Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Influence of relative humidity on the strength and stiffness of unstabilised

earth blocks and earth masonry mortar
Philipp Wiehle *, Sebastian Simon , Johanna Baier , Luise Dennin
Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM), Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Aim of this study is to provide information about moisture dependent material behaviour of unstabilised load-
Earth block masonry bearing earth blocks and mortars. Compressive strength and Young’s modulus were investigated after condi­
Load-bearing behaviour tioning in varying relative humidity reaching from 40 % up to 95 %. The material composition and physical
Moisture content
properties were investigated to understand the influence of relative humidity onto the mechanical properties. A
Compressive strength
Young’s modulus
normalisation of strength and stiffness by the values obtained at 23 ◦ C and 50 % relative humidity reveals a
Clay minerals linear dependence of compressive strength and Young’s modulus that is regardless of the material composition.
Sorption isotherm Thus, it is possible to describe the influence of relative humidity onto the load-bearing behaviour of unstabilised
Relative humidity earth masonry materials in a generally valid formulation.

1. Introduction moisture content [9–13]. The equilibrium moisture content of earth

The demand for building materials with low environmental impact is
steadily growing as issues of CO2 emission, primary energy use, recy­
clability and scarcity of resources become evident [1]. The growing
interest for earthen building materials is accompanied by a lack of
research especially in relation with moisture-related material behaviour
[2,3]. In Germany, standards for unstabilised earth masonry materials
were introduced in 2013 [4,5] and reworked in 2018 [6,7]. Based on
these product standards, research focuses on the development of design
rules for load-bearing earth block masonry, considering the influence of
relative humidity (RH) onto the mechanical properties of unstabilised
earth blocks and earth mortars declared as load-bearing according to
German standards [6,7]. The structural design of earth masonry
currently is based on the concept of a global safety factor without
explicitly considering the influence of the ambient climate conditions
onto the load-bearing behaviour [8]. For this reason, the respective
safety margin is fairly high and thus the initial mechanical parameters in
terms of strength and deformation properties are relatively low. This is
neither in line with the state of the art nor reflects the actual mechanical
properties of unstabilised earth masonry exposed to varying relative
humidity (RH).
The compressive strength and Young’s modulus of unstabilised
earthen materials in general significantly decrease with increasing
masonry materials depends on the material composition, whereas the
type and amount of clay minerals and the content of organic aggregates
such as fibres or wood chaff, which are added to control shrinkage and to
ensure a sufficient dimensional stability after freeze–thaw loading or
water uptake in general, play a key role [14–20].
Heath et al. [21] conducted compression tests on seven extruded
unfired clay masonry units after curing at three different climate con­
ditions, oven dry state (cured at 105 ◦ C), air-dry (20 ◦ C/60 % RH) and by
applying moisture to raise the moisture content to ~2 wt% above the
air-dry condition. An exponential function is suggested to describe the
relationship between compressive strength and moisture content.
Finally, the effect of RH on the compressive strength is determined by
using the sorption isotherm. The relationship between RH and
compressive strength is largely linear up to approximately 80 % RH. The
equilibrium moisture of the different earth blocks at 60 % RH ranges
between 1.5 wt% and 3.0 wt%. Hansen et al. [12] carried out
compressive strength tests on two different unstabilised earth blocks
after delivery, after curing for six months in laboratory climate, which is
not defined and after storage at 100 % RH for 6 months. The compres­
sive strength is presented as a function of the moisture content which
ranges between ~1.0 wt% and ~6.0 wt%. The relationship for both
blocks is largely linear. Sorption isotherms for both blocks are measured
considering ad- and desorption. The moisture content at 80 % RH is

