Prof.

Alessandro Galli

MICROWAVES
9-ECTS Course of the Master Degree in Electronics Engineering
Lecture 04 – EM Fields in Time and Frequency Domain

AG-01/22
L04 Outline & Intro
LECTURE 04 – TIME DEPENDENCE & FREQUENCY DOMAIN
- Time and frequency domain (03) Ai modesti e vanitosi, ai violenti e timorosi,
- Time-harmonic regime and phasors (04-05) do cantando gaio ritmo logaritmo...
- Frequency domain and Fourier transform (06-08) (Mnemotecniche, e = 2.718281828459…)
- Fields in harmonic regime and complex vector definition (09-10)
- Elliptical, circular, and linear polarization (11-13)
- Properties of complex vectors (14-16) Time is out of joint...
- State of polarization (17-18) (W. Shakespeare, ‘Hamlet’)
- Maxwell’s Equation in Frequency Domain and EM Spectrum (19-22)

4th Lecture Art Masterpiece - 4th Lecture Movie -

S. Dalì: ‘La persistència de la memòria’ N. Moretti:
(New York, 1931) ‘Bianca’ (1984)

The Irrepressibles: ‘‘Arrow’’ Red Hot Chili Peppers: ‘‘Snow’’ (‘Hey Oh’) AG-02/22
Time Domain and Frequency Domain
Starting now to focus on the most suitable mathematical techniques for the solution of EM problems,
we have firstly to note that MEs present different types of derivatives, particularly w.r.t. to space and time.
It can therefore be useful to reduce the complexity of the solution process by means of appropriate analytical procedures
involving at a first stage the time dependence (thus, the field nature related to the space dependence is not at all affected in the following).
It is well-known that one basic approach for a convenient solution of time-dependent problems in electrology (e.g., circuit and signal theory)
is based on the re-formulation of the fundamental relations passing from the time domain to the frequency domain.
Referring in general to frequency domain, in our area of interest we mainly consider two fundamental
theoretical/practical classes of cases, which can be dealt with similar techniques.
i) In most EM applications of Information and Communications Technology (ICT), the quantities of interest (i.e., fields or ‘signals’) Charles P. Steinmetz
(1865-1923)
are associated to variations presenting, as a first approximation, a time-harmonic dependence, i.e. a behavior of the type:
German-born
a (t )  Aˆ c o s (  t   a )  Aˆ c o s (2  f t   a ) American mathematician
and electric engineer, he
That is, the quantities of interest are of cosinusoidal (or sinusoidal) type, i.e., monochromatic or just time-harmonic gave contributions to circuit
theory and other areas.
(where the reference frequency f, or angular frequency w = 2pf, is typically associated to the impressed ‘carrier’ of a signal).
This kind of problems in scalar form is typically encountered in circuit theory and can conveniently be handled with the complex exponential notation,
that gives rise to the well-known phasor method, outlined many decades ago by Steinmetz and others.
We will see since the next lesson that such approach can be applied also to EM fields, defining an extended concept of phasor, that is the complex vector.
ii) In more general terms, when we are interested to quite arbitrary time dependence (different from the ideal harmonic one),
a powerful analysis is usually applicable in terms of the also well-known Fourier transform, which gives the spectral contents Joseph Fourier
(1768-1830)
of a signal as a continuous superposition of ‘weighted’ time-harmonic phasors in integral form as a function of frequency f (or w).
French mathematician
Also in this case the Fourier technique, well-known in its scalar form, is conveniently applicable to EM field vector problems. and physicist, he gave
Thus, we will mostly consider here EM problems in the frequency domain (phasors and Fourier transforms): contributions to theory of heat
and analytical studies (well-
it will be the common reference context in which we will frame most of all our ICT studies based on MEs. known series and integrals).

AG-03/22
Review on Complex Notations
C o m p le x n u m b e r : z  a  jb
a   [ z ] , R e a l p a rt o f z
z  a  jb b   [ z ] , I m a g in a r y p a r t o f z
b j   1 im a g in a r y u n it ( j 2   1)
zˆ C o m p le x n u m b e r in a p o la r fo rm (  ,  ) : z  z e j z
 zˆe
j z
( e  2 .7 1 8 2 8 1 8 2 8 4 5 9 ... E u le r ' s n u m b e r )

z z  zˆ  a 2  b 2 , M o d u lu s ( o r m a g n it u d e o r a b s o lu t e v a lu e ) o f z
b 
- z a z   z  a r c t a n   , P h a s e ( o r a r g u m e n t ) o f z : (   ,  ] o r [ 0, 2  ) r a d ia n s ( 1 r a d  5 7 .3  )
 a 
a  zˆ c o s  z , b  zˆ s in  z
zˆ - B a s i c o p e r a tio n s ( z 1  a 1  j b 1 , z 2  a 2  jb 2 ) :
b z 1  z 2  (a 1  a 2 )  j (b 1  b 2 ) ( S u m a n d D iffe r e n c e )
z *  a  jb j z 1  z 2
z 1 z 2  zˆ1 zˆ2e (P ro d u ct)
j z 1  z 2
z 1 / z 2  ( zˆ1 / zˆ2 )e ( D iv isi o n )

e j
 1 0
z *  a  jb ( z *  z , z *   z *) ( C o m p le x c o n ju g a t e o f z )
j n z
z n
 zˆ e
n
(P ow er)
j z / n  2  k / n
‘‘Euler’s Identity’’: n
z  zˆ 1/ n
e , k  0, ..., n  1 ( R o o t , n in t e g e r )
an outstanding example of deep mathematical ln z  ln zˆ  ln e
j z
 ln zˆ  j (  z  2  k ) ( L o g a r it h m , k in t e g e r )
beauty, involving the fundamental concepts
- N o ta b le f o r m u la s :
(equality), arithmetic operations
(addition, multiplication, exponentiation) e j   c o s   j s in  ( if    r e a l  e j   1) ( E u le r ' s fo r m u la )
and quantities of mathematics: (e j  ) n  c o s n   j s in n  ( d e M o iv r e ' s fo r m u la )
0: additive identity, ee j
e j  e  j
 j

