Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 19 (2018) 240–249

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Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ejrh

Fluoride ion and total dissolved solid distribution in Ethiopian Rift

T
valley: The case of Hawassa city aquifer
Shemsu Gulta Abdurahmana, , Moltot Zewdieb
⁎

a
Water Resources Engineering and Management (Thesis: Aquifer Characterization) Hawassa University, Institute Of Technology, Water Supply And
Environmental Engineering Department, Ethiopia
b
Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering (Thesis: Model For Water Quality Management In A Tidal River) (Hawassa University), Hawassa
University, Institute Of Technology, Water Resources And Irrigation Engineering Department, Ethiopia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Study region: The Main Ethiopian Rift valley (MER) region, where millions rely on fluoride
Aquifer contaminated drinking water that is by far higher than the WHO standard resulting skeletal and
Fluoride ion tooth decay.
Geochemistry Study focus: Pumping test and drilling lithology data of the already drilled and productive 25
Hawassa catchment
wells (25 m–200 m depth) to characterize the aquifer. Particular emphasis is given to the spatial
Drinking water
Rift valley
distribution of fluoride ion (F-) and Total dissolved solids (TDS) applying SPSS (Statistical
Package for the Social Scientists) statistical tool.
New hydrological insights for the region: The major water bearing formation is of weathered and
fractured geologic formation having high porosity and permeability, which resulted in risk of
shallow groundwater surface contamination. The concentration of fluoride ion, ranging from
0.65mg/l to 11mg/l is under significance influence by the geochemistry. Higher temperature at
the shallow aquifer along with geological process like weathering of rocks and dissolution of CaF2
promotes the concentrated availability of fluoride ions. The deeper the strata along with igneous
formation dominated by pumice, the lower the concentration showing strong inverse correlation
with depth for both F- and TDS with R2 =0.78 and R2 =0.68 respectively at α < 0.001. Either
drilling wells beyond such formations (=60m) or blinding the poor quality strata is re-
commended to minimize the effect of high fluoride and TDS concentration in drinking water for
Hawassa city aquifer.

1. Background and purposes

The world's fluoride stores in the ground are assessed to 85 million tons. The most widely recognized fluoride-bearing minerals,
which constitute normal hotspot for fluoride in drinking water, are fluorspar (CaF2), rock phosphate, and voracity & phosphoresces.
In many researches, it is mentioned that, the fluoride contamination in drinking water is responsible for 65% of endemic flourosis in
the world (Patil et al., 2017; Rango, 2012). High exposure to Fluoride ion leads to flourosis in its dental and skeletal forms and is
endemic in countries, including India, China, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Saudi Arabia, United States, Uganda, Tanzania, and Ethiopia.
High-risk areas are mostly located in arid and semi-arid regions that are characterized by a rapid rate of chemical weathering of
geological materials, in the center of East African rift, higher levels of salinity and fluoride are the most widely known. Fluoride ion
problem is not only clinical, but also social problem too (Yadav et al., 2008). Ethiopia has surface and ground water resources

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: shemsugt@yahoo.com (S. Gulta Abdurahman), tambek72@yahoo.com (M. Zewdie).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2018.09.003
Received 24 January 2018; Received in revised form 17 September 2018; Accepted 18 September 2018
Available online 10 October 2018
2214-5818/ © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY/4.0/).
S. Gulta Abdurahman, M. Zewdie Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 19 (2018) 240–249

