MZUZUUNI

VERSI
TY
FACULTYOFEDUCATI
ON
COURSEOUTLI
NE

1. Pr
ogr
amme : Ba
che
lorofEduc
ati
on(
Langua
ge)
2. Subj
ect : Af
ri
canLa
ngua
gesa
ndLi
ngui
sti
cs
3. Le
vel
ofSt
udy : Two
4. Modul
e/Cour
seTi
tl
e : Morphologya
ndSy
nta
xofBa
ntu
La
ngua ges

5. Modul
e/Cour
seCode : ALLE2301
6. Dur
ati
on : 16we
eks
7. Pr
ese
nte
dto : Se
nat
e
8. Pr
ese
nte
dby : Fa
cul
tyofEduc
ati
on
9. Le
ctur
eHour
s/We
ek : Two
10. Tut
ori
alHour
s/We
ek : one
11. Pr
act
ica
lHour
s/We
ek : none
12. St
ude
ntI
nde
pende
ntLe
arni
ng: one
13. Tot
alCour
seCr
edi
ts : 6
14. As
ses
sme
ntMe
thod : I
ndiv
idua
l a
ssi
gnment
s,mi
dse
mes
ter
t
est
Endofsemest
erex
am

15. As
ses
sme
ntWe
ight
ing : Cont
inuousa
sses
sme nt40%
Endofsemest
erexa
m60%

16. Aim(
s)oft
hec
our
se : Toe
qui
pst
ude
ntswi
ths
kil
l
sto
ana
lys
e
t
hemorphol
ogi
cal
andsynt
act
ic
s
truc
tur
esofBant
ula
nguages
.
Pa
ge1of1
17. Lear
ningOut
come
s : Ons
ucc
ess
ful
compl
eti
onof
thec
our
se,
t
hes
tude
ntwi
l
lbea
blet
o:

(
i) Di scusstheclassi
fi
c at
ionof
nounc la
sses
(
ii
) Ana l
ysenounde r
ivati
on
processesandnounphr as
e
struct
uresofBa ntul a
nguages
(
ii
i) Explai
nc ommont ense
categori
esofBa ntul a
nguages
(
iv) Explai
nv er
ba lderi
vationi
n
Ba nt
ulangua ges
(
v) Ana l
ysewor dordersa ndcl
ause
typesattest
edi nBa ntu
l
angua ges

18. Topi
csofSt
udy :
18.
1 TheNouncl
asss
yst
em
(
a) Cr
ite
riaf
orc l
assi
fi
cat
ion
(
b) Pr
oto-Bantunouncla
s ss
yst
em
(
c) Nouncla
s ssy
stemsofmodernda
yBa
ntul
angua
ges

18.
2 Nounde
riv
ati
on
(
a) Nounsderi
vedfr
omv er
bs
(
b) Nounsderi
vednouns
(
c) Nounsderi
vedfr
oma dj
ect
ive
s
(
d) Compoundi
ng
(
e) Redupl
i
cati
on

18.
3 NounPhr
ases
truc
tur
e
(
a) De
ter
mine
rs
(
b) Nume
ral
s
(
c) Adj
ect
ive
s
(
d) Qua
nti
fi
ers
Pa
ge2of2
 (
e) Re
lat
ivi
sat
ion

18.
4 Ve
rbmor
phol
ogy
(
a) Thes
truc
tur
eoft
heBa
ntuv
erb
(
b) Commont
ens
eca
tegor
iesofBa
ntul
angua
ges
(
c) Ve
rba
lde
riv
ati
ves

18.
5 Sy
nta
cti
cst
ruc
tur
esofBa
ntul
angua
ges
(
a) Wor
dor
der
(
b) Cl
aus
ety
pes

19. Pr
esc
ribe
dTe
xts
:
Hei
ne,
B. &Nur s
e,D.
(eds)(2000).
Afr
ica
nLa
ngua
ges
:AnI
ntr
oduc
tion.
Ca
mbridge:
CambridgeUni
vers
ityPress

Mit
i,L.
(2006)
.Compa
rat
iveBa
ntuPhonol
ogya
ndMor
phol
ogy
.Ca
peTown:
CASAS

Nurs
e,D.andPhi
l
ipps
on,
G.(
eds
)(2003)
.TheBa
ntuLa
ngua
ges
.Ne
wYor
k:
Rout
ledge

20. Re commendedRea
ding
Doke
, C.
M. (
1967)TheSout
. he
rnBant
uLanguage
s.London:
Int
erna
tiona
lAf
ri
can
I
nst
itute
.

Gut
hri
e,M.
(1967-
71)
.Compar
ati
veBant
u:AnI
ntr
oduc
tiont
oCompar
ati
ve
Li
ngui
sti
cs
andPre
his
tor
yoft
heBant
uLanguage
s.4v
ols
.Fa
mbor
ough:
TheGr
egg
Pr
ess
.

Mt
enj
e,A.
A.(
2016)
.Ac
ompa
rat
ivea
nal
ysi
soft
hephonol
ogya
ndt
hemor
pho-
Pa
ge3of3
s
ynt
axof
Ci
suk
wa,
Cinda
lia
ndCi
l
amby
a.PhDt
hes
is.
Uni
ver
sit
yofCa
peTown.

Ngunga,A.(
2000)
.Phonol
ogyandMor
phol
ogyoft
heCi
yaov
erb.
Cal
i
for
nia
:CSLI
Publ
i
cati
ons

St
röm,
E.(
2013)TheNdenge
lek
ola
ngua
geofTa
nza
nia
.PhDt
hes
is.
Uni
ver
sit
yof
Got
henbur
g.

We
bb,
V.&Ke
mbo-
Sur
e(e
ds)
.Af
ri
canVoi
ces
:AnI
ntr
oduc
tiont
otheLanguage
s
and
Li
ngui
sti
csofAf
ri
ca.
Oxf
ord:
Oxf
ordUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess

Topi
c1:
TheNounCl
assSy
ste
m
Mor
phol
ogi
cal
fea
tur
esi
nBa
ntul
angua
ges
 The
yha
vea
nel
abor
ates
yst
emofnounc
las
ses

 The
yar
eaggl
uti
nat
ivei
nna
tur
e

 The
irv
erbsdoha
vee
xte
nsi
ons
/de
riv
ati
ons

TheNounCl
assSy
ste
m

a Cr
it
eri
aforc
las
sif
ic
ati
on

b Pr
oto-
Bant
unounc
las
ssy
ste
m

c Nounc
las
ssy
ste
msofmode
rnda
yBa
ntul
angua
ges

TheBa
ntuNounCl
assPr
obl
em

 NounCl
assi
sapa
rti
cul
arc
ate
gor
yofnouns

 NounCla
ssSy
ste
misagr
amma
tic
als
yst
emt
hats
omel
angua
gesus
etoov
ert
lyt
oca
tegor
ize
nouns
.

 I
nnounc
las
ssy
ste
ms,
all
nounsa
rema
rke
dbyapr
efi
x,us
ual
l
yonea
ffi
xsi
gna
lsas
ingul
arnoun

Pa
ge4of4
 a
nda
not
hers
igna
lsapl
ura
lfor
m.I
nSwa
hil
ifore
xampl
e:

a
. Wa
-nt
u wa
-le wa
-me
fik
a(Thos
epe
opl
eha
vea
rri
ved)

b. M-
tu y
u-l
e a
-me
fik
a(Tha
tpe
rsonha
sar
ri
ved)

I
nthea
bov
ese
nte
nce(
a),
conc
ordi
alpr
efi
xwa
-isf
orpl
ura
l.

 Anounmaybel
ongtoagi
vencl
assbe
caus
eoft
hec
har
act
eri
sti
csf
eat
ure
sofi
tsr
efe
rent
:suc
h
asge
nder
,ani
macy,
sha
pese.
t.
c

 Bant ul
anguagesa
r eknowntoexhi
bi
toneofthemostcomplexnouncl
ass(NC)s
yst
ems,wit
h
theNCsr angi
ngfrom2t oover23andaper
vasivea
gre
e mentsyst
em(concor
d)t
hataf
fect
s
wor dsa
ssociat
edwiththenounwit
hina
ndoutsidet
henounphrase(NP)(Maho,
1999;
Mc hombo,2004).

Cr
it
eri
aforNounCl
ass
ifi
cat
ion
 Thec r
it
e r
iaformembe r
shi
pofnounsintothevari
ouscla
s s
eshavebeenasubj
ectofdeba
te,
but
thereareindi
cat
ionsthats
omes ema
nt i
c,nat
uralandphonologi
cal
fac
tor
splayarolei
nthes
e
groupi
ngs. However
,manystudi
eshavepropose
dt hefol
lowings
:

1.Nounsarecl
ass
if
iedpri
ma r
il
ybas
edonmor phol
ogi
cal
markersonthenounthe
ms el
ves,
popul
arl
yknownasNounCl as
sPref
ixe
s(NCP).The
sepre
fix
eswe r
elargel
yobt
aine
dt hr
ough
l
ingui
sti
cre
const
ruct
ionastheya
reassumedtohaveexi
stedinProto-Ba
ntu(
PB),the
hypot
hesi
zedpar
entBantu.

2.Secondl
y,NounClass
esaredist
inguis
hedbyas etofc las
sspeci
fi
cagreementma r
kers.
Mos t
wordsinBantuse
ntencearema rke
dbyapr ef
ixindicati
ngthecat
egorytowhichthenouns
usedasthesubj
ectofthesente
ncebe l
ongs
;andi ftherei
sanobject
,thewordsinthatnoun
phraseandthev
erba r
ea l
soma r
kedbyapr ef
ixde t
e r
minedbynounc l
assoftheobje
ct.Ther
eis
usual
lyagre
ementknowna sconcordbetwe
ennouna ndde t
ermi
ners,modi
fie
rsandpredica
tes.

3.Thi
rdly,t
os omeext
ent,t
hepa r
ti
culars
emanticcont
entofagiv
enclasspla
ysarol
ein
ass
igningnounst
os omec l
ass
es.Thus,
nounsa r
egroupedac
cordi
ngtot he
irsi
mil
ari
ti
esi
n
meaning(semant
iccri
ter
ion)wit
hs omenounsthatbel
ongtoaparti
cula
rclas
s.

4.Nounsc
ana
lsobea
ssi
gne
dsomec
las
sesi
nre
lat
iont
oot
hernounst
hatha
ves
imi
l
arf
orm

Pr
oto–Ba
ntuNounCl
assSy
ste
ms
 Alt
houghthenumberofcl
asse
sv ar
iesfr
omonela
nguagetoanothe
r,thec
las
sesar
eide
nti
fi
ed
byastandar
diz
ed Bant
u-widenumberi
ngsy
ste
mt ha
trange
sfrom1t o23(Maho,
1999:
Pa
ge5of5
 50–54;
Kat
amba
,2006:
109a
ndMc
hombo2004:
6).