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: philipp.wiehle@bam.de (P. Wiehle), sebastian.simon@bam.de (S. Simon), hanna.baier@googlemail.com (J. Baier), luise.dennin@t-online.de
(L. Dennin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128026
Received 1 March 2022; Received in revised form 5 May 2022; Accepted 31 May 2022
Available online 6 June 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Wiehle et al.
Fig. 1. Earth blocks: hand-moulded block in NF-format and core-drilled cylinders (A), extruded block in 3DF-format and core-drilled cylinders (B), and earth mortar
prisms M2 and M3 (C).
~1.5 wt% in case of block A and amounts to ~2.0 wt% for block B. A
relationship between RH and compressive strength is not given. El
Fgaier et al. [22] perform compressive strength tests with two extruded
and one hand-moulded unstabilised earth block after curing at four
different RH levels between 40 % and 95 %. As a result, all materials
exhibit an almost linear dependence of the compressive strength on the
RH, whereas the compressive strength of the extruded blocks is signifi­
cantly higher than it is of the hand-moulded block.
Miccoli et al. [23] perform compression test series on one hand-
moulded unstabilised earth block after curing at five different RH
levels between 23 % and 97 %. In contrary to El Fgaier et al. [22], they
identify a plateau of almost constant compressive strength between
40 % and 70 % RH, which was also identified by Müller et al. [16] for
two hand-moulded and one extruded unstabilised earth block.
Although the above-mentioned studies deliver a deep insight into the
material behaviour of unstabilised earth blocks, there are some chal­
lenges to face with regard to the structural design.
Firstly, the decrease of the strength is either illustrated in depen­
dence of the moisture content or in dependence of the curing climate.
The equilibrium moisture content of different unstabilised earth blocks,
however, significantly varies at the same level of RH. In terms of the
structural design, it seems to be reasonable to relate the reduction in
compressive strength to a universal reference parameter such as RH as it
is also done in case of timber structures [24] rather than to a material-
specific parameter such as the moisture content. Main reason for this
lies in the fact that a relation of compressive strength and moisture
content in case of masonry is difficult to realise because the moisture
content of masonry depends on the equilibrium moisture content of
both, blocks and mortar and their ratio in the masonry bond and is
difficult to determine exactly. The masonry compressive strength
therefore needs to be related to the ambient climate conditions which
also represent the driving factor of the moisture content during the
period of use. Furthermore, the mechanical parameters can directly be
compared in relation to RH, which facilitates the application in terms of
the structural design.
Moreover, the amount of actual test results within the practically
relevant range of RH between 40 % and 95 % is limited. The results of
Hansen et al. [12] and Heath et al. [21] are based on compression test at
two relevant RH levels, thus a possible plateau of rather constant
compressive strength as found in [16,23] cannot be identified but might
be existing. Furthermore, the reference to oven-dry climate possibly
leads to an overestimation of the compressive strength in the range of
low RH.
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Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026
Finally, the sorption hysteresis is not considered in any of the present
studies. Even though the relation between moisture content and RH is
given by the sorption isotherm, the question is on whether the ad- or
desorption branch should be used to relate moisture content and RH.
Neither pure ad- nor desorption will occur during the period of usage.
However, depending on the amount and type of clay minerals as well as
on the content of organic aggregate, unstabilised earth blocks exhibit a
pronounced hysteresis behaviour that needs to be considered [25].
An extensive experimental campaign on two types of unstabilised
load-bearing earth blocks according to DIN 18945 [6] and two types of
unstabilised load-bearing earth mortars for joining masonry according
to DIN 18946 [7] is conducted in this study. Firstly, the material
composition is studied with a focus on the clay mineral content and the
added organic aggregates to provide information on the variety of the
material composition of merchantable unstabilised earth blocks and
mortars. Subsequently the moisture behaviour is investigated to illus­
trate the influence of RH in dependence of the material composition and
give an idea of the spectrum of the moisture content of established
industrially manufactured masonry materials in the relevant range.
Finally, extensive mechanical testing in accordance with valid standards
and common procedures from masonry testing is carried out after curing
the samples in various climate conditions between 40 % and 95 % RH.
Since the determination of the masonry compressive strength according
to DIN EN 1996–1-1 [26] is based on an exponential function depending
on the blocks and mortars compressive strength, the moisture behaviour
of two different unstabilised earth masonry mortars and its influence on
the mechanical behaviour is investigated also. The results are conclu­
sively discussed in detail with respect to the applicability of semi-
probabilistic design codes for unstabilised earth masonry. Due to the
above-mentioned aspects, normalised strength and stiffness values of
earth blocks and mortars in this study are also presented and discussed
in dependence of the RH.
2. Materials
Two types of unstabilised earth blocks and two types of unstabilised
earth mortars established on the market and fulfilling the requirements
of load-bearing materials according to the German earth masonry
standards DIN 18945 [6] and DIN 18946 [7] were sourced from local
manufacturers of prefabricated earthen building products. One of the
blocks is an extruded perforated block in 3DF format (240 × 175 × 113
mm3), the second is produced by a mechanized hand moulding pro­
cedure in wooden formwork by egg laydown assemblage in NF format
P. Wiehle et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026