potential, of which groundwater has a lion-share. The preliminary estimated amount of yearly groundwater recharge of the country is
about 28,000Mm (Brook Abate and MikhailovichDeganovsky, 2008) (MOWE, 2011). However, suitability of groundwater for water
resource use in the central Ethiopian Rift is hampered by water quality limitations (Kebede et al., 2014). Over 40% of deep and
shallow wells are contaminated with up to 36 mg/l, sometimes 62 mg/l of fluoride which is significantly higher than the (WHO)
guideline of 1.5 mg/l. (Rango et al., 2014), that can give rise to a number of adverse effects. Natural groundwater quality is mostly
affected by total dissolved solids, gases and pollutants and is controlled by presence of soluble or reactive minerals in aquifers (EWTC,
2008). Increased exploitation of groundwater reserves coupled with a lack of information on declining water quality, water tables
level, extraction estimates, and aquifer properties is of great concern from a sustainability standpoint. As rock chemistry and geo-
logical process like weathering of rocks, which promotes the availability of fluoride ions in the groundwater (Rafique et al., 2008)
needs to be characterized in the study area. Existing methods for defluoridation of drinking water involve expensive and high
technology or are slow, inefficient and unhygienic (Yadav et al., 2008; Rango et al., 2014). Also, there is a gap concerning doc-
umentation of past experience, evaluating the existing performance of the spatial aquifer system chemical properties and introduction
of quality improvement techniques study area. Therefore, this study is aimed to identify the major water bearing geological for-
mations of the Hawassa city, the spatial variation and distribution of fluoride ion and TDS in the aquifer system of the city and the
related geochemistry of the aquifer in the area. It is relevant for the prevention of flourosis through management of drinking water,
which is a difficult task, requires favorable conditions, combining knowledge, motivation, prioritization, discipline and technical and
organizational support.

2. Study area

Lake Hawassa catchment is part of the main Ethiopian Rift containing Lake Hawassa, 1680 m above sea level (m.a.s.l). The lake
catchment lies between latitude 6°48′45″-7°14′ 49″ N, and longitude38°16′34″-38°43′26″E. Hawassa city is found in the catchment
adjacent to the lake where the lake got its name. The average altitude of the city is 1697 m.a.s.l. The city is one of the fast growing in
the country with the development of basic infrastructure and different industries (ceramics, brewery, textile and garment).There are
nine sub-cities within the administrative area of the city, where Tulahewela sub city has the largest areal coverage. However, there
were only seven well points located within this sub-city.
The rift system is one of the largest structural features of the earth's crust, extending for a distance of 6000 km from Mozambique
to Syria, equivalent to 1/6th of the earth's circumference. In Ethiopia, the rift system extends over 1000 km in the NE direction. It
covers 150,000km2 and it can be divided into two broad units: The Main Ethiopian Rift (MER) 50–90 N and 37030′–400E and the
Afar depression (Table 1).

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Data collection and organization

The main data used for the assessment of hydraulic properties of formations were well pump test data, well drilling completion
reports, borehole depth data, water quality data, location and geologic map of the formations. Well location data collected during
fieldwork. Location information and GPS coordinates (Northing and Easting) of all wells are collected in order to crosscheck with the
existing design-pumping test data. Pumping test data of the wells with constant pumping rate for the whole 24 h is recorded for

Table 1
Fluoride ion and TDS values of the selected shallow wells.
Well Name Bore hole depth Selected Parameters Major Aquifer
(m)
Fluoride ion TDS (mg/l) Shallow (25 m–58 m)
(mg/l)

South Star Int.Hot. 52.00 2.54 498.00 Sand & Fractured scoria
Hawassa Flour Factory 50.00 11.00 700.00 Pumice & fractured Scoria and Basalt
Zewd Village 25.00 8.90 725.00 Weathered Rhyolite and Basalt
ZinabuAbera 41.50 5.00 500.00 Fractured &volcanic Basalt & Pumice
Dashen Bank 36.00 4.80 670.00 Fractured basalt
HU(ACA) 40.00 6.58 337.00 Highly weathered Ignimbrite
Midroc Construction 52.00 4.45 470.00 Pumice & Rhyolite
AbebeWendmu 41.50 8.61 284.00 Basalt & Rhyolite
South Road Auth. 37.00 5.80 460.00 Trachyte
Hawassa University 2 50.00 4.85 498.00 Basalt & Rhyolite
Hawassa University 3 58.00 1.64 462.00 Sand & red Scoria
Hawassa University 4 50.00 2.90 497.00 Pumice & Rhyolite
Hawassa University 5 46.00 4.94 363.00 Basalt & Rhyolite
HU(health sc.c) 41.00 8.00 460.00 Fractured Basalt
HU Condominium 51.00 8.71 445.00 Weathered Basalt
Police garage 52.00 5.95 714.00 Fractured Scoria