1: multiplication identity, co s  , s in  
2 2j
p: basic ‘circle’ constant,
e   e e   e
e: Euler’s number of mathematical analysis, co sh   , s in h  
2 2
j: imaginary unit of complex numbers. c o s j   c o s h  , s in j   j sin h 

AG-04/22
Time-Harmonic Regime: Review on Phasor Method
A quick review of the features of standard phasor method is recalled here referring to a typical simple circuit (RLC) example.
A time-harmonic impressed voltage source (‘generator’) makes an unknown current flowing in the series RLC circuit.
ˆ co s(t   )  V
V (t )  V ˆ  e j (  t   )     V
ˆ j j t   j t  ˆ j
   e e    V e  , V  V e
V V V
V

The expansion of circular functions (‘cos’, ‘sin’) in terms of complex exponentials through Euler’s formula is convenient:
d I (t ) 1 t

C 
V (t )  R I ( t )  L  I (t' )d t'
dt
V e j t  V * e  j t I e j t  I * e  j t I e j t  I * e  j t 1 I e j t  I * e  j t
 R  jL 
2 2 2 j C 2
A simple algebraic equation is thus achieved for phasor (‘Roman’) quantities, allowing for straightforward determination of the unknown current:
1  1  1  1  1
V  R I  jLI  I   R  j  L   I  Z I , Z  R  j  L   R  j   L    R  jX , X   L 
j C  j C  j C  C  C
V d [ ]
 Iˆe I  I (t )  Iˆ c o s (  t   I ) [ ]  j  [ ] ,  [ ] d t 
j
I  ;
Z dt j
Phasors can be suitably introduced also for quadratic-type quantities, such as power:
I e j t  I * e  j t  I e j t  I * e  j t  Leonhard Euler (1707-1783):
P (t )  V (t )I (t )   V e j  t    I e j  t    V e j  t    V e j  t

 

Swiss mathematician,
      2 2
  physicist, and astronomer,
 V I *  1  Active power Reactive power he left pioneering findings
  V I e 2 j  t     V I *    V I e 2 j  t   P R [1  c o s 2(  t   I ) ]  PJ s in 2(  t   I )
 2  2    in many various areas, such as
  
1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
complex analysis, theory of numbers,
P  V I *  P R  jPJ ; P  Z I I *  Z I  ( R  jX ) I  P R  R I , PJ  X I graph theory, mechanics, etc.
2 2 2 2 2 2
The time-average value of the instantaneous oscillating power T 1 1 1  1 1 
 V I e 2 j  t  d t   V I *   P R
T T T

is related to the real part of the complex phasor power (active power):
P (t ) 
T  P (t )d t 
T    V I * d t 
2  T    2 
0 0
  0
 

AG-05/22
Frequency Domain: Review on Fourier Transform
For arbitrary time dependence of scalar quantities the Fourier transform can be used, which generalizes the phasor method.
For a function which is ‘absolutely integrable’ over time, it is possible to define its Fourier transform (here function of angular frequency w) with a specific integral form.
Once the Fourier transform is available, its ‘inverse’ expression (as a generally improper Cauchy Principal-Value integral) gives back the original time-domain function.

F [ A (t ) ]  A (  )   
A (t )e  j  t d t FOURIER TRANSFORM FORMULA
1 
[ A (  ) ]  A (t )   A (  )e j  t d 
1
F INVERSE FOURIER TRANSFORM FORMULA
2 

Fourier Transform shows a number of significant features, the most important of them being the following:
- Linearity: F [c 1 A 1 ( t )  c 2 A 2 (t ) ]  c 1 F [ A 1 (t ) ]  c 2 F [ A 2 (t ) ]  c 1 A 1 (  )  c 2 A 2 (  )
 j t0
- Time translation: F [ A (t  t 0 ) ]  A (  )e
j t
- Frequency translation: F [ A (t )e 0 ]  A (    0 )
d A (t )
- Derivative property: F [ ]  j  F [ A (t ) ]  j  A (  )
dt
t 1 A( )
- Integration property: F [ A (t' )d t'  F [ A (t ) ] 
 j j

F [
- Convolution property:
A (t' )B (t  t' )d t'  F [ A (t ) ]F [ B (t ) ]  A (  )B (  )

- Simmetry conjugation property: if A (t )    A (   )  A * (  )  A (   )  A (  ) , A (   )   A (  )

   , t  0
 (t ) : D ir a c D e lt a F u n c t io n  (t )  
Particular Fourier Transforms: F [1 ]  2   (  )  0, t  0
A distribution (generalized function) useful to mathematically describe a physical 
F [  (t ) ]  1 
quantity ideally concentrated in a ‘point’ having unit integral (‘unit impulse’).   (t )d t  1


AG-06/22
Analytic Signal and Frequency Spectrum
In practical conditions (e.g., measurements) , real signals can be associated to their spectra considering only the positive content of frequencies,
which defines the so-called complex ‘analytic signal’ (whose real part gives the time-domain signal):
1  1 0 
A (t )   A  e        A (  )e j  t d  ] 
j t
( ) d [ A ( )e j t
d
2   2   0
1 0 
 [ A (   )e  j t
d(  )   A (  )e j  t d  ] 
2  0
1  