Fig. 2. Organic aggregates identified by visual inspection in 3DF (A), NF (B) and M3 (C).

Fig. 3. Grain size distribution of blocks and mortar (mean values of 2 measurements) including the ideal distribution acc. to Fuller and Thompson [34].

Table 1 Table 2
Grain fractions of the different materials in wt %. Semi-quantitative analyses of clay mineral content, number of + signs indicate
clay silt sand gravel
the relative amount of clay mineral, the - sign indicate the absence of this clay
(d < 0.002 (0.002 – 0.063 (0.063 – 2 (d > 2 mineral, vermiculite as swellable clay mineral is highlighted with bold signs.
mm) mm) mm) mm) sample illite vermiculite chlorite muscovite
sample (wt %) 3DF +++ + ++ ++
3DF 16.05 43.90 34.82 5.23 NF ++ + + +
NF 10.33 46.63 42.54 0.50 M2 + – – +
M2 6.67 26.28 66.0 1.05 M3 + – + +
M3 4.13 30.37 64.16 1.34

class M2 and M3 and bulk density class 2.0 as defined in DIN 18946 [7].
(240 × 115 × 71 mm3) (Fig. 1). Both blocks comply with the The mortar of compressive strength class 2 (M2) yields a bulk density of
compressive strength class 2 and bulk density class 2 according to DIN 1950 kg/m3, the mortar of the compressive strength class 3 exhibits a
18945 [6]. The hand-moulded block (NF) has a bulk density of 1789 kg/ bulk density of 1960 kg/m3.
m3 and the extruded block (3DF) exhibits a bulk density of 1874 kg/m3
at standard climate conditions (23 ◦ C/50 % RH). Earth mortars were
provided as pre-mixed dry mortars complying to compressive strength

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P. Wiehle et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026