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Table 2
Fluoride ion and TDS values of the selected deep wells.
Well Name Bore hole depth Selected Parameters Major Aquifer
(m)
Fluoride ion TDS (mg/l) Deep (60 m–200 m)
(mg/l)

GaraRiqata 1 200.00 0.65 230.00 Fine Sand

GaraRiqata 4 193.00 0.80 170.00 Course to medium Sand
GaraRiqata 5 186.00 0.66 180.00 Fine Sand
GaraRiqata 6 168.00 0.71 180.00 Fine Sand
TTC 71.50 4.10 465.00 Fine to course Sand
Hawassa University 1 86.00 1.71 422.00 Sand & Scoria
Agrostone 86.00 3.55 424.00 Sand & Scoria
SNNPR Council 42.00 3.10 470.00 Pumice & Rhyolite
Moha soft drink s.c 90.00 2.90 490.00 Sand & Scoria

sample wells. One important thing to cross check was the location of communal and private wells, measuring their exact depth, water
level and the pumping test data of 25 wells, for the year 1998 up to 2014. The wells are erratically distributed over the area, which is
within UTM location covering from 440,465 m (Zewd village) at the lakeshore to 448,915 m Eastern corner and 770917 m
(GaraReqata) at the south to 782781 m at the north tip. The maximum and minimum elevation of well point is 1768 m.a.s.l. (at TTC)
and 1669 m.a.s.l respectively. The boreholes depth included in this study ranges from 25 m (Zewdvillage well) to 200 m (Gara
Riqata1 well).

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Geological, and hydro geological setting

The researcher assessed the aquifer type and water bearing formations of borehole sites. The main water bearing geological
formation in the groundwater system is classified along with the respective water bearing thickness (Table 2). As it is depicted in the
table, Igneous and weathered formations (weathered basalt, ignimbrite, pumice, rhyolite, and scoracious) were found to be the main
water bearing strata. Such Igneous rocks, encountered in prevalent geothermal environments, especially the very recent one, were
good indicators of volcanism; which could serve as heat source for geothermal system to exist. These formation having nature of
igneous rock in the shallow strata of the water bearing aquifer, have significant contribution for the fluoride ion concentration. The
fractured and complex hydro-geological nature of the upper formation can also indicated that there could be contamination risk in
the area from surface sources as well. Especially in the western part (the industrial area).
Such surface source contamination risks could be prevalent. On top of this, it is found that the aquifer system lacks clay layer that
can serve as natural barriers to protect groundwater from such imminent fluoride sources. The industry zone is Pumice and highly
fractured basalt. These areas are highly exposed for industrial waste. Hence, if it is damped as in the “Chalalak” wetland, the pollutant
chemicals can easily join the fractured aquifer system, which is the cause for fluoride rich water. These water bearing formations
(weathered pumice, scoria, fractured basalt and sand of different types possess large pores. However, pumice and the fractured
basalts strata that are common relatively in the shallower formations are devoid of primary openings, they possess secondary
openings in the form of fractures and joints. These features aid in facilitating the infiltration of surface water through it. The pores
and fractures in late rites and fractures and joints in basalts, which can act as reservoirs of groundwater.
Hence, the fractured nature of the formation associated with the shallowness of the water bearing formations and the local
situation (i.e. being waste disposal area) there will be a great possibility of surface pollution in to the aquifer. On the other hand, the
far southern part (Gara Riqata), where relatively the deepest wells, in this study area were located, the water striking point were also
found deeper and the major aquifers formed of, course, medium and fine grained sand. The fine grain sand is dominant in the layer
from 184 m to 196 m from the surface, where the water bearing formation is located. The top non-water bearing strata from top 18 m
to 166 m is found to be dominated by weather pumice/igneous rock, which is of high source of fluoride. However, as the water comes
from only sandy formations it is of good quality with respect to its F-and TDS concentration (Table 3). In general pumice and highly