2 0
 [ A * (  )e  j  t d    A (  )e j  t d  ] 
0

1   A (  )e j  t + A * (  )e  j  t 1  
  d      A (  )e j t
d      A a (t ) 
    
2  
0 0

1 
A a (t ) 
 0 A (  )e j  t d  , A n a ly t ic S ig n a l
1  1 
 
   1
   A (  )e j  t d       e d   
j A (  ) j t
A (t )  A( ) e A( ) co s  t  A( ) d 
 0   0  
    0

Any time-domain signal can be viewed as a continuous (integral) superposition of properly weighted monochromatic (cosinusoidal) contributions
(also expressible through different frequency phasors).
It is seen in particular that for a time-harmonic (monochromatic) function the relevant analytic signal is simply given by the associated phasor:
Aˆ e j  j  0 t Aˆ e  j   j  0 t
j (  0t   )
 j (  0t   )
e e
A (t )  Aˆ c o s (  0 t   )  Aˆ  e  e
2 2 2
Aˆ e j  Aˆ e  j 
F [ A (t ) ]  A (  )  2  (  0)  2   (    0 )   Aˆ [  (    0 )e j    (    0 )e  j  ]
2 2
1   1  A ˆ e j 
A (t )     A (  )e j  t d       2   (    0 )e j  t d     [ Aˆ e j e 0 ]   [ A e 0 ]  Aˆ c o s (  0 t   )
j t j t
 0   0 2 
   
The same simplified equations generally found for phasors can be achieved for Fourier Transforms (provided that the quantities are frequency dependent).
Working with ‘Phasor Method’ or with ‘Fourier Transform’ is actually the same and it represents as a whole the ‘frequency domain’ transformation.

AG-07/22
Frequency Domain for Vectors
One of the main fundamental advantages of the frequency-domain analysis is represented by the strong simplification achievable in the solution
of time integro-differential equations, which become just algebraic equations (due to the properties of the complex exponentials).
This feature can be exploited also in EM, since ME formulations actually involve time derivatives, in addition to space derivatives
(which are not affected anyway by such time-domain transformation).
Therefore, by focusing for now on the time dependence only, the distinctive feature in EM is anyway that most of the quantities of interest
possess a ‘vector’ nature (instead of the scalar nature, typical of both electrical circuit and signal theory problems).
The vector equations can however be decomposed in generally 3 separate scalar equations in any suitable coordinate system.
Referring for simplicity to the Cartesian coordinates, it is thus possible to apply the Fourier Transform and/or the Phasor Method
(i.e., in general the frequency-domain approach) to equations involving vector quantities.
Considering, e.g., an arbitrary time-domain dependence for a vector (field) with Fourier-transformable components A(t), due to linearity,
we can straightforwardly define the relevant vector Fourier Transform A(w) (and its inverse) in the forms:
A ( t )  A x (t ) x 0  A y ( t ) y 0  A z ( t ) z 0
F [ A (t ) ]  F [ A x (t ) ]x 0  F [ A y (t ) ]y 0  F [ A z (t ) ]z 0 
 A x (  )x 0  Ay (  ) y 0  A z (  )z 0  A (  )

Ai (  )   
A i (t ) e  j  t d t , i  x,y,z
A (t )  F 1
[A ( )]  F 1
[ A x (  ) ]x 0  F 1
[ A x (  ) ]y 0  F 1
[ A x (  ) ]z 0
1 
A i (t ) 
2  
Ai (  ) e j  t d  , i  x ,y, z

The distinctive feature of the Fourier-transformed vector A(w) is that any of its components is no longer real but becomes a complex quantity
(being a standard scalar Fourier Transform of that time-domain component).
The Fourier Transform of a time-domain vector becomes then a ‘complex vector’ (vector with complex components) that depends on frequency.
The issue will be now addressed in detail considering the reference case of time-harmonic (monochromatic) dependence.

AG-08/22
Harmonic Regime for Vectors
To our aim, based on the previous considerations on the effectiveness of the frequency domain, we describe here a particularly convenient
formalism able to analyze in harmonic regime not only scalar quantities but also vector ones.
This technique will extend the known concept of scalar phasors to vectors, thus giving rise to the introduction of vector phasors,
which are more commonly said ‘complex vectors’.
As said, the basic theory developed for harmonic regime can then directly applied to arbitrary time dependence as well,
considering the usual strict link between monochromatic and Fourier-transformable cases.
As also said, we focus here our attention to the time variation only, so that in the following vector quantities of our interest, which are
generally fields, i.e. functions of point as well, will be not explicitly considered the space dependence.
Therefore, what will be presented for vector quantities in the following is valid for any vector field in any arbitrary point.
- The dependence on space of the complex vectors will then be analyzed when we treat the EM wave propagation.
Let us assume that for the field quantity of interest A(t) a time-harmonic behavior is fixed at a given impressed angular frequency w [rad/s]
(the frequency is f = w/2p = 1/T [Hz]), being in a monochromatic regime (a single ‘working frequency’ f is fixed for the periodic time behavior).
This means that all the quantities vary on time with a periodic law of the cosinusoidal type cos(wt + f) (we can of course similarly refer to a
similar sinusoidal behavior, considering just a phase shift of 90°).
A vector can be decomposed in the 3 components in arbitrary coordinates. For simplicity, in the following we choose the Cartesian system.
With the presented assumptions, we can write for the x,y,z components of the time-harmonic vector (field) A(t) in any arbitrary point:
A (t )  Α x (t ) x 0  Α y (t ) y 0  Α z (t ) z 0
 Α (t )  Aˆ c o s (  t   )
 x x x
 Α (t )  Aˆ c o s (  t   )
 y
 y y
ˆ
 Α z (t )  A z c o s (  t   z )