diffractometer in Bragg Brentano geometry, employing Cu-Kα

(0.154056 nm) and a D-Tex silicon strip detector was used. To illumi­
nate only the centre of the sample holder, a divergence slit of 0.5◦ and a
horizontal divergence slit of 10 mm was used. A beam knife was
installed to prevent low-angle scattering. All diffractograms were
recorded from 5◦ to 98◦ 2θ, with a step width of 0.02◦ and a scan speed
of 0.5◦ 2 θ/min. The samples were randomly sourced from blocks and
mortars and grinded in a ball mill after pre-drying at 40 ◦ C. Subse­
quently the samples were carefully filled into the side load sample
holder to prevent preferred orientation of the clay minerals. Further­
more, ethylene glycol treatment was used as an auxiliary treatment to
expand swelling clays according to USGS Open-File Report 01-041 [28]
and the samples were measured following the above-named
instructions.
The Methylene Blue Value (MBV) was determined according to DIN
EN 933-9 [29] for the fraction with a grain size d < 0.125 mm. The
sample mass amounted to 30 g and again, one sister sample each was
prepared. The test procedure was the exact reproduction of the respec­
tive standard [29].
Through visual inspection and the determination of the GSD a
Fig. 4. Cumulated pore size distribution based on mercury intrusion poros­ notable amount of fibres was identified in the 3DF blocks and wood chaff
imetry and gas adsorption. in the NF blocks. Low amounts of straw fibres were found in the M3
mortar, whereas the M2 mortar did not exhibit any visible content of
3. Physical properties fibres or wood chaff (Fig. 2). The reason for adding fibres or wood chaff
is to ensure a sufficient freeze–thaw resistance and dimensional stability
3.1. Sample preparation and methods in case of water uptake which is required for unstabilised load-bearing
earth blocks according to DIN 18945 [6]. Thus the total amount of
The grain size distributions (GSD) of blocks and mortar are deter­
mined according to DIN EN ISO 17892 [27] by sieving and sedimenta­
tion. One sister sample for each material was tested and the results given Table 3
are mean values. The differences of both measurments were fairly low. Results of Methylene blue test, CEC and Sa determined acc. to [41 –43] and
content of organic aggregates of all materials.
Sample masses were determined on the basis of a maximum grain size of
d ≤ 5 mm. For the sedimentation, the samples were soaked in demin­ MBVF CEC Sa content of organic aggregate
sample (-) (meq/100g) (m2/g) (wt %)
eralised water for ~3 h and subsequently dissoluted with a sodium
phosphate based anticoagulation solvent. 3DF 3.62 10.77 74 6.29
The clay mineral content of the materials was qualitatively and semi- NF 4.48 7.43 51.05 3.17
M2 1.42 4.3 29.5 1.85
quantitatively examined by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. M3 1.17 3.54 24.33 1.07
The measurements were carried out using Rigaku Ultima IV

Fig. 5. Water vapour sorption isotherms of blocks and mortars determined at 23 ◦ C.

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P. Wiehle et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026

Table 4
Comparison of total pore volume and amount of mesopores within the PSD.
total pore volume absolute amount of mesopores relative amount of mesopores
sample (mm3/g) (mm3/g) (%)