 Be
lowi
sthes
etofnounc
las
ses
,NCPsa
ndt
hei
ras
soc
iat
eds
ema
nti
cfe
atur
esi
nPr
oto-
Bant
u

NC Pr
otoBantu Chi
che
aNCPr
efi
x As
sume
dse
mant
icsoft
heNCs
NCpref
ix
1 *mu- M(
u)- Huma
ns
1a * - - Ki
nshi
pte
rms
,pe
rsoni
fi
eda
nima
ls

2 *v
a- a
- Honor
if
ic
,pl
ura
lofNC1
2a *v
a- a
- Honor
if
ic
,pl
ura
lofNC1a
3 *mu- M(
u)- Tr
ees
,pl
ant
s,i
nani
mat
ess
4 *mi
- mi
- Pl
ura
lNC3
5 *l
i
- *l
i
- Mi
sce
ll
ane
ous
,pa
ire
dthi
ngs
,augme
nta
tiv
es
6 *ma
- Ma
- Li
qui
ds,
col
l
ect
ive
s,pl
ura
ltoNCs5,
9,
11,
14a
nd
15
7 *k
i Chi
- I
n-a
nima
tes
,ma
nne
r/s
tyl
e,di
muni
ti
ves
8 *bi
- Zi
- Pl
ura
ltoNC7
9 *n *n- Ani
mal
s
10 *n *n- Pl
ura
ltoc
las
s9a
nd11
11 *du- Longt
hint
hings
,abs
tra
cts
12 *k
a- Ka
- Di
muni
ti
ves
13 *t
u- Ti
- Pl
ura
ltoNC12
14 *bu- u- Abs
tra
ctnouns
,ma
ssnouns
,lur
alt
oNC12
15 *k
u- Ku- I
nfi
ni
ti
ves
16 *pa
- Pa
- Loc
ati
ves
,ne
arore
xpl
i
cit
/ex
acton
17 *k
u- Ku- Loc
ati
ver
,emot
eorge
ner
alat
18 *mu- M(
u)- Loc
ati
vei
nsi
desi
n
19 *pi Di
muni
ti
ves
20 *ɣo Augme
nta
tiv
es,
dimuni
ti
ves
21 *ɣi Augme
nta
tiv
es,
pej
ora
tiv
e
22 *ɣa Pl
ura
ltoNC20
23 *ɣe
-/*i
- Loc
ati
ve,
uns
pec
if
ied

Pa
ge6of6
  Asshowna bove,ea
chnounclas
sisa
ssoci
atedwi
thonepref
ix,
withtheaste
ris
ksigni
fyi
ng
l
ingui
sti
creconstr
ucti
on.
Thenounclas
sesareas
sumedtobeba s
edons e
ma nti
cpatt
ernswhi
ch
arenolongerconsi
ste
nttoda
ybutarebel
ie
vedtohavehel
dinProtoBantu.

NounCl
assSy
ste
msofMode
rnDa
yBa
ntuLa
ngua
ges
St
ruc
tur
eonNounsi
nBa
ntuLa
ngua
ges

 ThenouninBant
ulangua
gesconsi
stsofanaugme
nt(
fors
omeBa
ntul
angua
ges
,al
sok
nowna
s
apre
-pref
ixori
ni
tia
lvowel
),anounprefi
xandast
em.

 InChiche
wa ,
a sinmostBant
ulanguages
,nounsarecompose
dofastemandapr
e f
ixandapr
e-
pref
ixwhichindi
c a
teit
sagre
ementclas
s.Wa t
kins(
1937)agree
stha
tthe
rear
eeighte
e n
agre
e mentcl
a ss
esforChi
chewanouns.

 Thes
truct
ureonnounsc
oul
dber
epr
ese
nte
dasbe
lowf
orc
ons
truc
tionswi
thl
oca
tiv
eand
di
muni
tiv
e

ACTUALNOUNCLASSES

1.Cl
ass1a
nd1a

 Cl
ass1ma
inl
ycont
ainhuma
nbe
ings
,andc
las
s1ac
ont
ainsna
mesofs
omea
nima
ls.

 Cons
ide
rthee
xampl
esbe
lowi
nChi
che
wa:

 Na
mesofhuma
ns:
munt
hu(
per
son)
,mwa
na(
chi
l
d),
mphunz
its
i(t
eac
her
)

 Na
mesofs
omea
nima
ls:
kal
ul
u(ha
re)
,shona(
cat
),c
hul
e(f
rog)

2.Cl
ass2a
nd2a

 Cl
ass
es2a
nd2aa
repl
ura
lsf
orc
las
s1a
nd1ar
espe
cti
vel
y.

Pa
ge7of7
  Nounsi
nthesecl
ass
esareal
sousedt
oshowre
spec
t.Forex
ampl
e,a
-phunz
ii
tsii
nchic
hewa
coul
dbeuse
dt or
eferr
espe
ctf
ull
ytoasi
ngl
etea
cherori
tcanme
anma nyt
eachers
.

 Cons
ide
rsomee
xampl
esbe
low:

Cl
ass1 Cl
ass2

 Mu-
nthu(
per
son) a
-nt
hu‘
peopl
e’

 mw-
an(
chi
l
d) a
-áná‘
chi
l
dre
n’

 m̩ -
phunz
ii
tsi
(te
ache
r) a
-phunz
ii
tsi
‘te
ache
rs’

 m̩ -
li
imi
(fa
rme
r) a
-li
mi‘
fa
rme
rs’

 ga
álú(
dog) a
-ga
álú‘
dogs
’

NOTE

Theot
hernounclas
sescannotbesoea
sil
yas
soci
ate
dwi
thar
egul
ars
ema
nti
ccl
ass
.Thi
sca
nbes
een
fr
omthevari
etyofnounsthatoc
curi
ncla
ss3,4:

3.Cl
ass3

 I
tha
sbe
ennot
edt
hatt
hes
igni
fi
canc
eofnounsi
nthi
scl
assi
smi
sce
ll
ane
ous
.

 Theclas
sinc
lude
snounsper
tai
ningtotr
ees,pl
ant
s,ani
mal
s,i
mpleme
nts
;ut
ens
il
,na
tur
al
phenomena,
abstr
acti
dea
s,r
ive
rs,augment
ativ
esandpej
ora
tiv
es.

 Thecl
ass3pr
efi
xismu-
,n-ori
nNde
nge
lek
o(al
angua
ges
pok
eni
nTa
nza
nia
)andmu-(
m-)i
n
Chi
che
wa .

 Cons
ide
rthef
oll
owi
nge
xampl
esf
romNde
nge
rek
ola
ngua
ge

 nt
éel
a/mu-
tel
a/‘
tr
ee,
twi
g;me
dic
ine
’

 nt
óte/mu-
tot
e/‘
hye
na’

 nk
ánwa/mu-
kanwa
/‘mout
h’

 nk
ólo/mu-
kol
o/‘
hen’

4.Cl
ass4

 Thi
sist
hepl
ura
lcount
erpa
rtf
orc
las
s4

 Thenounc
las
s4pr
efi
xisi
smi
-ins
omel
angua
gesl
i
keChi
che
waa
ndNde
nge
rek
o.

 Cons
ide
rse
xampl
esbe
lowt
ake
nfr
omNde
nge
rek
o

 169.
mi-
tée
la‘
tr
ees
,twi
gs’
AK

Pa
ge8of8
  mi
-t
óte‘
hye
nas
’AK

 mi
-ká
nwa‘
mout
hs’
SS

 mi
-kól
o‘he
ns’AK

 Cons
ide
rsomee
xampl
est
ake
nfr
omChi
che
wa

 m̩ -
tee
ngomi
-t
eengo‘
pri
ce;
pri
ces
’

 muu-
dzi
mii
-dz
i‘v
il
la
ge;
vil
l
age
s’

 m̩ -
tée
ngomi
-t
éengo‘
tr
ee,
sti
ck;
tre
es,
sti
cks
’

 m̩ -
pii
l
ami
-pi
i
la‘
bal
l
/foot
bal
l
;ba
ll
s’

 m̩ -
kaa
kami
-ka
aka‘
mil
k’

5.Cl
ass5

 Cl
ass5and6aredi
sti
nct
ivebec
aus
ethequal
i
tyoft
hes
tem-
ini
ti
alc
ons
ona
ntof
tendi
ff
ers
,in
sy
stema
ticwa
ys,i
nthesi
ngula
randpl
ura
l.

 It
emsbe l
ongingt
oClas
s5inc
lude
:Per
sonal
nouns,a
nimal
s,ana
tomic
alter
ms,pl
ant
sandf
rui
ts,
natur
alphenomena,
ver
bal
nounsandi
nfi
ni
tive
s,a
dopti
venounsandaugment
ati
ve.

 Fur
the
r,c
las
s5nounsmos
tlydonotha
veac
las
spr
efi
x

 Somenounsi
nthi
scl
assdonotha
vepl
ura
lsl
i
kel
i
wombo(
font
ane
ll
e)i
nChi
che
wa.

 Cons
ide
rex
ampl
esbe
lowt
ake
nfr
omChi
che
wa

 The
emba
:ty
peofs
mal
l
fis
h

 Phé
ewa
:shoul
der

 Phi
i
li
:mount
ain

 Ts
íi
ku:
day

6.Cl
ass6

 Thi
sist
hepl
ura
lcount
erpa
rtf
orc
las
s5

 Notethatma nyl
iqui
ds(l
ik
ethewordfor‘
wat
er’
)arei
ncla
ss6andla
ckasingul
arf
orm.Anot
her
exampleofwordswithnosi
ngul
arbel
ongi
ngtothi
scl
assi
nChi
chewala
nguageismanda
(gr
aveyard)

 Cons
ide
rmor
eex
ampl
esbe
low:

Pa
ge9of9
  t
hemba ma
-te
mbat
ypeofs
mal
l
fis
h;t
ype
sof.
..

 phe
wa ma
-pe
wa‘
shoul
der
;shoul
der
s’

 phi
ri ma
-pi
ri‘
mount
ain;
mount
ains
’

 t
sik
u ma
-si
ku‘
day
;da
ys’

 dz
ira ma
-zi
ra‘
egg;
eggs

7.Cl
ass7
 Thi
scl
asssi
gni
fi
esalangua
ge,
ethni
corna
tiona
lcus
tomorc
har
act
eri
sti
corma
nne
rofdoi
ng
anypa
rti
cul
art
hing.

 Iti
sal
sousedt
os howthatsomethi
ngisl
argeorunpl
eas
ant(augmenta
tiv
e)(pej
orat
ive
).Iti
s
als
othecl
assf
orthewordthing.Howeve
r,inot
herla
nguage
ss uc
ha ski
Swahil
i
,thepref
ixi
s
usedtos
howthatsomethi
ngi ss
mall
.

 Looka
tthee
xampl
esbe
lowt
ake
nfr
omChi
che
wa:

Aug
ment
ati
veorPe
jor
ati
ves

a
. Chi
mwa
na(
bigc
hil
d)

b. Chi
nyumba(
bighous
e)

c
. Chi
mny
amt
a(bi
gboy
)

 Somee
xampl
esi
ncl
ude

a
. Chi
kondi
(lov
e)

b. Chi
fundo(
mer
cy)

 Somepe
jor
ati
vesf
romKi
swa
hil
i

a
. Ki
vbuz
i(l
i
ttl
egoa
t)

b. Ki
duk
a(s
mal
lshop)

c
. Ki
tot
o(i
nfa
nt)

8.Cl
ass8
 Theme
mbe
rsoft
hisc
las
sar
epl
ura
lsf
orc
las
s7.Le
tust
akeal
ooka
tsomepl
ura
lsi
nCi
che
wa.

Wor
dfort
hing- z
int
hu

Augme
nta
tiv
eorPe
jor
ati
ves
z
iana - bi
gchi
l
dre
n

z
iany
ama
ta- bi
gboy
s
Pa
ge10of10
 z
imi
tu - bi
ghe
ads

 Somee
xampl
esf
romc
las
s7a
nd8a
rea
sfol
l
ows

 c
ii
-nt
huz
ii
-nt
hu‘
thi
ng;
thi
ngs
’

 c
i-f
uúk
wáz
i-f
uúk
wá‘
caus
e,r
eas
on;
caus
es,
rea
sons
’

 c
i-gi
rí
ik
i‘Gr
eekl
angua
ge,
cul
tur
e’

 c
i-puupaz
i-puupa‘
wal
l
;wa
ll
s’

 c
i-t
húunz
izi
-t
húunz
i‘pi
ctur
e;pi
ctur
es’

9.Cl
ass9

 Cl
ass9ma i
nl
yconta
insa
nima
ls,
buti
nani
mat
e,mi
sce
ll
ane
ouspr
ope
rti
esa
ndl
oanwor
dsa
rea
lso
i
nthisnouncl
ass
.

 Mostnounsinc
lass9begi
nswit
hanon-
syl
l
abi
cna
sal
cons
ona
nt,
whi
chi
shomor
gani
cwi
tht
he
f
oll
owingste
m-ini
ti
alc
onsona
nt.