AG-09/22
Complex Vectors: Definition
We can conveniently express each time-harmonic component (‘script’ letters), being a scalar, with the standard phasor notation (‘Roman’ letters):
 Α (t )  Aˆ c o s (  t   )  Aˆx  e
j (t  x ) 
   Aˆx e x e j  t     A x e j  t  , A x  Aˆ x e x
j j
 x x x  
    
  j ( t  y )   jy j t 
 Α y (t )  Aˆy c o s (  t   y )  ˆ
A y  e  j t 
   A y e e     A z e  , A y  Aˆy e y
ˆ j

  
    
 Α (t )  Aˆ c o s (  t   )  ˆ 
A z  e
j ( t  z )   ˆ jz j t   j t  ˆ jz
 z z z      A z e e     A z e  , A z  A z e
We have thus introduced 3 scalar phasors (Ax, Ay, Az) for the components along the 3 axes respectively, each of one summarizes the basic
information (magnitude and phase) of the relevant cosinusoidal component (Ax, Ay, Az) at the fixed angular frequency w.
It is then possible to express the entire time vector A(t) as a function of these phasor quantities, being the exp(jwt) time dependence
a common factor:
A (t )  Α x (t ) x 0  Α y (t ) y 0  Α z (t ) z 0    A x e j  t  x 0    A y e j  t  y 0    A z e j  t  z 0 
     
 j t   jt 
  ( A x x 0  A y y 0  A z z 0 )e     A e  , A  A x x 0  A y y 0  A z z 0
   
We have thus defined a vector A which has the feature of having its components (Ax, Ay, Az) that are no longer real quantities (as usual) but
assume now generally complex values (scalar phasors): therefore, A is called ‘complex vector’ (associated to the time-harmonic real vector A(t)).
It is formally seen from the formula that links A to A(t) that the complex vector extends the relationship of the scalar phasor to a 3D space,
We note that each complex component (Ax, Ay, Az), in addition of being expressed as a phasor with standard magnitude and phase notation,
now can be conveniently represented also by separating the real and imaginary parts (as usual for any complex number). Therefore:
A  A x x 0  A y y 0  A z z 0  ( A x R  jA x J ) x 0  ( A y R  jA y J ) y 0  ( A z R  j A z J ) z 0 
 (A x R x 0  Ay R y 0  A zR z 0 )  j (A x J x 0  Ay J y 0  A zJ z 0 )  A R  j A J ,
A R  A x R x 0  Ay R y 0  AzR z 0 , A J  Ax J x 0  Ay J y 0  AzJ z 0
We can express the complex vector also as the combination of two real vectors (AR , AJ), the second one being multiplied by the imaginary unit j.

AG-10/22
Relations between Complex and Instantaneous Vectors
The formula that allows us to reconstruct the instantaneous time-harmonic vector in terms of the complex vector is, as seen, analogous to the
standard phasor formula for scalars: it is just an extension from the scalar (1 component) to the vector (3 components) case.
In the vector case, it is very useful to expand such formula emphasizing in particular the role played by the real and imaginary vectors, which
constitute the complex vector (note also that the form presented by a complex vector, as the sum of a real and an imaginary vector through the
imaginary unit j, actually extends the basic form of a complex number, given by the sum of a real and an imaginary number again through j):
A (t )    A e j  t    ( A R  j A J )e j  t    ( A R  j A J ) ( c o s  t  j s in  t )  
   
  ( A R c o s  t  A J s in  t )  j ( A R s in  t  A J c o s  t )   A R c o s  t  A J s in  t
 
This important formula explicitly shows the role played by each part (Re and Im) of the complex vector
in the ‘reconstruction’ of the generally rotating instantaneous time-harmonic vector.
Since A(t) can be expressed as the difference among two real vectors ( 𝐀 cos𝜔𝑡 , 𝐀 sin𝜔𝑡 ), with fixed directions and
harmonic time-varying amplitudes, it is easily seen that, as time varies, the instantaneous vector A(t) lies always on the plane defined by
𝐀 and 𝐀 (the ‘application point’ and the two ‘end points’ of 𝐀 and 𝐀 fix just only one plane), which is called ‘polarization plane’.
It is immediate to see, e.g, that the real vector 𝐀 gives the position of the instantaneous vector for the
fixed reference instant t = 0 (A(t = 0) = 𝐀 ), and at any other instant multiple of the period T: A(t = nT) = 𝐀 (n integer).
In fact, in this case it is: 𝜔𝑡 = (2p/T)nT = 2np (and cos(2np) = 1 and sin(2np) = 0).
For the instant t = ¼ T (and further additions of period T), it is easily seen that A(t = T/4) = −𝐀 . In fact, it is now: 𝜔𝑡 = (2p/T) T /4= p/2, with
null cosine and unit sine. So, the opposite of the imaginary vector gives the instantaneous vector after a quarter (plus multiples) of the period.
With similar process, it is seen, e.g., that for t = T/2 (and further additions of period T), it results A(t = T/2) = −𝐀 . In fact, now the argument –p
gives -1 cosine and null sine). So the instantaneous vector after half a period (plus multiples) corresponds to the opposite of the real vector −𝐀 .
Then, the imaginary vector 𝐀 gives instead the position of the instantaneous vector at t = ¾ T + nT (the argument being (3/2)p).
As said, after a full period T, by hypothesis there is the periodicity of the instantaneous time-harmonic vector (A(t = 0) = A(t = T) = 𝐀 ).