Table 3
Descriptive figures.
Statistics

Borehole Depth TDS Fluoride Ion

N Valid 25 25 25
Missing 0 0 0
Mean 73.8200 444.5600 4.5140
Std. Deviation 52.95869 156.75700 2.90702

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Fig. 1. Satellite image of Ethiopia.

Table 4
Fluoride ion distribution statistics in the Hawassa city aquifer.
Coefficientsa

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients

B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 7.283 .754 9.657 .000

Borehole Depth −.038 .008 −.683 −4.488 0.000

a
Dependent Variable: Fluoride Ion.

Table 5
Total dissolved solids distribution statistics in the Hawassa city aquifer.
Coefficientsa

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients

B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 604.150 38.040 15.882 .000

Borehole Depth −2.162 .422 −.730 −5.128 0.000

a
Dependent Variable: TDS for wells.

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Fig. 2. Location Map of the Study Area.

fractured and weathered scoracious formation dominates the water bearing strata (52 m –84 m) and fine to course grained sand is the
main water source in depth beyond 100 m. Thus, lack of confining rocks and or clay layer in the medium strata indicates that
groundwater occurs in unconfined conditions in the weathered basalts.

4.2. Fluoride ion and TDS of the aquifer

The analysis result of the fluoride level and total dissolved solids indicated that, the fluoride ion concentration values range from
0.65 mg/l to 11 mg/l, whereas the total dissolved solids ranges from 170 to 725 mg/l. The two water quality parameters result
showed that the respective concentration values are somewhat higher at the shallower depths (less than 60 m) (Table 3). The values,
in the shallower wells it is found that they didn’t satisfy the standard set for drinking water (Fig. 1).
For most of the cases the tabulated result showed that, the ground water from shallow aquifers were retch in fluoride ion. This
could be associated with the geologic formation (the inherent property of the water bearing strata and the physical environment (i.e.
the external temperature and geothermal nature) of the area. As it is discussed in the previous section, the dominant water bearing
formation of these areas are weathered pumice/igneous rocks and volcanic rocks and accompanied by high temperature. Hence, these
rocks along with the high temperature ensure chemical reaction for the formation of the Fluoride ion.
The groundwater sampled from wells in such formations showed high fluoride ion concentration up to 11 mg/l. This depicts that
the major sources of fluoride ion pollution in the study area could be the inherent property of the water bearing formation. On top of
that, the evaporation due to high temperature in the area could possibly increase the concentration of the fluoride ion in the shallow
aquifer. For instance in areas like Hawassa Flour Factory; there is high fluoride concentration of 11, 9, 8 and 8.7 mg/l respectively.
These wells are located in shallow water bearing stratum where the weathered pumice/ igneous rock are dominant, which is rich
source of fluoride. Though shallow aquifers containing recent infiltration of rainwater have low fluoride content, fluoride

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Fig. 3. Bore-Hole Sites lithology.