 Mos
tnounsi
nthi
scl
ass(be
ginswi
thn-a
ndm.
cons
ide
rex
ampl
esbe
low:

 Chi
shona
: ndume(
mes
senge
r)a
ndndi
mi(
tongue
)be
longt
othi
scl
ass
.

 Chi
che
wa: ny
umba(
hous
e),
mbuz
i(goa
t)a
ndmba
le(
pla
te)

10.Cl
ass10

 Cl
ass10nounsa
repl
ura
lsf
ornounc
las
s9.

 I
nma nyotherBa
ntulanguages
,thes
ingul
ari
ncla
ss9tak
esapl
ura
linc
las
s10whi
chi
sof
ten
i
dent
ical
informbutgovernsnouncl
ass10agr
eement
.

 Nounsi
nc l
ass9/10donotha vedist
incts
ingularvspl
ural
forms,but
, a
swes halls
ee,the
agre
ementprefi
xesonnominalmodifi
ersandthesubjec
tandobjectagree
me ntpref
ixeson
ver
bsaredi
stinc
tforthet
woc l
ass
es.Somef or
eignwordsareoft
enputinc l
ass9/10.Although
somewordsincla
ss9/10mi ghtla
ckthena s
a l
prefi
x,t
heagreementprefi
xestri
ggere
dbyt hese
nounsr
evealthe
irnouncl
assa f
fi
li
ati
on:

 ny
umbá‘
hous
e/hous
es’

 m-
buz
i‘goa
t/goa
ts’

 s
ukul
u‘s
chool
/sc
hool
s’

 m-
bal
e‘pl
ate
/pl
ate
s’
Pa
ge11of11
  n-
jal
a‘hunge
r/f
ami
ne’

 I
nChi
chewa
,ya-a
ndz a
-aret
heagre
ementma
rke
rsf
orc
las
s9a
nd10r
espe
cti
vel
y.Cons
ide
r
e
xampl
esbel
owtake
nfromChi
chewa:

a
. Nyumbayanuyagwa(
Yourhous
eha
sfa
ll
en)
.Int
hiss
ent
enc
e,t
hewor
dny
umba(
hous
e)
be
longst
oc l
ass9.

b. Nyumbaza
nuz
agwa(
Yourhous
esha
vef
all
en)
.Ny
umba(
hous
es)i
ntha
tca
sebe
longst
o
cl
ass10

11.Cl
ass11
 Thec l
asspr
efi
xinmostofthel
angua
gesi
slu-i
nsomel
angua
ges
.Chi
che
wadonotha
venouns
t
hatbel
ongstothi
scl
ass.

 Cons
ide
rex
ampl
esbe
lowt
ake
nfor
mNde
nge
rek
o

 l
u-gói‘
st
ri
ng’

 l
u-bá
u‘r
ib’

 l
ukóonj
i/l
u-k
onz
i/‘
fi
nge
r’

 l
u-pá
ba‘
spoon’

 l
u-k
óko‘
cough’

 Cons
iders
omee xampl
esfr
omLuga
nda
 olugoye(garment
)
 olunyago(arr
owshi
ft
)
 olweyo(broom)

12.Cl
ass12

 Cl
asses12isadi
minuti
veclas
s.Unli
ketheot
hercl
asspr
efi
xesdi
scussedsofar,
thesear
e
at
tached,
nottoastem,butrat
hertoanounwordandprec
edethec l
asspre
fixoftheba
sicwor
d.
Theyhaveacl
earse
ma nti
cfunct
ion,a
stheyaddadimi
nuti
vemeaningtotheba s
enoun:

 Ex
ampl
est
ake
nfr
omChi
nse
ngaa
rea
:ka
lez
a(l
i
ght
ing)
,ka
temo(
axe
)andk
ambwi
l
i(hoe
)

13.Cl
ass13

 Thepr
efi
xfort
hisc
las
sha
sthes
ames
igni
fi
canc
eforc
las
s12s
inc
eiti
sit
spl
ura
lcount
erpa
rt.

 k
a-mw-
aánát
i-
aáná‘
sma
llc
hil
d;s
mal
lchi
l
dre
n’

Pa
ge12of12
  k
a-n-
khúuk
uti
-n-
khúuk
u‘s
mal
lchi
cke
n;s
mal
lchi
cke
ns’

 k
a-c
i-l
óombot
i-
zi-
lóombo‘
sma
lli
nse
ct;
sma
lli
nse
cts
’

 k
a-m-
fuut
iti
-m-
fuut
i‘s
mal
lgun;
sma
llguns
’

14.Cl
ass14

 Ma nyc
lass14nounsareabstr
actte
rmsorcoll
ecti
venouns,whi
chdonote a
sil
yt a
k eapl
ural
.
Someclass14nounscanbeplural
i
zed,
though,byaddi
ngthec l
ass6pre
fixtothes i
ngul
arnoun
word(i
.e.
,thes
tema ndthecl
ass14pref
ix)
.Cla
s s14doesnothaveit
sowndi s
tinctpl
uralc
las
s
(13)Cl
ass14Class6(plur
al)

 Cons
ide
rthef
oll
owi
nge
xampl
esf
romChi
che
wa

Cl
ass14 Cl
ass6

 u-
leé
ndó(
jour
ney
) ma
-ul
eéndó‘
j
our
ney
s’

 u-
laa
lo‘
bri
dge
’ ma
-ul
aal
o‘br
idge
s’

 u-
bwi
í
nó‘
goodne
ss’

 u-
moóy
ó‘wa
yofl
i
fe’

15.Cl
ass15

 Cla
sse
s15–18all
hav
espec
ial
grammat
ica
lfunc
tions
.Cl
ass15i
sthec
las
sfort
hei
nfi
ni
ti
vev
erb
for
m.Ita
tta
che
stoaver
bstem(orma
crost
em)

 Cons
ide
rthef
oll
owi
nge
xampl
est
ake
nfr
omChi
che
wa

 k
u-y
íi
mba‘
tos
ing’

 k
u-l
éme
ela‘
tober
ich’

 k
u-k
húl
úl
uúk
á‘t
opa
rdon;
for
giv
e’

 k
u-góona‘
tos
lee
p’

 Thi
scl
assc
onsis
tssol
el
yofinfi
ni
ti
vefor
msofverbs
.Thepre
fixisei
the
ru-
orku-
. I
nci
tat
ion
for
m,t
hepref
ixku-
isgene
ral
lyuse
d.Consi
dert
hetwoexampl
e sfr
omNdenge
reko.

 k
u-l
ɪnda
/‘t
owa
it’

 k
u-ɲwá
a‘t
odr
ink
’

Cl
ass
es16–18

Pa
ge13of13
  Cl
ass
es16–18arel
oc a
tiv
ec l
ass
es,a
ndthepr
efi
xesinthi
scl
ass
,li
kethedi
minut
ive
s,areadde
d
be
for
ethecl
asspre
fixofthebasi
cnoun.
Thecl
asse
sindic
atedi
ff
erentl
oca
tiv
eme a
nings.

16.Cl
ass16

 I
tspr
efi
xgi
vest
heme
ani
ngsofa
tandon

 Cons
ide
rthee
xampl
esbe
low:

 pa
-m̩ -
paa
ndo‘
ont
hec
hai
r’

 pa
-ci
-ya
ámbí
‘att
hebe
ginni
ng’

17.Cl
ass17

 I
tspr
efi
xgi
vest
heme
ani
ngsoft
oandf
rom

 Cons
ide
rthee
xampl
esbe
low:

 k
u-m̩ -
sii
ka‘
att
hema
rke
t’

 k
u-dá
ambo‘
att
hema
rsh’

18.Cl
ass18

 I
tspr
efi
xgi
vest
heme
ani
ngsofi
nandi
nto

 Cons
ide
rex
ampl
esbe
low

 mu-
m̩ -
zii
nda‘
i
nac
ity
’

 m̩ -
mi-
tée
ngo‘
i
nthet
ree
s’(
als
o,opt
iona
ll
y,mu-
mi-
tée
ngo)

19.Cl
ass19

 Cons
ide
rex
ampl
esbe
lowf
romdi
ff
ere
ntl
angua
ges

a
.ik
iNi
l
yamba
 i
pi
mongo r
ivul
ets

 i
pya
na i
nfa
nts

b.Lumongo
 i
kenj
e pe
bbl
e

 y
aandaa
xe

Pa
ge14of14
20.
Cla
ss20
 Thesi
gni
fic
a nceoft
hes
einmostBantula
nguagesisa
ugmentati
veandperj
orat
ive
.Inot
her
l
anguage
ss uchasts
iVe
nda,
andciKal
anga,i
tisachar
act
eri
sti
cwa yofdoi
ngthi
ngs:
Augme
nta
tiv
e Di
minut
ive

Oguntu hugethi
ng k
uthu - smal
lthi
ng
Ogugga bi
griv
e r k
utuka
na - smal
lboy
Ogutwe bi
ghea d k
udi - smal
lvi
lla
ge
Ugutabo bi
gbook k
utav
ha - l
i
ttl
emountain

21.
Cla
ss21
 Thiscla
sssuperi
mposesi
tspref
ixoverpre
fix
esofv
ariousot
herc
las
ses.Whenthi
sisdone
,the
or
igi
nalpr
efi
xesdonotcontr
olagre
eme nt
s.Theexamplesc
anbeobse
rvedbel
ow:
 c i
Ndali
I
l
il
osi - hor
rif
icwi
tch
c
.f
.umul
osi - wit
ch

I
l
il
il
o - bonf
ir
e
c
.f
.umul
i
lo - fi
re

I
l
ikas
u - awakwa
rdhoe
c
.f
.i
nkas
u - hos
e

k
iSwa
hil
i

J
uka - l
a r
gesnak
e
c
.f
.nyok
a - snake
J
itu - giant
c
.f
.mtu - person

22.
Cla
ss22
 Thepref
ixf
orthi
scla
ssis/ga-/.I
tisapl
ura
lcla
ssandit
ssi
ngula
requi
vale
ntscanbefoundi
n
cl
ass5orcl
ass20.Theprefi
xesdenot
eaugmentat
ive
,pe
jor
ati
veoramel
iorat
ive
.Thiscl
assi
s
onl
yfoundi
nluGandasofar.
a
gasajj
a ‘
bi
ghef t
ymen’
c
.f
.ousaj
ja ‘
man’
a
galenzi ‘
fi
nelads’
c
.f
.omulenzi ‘
boy’
a
gabuzi ‘
bi
ggoa ts
’
e
mbuz i ‘
goat
’

Pa
ge15of15
23.
Cla
ss23
 Thisclas
sc ontai
nsthel
ocat
iveprefi
x
l
uGa nda isi
Zulu
eKampalaa
t/tofromKa mpalae mf
uleniat/to/fr
omt heri
ver
eBugandaat
/tofromBuga nda entabenia
t/to/f
romthemount
aine
khe
zwe
nii
nthe
spoon
Thesearec
lass
est hatBant
ulangua
gesa ndthesi
gnifi
canc
esthe
ypl
ay.

Topi
c2:
NounDe
riv
ati
on
 Sever
aldesc
ript
ivestudi
eshavefocus
e donnounf or
mati
onst
rat
egi
esi
nBantul
anguage
s
(Nurs
ea ndPhil
li
pson2003,Kula2009, Mc hombo2004)
.Commonstr
ate
gie
sfornoun
for
ma t
ionwhichhavebeenide
nt i
fi
edinclude:

a
. Nounsde
riv
edf
romv
erbs

b. Nounsde
riv
edf
roma
dje
cti
ves

c
. Nounsde
riv
edf
romnouns

d. Nounsde
riv
edf
romc
ompoundi
ng

e
. Nounsde
riv
edf
romr
edupl
i
cat
ion

f
. Nounsde
riv
edf
roma
dve
rbs

g. Nounsbor
rowe
dfr
omot
herl
angua
ges

1.Nounde
riv
edf
romnouns
 AsinotherBantul
anguages(Schadeber
g,2003;Botne,
2008)
),nounscanbederi
vedfr
om
nounsbyshif
ti
ngthemf r
omonec l
asstoanothe
r;andnounformedincludeaugmenta
tiv
es,
di
minuti
ves,pej
orat
ivesandl ocati
ves
.Theprocesswhenanounisass
ignedt
oa not
hercla
ss
maybec a
lle
ds e
condar
ypr e
fixat
ion.