AG-11/22
Elliptical Polarization of Complex Vectors
Based on the ‘reconstruction formula’ of the instantaneous time-harmonic vector in terms of the real and imaginary parts of the associated
complex vector, it is possible to show that the tip of the time-domain vector rotates along a general elliptical trajectory.
Therefore it can be said that, in general, a time-harmonic vector has an elliptic polarization or is elliptically polarized.
Most of the EM fields used in the ICT applications (signal carrier etc.) present approximately such polarization features.
It is possible to rigorously demonstrate that the vector tip is along an ellipsis, e.g., by deriving the parametric equation of its coordinates
referring to the specific polarization plane with two orthogonal axes (x, h), the first one chosen for instance along AR.
With simple manipulations, it can be in fact derived that:

  (t )  A R c o s  t  AJ s in  t c o s 
A (t )  A R c o s  t  A J s in  t   

  (t )   A J s in  t s in 

 (t )  (t )
s in  t     (t )  A R c o s  t  A J c o s   A R c o s  t   (t ) c o t 
AJ s in  AJ s in 
A R c o s  t     c o t   A R2 c o s 2  t   2  2   c o t    2 c o t 2 
2
A (1  s in  t )  A  A
2 2 2 2
  2  2   c o t    2 c o t2 
AJ s in 
R R R 2 2

A R2
  2( c o t  )    ( c o t   2
2 2
)  2  A R2  0
AJ sin  2

a   b   c   d   e   f  0
2 2

A R2 A R2
  b 2  4 a c  4 c o t 2   4( c o t 2   )  4  0
AJ2 sin 2  AJ2 s in 2 
The obtained equation is a conic on the (x, h) plane, whose discriminant D is negative, that is the curve is an ellipse [QED].
It can also be seen that the instantaneous rotating vector presents a constant areal velocity.

AG-12/22
Circular and Linear Polarizations
A time-harmonic vector has therefore a generic elliptic polarization, considering as important particular cases the ellipse degenerating
in a circumference or in a segment, corresponding to circular (CP) and linear (LP) polarizations, respectively.
• CIRCULAR POLARIZATION
From the parametric equation, it is seen that the conic degenerates in a circumference if q = p/2 or q = (3/2)p (i.e., the two vectors are perpendicular) and AR = AJ :

A R2    ,3 
  2( c o t  )    ( c o t  
2 2
)  A
2 2
 0 ; i f  2 2  2  2  A2
AJ2 s in 2  R
 A  A  A
 R J

- Conditions on Complex Vector for Circular Polarization: the Real and Imaginary parts have to be perpendicular and with the same amplitude.


A R  A J  0 When observed from a chosen orientation (we will see that such a choice is usually


 A  AJ related to the propagation direction of a field representing a plane wave),
 R the tip can rotate either in a clockwise (CW) or in a counter-clockwise (CCW) direction.
 A R  A J , A R  AJ
Since such movement can be associated to the fingers of either left or right hand
(when the thumb points towards our observation point, i.e., the propagation direction),
the CW is also said Left-Handed Circular Polarization (LHCP),
while the CCW is also said Right-Handed Circular Polarization (RHCP).

• LINEAR POLARIZATION
It is immediate to see that, if AR and AJ are parallel (q = 0 or q = p), the instantaneous vector is collinear, oscillating back and forth along that fixed direction.
The linear polarization is obviously achieved also when one of the two constitutive vectors is null (either AJ = 0 or AR = 0).
- Conditions on Complex Vector for Linear Polarization: the Real and Imaginary parts have to be parallel, or one of the two is simply null.
A R  A J  0 ( A R  A J ; o r A J  0 ; o r A R  0 )

Significant cases of (orthogonal) LP are often referred as ‘horizontal’ (‘H’) and ‘vertical’ (‘V’) polarizations, assuming the horizon as a reference plane.

AG-13/22
Modulus of a Complex Vector
As in standard real-vector analysis, it is useful to associate the concept of modulus also to complex vectors.
The modulus should have the typical property of being a real and positive number (null if and only if the vector is also null),
representative in some way of a ‘magnitude’ of the vector.
The expression of the modulus of a complex vector is the immediate extension of the modulus (or absolute value) of a complex number.
It is defined as the square root of the dot product between the complex vector and its complex conjugate:
2 2
A  A A *  (A R  jA J )  (A R  jA J )  AR  AJ 
2 2 2
 ( A x x 0  A y y 0  A z z 0 )  ( A x* x 0  A y* y 0  A z* z 0 )  Ax  Ay  Az
It is seen that while the modulus of the instantaneous time-harmonic vector can generally oscillate as a function of time,
the modulus of the associated complex vector is always a fixed quantity (the complex vector being independent of time).
As we will demonstrate in Slide 10, for a time-harmonic vector A(t), by possibly considering a suitable temporal shift, it is always possible its association
to a complex vector A’ = A1 + jA2, with the same modulus of A and whose real and imaginary parts correspond to the (major and minor) semi-axes of the ellipse.
It is then immediate to verify that the modulus of a complex vector has the significant geometrical interpretation of corresponding
to the length of the chord of the ellipse generated by the two semi-axes.
2 2
A  A A *  A'  A' *  (A 1  jA 2 )  (A 1  jA 2 )  A1  A2  A 12  A 22
For circular polarization, it is easily seen that the modulus of A is 2 times the modulus of A(t) (which is a constant only in this case of CP).
For linear polarization, it is also easily seen that the modulus of A corresponds to the maximum modulus of the instantaneous vector A(t).
The ‘unit vector’ associated to a complex vector A is given by a 0  A / A , having the property of being in general a complex vector with unit modulus.
It should be mentioned that, in particular for linear polarization, can be useful to introduce also the concept of ‘amplitude’ of a complex vector,
which is a generally complex scalar quantity defined by: A  A  A (note that such quantity is generally complex for elliptical polarization but null for CP).
The ratio between the complex vector and its amplitude defines a so-called ‘pseudo-unit vector’, which has just a unit amplitude: a 0p  A / A
Only for linear polarization such pseudo-unit vector coincides with a real unit vector, so that the complex vector can be put in the form: A  A a 0 R  ( A R  jAJ ) a 0 R