Table 6
Model Summary and Parameter Estimates.
Equation Model Summary Parameter Estimates

R Square F df1 df2 Sig. Constant b1

Exponential 0.775 79.333 1 23 .000 9.778 −.014

concentration of shallow aquifers increases as a consequence of temperature-enhanced fluorite (CaF2) solubility and hydrogen
fluoride (HF) gas dissolution due to hydrothermal activation caused in active volcanic areas as that of the study area. Generally,
deeper aquifers have better water quality. Therefore the water from the deep aquifer (> 60 m) is of good quality which fulfills the
Ethiopian standard (3 mm/l) in general and those wells of > 80 m depth fulfill WHO standards even securely by looking into the
other conditions like climate and feeding habits of the consumers (Appendix Table S10).
Using SPSS statistical analysis is conducted to see the significance of the observed parameters. For both parameters, at α < 0.001
and 95% Confidence Interval i.e. it is strongly significant fitting non-linear model (Tables 3–5 and Figs. 6 and 7).
The result clearly shows, the deeper the well depth the better is the Fluoride and TDS concentration. As it is depicted from the
water quality of the GaraRiqata, the top non-water bearing formation is dominated by weathered pumice rock, which is the major
source of fluoride rich water. However, since the depth of the well/the water bearing strata, which is dominated by fine sand, is
below such formation it was possible to get good quality of water in terms of fluoride and TDS concentration. Indeed, water-rock
interactions commonly occur during the evolution of a basin. Especially, at deep burial strata under the condition where the ground
water is rich in carbonates and/or bicarbonates, the dissolution of fluoride ion could possibly happen during the water-mineral
(fluorite) interaction as a major source of the ion in the ground water as expressed in reaction Eqs. (a) and (b):

CaF2+Na2CO3→ CaCO3 + 2F+2Na (a)

CaF2 + 2NaHCO3→ CaCO3 + 2Na+2F+H2O + CO2 (b)

In the above reactions, the bicarbonate-rich water in a weathered rock formation accelerates the dissolution of CaF2 to release
fluoride into the groundwater with time. Minerals rich in Calcite (CaCO3), also favor the dissociation of fluoride from fluoride rich
minerals as expressed in reaction (c) and (d):

CaCO3 + H + 2F→CaF2+HCO3 (c)

CaF2→Ca+2 F (d)

Certain sensitive factors behind high fluoride concentration in groundwater include crystalline rocks especially granites of al-
kaline nature with calcium deficiency. The fluoride content of groundwater during mineral dissolution is governed by the solubility of
CaF2, whereas the solubility of calcite and fluorite controls the dissolution of Ca2+in groundwater. Among all fluoride–rich minerals,
fluorite is the most abundant and occurs in almost all rocks and detrimental minerals, which are true for the water bearing formations

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Fig. 4. Fluoride ion distribution of Hawassa ground water.

Table 7
Model Summary and Parameter Estimates.
Equation Model Summary Parameter Estimates

R Square F df1 df2 Sig. Constant b1

Exponential 0.679 48.641 1 23 .000 664.606 −.006

in the study area. Most of the rocks in the study area are weathered, which reveals the occurrence of hydrolysis, dissociation and
dissolution. Hence, the above explained chemical reaction process could possibly associated with the high fluoride ion dissolution
and pollution of the groundwater in the study area. The fluoride ion concentration special distribution analysis showed that the
Northwestern part of the study area (which is near to the lakeshore and relatively of shallow water bearing formation) was beyond
the allowable standard set for drinking water (Fig. 2). Whereas, the Southern side of the study areas
(GaraRiqata) shows very low concentration of both fluoride (0.65 mg/l) and TDS (170 mg/l). This is the area which has been
identified as major groundwater recharge zone by (HCWSSSE, 2010), because of its low electric conductivity and high pH values. The
eastern side has moderately low concentration, while the northern corner and the lakeshore areas exhibit high concentrations of both
parameters. Hence, the study area can be sub divided in to three, on the basis of fluoride and TDS concentration, high fluoride and
TDS area, north part (Hawassa caldera) and the lake shore, low fluoride and TDS area (East and South) and medium fluoride and TDS

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Fig. 5. TDS distribution of Hawassa city ground water.