Di
minut
ive
s

 I
nBa ntul
anguages
,di
minuti
vesa
rewidel
yfor
medbyas
signi
ngnounst
ocla
ss12(Scha
deber
g
2003).
Thisi
salsoaver
yproduct
ivewayofex
pre
ssi
ng‘
sma l
l
nes
s’i
nNdengel
eko.
Consi
dert
he
fol
l
owingexample
stake
nf r
omNde nge
lek
o:

Noun Me
ani
ng Newnounf or
med Me
ani
ng
(di
munit
ive
)
I
mbwi Hyena Kai
mbwi Sma
llhyena
Upa Bone Kaupa Sma
llbone

Pa
ge16of16
 Thes
amepr
oce
ssa
ppl
i
esi
nChi
che
wa

Noun Me
ani
ng Newnounf or
med Me
ani
ng
(di
munit
ive
)
ga
lu Dog Kagal
u Sma
lldog
mwana Chi
l
d Kamwana Sma
llchi
l
d

Loc
ati
ves

 Anounc anbeprecededbythenounClassPref
ix(NCP)ofoneoft helocati
vec l
asses16,17a nd18,
t
ode r
ivealoca
t i
venoun.TheNCPoft henounisreta
ine
dwhe nthel ocati
veNCPi sadded,asal
so
r
econst
ructedforProt
oBa ntu(Meeusse
n1967) .I
nthefoll
owi
nge xampl einNde ngerek
o,kitél
ééko
‘
pot’
(cl
.7)ispr
e c
ededbyt hecl
ass18prefi
xmu- ,
whichi
ndicat
esloca t
ioninsidemu- ki
-tél
ééko‘i
n
t
hepot’.I
nChichewa,mu-nyanj
a( i
nthelake
)isformedfromthenounny anja(la
ke )
.

2.Nounde
riv
edf
romv
erbs
a
. Age
nti
venouns

 Nounsma ybeder
ivedfromv e
rbsbywayofaff
ixi
ngapart
icul
arvowe
landautomat
ica
ll
ythe
appr
opri
atenouncla
s spre
fixandpr
e-pr
efi
xareaddedt
oc onf
ormtothemorphol
ogyofanouni
n
Nyakyus
a.Consi
derthetwoe xampl
esbe
lowinNy a
kyus
a.

Verb -i
suff
ix noun glos
s
 l
i
ma‘ c
ult
iva
te’ /l
im-i
/ u-
mu-l
imi
[undimi]‘
afar
me r’
 s
oma‘read’ som-i u-mu-
som-i(unsomi
)‘a
ne ducat
ed’

 I
nChi c
hewa,s
pe ci
fi
cnomi nal
sarede r
ive
dthroughther
epl
acementofthefi
nalvowel[
a]bye i
the
r
[
i]foract
or(agenti
ve)nouns,or[o]fornon-act
ornomi
nal
s.Anappropri
atege
nde r
-cl
asspref
ixi
s
t
hena ddedt
ot henouns temtoobta i
nthenoun.Somet
imes
,nounsma ybefor
me dinChiche
waby
j
ustchangi
ngthefinalvowelatoo. Consi
derthefol
l
owi
ngexamples

 phunzı́
ts -
a‘t
eac
h’ m-
phunz
its
-i‘
tea
che
r’

 s
anga
lat
s-a‘
amus
e’ m-
sanga
lat
s-i
‘ent
ert
aine
r

 t
sek
-a‘
shut
’ c
hi-
tse
k-o‘
door

 v
uta(
caus
epr
obl
em) v
ut-
o(pr
obl
em)
/ma
vut
o(pr
obl
ems
)

b. At
tri
but
ivenouns

 Anat
tri
buti
venounde
not
esape
rsonwhoha
sthec
har
act
eri
sti
cat
tri
but
econv
eye
dbyt
hev
erb
i
tisderi
vedfrom.
Pa
ge17of17
  I
nSunda
la,umupe(
gener
ousper
son)i
sder
ive
dfr
omthever
bpame
ani
ngt
ogi
ve.
Umuf
we
(
dea
dperson)i
sder
ive
dfromthever
bfwameani
ngt
odie
.

 I
nChisuk
wa,
thenounu-mú-l
emal-
e(cr
ippl
ed)i
sde
riv
edf
romt
hev
erb-
lema
l-ame
ani
ngbe
c
rippl
e (
MtenjeA.
,2016)

3.NounsDe
riv
edf
romAdj
ect
ive
s
 Nounsc a
nbede ri
veda readject
iveswher
eanadj
ecti
vest
emisassi
gne
dt oaspeci
fi
cnouncl
ass
.
I
nNde ngel
ekof
orexample,St
röm( 2013)not
est
hattheadj
ect
ive–k
oto(fi
ne)c
a nbeass
igne
dto
cl
ass5toderi
venounli
-koto(thefi
neone).

 I
nChichewa
,nounscanbeformedfor
ma dj
ecti
vesbyaddi
ngs pe
cif
icc
las
spre
fix
est
otheadj
ect
ive
st
ems.Forexa
mple,m-k
azi(f
e mal
e)andu-muna(spe
rm)a r
enounsformedf
romadj
ect
iver
oots
–kaz
iand–munar e
spect
ivel
ybyaddi
ngc l
asspr
efi
xm-( c
lass1).

4.Nounsde
riv
edf
romc
ompoundi
ng
 Compoundi
ngi
sapr
oce
sswhe
ret
wos
epa
rat
ewor
dsora
tle
astt
wos
temsc
ombi
net
ofor
mone
word.

 InChi
chewa,t
hecommone s
tfor
mofcompoundi
ngi
sthatwhi
chta
kesav e
rbandit
sunmodi
fie
d
obj
ectnounorloc
ati
venounandcr
eat
esanounbyaddi
nganappr
opri
atepre
fix
.Thi
sisi
l
lus
trat
ed
bythefol
lowi
ng

 t
ol-
ank
hani
‘pi
ckupne
ws’
m-t
ola
nkha
ni‘
repor
ter
’

 pa
l-ama
tabwa‘
scr
apet
imbe
r’m-
pal
ama
tabwa‘
car
pent
er’

 l
ow-
am’
mal
o‘e
nte
rinpl
ace
’m-
lowa
mma
lo‘
subs
tit
ute
,p

 Al
soi
nChi
che
wa,
nounsa
ref
orme
dbyj
oi
ni
ngt
wonounsa
sil
l
ust
rat
edbe
low:

i
. Nj
oka l
uzi(
njok
aluz
i)

i
i
. Mwa
na be
re(
mwa
nabe
re)

i
i
i. Ut
aka f
umbi(
uta
kaf
umbi
)

 Anexampleofanomi
nalc ompoundinChi
bembaisnakul
u-ba
ntu(
elde
rlydi
sti
ngui
she
dwoma
n)
de
riv
edfromnakul
u(e
lde
rlywoma n)a
ndabantu(
peopl
e).

 I
nCis
ukwa,umuf
we-
mas
o(bl
i
ndpe
rson)i
snounde
riv
edf
romt
wonouns
:umuf
we(
dea
d)a
nd
mas
o(eye
s)

 I
nChi
tonga
,nounmwa
na-
mtonga(
are
alTonga
)isf
orme
dbyj
oi
ni
ngt
wonounsmwa
na(
chi
l
d)a
nd
Pa
ge18of18
 mt
onga(
atongape
rson)

 I
nSundal
a,t
hewordmwene-
misuk
u( owner
/rul
erofMi
suk
u)i
saals
oacompoundde
riv
edf
rom
t
wowordssepa
rat
ewordsmwene(owner)a
ndmi s
uku(
nameofa
na r
ea)
.

5.Nounde
riv
edf
romr
edupl
i
cat
ion
 I
nre
dupl
i
cat
ion,
thewhol
ewordorpa
rtsoft
hewor
dma
yber
epe
ate
d,a
ndt
hisi
snotv
erymuc
h
c
ommonins
omeBa nt
ulangua
ges
.

 I
nChi
chewa,
nounredupli
cat
ionsometi
mesaf
fec
tsonl
ythel
astt
wos
yll
abl
esort
hef
ina
lfootof
t
henoun(Mchombo,2004).
Thisiss
hownint
hefol
lowi
ng:

o mwa
muna‘
man,
mal
e’ mwa
muna
muna‘
re
alma
n’

o m-
kaz
i‘woma
n,f
ema
le’ mk
azı
kaz
i‘c
utea
ndc
ult
ure
dwoma
n’

o mu-
nthu‘
per
son’ munt
humunt
hu‘
are
alhuma
ne/pe
rson

6.Nounbor
rowe
dfr
omot
herl
angua
ges
 Borrowingmightwe ll
bethemos tcommons tr
ategytoe nri
chvocabula
riesinthel angua gesof
thewor l
d,andthisseemsa l
sotoapplytotheBa ntulanguages.
Onc eaforeignwor di sborrowed
from as ourc
el anguage,sucha sfore x
a mpleEnglish,theseloanwor dsa r eincorporated
i
nt otherespe
c t
ivenounclasss
y s
temsoft hespecif
icBa nt
ulanguage.Cla
s s9a ndc la
s s10s ee
m
tobet hedefaul
tc hoi
cesforclas
sa ssi
gnme nttoaccommoda teloansinmos tBa ntula nguage
s.

 I
nChi
che
wal
angua
ge,
thef
oll
owi
ngwor
dsha
vebe
enbor
rowe
d:

 Chi
hebe
ri:
Saba
ta,
ale
luy
a,a
me

 Chi
bemba
:Mus
he

7.Nounde
riv
edf
roma
dve
rbs
 I
nChi
che
wa,
fewwor
dsa
ref
orme
dfr
oma
dve
rbs
.

 He
re,
nounsa
ref
orme
dbya
ssi
gni
ngac
las
spr
efi
xtot
hea
dve
rbsa
sshownbe
low:

a
. Bwi
no(
good) ubwi
no(
goodne
ss)

b. k
ale(
old) c
hik
ale(
oldne
ss)

Pa
ge19of19
TOPI
C3:
NOUNPHRASESTRUCTURE
 Nounsdonotus
ual
l
yappe
ari
nis
ola
tion;
the
yof
tenoc
curwi
ths
omec
ompl
eme
nts
.

 Thehea
dnouninBant
ulanguage
scanbemodif
iedbynounphra
secons
titue
ntss
ucha
sadj
ect
ive
s,
demons
tra
tiv
es,
pos
sessi
ves,
numera
ls,
quant
if
ier
sandrela
tiv
econs
truc
tions.

 Ma
ho(
1999)na
mest
hes
eel
eme
ntsa
dnomi
nal
s.

 Ev
eryel
ementthatisa
ssoci
ate
dwitht
henounhast
oagre
ewi
thi
nt heso-
cal
l
edc onc
ordsys
tem.
Ea
chadnomina
l ha
sas e
tofa gr
eementpre
fix
eswhi
chgot
ogetherwit
hdif
fer
entnounc
las
ses
.