AG-14/22
Time Averages for Harmonic Vectors
For time-harmonic fields, the concept of modulus of the associated complex vector is useful since its quadratic value is directly related to the
temporal mean square value of the instantaneous modulus.
It is important to note incidentally that such ‘quadratic’ quantities are particularly important in EM,
since they can be associated to energy and power.
The relationship between the modulus of the complex vector and averaged temporal modulus has
a typical form, which derives from the following simple developments:

 j t  A e j t  A * e  j t
A (t )    A e  
  2
A e j t  A * e  j t  A e j t  A * e  j t   
A (t )  A (t )  A (t )    A e j  t       A  A e 2 j t     A  A * 
2
   A e j t  
  2  2    2 
   
T
1 A  A *
  1 A
T

T 0
2 2 2
A (t )  A ( t ) d t   
 2  2
 
In the time average of the instantaneous square modulus, the contributions oscillating with exp(2jwt) (i.e., with T/2 period) has a zero value,
and the only contributions derive by the constant quantity associated to the square modulus of the complex vector.
Sometimes it is also used in practice to introduce the effective value of an oscillating periodic quantity: it is given by the modulus
of the complex quantity (vector or phasor) divided by the square root of 2, so that an immediate link is found between
the squared effective value and the average of the squared instantaneous modulus:
A 2
T
2
T

Ae ff  , A (t )  A  2
eff
A (t )  Ae ff  A r m s
2
The effective value represents therefore the root mean square (‘rms’) value of the periodic quantity.

AG-15/22
Axes of Polarization of a Time-Harmonic Vector
In the rotation of an instantaneous vector A(t), if at t = 0 its position (corresponding to AR) does not coincide with the location of one of the axis
of the ellipse, it is obviously possible to find an appropriate time instant t’ for which instead this situation is anyway verified.
This corresponds to determine an appropriate phase shift d which allows us to refer the instantaneous vector to a ‘new’ complex vector
A’ = A1 + jA2 = A e-jd , having perpendicular real and imaginary vectors (A1 , A2 ) properly located along the two principal axes of the ellipse.
After introducing the arbitrary phase shift d, which does not alter the modulus of the original vector A, we can generally refer to different real and
imaginary vectors, which still contribute to the instantaneous field in temporal quadrature (cosine and sine) but possess different orientation w.r.t. (AR , AJ ):
A (t )    Ae jwt    (A R  jA J )(e - jd e jd )e jwt    [(A R  jA J )e - jd ]e j (wt d )     A' e j (wt d ) 
A  A R  jA J , A'  A1  jA 2  Ae - jd 
A (t )  A R cos(wt ) - A J sin(wt )   (A 1  jA 2 )e j (wt d )   A1cos(wt  d ) - A 2 sin(wt  d )  A1cos(wt' ) - A 2 sin(wt' ); wt'  wt  d

The links between the original complex vector A and a new one A’, giving the same polarizion features but just a time-shifted instantaneous vector, are:
A  A R  jA J  [(A R  jA J )e - jd ]e jd  A' e jd  A'  A1  jA 2  (A R  jA J )e - jd  (A R  jA J )(cosd - jsind )  (A R cosd  A J sind )  j( - A R sind  A J cosd )
If we impose now that the ‘new’ real A1 and imaginary A2 vectors be perpendicular (to coincide with the ellipse axes), it should be verified that:

A 1  A 2  0  (A R cosd  A J sind )  ( - A R sind  A J cosd )  0  A R  A J cos 2d - sin 2d - A R - A J   2 2
 cosd sind  0
 2A  A 

 AR - AJ
2 2
 1
2
1
sin2d  A R  A J cos2d  tan2d 
2
AR  A J
2
AR - A J
2
 2d  tan 

-1
2
R

A - AJ
J
2
  np

, n  0 , 1, 2 ,...
 R 
 2A  A 
 d
1
tan -1 
R J   np , n  0 ,1, 2 ,...
2  2
 AR - A J
2  2
 
Using such expression for the phase shift d, it is always possible to refer a time-domain vector A(t) given in terms of (AR , AJ ),
which are not located as the axes of the ellipse, to a new couple of vectors (A1 , A2 ) now properly located along the major/minor axes of the ellipse.