area (Eastern and South-Eastern) part of the Hawassa city. The ground water in the medium and high areas is not suitable for drinking
water because of fluoride concentration. As a result, currently the ground water of those areas is used for sanitation, swimming pools
and gardening purposes alone.
With respect to the depth of wells, the general trend shows a decrease of fluoride ion concentration with depth, as clearly
indicated from the result where shallower aquifer has elevated concentrations of fluoride and deeper aquifers have very low fluoride.
Consequently, in areas where the calcium ion concentration is high, due to the prevailing geochemical processes, it may play a critical
role in determining the fluoride content of the ground water. As reported by the Ohio EPA, Division of Drinking and Ground Waters
(DDAGW) technical series (2012), Fluoride levels have shown to decline as water travels from the surface through the soil zone and
into ground water. With very similar fashion, the TDS values range from 170 mg/l (Gara Riqata) to 700 mg/l (Hawassa flour) Tables 2
and 3 and Fig. 3).
All the TDS values are in the potable range of water quality standard values (1000 mg/l) being the deeper formations more

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Fig. 6. Exponential function correlations of fluoride ion and well depth.

Fig. 7. A correlations between TDS and well depth.

suitable. However, with the existing information it was not possible to assess the spatial variability of the suitability of groundwater
for agriculture and industrial use; rather, only the general trend in terms of groundwater suitability for drinking water is presented in
this study. To evaluate the relationship between well depth and fluoride ion concentration, well depth and TDS, and fluoride ion with
TDS linear correlation analyses were conducted (Figs. 6 and 7) (Table 6).
In the statistical analysis, the independent variable is borehole depth and dependent Variable is Fluoride ion. This means it is
possible to estimate fluoride concentration at different depths using the model with 78 percent accurate variation relation. Since
water is a solvent and, which is capable of dissolving and interacting with organic and inorganic components of soils, the minerals
that make up unconsolidated deposits (e.g., sand and gravel), and with various types of bedrock. Dissolution of minerals within the
soil, sediment, and bedrock is a slow process that can take days, years, or eons, depending on the solubility of the materials. These
materials contribute to the amount of total dissolved solids (TDS) that are present in all groundwater. Major dissolved constituents of
groundwater include the cations (positively charged ions) sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and silica and the anions (ne-
gatively charged ions) bicarbonate, sulfate, chloride, and nitrate (Fig. 4).
The independent variable is Borehole depth and dependent variable is TDS. The model enables the estimation of the TDS value at
the required depth with 68 percent relation. The resulting regression analysis indicated that there is an inverse or negative correlation
between both Fluoride ion concentration and TDS with borehole depth. The proportion of variation explained by the exponential
model is strong, that the model explained 78 percent and 68 of the variation in F- and TDS respectively at α < 0.001. This indicates
water extracted from deeper aquifers is of good quality (Table 7) (Fig. 5).

4.3. Conclusion

In general the output of the study indicated that, shallow hand dug wells in Hawassa city are highly exposed to the chemical
reaction which could result in fluorine dissolution, high temperature and ease surface source contamination. In most part of the
fluoride and TDS affected areas water bearing formation was dominated by crystallized rocks (Igneous rocks), highly weathered
pumice, volcanic ash, fractured and weathered basalt, weathered Rhyolite, scoria and other igneous rock formations. Areas which

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have such formations (rich source of fluoride) and high temperature (geothermal energy), which facilitate the dissolution of the
fluoride ion, are highly exposed to fluoride contamination. So that, using the water for drinking purpose has high health risk.
However, there areas like Gara Riqata, which have aquifer layers below (> 160 m) are characterized as safe sources of fluoride ion
and TDS. Thus, the water is free of fluoride problem. Therefore, drilling to the deeper (> 50 m) depth in the aquifer system beyond
where such CaF2 rich sources especially in areas of high geothermal energy and or blinding such thickness of the aquifer could
alleviate the problem of fluoride contamination. Either drilling to the deeper depth (> 60 m) or blinding the aquifer system where
such CaF2 rich sources accumulate could alleviate the problem of fluoride contamination in the area.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the online version, at doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2018.09.
003.

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