 Chi
che
waisastr
ict
lyhe
ad-i
ni
ti
all
anguage.
Wi t
hint
henounphras
e,thehea
dnounpr
ece
desi
ts
compl
eme
nts.
Theinter
nal
organi
zat
ionoftheNPcanbeil
l
ustr
atedbythefol
l
owi
ng:

 Noun+De
mmi
ká
ngói
yo‘
thos
eli
ons
’

 Noun+Nummi
ká
ngói
-t
´at
u‘t
hre
eli
ons
’

 Noun+As
soc
+Nounmi
ká
ngóyáúl
emu‘
l
ionsofr
espe
ct’

 Noun+As
soc
+inf
-Ve
rbmi
k´a
ngóyó-
saut
sa‘
bot
her
somel
i
ons
’

 Noun+Re
lat
ivec
laus
emi
ká
ngói
-m´e
néı́
-k u-
s´a
uts
a‘l
i
onswhi
chbot
her
’

 Noun+Pos
smi
ká
ngóy
-ˆa
thu‘
ourl
i
ons
’

Pa
ge20of20
  Noun+Adj
ect
ives
temmi
ká
ngóyáı́
k´ul
u‘bi
gli
ons

Ada
pte
dfr
omMc
hombo2004:
24

El
eme
ntsFor
mingNounPhr
ase
1.De
ter
mine
rs

 Dete
rmine
rsa
ref
ormstha
tareuse
dtois
ola
teormarka
nent
it
yde
signat
edbyt
henoun.They
cl
ari
fywhatanounisref
err
ingto.
Exa
mplesi
ncl
udet
hede
monst
rati
vesa
ndpos
sessi
ves.

a
. De
mons
tra
tiv
es

 Demons
tra
tiv
esinal
angua
gea
reus
edt
oma
ker
efe
renc
etoa
nent
it
y.The
yar
ema
jort
woof
de
monstr
ati
ves:

a
. Dis
talde
mons
tra
tiv
esa
sthos
etha
tar
eus
edt
oshowt
hatt
her
efe
renti
sfa
rawa
yfr
omt
he
spea
ker.

b. Pr
oxi
mal
demons
tra
tiv
esa
reus
edt
oshowt
hatt
her
efe
rentc
los
etot
hes
pea
ker
.

 Eachcl
asshasi
tsowndemonst
rati
vemark
erwhi
chf
ormsanagr
eementwi
ththecl
asspr
efi
xof
tha
tparti
cul
arnounc
lass
.Fort
hatreas
on,t
hede
monstr
ati
vef
ormsv
a r
yacr
ossthenouncl
ass
sys
temsasshownintheexa
mplesbel
ow:

1.Mi
-ka
ngoi
-yo y
a-pha a
lenj
e.

4-
li
ons 4SM-
dem 4SM-
kil
l2-
hunt
er (
Thos
eli
onsha
vek
il
le
dthehunt
ers
)

2.M-
kangou-
wo wa
-pha a
-le
nje

3-
li
on 3SM-
dem 3SM-
kil
l2-
hunt
er (
Tha
tli
onha
ski
l
ledt
hehunt
ers
)

3.Mwa
-na u-
yu wa
-pha a
lenj
e.

1-
chi
l
d 1SM-
dem 1SM-
kil
l2-
hunt
er (
Thi
schi
l
dha
ski
l
ledt
hehunt
ers
)

4.A-
na a
-wa a
-pha a
-le
nje

2-
chi
l
dre
n 2SM-
dem 2SM-
kil
l2-
hunt
er(
The
sec
hil
dre
nha
vek
il
le
dthehunt
ers
)

b.
Pos
ses
siv
es

 Apos
sessi
veforminv
olv
esarel
ati
onshi
pwhichex
ist
sbe t
weensomeonewhopos
ses
ses
s
omethi
ng( aposs
ess
or)andt
heitemt ha
tispos
sesse
d( t
heposse
ssed)
.

 I
nsomeBantul
angua
ges
,thepos
ses
siv
eisf
orme
dbya
tta
chi
nga
nappr
opr
iat
ecl
assc
onc
ord
t
oapos
ses
siv
estem.

Pa
ge21of21
  Anill
ustr
a t
ionofthestr
uc t
ural
proper
tie
sofpos
se ssi
vesi
nBa nt
uisgivenbyPet
zel
l(2002)for
Kimwani-alanguagespokeninnort
hernMozambique.Pet
zell
notesthatpos
ses
siv
esareformed
byaddingclasspr
efi
xesofthepossess
ednounstot hepos
sessi
vepronounswhi
chare-ŋgu(my)
and-it
u( our)
.Thefol
lowingexample
sfromKimwa nila
nguageareprovi
dedbyPet
zell
(2002:
94) .

a
.I ye kani
gwira pa
k i
swa pangu
I
ye k a
-ni
-gw-i
ra pa-ki-
swa pa-ngu
i
t 1SM-1sOM-fa
ll
-APPL16-7-
head 16-POSS (
Itf
ell
onmyhe
ad)

b. Mwamalume ka y
a kunyumba y et
u k
ati
pa wa
raka
mw- a
nanlumeka-ja ku-nyumba ya-i
tu k a-
ti
-pa wara
ka
1-man 1SM- c
ome 17- 9-house 9-
POSS 1SM-1pOM-
giv
e9.l
ette
r
(Themanc ametoourhous
ea ndga v
eusalet
ter
)

 In(
a)a
bove,t
hewordpa
ngu(
my)i
stheposse
ssi
ve.
Thepos
sess
ivepr
onounnguispre
fix
edby
pawhi
chistheclas
s16agr
eeme
ntma rk
er.Thi
sshowstheheadast hel
oca
tionon
whi
chsomet
hingf
ell
.

 In(b)abov
e,yet
u(our)i
st hepos
ses
siv
ema rke
r.I
tisac
ombi
nat
ionoft
hepos
ses
siv
e
pronouni
tuandt
heagr
eementmark
eryaofc
las
s9.

2.Adj
ect
ive
s

 Inthe
irfunct
ionasadnomi
nals
,adj
ecti
vesar
eusedinanounphr a
setospe
cifys
omeproper
tyof
theheadnounofthephrase(
Payne1997:
63).
Becauseadj
ect
ive
st ak
ethesamepre
fixa
sthe
nounits
e l
f,
theya
res omet
imesref
err
edtoas(de
pe nde
nt)nominal
.

 Cons
ide
rthef
oll
owi
nge
xampl
est
ake
nfr
omNde
nge
rek
o.

i
. k
yɪmbwa k
iyʊm
́ʊ

k
iɪmbwa k
i-y
ʊmʊ

7.
wel
l 7NCP-dr
y ‘
drywe
ll
’

i
i
. ma
lómbé ma
yʊm
́ʊ

ma
lombe ma
-yʊmʊ

6.
mai
ze 6NCP-dr
y‘dr
yma
ize
’

Not
e:NounCl
assPr
efi
x(NCP)i
sthes
amea
sSubj
ectMa
rke
r(SM)
.

 The
rea
rev
eryf
ew‘
pur
e’a
dje
cti
ves
temsi
nChi
che
wa.
The
sea
rei
dent
if
iedbyt
hef
actt
hatt
hey

Pa
ge22of22
 takedoubl
epr ef
ixat
ion.Essent
ial
ly,t
henoun- c
lassma r
keri
spref
ixe
dtothea dj
ecti
vestemfi
rst
,
thentheassoci
ativ
ema r
kerisaddedtowhi c
ht hecla
ssma r
keri
sre-at
tac
hed.Thee x
ample
i
llus
trat
esthepoint.Thea dj
ect
ives t
emi s–kul
u‘big.
’Tothi
sthecl
assma r
ker[i]f
orcla
ss4
whichhasmi k
ango‘lions’
ispref
ixed,yie
ldi
ngikulu.
Thentheass
ociat
ivemarker-ai
sa t
tache
d,
towhichtheclassma rke
risprefi
xeda gai
n.

1.Noun+Adj
ect
ives
tem mi
-ka
ngo y
a-ı
-kul
u

4SM-
li
on 4SM-
Ass
oc-
big (
bigl
i
ons
)

 Thef
ull
setofs
ucha
dje
cti
ves
temsi
nChi
che
wai
spr
ovi
dedbe
low:

 -
muna‘
mal
e’

 -
kaz
i‘f
ema
le’

 -
ng’
ono‘
sma
ll
’

 -
kul
u‘bi
g’

 -
wis
i‘unr
ipe
’

 -
kal
i‘
fi
erc
e,f
eroc
ious
’

 -
fupi
‘shor
t’

 -
tal
i‘
long,
tal
l
’

 -
nyi
nj
i‘
pl
ent
y,ma
ny

 Aswec
ans
eef
romt
hes
eex
ampl
esbe
low,
nounsnor
mal
l
ypr
ece
demodi
fi
ersi
nChi
che
wa.

 mu-
nthuwá
-m̩ -
kul
u‘bi
gma
n(c
las
s1)
’

 m̩ -
kóndówá
-wú-
tal
i‘
longs
pea
r(c
las
s3)
’

 k
álá
tay
á-y
í-t
ali
‘l
ongl
ett
er(
cla
ss9)
’

 t
i-
n-k
húk
útá
-tí
-ng’
ono‘
sma
llc
hic
kens(
cla
ss13)
’

3.Nume
ral
s

 Numeralsca
nbede f
ineda
ss ymbol
sorwordstha
tde not
enumerous
ity.
Forexampl
e,i
nthe
Engl
is
hs ent
ence
,‘t
herear
et hr
eeappl
esi
nt heba
g’,t
hewordthr
e er
e pr
ese
ntsthenumberof
appl
esthatareintheba g.Numeral
scanbedi vi
dedintocar
dinalnumbersandordi
nal
numbers.

Pa
ge23of23
a
. Ca
rdi
nal
numbe
rs

 Ca
rdi
nal
nume
ral
sar
enumbe
rst
hats
pec
if
ythenumbe
rofe
nti
ti
es.

 Petzel
l(2002:93)a lsopr e
sentsnume ral
si nKimwa niandt heiragree
me ntpa t
ter
ns.Itis
showntha tinthelanguage,anume rala
ttac
hesanounc l
asspref
ixofthenounitismodifyi
ng.
Forexampl e
,inthephr as
esrinor i
moja(onetoot
h),thenume r
aloner i
mojat ak
e sagr
eement
pref
ixriofclass5whe rethewor drino(t
ooth)bel
ongs.Simil
arl
y,inthephrasemunummoj a ,
thewordforpe rsonmunui sa ss
ignedtocla
ss1.Assuc h,t
henume ralat
tachestheagree
me nt
ma r
kerofc l
assonef orKimwa niwhichi
sm.

 Consi
dert
hefol
lowi
ngexampl
esofc
ardi
nal
nume
ral
s(Chi
che
wa)whe
reNCPoft
henouni
s
pre
fix
edtothenumer
als
:

1.mi
kango i
-t
atu

4-
li
ons 4SM-
thr
ee ‘
thr
eel
i
ons
’

2.ma
-kumi a
-wi
ri

6-
tens 6SM-
two (
twot
ens
/twe
nty
)

b. Or
dina
ls

 Zorc
andNibagwi
re(2007)st
atesthatordi
nal
sa r
eaformofnume
ral
stha
tse
tit
emsi
n
numeri
cal
orderori
nas er
ies
,suchasfir
st,
second,t
hir
d.