AG-16/22
State of Polarization of a Harmonic Vector
As seen, any time-harmonic field is characterized by a certain ellipse that describes its polarization features.
Each elliptical curve can generally be characterized by its general dimension (modulus), shape (ellipticity), and orientation (tilting).
As seen, the ‘dimension’ of a vector can be directly related to the modulus, i.e., by the length of the chord generated by the two semi-axes.
The ‘ellipticity’ and ‘tilting’ of the ellipse determine its ‘state of polarization’ of a field: independently of the modulus, the knowledge of
such a ‘state’ is important, e.g., for applications of telecommunications and remote sensing.
The shape is related to the ‘degree of ellipticity’ usually represented by the so-called ‘axial ratio’, which is the value of
the ratio between the length of the major axis (let us say, a) and the minor axis (let us say, b ≤ a) of the ellipse: AR = a/b.
An alternative parameter describing this feature is the ‘ellipticity angle’ e: it is given
by the angle whose tangent is the ratio b/a = 1/AR: b b
ta n      a rc t a n
a a
It is easily seen its geometrical interpretation (e.g., refer a to an x axis and b to a y axis).
As defined, e is between 0° (LP) and 45° (CP).

An additional information can be given by specifying also to the CW or CCW rotation of the ellipse.
In fact, it can be chosen that the CW rotation is associated to positive b, or +y oriented, and therefore positive e (ranging from 0° to 45°).
The CCW, instead, is associated to negative b, or –y oriented, and therefore negative e (ranging from 0° to -45°, or from 135° to 180°).
In this way, in general e can range between -45° (RHCP) and 45° (LHCP) for any shape and type (CCW/CW) of the elliptical polarization.
The orientation of the ellipse can be defined looking at the direction formed by the major axis with respect to a reference axis,
which is usually the horizontal axis x (rotation w.r.t. x).
The angle formed by these two directions directly defines a ‘tilt (or rotation) angle’ t, which can vary between 90° down to – 90°.
W.r.t. horizon, the positive values of t are related to ellipses having ‘upward major axis’ orientations, while the negative values of t are related to ellipses having
‘downward major axis’ orientations: 0° gives ‘horizontal’ ellipses (a is along x), +/- 90° give ‘vertical’ ellipses (a is along +/- y).
The angles (e,t) define the state of polarization of a field. Such values can also be associated to a geometrical representation, as discussed next.

AG-17/22
Vector Polarization on the Poincaré’s Sphere
It is thus possible to associate each polarization state of any ellipse to each point located Henri Poincaré
on a sphere having an arbitrary radius: such a sphere is known as Poincaré’s sphere. (1854-1912)
It is easily seen that, like in a planisphere, we can define a ‘longitude’ c and a ‘latitude’ y : French
mathematician
   2      and physicist,
 ,  he gave many

   2     9 0    original contributions to
  various fields of both
• Longitude is simply given by the double of tilt angle (2t ), and actually theoretical and applied
sciences.
coincides with the azimuth angle of a spherical coordinate system.
It ranges on a scale of 360°, ‘eastward’ (between 0° and 180°)
or ‘westward’ (between 0° and -180°) w.r.t. to a reference ‘meridian’.
• Latitude is simply given by the double of ellipticity angle (2e ), and actually
is complementary of the polar or elevation angle of the spherical coordinates.
It ranges on a scale of 180°, moving upward from ‘equator’ (0°)
to North pole (+90°) or downward to South pole (-90°).

et

AG-18/22
Maxwell’s Equations in the Frequency Domain
Based on the previous analyses, it is finally possible to formulate MEs (and other EM relations) in the frequency domain, with the main
advantage of avoiding the time derivatives, and leaving only the space (‘del’) derivatives. With simple developments, we can write:
   
    D ( r , t )e  j  t d t    ( r , t )e  j  t d t
  

   
  B ( r , t )e  jt
dt  0
    B ( r, t )  j  t

   ( r , t ) e d t    e dt
 j t
E
    t
       D ( r, t )
    H ( r , t )e  j  t d t   J ( r , t )e  j  t d t   e  j t d t
       t
  
    D ( r , t )e  j  t d t    ( r , t )e  j  t d t
    
   

   B ( r , t )e d t  0
 jt

     B ( r, t )
  
 ( r , t )e d t    e  j t d t
 j t
E
   t
      D ( r, t )    D ( r ,  )   ( r ,  )   ( r ,  )
    H ( r , t )e  j  t d t   J ( r , t )e  j  t d t   e  j t d t  i
    t    B ( r ,  )  m i ( r ,  )
 
   D ( r,  )  ( r,  )    E ( r,  )   J m i ( r,  )  j  B ( r,  )

 

   B ( r,  )  0    H ( r,  )  J i ( r,  )  J( r,  )  j  D ( r,  )


   E ( r,  )   j  B ( r,  )    [ J i ( r ,  )  J ( r ,  ) ]   j  [ i ( r ,  )   ( r ,  ) ]

 
 
   H ( r,  )  J( r,  )  j  D ( r,  )    J m i ( r ,  )   j  m i ( r ,  )

 

AG-19/22
EM Frequency Spectrum
The frequency spectrum of EMFs commonly used in the applications (Engineering Electromagnetics) has steadily widened since the last
century, thanks to the exceptional technological advances in connection with new various challenges and constraints in different areas,
in particular ICT, and also radar and remote sensing, biomedicine, nanotechnologies, environmental and other sciences.
The spectral features of the EMFs can be quite different depending on the types of applications, from the most common ones
related to narrow-band signals for ICT etc., to the more recent systems making use of wide-band and ultra wide-band (UWB) signals.
The trend in ICT applications has continuously been oriented towards the use of higher and higher carrier frequencies, due to the increasing
need of managing larger amounts of information, exploiting both wireless (‘free-space’) and wired (‘guided’) propagation of EM waves.
Starting from wireless communication systems (broadcasting) designed many decades ago, which employed the radiofrequency ranges, after
World War II an important expansion of microwave technology occurred, with interest to millimeter waves and recently to terahertz ranges too.
Wired communications in the last half century significantly moved from microwaves towards the optical range, thanks to the progressive
remarkable technological improvements of systems involving, e.g., EM Tx/Rx (lasers/photodiodes) and ‘channels’ (optical fibers).

