflects a Normative Update to the

WJ III norms without changes to the tests
DAS (1990) DAS-II (2007)