 Mte nj
e(2016)notest hatordinalnume ra
lsinSuNda laareforme dbyass
igningthecardinal
numbe rwordstoclass14. Thema rkeruse dtoshowa ssocia
tiveconst
ruc
tionswhichisai s
fol
l
owe dbyt heste
msf orthec a
rdinalnumbe rs
.Itisonlytheordinal
nume ral
sequiv
alentt ofi
rst
andl a
stthatdonotus et hecardi
na l
stems .Forthenume ralfi
rstthever
b, -aa
ndil
abe ginand
thatforthewordlastt heverbma l
il
af i
nishareusedt ocointheseter
ms.Be l
owa r
et heor di
nal
nume ral
ssharedbyspe akersofallSuNda Lavari
e t
ies:

 1st uβwa
andí
l
o

 2nd úβuβi
l
i

 3rd úβut
atu

 4th uβuná
ayi

 La
stuβuma
li
lo (
Mte
nje2016:
259)

 Justastheothe
rmodi fi
ersdi
scus
sedabove
,theordina
l numera
lsal
wa y
socc
uraft
erthehea
d
noun.Forexample
, t
heformforfi
rstbor
nchil
dwouldbeumwá anawaauβwaandí
lowhilef
or
secondbornchi
lditisumwá a
nawa aúβuβi
li
.Inbothexa mpl
es,
theordi
nal
suβwaandíl
oand
úβuβili
occuraf
terthenounumwá ana.(Mtenj
e2016: 259)
Pa
ge24of24
4.Qua
nti
fi
ers

 Aqua
nti
fi
eri
saf
unc
tiona
lwor
dtha
tpr
ovi
desi
nde
fini
tei
ndi
cat
ionofqua
nti
ty.

a
. Qua
ntif
iersinSets
wa na
1)ba tho bot tl
e baat
samaya
ba-tho bo- tle ba -a-
tsamay
-a
2-people2NCP- all3pSM-PRES-
go-
FV
(All
t hepeopl
ea regoi
ng)

2)ba tho ba ngwe ba ats

ama ya
ba-tho ba -
ngwe ba -a
-tsa
ma y-a
2-people2NCP- some3pSM- PRES-go-FV
(Somepe oplearegoing)
 In(1)a nd(2),thequantif
ier
sbot l
ea ndba ngweindi
cat
eaninde
fini
teamountofthenoun
batho( people
).Thequa nti
fi
ersareat
tachedtothepref
ixbo-whi
chisagree
me ntpre
fixf
or
nounc lasstwot owhichthenounba t
hobe l
ongs.

b. Quantif
ier
sinChic
hewa
 Someoft hequa
ntif
iers
temsinChi
chewaare–chepa(fe
w) ,
-ngapo(s
ome),
-mbi
ri(
ma ny
/some
),
ndi–na(some).
Inbelowexa
mples,
quanti
fi
ersa
r epre
fix
edwi thaNouncl
asspr
efi
x.
3)A- na e-na a-
da-dy
-a nsi
ma( Somec hi
l
drena
tensi
ma )

2-
chi
l
dre
n2SM-
some 2SM-
pas
t-e
at-
FV 9-
nsi
ma

4)A-
na o-
nse a
-da
-dy
-a ns
ima(
All
chi
l
dre
nat
ens
ima
)

2-
chi
l
dre
n2SM-
all 2SM-
PT-
eat
-FV 9-
nsi
ma

c
. Quant
if
ier
sinCi
suk
wa,
Cil
amby
a
5)aβánduβóse
a
-βá-nduβa -
óse

AUG-
2pe
opl
e2-
all (
All
thepe
opl
e)

d. Qua
nti
fi
ersi
nCindal
i
6)Aβánt
u βóʃ
e

a
-βá
-ndu βo-
óʃe

a
ug-
2-pe
opl
e2-
all (
All
thepe
opl
e)

 I
nexa
mples(5)a
nd( 6),t
hequantif
ierβóse
/βóʃeappe
araft
erthenouna
βándu/a
βánt.I
n
a
ddi
ti
on,
theyoccurwiththepre
fixfornouncl
ass2βo.Thi
sisi
na gr
eeme
ntwitha
βándu/
a
βánt
uwhichbel
ongt othisc
las
s.
Pa
ge25of25
 Mt
enj
e2016:
261

5.Re
lat
ivi
sat
ion

 Arel
ati
vecla
useisdes
cri
beda samodif
ierofthenounthatisi
ntr
oduc
edbyar
ela
tiv
e
pr
onoun.I
nEngl
is
h,t
hepronounca
nbe
:that,whi
ch,
whoseorwhom.

 I
nChi
che
wa,
acc
ordi
ngt
oMc
hombo(
2004)r
ela
tiv
econs
truc
tionsoc
curi
ntwof
orms
.

a
. Thefi
rsttypeha
stherel
ati
vemar
ker-mėne(t
hat)
,whi
chi
ntr
oduc
est
her
ela
tiv
ecl
aus
e.I
tha
s
thev
ari
a nt–omwe(tha
t)whic
hhasanall
omorph-
emwe.

b. These
condtypeofthere
lat
ivec
lauseusesaninv
ari
ant-
o.I
tiss
uff
ixe
dtot
hev
erba
ndpr
efi
xed
wit
hama r
kerforagre
ementwit
ht here
lati
vi
sedhea
dnoun

Re
lat
ivi
zat
ioni
nChi
che
wa:
TheRe
lat
iveMa
rke
r-me
ne

 Therelat
ivec
lausei
nChic
hewai scomparabletor
ela
tiv
e-cl
auseconstr
uct
ioninEngli
sh.The
re
lati
viz
edheadnounappearsini
tia
ll
ywithintheNPconfi
gura
tion.There
lati
vecl
auseis
i
ntroducedbythemark
er-me ne.Tothi
srelati
vemarke
rispre
fixedthecl
assmarkerforthe
headnoun.Thi
sisil
l
ustr
atedinthesente
nc esbel
ow:

a
. A-
nya
nı a
-me
ne a
-ku-
b-a mı
-ka
ndaa
-ku-
dz-é
ts-á c
his
okone
zo.

2-
baboons2SM-
rel2SM-
pre
s-s
tea
l-f
v4-
bea
ds 2SM-
pre
s-c
ome
-ca
us-
fv 7-
conf
usi
on

‘
Theba
boonst
hata
res
tea
li
ngbe
adsa
rebr
ingi
ngc
onf
usi
on.
’

b. Mi
kanda i
-me
ne a
nya
nı a
-ku-
b-a ndi y
-a a
kaz
ı

4-
bea
ds 4SM-
rel2-
baboons2SM-
pre
s-s
tea
l-f
v be 4SM-
ass
oc 2-
wome
n

a
-ku Ma
ngoc
hi.

2SM-
ass
oca
-17-
loc Ma
ngoc
hi

‘
Thebe
adst
hatt
heba
boonsa
res
tea
li
ngbe
longt
othewome
nfr
omMa
ngoc
hi.
’

 Not
etha
tbot
hthes
ubj
ectNPa
ndt
heobj
ectNPc
anber
ela
tiv
ize
d.(
Mchombo2004)

Re
lat
ivi
sat
ioni
nsomeBa
ntul
anga
uge
s

 Int
hei
Cibe
mbae
xampl
esa
bov
e,t
hede
mons
tra
tiv
eil
yoi
sus
eda
sther
ela
tiv
ema
rke
rass
hon
bel
ow.

1.i
buk
uil
j
oumul
endoa
kabe
lenga

i
-buk
u i
-l
j-
o u-
mu-
lume
ndoa
-ka
-be
lenga

AUG-
5-bookAUG-
5-RELAUG-
1-boy 3SM-
FUT-
rea
d

Pa
ge26of26
 (
Thebookt
hatt
heboywi
l
lre
ad)

 Int
heChis
honae x
ampl
esbe
low,t
heposs
ess
ivema
rke
rsha
ver
ela
tiv
epr
onouns
tat
us.
Thi
sca
n
bes
eeni
nthefi
rstex
ampl
ewi
ththefor
mdza.
2.Ndí
mí dz
avá
nót
aúr
a.
n-
dímí dz
a-v
á-nót
aúr
a
10-
langua
ge10.
REL-
1pSM-
spe
ak (
Thel
angua
gest
hatwes
pea
k)
3.Mus
i wa
nda
kas
ika
.
mu-
si wa
-nd-
aka
-si
ka
3-
day 3.
REL-
1sSM-
PST-
arr
ive(
Theda
yonwhi
chIa
rri
ved)

VERBALMORPHOLOGY

THEBANTUVERBSTEM
 TheBa ntuve
rbstemisbranche
dintoinfl
ect
ionandmacrost
em. Undertheinf
lec
tion, t
her
eis
thenegati
vepref
ix,s
ubje
ctma r
ker,
theinfi
ni
tiv
ema r
kerandtens
ema r
ker.Themac rostemis
div
idedintot
heobjectmarke
randtheinfl
ecti
onals
tem.Thei
nfle
c t
ionals
temi ss
plitintothe
deri
vati
onalst
ema ndthefi
nalvowel
.

 Theder
iva
tiona
lst
emisspli
tintot
hever
br ootandext
ensi
on.
Extens
ionsi
ncl
udeca
usa
tiv
e,
appl
i
cat
ivesandpa
ssi
vesanda l
lot
here
xtensions
.Le
tuslookatt
hisstr
uct
uredi
agr
ammati
cal
l
y.

Pa
ge27of27
  Le
tusnowputt
hes e
ntenc
esindi
mulembe
rer
a‘Iwi
llnotwr
it
eforher
’inthedi
agr
am.(sii
sthe
ne
gati
vema
rker
,ndi–subj
ectmarke
r,mu–istheobjec
tmarke
randeristhea
ppli
cat
ive
mark
er)
.

 Put
sthi
swor
dinadi
agr
am:Si
mudz
andi
pat
sa

St
ruct
ureofChiche
waVerb
 Chi che
wav er
bha
sthef
oll
owi
ngc
ompone
ntsa
sthec
asei
swi
ths
ı-u-
ku-
ka-
ngo-
zı-
thy
ol-
ets
el-
a
-nso.
a.Inf
lec
tion

1.Negat
ivepr
efi
x

Pa
ge28of28
 2.Subj
ectMa
rke
r

3.(
Nega
tiv
epr
efi
x/Condi
ti
ona
lma
rke
r)

4.TenseMar
ker

5.Di
rec
tiona
lMa
rke
rs(
-ka
-/-
dza
-)

6.Modal
s(-
nga
-,-
ngo-
,-z
i-,
-ba
-)

b. Obj
ectMa
rke
r

7.Obj
ectMa
rke
r

c
. De
riv
ati
ona
lst
em

8.Ver
bal
Radi
cal

9.Ver
bal
Ext
ens
ions
/de
riv
ati
ves

d. Fi
nal
Vowe
l

10.
Fi
nal
Vowe
l(Subj
unc
tiv
e)

e
. Enc
li
ti
c

11.
Enc
li
ti
cs

VERBALDERI
VATI
VESI
NBANTULANGUAGES

 Asaresul
tofthi
shighlyaggl
uti
nati
v enatur
e,Bant
ulanguageshav
ealotofv
e r
bal
deri
vat
ive
s
tha
tareaddedassuffi
xestotheverb.Inthi
sc a
se,
weme ant hev
erbact
sasroott
owhich
suf
fi
xesareat
tached.Thesesuff
ixe
sc hangethebas
icmeaningofave
rbroot
.Inothe
rwords,
i
tmodifi
estheme a
ningoftheverbroots.

 The
ses
uff
ixe
sar
eal
sok
nowna
sex
tens
ions
.Be
lowa
res
omeoft
hee
xte
nsi
ons
.

1.Appl
i
edora
ppl
i
cat
ivee
xte
nsi
on
 Rootsthati
ncor
por
atethi
sext
ens
ioni
ndi
cat
et ha
ttheact
ionoftheverbi
sca
r r
iedoutonbeha
lf
ofortothedetr
ime
ntofsomeper
son,
thi
ng,orpl
ace.
Inotherwords
,themeani
ngthissuf
fi
x
car
ri
e si
stodosomethi
ngfor
.

 Thea
ppl
i
cat
ivee
xte
nsi
onc
anbes
eeni
ntheChi
che
waa
ndt
shi
Vendae
xampl
esbe
low:

 I
nci
Cewa
,thea
ppl
i
cat
ivei
sei
the
r–i
lor-
elde
pendi
ngonv
owe
lha
rmony

Chi
che
wa

Pa
ge29of29
 l
embel
a - wri
tefor
l
emb - wri
te
e
l - appl
i
cati
vemarker
a - f
inalv
owel

menye
la-beatf
or
meny-beat
e
l - appl
i
cati
vema
rke
r
a - fi
nalv
owel

t
shiVenda
-
elist
hea ppl
i
cati
vemor phe
me
li
ma - plough → l
ime
la -
ploughf
or
shuma - wor k → shumel
a -wor
kfor
ruma- se
nd → rumela- se
ndfor
renga- buy → r
engel
a- buyfor
a mba- speak → ambe
la- speakf
or

2.Pa
ssi
vee
xte
nsi
on
 Thi
ssuff
ixe
xpres
sestha
tthever
bisinthepassi
veform.Agai
n,l
ookattheChic
hewaand
ts
hiVe
ndaexample
s.InChi
chewa,
theextens
ionisei
ther–i
dw-or–edw-dependi
ngonvowe
l
har
monywhilei
ntsi
Vendai
tis–i
w-
Chic
hewa Passi
veforms

Phi
ka - Cook phi
kidwa - becooked
menya - Beat meny e
dwa - bebeate
n
ses
a - Sweep ses
edwa - beswept
l
emba - Writ
e l
embe dwa - bewri
tten

TsiVenda
vhona - See vhoniwa - besee
n
vul
a - Open Vuliwa - beope
ned
fhata - Bui
ld fhahwa - bebui
lt

3.Ca
usa
tiv
eex
tens
ion
 Whenyouuset
hecaus
ati
vee
xtensi
on,i
tshowst
hats
ome
oneors
ome
thi
ngc
aus
edape
rsonor
t
hingt
ocarr
youtt
heacti
onexpr
esse
dinthever
b.