For any frequency f, the EM waves in vacuum are associated

to a wavelength l according to the well-known relation:
f [Hz]  c / l  3  10 8 / l [m] c  2.99792458  10 8 m/s
with the two quantities being inversely proportional
through the universal constant factor c,
the speed of light in vacuum.
As frequency increases, wavelength reduces (and vice versa)
being comparable with the dimensions of different types
of ‘environmental entities’ (‘objects’ or ‘scatterers’),
with which EMFs can particularly interact.

AG-20/22
Classification of the EM Frequency Spectrum in Bands
From the historical viewpoint, the division of the spectrum in frequency bands follows a ratio of 10 between the extrema of any interval,
with a factor of multiples of 3 in frequency by virtue of the relation between frequency and vacuum wavelength of the signals (EM waves).
The standard classification of EM spectrum presents bands with specific denominations.
Wavelengths Acronym Frequencies
• < 0.01 Å > 300 EHz 1021
• 0.01 Å – 0.1 Å > 10-12 30 - 300 EHz
• 0.1 Å – 1 Å (g rays) 3 – 30 EHz
• 1 Å – 1 nm 300 PHz – 3 EHz 1018
• 1 nm – 10 nm > 10-9 (X rays) 30 – 300 PHz
• 10 nm – 100 nm (UV) 3 – 30 PHz
• 100 nm – 1 mm (Visible) 300 THz – 3 PHz 1015
• 1 mm – 10 mm > 10-6 (NIR) 30 – 300 THz
• 10 mm – 100 mm (MIR) 3 – 30 THz
• 100 mm – 1 mm (FIR) 300 GHz – 3 THz 1012
• 1 mm – 1 cm > 10-3 EHF 30 – 300 GHz
• 1 cm – 1 dm SHF 3 – 30 GHz
• 1 dm – 1 m UHF 300 MHz – 3 GHz 109
• 1 m – 10 m >1 VHF 30 – 300 MHz
• 10 m – 100 m HF 3 – 30 MHz
• 100 m – 1 km MF 300 kHz – 3 MHz 106
• 1 km – 10 km > 103 LF 30 – 300 kHz
• 10 km – 100 km VLF 3 – 30 kHz
• 100 – 1,000 km ULF 300 Hz – 3 kHz 103
• 1,000 – 10,000 km > 106 SLF 30 – 300 Hz
• 10,000 – 100,000 km ELF 3 – 30 Hz
• > 100,000 km … < 3 Hz 100
• ∞ DC 0 Hz

AG-21/22
Interaction of EM Fields and Living Matter: Bioelectromagnetics
With the tremendous advancement of technological applications with an ubiquitous presence of EMFs (e.g., related to the widespread use
of mobile phones and wireless communications), in the last decades various concerns have been raised about the hazards that may exist
due to the exposure to EMFs giving rise to possible effects or risks for health.
This kind of problems is generally considered in the area of the ‘environmental impact of EMFs’.
The biological effects of EMFs are studied by the branch known as ‘bioelectromagnetics’ (or ‘bioelectromagnetism’).
It is known that, in the interaction between EM fields and matter (considered either at macroscopic or at microscopic level through classical or quantum ED),
dynamic actions on charges and certain amounts of energy can be exchanged. From this viewpoint, EMFs can be first classified as either nonionizing or ionizing.
As said, ionizing radiation (UV, X and g rays) can have enough energy to ionize matter, thus possibly provoking serious damage particularly to living matter.
Severe standards have therefore been fixed to control radiation in this specific area (X rays etc.).
The more common applications of nonionizing radiation (ranging from ELF to optics) does not possess such energy to produce irreversible ejection
of electrons from atoms, even though basic effects in the matter can now be found through the ‘absorption’ of EM energy,
which is typically converted into heat (increase of vibrational and rotational energy at atomic level).
Such ‘heating effects’ on biological samples are known as ‘thermal effects’ of EMFs (since usually temperature increases), and can assume a certain importance
particularly in the presence of quite strong (‘high intensity’) EM fields, as those possibly generated in some microwave applications (e.g., ovens, high-power radar).
The study of the amount of EM energy absorbed by biological entities is a specific interesting area, known as ‘dosimetry’,
In this frame, a number of physical parameters has been identified with a certain solidity to guarantee the control of adverse effects
of such thermal effects, also leading to the development of suitable ‘safety standards’ for exposure and protection guidelines of EMFs for humans.
More complicated and often discussed interaction mechanisms between EMFs and living matter can also occur
even for weaker (‘low intensity’) EMFs, giving rise to what are usually said ‘nonthermal effects’.
Unfortunately such effects depend not only on the biophysico-chemical features of the various biological samples (e.g., cells, tissues, organisms, etc.),
but are also strongly affected in a very complicated way by the conditions of field exposure (frequency, magnitude, polarization, even modulation, of EMFs).
Therefore an extremely wide range of cases can be considered in the analysis of the complicated interaction mechanisms of nonthermal effects.
In recent years various epidemiological and laboratory studies as well as research on exposure scenarios have been extensively carried out, giving often rise to rather
contradictory results. Various issues of bioelectromagnetics still generate much debate and controversy among researchers and are worthy of further investigations.
It should be conversely noted that EMFs can be employed for a number of desirable instruments for both diagnostic and therapeutic applications,
this area being referred to as medical effects of EMFs.

AG-22/22