 Wea
regoi
ngt
opr
ovi
dee
xampl
esi
nChi
che
waa
ndt
shi
Venda
.

 I
nChi
che
wa,–ets
-a i
nd-t
s-a
ret
hec
aus
ati
vee
xte
nsi
onsa
ndt
hec
hoi
cei
sma
dede
pendi
ngon
v
owel
harmony
.

c
iCe
wa

Pa
ge30of30
Ve
rb Ca
usa
tiv
efor
ms

menya - beat Meny e

tsa - c
aus
etobeat
phi
ka - cook Phi
k i
tsa - c
aus
etocook
l
emba - wri
te Lembetsa - c
aus
etowrit
e
tse
gul
a - open Tsegul
its
a - c
aus
etoopen

t
shiVenda
-
is-ist
hecaus
ati
vema
rke
r

s
huni
sa - c
aus
e t
o
shuma - wor
k
work
l
umba - bi
te Lumi
sa - c
aus
etobi
te

v
hona - s
ee Vhoni
sa - c
aus
etos
ee
i
mba - s
ing I
mbisa - ca
uset
osi
ng

l
i
ma - pl
ough Li
mis
a - c
aus
etopl
ough

4.Re
cipr
oca
lex
tens
ion
 Thisext
ensi
onexpre
sse
sthata
nact
ionisca
rri
edoutmutual
lybythepar
ti
ci
pant
sinvol
ved.The
re
cipr
ocalex
tensi
oninmostBa
ntul
anguage
sis–an-.Obse
rvetheexampl
esbel
owinChiche
wa,
ts
iVendaandCit
umbuka.

Chi
che
wa
Me ny
a - beat me ny a
na - beate
achother
Ona - se
e ona na - se
ee a
chothe r
Konda - l
ove konda na - l
oveeachother
funatsi
Venda- want funa na - wanteac
hot her

Vhona - s
ee v
hona na - s
eeoneanothe
r
Funa - l
ove f
unana - l
oveeac
hother
Sema - s
wear s
ema na - s
we a
ratoneanot
her
vhi
dza
-ca
ll vhi
dza
na - ca ll
onea
nothe
r

5.Ne
ute
r/St
ati
ve

 Thesta
tiv
ec ons
truc
tioninChic
hewaisder
ive
dthroughthesuff
ixat
ionof-ik-or–ek-(depe
nding
onvowelhar
mony )t
oat r
ansi
ti
veverb.
TheNPthatwa stheobj
ectbe c
ome sthesubj
ecta
ndt he
for
mersubje
c ti
snote x
press
ibl
e,notev
enasanobli
quefuncti
on.Thisisi
l
lustra
tedbel
ow:

a
. Mbi
dzı z
i-na
-pı
nd-
a ma
uta
.
Pa
ge31of31
10-
zebr
as10SM-
pst
-be
nd-
fv6-
bows

‘
Thez
ebr
asbe
ntt
hebows
.’

b. Ma
utaa
-na
-pi
nd-
ik-
a(*ndı
mbı
dzi
).

6-
bows6SM-
pst
-be
nd-
sta
t-f
v(*by10-
zebr
as)

‘
Thebowsgotbe
nt(
*byt
hez
ebr
as)
.’

c
. Ak
azi
tape a
-ku-
onong-
a nj
ı
nga
.

2-
spi
es 2SM-
pre
s-da
mag
e-f
v10-
bic
ycl
es

‘
Thes
pie
sar
eda
magi
ngt
hebi
cyc
les
.’

d. Nj
i
nga z
i-k
u-onong-
ek-
a(*ndı
aka
zit
ape
).

10-
bic
ycl
es10SM-
pre
s-da
mage
-st
at-
fv(
*by2-
spi
es)

‘
Thebi
cyc
lesa
rege
tti
ngda
mage
d(*byt
hes
pie
s).
’

e
. Ma
uta o-
pınd-
ık-
a

6-
bows6a
ssoc
-be
nd-
sta
t-f
v

‘
Bowst
hata
rebe
nt(
bentbows
)’

f
. Nj
i
nga z
o-onong-
ek-
a

10-
bic
ycl
es10a
ssoc
-da
mage
-fv

‘
Dama
gedbi
cyc
les
’

 Theinabi
l
ityt
ohavethes
ubj
ec tofthetra
nsi
ti
vever
bexpr
ess
edmarkst
hemini
mal
dif
fer
enc
e
bet
we e
nt hes
tat
ivec
onst
ruc
tiona ndthepas
siv
e,whi
chi
tcl
osel
yre
sembl
es.

6.I
nte
nsi
ve

 Thi
sex
tens
ioni
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hea
cti
onha
sbe
endonet
othema
ximumort
hor
oughl
yli
ke

a
. Nj
i
nga z
a-t
chi
p-i
tsi
ts-
a

9-
bic
icl
es 9SM-
che
ap-
Int
-Fv

(
Thebi
cyc
lesa
rev
eryv
eryc
hea
p)

7.Re
dupl
i
cat
ion

 InChi
chewa
,thever
bstemisthepartoft
hever
buni
ttha
tge t
sredupl
ic
ate
d.Noneoft
heverba
l
pref
ixe
spar
ti
cipa
tesi
nthi
sprocess
.Thusgiv
enanex
pres
sionsuc
ha s:
Page32of32
 a
. Any
ani a
-ma
-ma
ng-
it
s-i
l
-an-
a z
isa
kas
akwamı
kango.

2-
baboons2SM-
hab-
bui
l
d-c
aus
-appl
-r
eci
p-f
v8-
hut
s by 4-
li
ons

‘
Theba
boonsge
thut
sbui
l
tfore
achot
herby(
att
heha
ndsof
)thel
i
ons
.’

 Onege
tst
hef
oll
owi
ngr
edupl
i
cat
edv
ers
iont
oca
ptur
ethei
deaoff
reque
ntorr
epe
ate
dac
tiv
ity
:

b. Any
anı
a-ma
-[ma
ng-
it
s-i
l
-an-
a]-
[ma
ng-
it
s-i
l
-an-
a]z
isa
kas
akwamı
kango.

Theba
boonsf
reque
ntl
yge
thut
sbui
l
tfore
achot
herbyt
hel
i
ons
.’

8.Ther
eve
rsi
ve

 There
vers
ivei
sacommonsuff
ixthatdoe
snotaff
ectthenumberofthear
gument
stha
tthede
riv
ed
ver
btake
s.I
nChic
hewa,
thi
sissigna
ledbythes
uff
ix-ul-
,asshowninthef
oll
owi
ng:

a
.ts
ek-
a‘s
hut
’ t
sek
-ul
-a/t
segul
-a‘
ope
n’

b. v
-al
-a‘
dre
ssup’
v-ul
-a‘
undr
ess
’

c
.ya
l-a‘
spr
ead’ y
al-
ul-
a‘uns
pre
ad’

d. ma
t-a‘
st
ick
’ ma
t-ul
-a‘
ungl
ue’

e
. ma
ng-
a‘t
ieup’ma
s-ul
-a‘
unt
ie’

 Ty
pic
ale
xampl
esoft
her
eve
rsi
vec
ons
truc
tiona
res
hownbe
low:

a
. Any
anı a
-ku-
tse
k-a z
ene
la.

2-
baboons2SM-
pre
s-s
hut5-
window

‘
Theba
boonsa
res
hut
ti
ngt
hewi
ndow.
’

b. Any
anı a
-ku-
tse
k-ul
-a z
ene
la.

2-
baboons2SM-
pre
s-s
hut
-re
v-f
v5-
window

‘
Theba
boonsa
reope
ningt
hewi
ndow.
’

 Thi
ssuff
ixisnolonge
rproduc t
iveanditonl
yappe
arswit
has ma
lls
etofver
bs.
Inotherwords
,iti
s
notfr
eel
ya f
fi
xedtootherverbs.Fori
nstanc
e,t
her
eistheve
rbkwel
-a‘
cli
mbup’whoseantony
mi s
not*kwe
l-ul-
a,or*pi
tul
a,*chapulaetc
.’

Pa
ge33of33
COMMONTENSECATEGORI
ESOFBANTULANGUAGES

 The
rea
ret
hre
ema
inc
ate
gor
iesoft
ens
e:t
huspa
st,
pre
senta
ndf
utur
e.

1.Pa
stTe
nse

 Thi
sindi
cat
esome
thi
ngha
ppe
nedwa
yba
ck

 I
nChi
che
wa,
weha
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngpa
stt
ens
ema
rke
rs

a
. Pa
stha
bit
ual
–ma
-

b. Si
mpl
epa
st–na
-/-
da-

c
. Pa
stc
ont
inuous–nk
a-/-
dal
i+-
ku-

2.Pr
ese
ntt
ens
e

 Re
fer
stoas
itua
tionc
oex
tens
ivewi
tht
hemome
ntofs
pee
ch.

 I
tist
het
imebe
twe
ent
hepa
sta
ndt
hepr
ese
nt,
ont
het
ime
li
ne.

 Weha
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngpa
stt
ens
ema
rke
rsi
nChi
che
wa

a
. Pr
ese
ntpa
rti
ci
pl
e:-
a-

b. Pr
ese
ntc
ont
inuous
:-k
u-

c
. Pr
ese
ntha
bit
ual
:-ma
-

d. Pr
ese
ntpe
rfe
ctc
ont
inuous
/pr
ogr
ess
ive
:-k
hal
a+-
ku-

3.Fut
uret
ens
e

 Thi
sshowst
hats
ome
thi
ngwi
l
lha
ppe
n

a
.fut
uret
ens
e:–dz
a-

b. f
utur
eha
bit
ual
/cont
inuous
:-z
idz
a-

c
.fut
urepe
rfe
ct:
-dz
akha
la+-
ta-

St
udyt
heda
tabe
lowa
nds
eehowf
utur
ete
nsei
spor
tra
yedi
ndi
ff
ere
ntl
angua
ges

Pa
ge34of34
SYNTCTI
CSTRUCTURESOFBANTULANGUAGES

Thebasicwor
dor derofBant
ul angua ge
s
 Theba si
cwordor de
rofBa nt
ul anguage
si st
hatofsubj
ectverbobj
ectorder
.Thisme
ansa
basi
csent
enceinBantula
ngua gewi l
lst
a r
twithasubj
ect(doerofanact
ion)the
naverb
andendswit
ha nobjec
t(thepers onorthi
ngonwhi c
hana cti
onisdoneupon).
 Cons i
dert
hefoll
owingexamples.
Chi
che
wa

1.Aga
lua
kudy
aany
ani
.

Thedogsa
ree
ati
ngt
hemonk
ey

Aga
lu=s
ubj
ect
,ve
rb=a
kudy
a,a
nya
ni=obj
ect
Pa
ge35of35
2.Any
ani
adz
aonamot
o.

a
nya
ni=s
ubj
ect
,ve
rb=a
dza
ona
,mot
o=obj
ectThemonk
eyswi
l
lse
efi
re.

Ci
yao
Mbwaz i
kul
yany
ama.
Thedogsar
eeati
ngmea
t.

Mbwa=s
ubj
ect
,zi
kul
ya=v
erb,
nya
ma=obj
ect

Ci
tumbuk
a
Mwanawal
utakunyumba
Thec
hil
dhasgonehome
Mwana=subj
ect,
wa l
uta
=ve
rb,
kuny
umba
=obj
ect

 I
tcanbeobs e
r v
ed,i
nallt
hesentence
sa bov
e,tha
tthesubje
ctcomesfi
rst
, a
ndfol
lowe dbythever
b
a
ndfinal
l
yt heobje
ct.Forins
tance,
intheCiyaoexa
mple,mbwa=‘dog’whichi
sas ubj
ectappea
rs
f
ir
stz
,ik
ulya,thever
bcome sseond.Ny
c amaisanobje
ctandappear
sont hela
stpos i
ti
on.

SOMEOBSERVATI
ONSONWORDORDER

 InChic
hewa,heobj
ectnomi
nalmus
toccuraf
terandbeadj
ace
nttot
hever
b.Howe
ver
,thes
ubj
ect
nominali
tse
lfca
nbedispl
ace
dtopost
-ver
balpos
iti
on,a
sshownbel
ow:

I
kus
akaz
iga
wengami
kango

‘
Thel
i
onsa
rehunt
ingt
het
err
ori
sts
.’

 Al
thought
hes
ubj
ectnomi
nal
canbedi
spl
ace
dtoa
ppe
arpos
tve
rba
ll
y,i
tca
nnotdi
sruptt
he
Pa
ge36of36
 v
erb–obj
ects
eque
nce
.Thuss
ent
enc
e(3)
,be
low,
isungr
amma
tic
al:

*I
-ku-
sak
-ami
kangoz
iga
wenga

 InChi
che
wa ,
thi
sbas
icwordor
derisdi
srupt
edwhe
ntheobj
ectmar
keri
sinc
lude
d.Usua
ll
ythe
obj
ectmark
erisi
mmedia
tel
yatt
achedtotheve
rbst
em.Lookatt
heexa
mplebelow:

Aga
lua
kuwa
dyaa
gal
u

Thedogsa
ree
ati
ngt
hedogs

 I
nthi
ssente
nce
,thev
erbs
tem“
dya
”ist
hev
erbs
tema
ndt
heobj
ectma
rke
r–wa
-ispl
ace
dbe
for
e
t
hever
bs t
em.

 Whentheobj
ectmar
kerha
sbeeni
ncl
ude
dinas e
ntenc
e,t
heele
ments(
Subj
ectVe
rbObj
ect
)can
oc
curf
reel
y.Thear
gumentsc
ancomebef
oreoraf
tert
hever
borthe
ycanfol
loweac
hot
her.

 Consi
dert
hes
ente
ncesbel
owwhe
re:
aga
lu=t
hedogs
,a=s
ubj
ectma
rke
r,z
i=obj
ectma
rke
r,dy
a=
eat
,mbala
me=thebi
rds.

a)Agal
uakuz
idyamba l
a me
b)Akuz
idy
amba l
a meag al
u
c)Mbal
ameakuzidyaagalu
d)Agal
umbalamea kuz
idya
e)Mbal
ameagalua k
uzidya

 I
nthe
ses
ent
enc
esa
gal
uist
hes
ubj
ect
,ak
uzi
dyat
hev
er emba
bwhi
l lamei
stheobj
ect
.

 In(
a)t
hebasi
cSVOorde
risfol
l
owe dbuti
not
herc
ase
siti
sre
arr
ange
dandy
ett
hegr
amma
tic
ali
ty
oft
hesent
enc
eiss
til
lmai
nta
ined.

 Fori
nst
ancei
n( c
)weha v
etheobj
ectc
omi
ngf
ir
stf
oll
owe
dbyt
hev
erba
kuz
idy
aandf
ina
ll
yendi
ng
wit
hthesubj
ectagal
u.

CLAUSETYPES

1.I
ntr
ansi
ti
v e
 Iti
saonepl acev
erb.
 Sentencesdonothavea
nobject
.
 Forexample,Buk
ulagwa(Thebookha
sfa
ll
endown)
 Onepl a
cev e
rb–gw-

Pa
ge37of37
2.Tr
ans
iti
ves.
 Sentenc
est
ha thaveadi
rec
tobje
ct
 Forexampl
e,Chik
ondawakati
mbaChi
mwe
mwe(
Chi
kondabe
atChi
mwe
mwe
).

3.Di
str
ans
tra
sti
ve

 I
tinv
olv
esc
ons
truc
tionofdoubl
eobj
ect
s(t
heywi
l
lta
kedoubl
eobj
ect
s)

 Fore
xampl
e,i
nKi
swa
hil
i

Ma
maa
li
mpamot
tok
ita
bu(
Mot
herga
vet
hec
hil
dabook
).

Thedi
rec
tobj
ecti
ski
tabu‘
book
’andt
hei
ndi
rec
tobj
ecti
smot
to‘
chi
l
d’

 Appl
ica
tiveal
sogiver
isetodoubleobj
ectconstruct
ion.
 Forexa
mpl e
,Mwa naanawaphi
kir
ans i
maa gogo
 Somelanguagesarek
nowna sasymme tr
ical
languagesbec
aus
etheydonothavemoret
hanone
obj
ectmarkere.
g.Chi
chewawhileotherl
anguage sares
ymmetr
ica
lbec
ausethe
yall
owmore
obj
ectmarkers
.

QUESTI
ONSTODI
SCUSS
1.a
.Us
ethes
ent
enc
esbe
lowf
romKi
swa
hil
i(al
angua
ges
pok
eni
nEa
stAf
ri
ca)t
ostat
ethe
Page38of38
 t
ypeofc
laus
e:

Ki
swa
hil
i Engl
i
shgl
oss

i
. Ki
tabuk
ime
anguk
a. ‘
Thebookha
sfa
ll
endown.
’

i
i
. Mt
otoa
nas
omak
ita
bu.‘
Thec
hil
disr
eadi
ngt
hebook
.’

i
i
i. Ma
maa
li
mpamt
otok
ita
bu ‘
Mot
herga
veac
hil
dabook
.’

(
3ma
rks
)

b.
Bri
efl
yex
pla
inwhyBa
ntul
angua
gesa
rer
efe
rre
dtoa
s‘pr
o-dr
op’
langua
ges
.Us
eane
xampl
einy
our
e
xpl
ana
tion. (
3ma
rks
)

2.Us
inga
nex
ampl
e,e
xpl
ai
nonemor
phol
ogi
cal
cha
rac
ter
ist
icofBa
ntul
angua
ges
(
3ma
rks
)

3.Us
inge
xampl
es,
expl
ai
nanyf
ourBa
ntul
angua
gesv
erbe
xte
nsi
ons
.

(
12ma
rks
)

4.Us
inge
xampl
esf
romChi
che
wa,
expl
ai
nthede
riv
ati
onoft
hef
oll
owi
ngnouns
:

a
. Age
nti
venouns

b. Abs
tra
ctnouns

c
. Di
minut
ive
s

d. Augme
nta
tiv
e (
12ma
rks
)

5.St
udyt
hewor
dsbe
lowf
romNde
nge
lek
o(aBa
ntul
angua
ges
pok
eni
nTa
nza
nia
)anda
ssi
gn
t
hemi
ntot
hei
rnounc
las
ses
.

Nde
nge
lek
onoun Engl
i
shgl
oss

muúndu ‘
per
son’

ubi
nya ‘
si
ckne
ss’

k
uty
áanga ‘
towa
lk’

ma
píí
nga ‘
egs
s’

ma
gul
u l
egs
’
Pa
ge39of39
mpúngút
i ‘
i
nthebus
h’

ng
óbo ‘
bana
na’

l
ugul
u ‘
l
eg’

l
ubá
u ‘
ri
b’

mbá
u ‘
ri
bs’

ba
ándu ‘
peopl
e’

ng
óbo ‘
bana
nas
’

k
úundu ‘
(att
he)pl
ace
’

pá
andu ‘
(ont
he)pl
ace
’

(
15ma
rks
)

6.Di
scus
sanyt
hre
ecr
it
eri
aus
edi
ncl
ass
if
yingBa
ntunounsi
ntoc
las
ses
.

(
12ma
rks
)

PAPER2
1.Ba
singont
heda
tabe
lowf
romOt
ji
her
ero(
aBa
ntul
angua
ges
pok
eni
nNa
mibi
a),
expl
ai
nthe
s
truc
tur
eoft
henouns
. (
6ma
rks
)

ma
ma ‘
Mymot
her
’

ooma
má ‘
mymot
her
s’

ot
ji
húr
o ‘
town’

ov
ihúr
o ‘
towns
’

ongombe ‘
cow’

oz
ongombe ‘
cows
’

2.Ex
pla
int
heope
rat
ionoft
hepa
ssi
vea
nda
ppl
i
cat
ivee
xte
nsi
onsi
nBa
ntul
angua
ges
.Us
e
e
xampl
esi
nyoure
xpl
ana
tion. (
12ma
rks
)

3.Us
inga
nex
ampl
efr
omt
woBa
ntul
angua
ges
,ex
pla
int
heba
sics
truc
tur
eoftheBa
ntuv
erbs
tem.
(
20ma rk
s)

Pa
ge40of40
 4.Us
inga
nyBa
ntul
angua
ge,
expl
ai
nthede
riv
ati
onofnounf
romv
erbsa
nda
dje
cti
ves
.
(
12ma
rks
)

PAPER3
1.Que
sti
on1

a
. Us
ingr
ele
vante
xampl
es,
des
cri
bet
hes
truc
tur
eofBa
ntunouns
.Gi
vet
hre
epoi
nts
.

(
9ma
rks
)

b. Out
li
nea
nyt
woc
rit
eri
atha
tca
nbeus
edt
ocl
ass
if
yBa
ntunounsi
ntov
ari
ousc
las
ses
.

(
6ma
rks
)

2.Que
sti
on2

a
. Us
ere
lev
ante
xampl
etode
scr
ibet
hef
ir
stf
ivepa
irsofBa
ntunounc
las
ses(
9ma
rks
)

b. Oneoft
hee
leme
ntsf
ormi
ngt
henounphr
ases
truc
tur
eisnume
ral
s.Ex
pla
ini
tst
wot
ype
s.

(
6ma
rks
)

3.Que
sti
on3

De
scr
ibea
nyf
ivewa
yswhi
chBa
ntul
angua
gesus
etof
ormnouns (
15ma
rks
)

4.Que
sti
on4

a
. Wi
tht
hea
idofadi
agr
am,
des
cri
bet
hes
truc
tur
eofBa
ntuv
erba
lst
em (
9ma
rks
)

b. Expl
ai
nanyt
woc
irc
ums
tanc
est
hatc
anc
hanget
heba
sicwor
dor
derofBa
ntul
angua
gesofSVO
(6marks
)

EndofQue
sti
onPa
per

PAPER2
1.Ex
pla
ina
nyt
hre
ecl
aus
ety
pesofBa
ntul
angua
ges(
9ma
rks
)
2.Assi
gnt
hefol
l
owi
ngChi
che
wanounsi
ntov
ari
ousc
las
ses
.St
atet
hec
rit
eri
awhi
chy
ouha
v eus
ed.
(11mar
ks)
Page41of41
 a
. Luz
i
b. Nj
al
a
c
. Munt
hu
d. Ant
hu
e
. Ka
mbuz
i
f
. Ti
mbuz
i
g. Ka
mba
h. Ka
tanga
le
i
. Mot
o
j
. Kul
emba
k
. Ti
kamba
3.Di
scus
sanyt
hre
ear
gume
nts
truc
tur
ere
duc
ings
uff
ixe
s(9ma
rks
)
4.De
scr
ibet
heba
sicwor
dor
derofBa
ntul
angua
gesa
ndhowi
tca
ncha
nge(
6ma
rk)
5.Di
scus
sthee
ight
eenc
las
sesofChi
che
wanouns(
20ma
rks
)
6.Ex
pla
int
hec
ommont
ens
eca
tegor
iesofBa
ntul
angua
ges(
10ma
rks
)
End

Pa
ge42of42