3DF 168.43 30.27 18.0

NF 165.62 23.44 14.2
M2 122.72 10.27 8.4
M3 125.92 7.79 6.2

briefly summarised. First, the GSD of the four different materials is

Fig. 6. Comparison of CEC and area of hysteresis loop for blocks and mortars.
organic aggregates for all materials was quantified by means of loss on
ignition according to DIN 18128 [30]. Of course, the crystalline water of
the clay mineral matrix is also driven out at this temperature and needs
to be considered. However, according to the results of Buder [31] the
procedure delivers suitable results for unstabilised earthen materials.
The pore size distributions were determined by mercury intrusion
porosimetry (MIP) and gas adsorption in accordance with ISO 15901-1/-
2 [32,33] to capture meso- and macropores.
The water vapour sorption isotherms were measured using a Grav­
isorp 120 multisample dynamic vapour sorption (DVS). Samples with a
weight of 15 – 20 g were randomly sourced from blocks and mortars and
crushed by hand to obtain granules not exceeding 2 mm in diametre to
prevent any diffusion effects. One sister sample of each material was
prepared and preconditioned at 23 ◦ C/50 % RH. Dessication subse­
quently was carried out in the DVS at 23 ◦ C / 0 % RH. Thereupon, the
measurement was conducted by increasing RH in steps of 5 % RH up to
95 % RH at a constant temperature of 23 ◦ C. In total three adsorption
desorption cycles were performed.
3.2. Test results
In this paragraph the results of the physical experiments which are
necessary to evaluate the differences in mechanical behaviour are
discussed with a particular emphasis on the clay mineral content. The
GSDs in Fig. 3 show significant differences between blocks and mortars.
Mortar samples exhibit a considerably higher amount of sand and lower
amounts of fine grain. In comparison, the curves of the blocks show a
constant shape which indicates a uniform grain size distribution. The
3DF block has a higher amount of aggregate with a diameter of d ≥ 0.2
mm as well as of very fine one.
Both mortars show similar GSDs with slight differences in fine grain
content. In comparison to the blocks, the GSD is less uniform containing
a large amount of sand between 0.2 and 1 mm. A detailed overview of
the grain fractions is given in Table 1. However, the determination of the
clay fraction by size only can be misleading. On one hand, the clay
fraction may consist of 20 to 40 wt% of quartz and on the other hand
some clay minerals like kaolinite exceed a particle size of 0.002 mm
[35].
By means of XRD an identification and a semiquantitative analysis of
the clay mineral content was carried out. To evaluate the collected
diffraction data, the Match! Software [36] in combination with the
powder diffraction file PDF-2 database [37] was used. To determine the
relative clay mineral content an evaluation of the reference intensity
ratio (RIR) [38] was executed. Illite, vermiculite, chlorite and muscovite
were identified as clay minerals in 3DF and NF blocks, illite, muscovite
and chlorite were identified in the M3 mortar while M2 mortar only
contains illite and muscovite as clay minerals. Table 2 gives an overview
of the amount and type of clay minerals contained by blocks and mor­
tars. The number of + signs indicate the amount of clay mineral while
the - indicates that no clay mineral is contained. The 3DF block has
significantly higher amounts of illite, chlorite and muscovite compared
to the NF block, whereas both mortar types exhibit a similar clay content
except the presence of chlorite in the M3 mortar.
The clay minerals that are involved in this study are three-layer clay
minerals on whose octahedron layer another tetrahedron layer is
condensed. In this mineral group, the structures with intergranular
swelling capacity play a special role. Clay minerals with swellability are
trioctahedral vermiculite, trioctahedral smectite, saponite and hectorite
[39,40]. As a result, only the blocks (3DF and NF) contain a minor
amount of swellable vermiculite while the bulk of clay minerals involved
in this study exhibit no swelling capacity. The influence on the moisture
content and the mechanical behaviour is therefore minor.
The MBV in Table 3, in contrast to the respective standard [29], is
given as methylene blue in g per 100 g of the soil fraction d < 0.125 mm.
Based on the MBV, the specific surface Sa was determined according to
[41,42], as well as the cation exchange capacity (CEC) according to
[43].
The results of the tests of the loss on ignition exhibit noteworthy
contents of organic aggregates for all materials. Both mortars contain

Table 5
Experimental programme of mechanical testing depending on climate conditions and material.
quantity tested per RH

sample temperature 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % 90 % 95 %

block: 3DF | NF 10 ◦ C – 3|4 – 3|4 3|4 7|7 –

23 ◦ C 7|7 8|8 7|7 8|9 7|7 8|9 7|7
mortar: M2 | M3 23 ◦ C 8|8 8|8 8|8 8|8 8|8 8|8 8|8

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P. Wiehle et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026

Fig. 7. Loading scheme following DIN 18,945 (A) and experimental setup of cylinders with clip-on extensometers (B).

significantly lower amounts of organic aggregates whereas M2 yields
higher values than M3, although no content of fibres or chaff could be
identified through visual inspection. The 3DF block containing the fine
cellulosic fibres yields the highest amount of organic aggregates with
more than 6 wt % which is twice as much as the NF block. All results are
summarised in Table 3. As it can be seen from the results of the M2
mortar, these materials contain a certain amount of soil organic matter
that could not be identified by visual inspection. A separated determi­
nation of soil organic matter and added organic aggregates, however, is
not possible.

Fig. 8. Compressive strength (A) and Young’s modulus (B) of blocks depending on moisture content and varying curing temperature.

6
P. Wiehle et al.
Fig. 9. Compressive strength of mortars depending on moisture content.
The pore size distributions (PSD) in Fig. 4 are a combination of MIP
and nitrogen sorption, whereas below 16 nm data of the nitrogen
sorption are used and above MIP data. Besides, the gas sorption curve
was smoothed by equally distributing one measured value to ten data
points between the upper and lower limits of the pore size interval. We
chose a threshold value of 50 nm to distinguish between meso- and
macropores. Firstly, this is in accordance with the IUPAC recommen­
dations [44,45] and second, it was shown that independently of the pore
shape, pores with a diameter d < 50 nm mainly govern the material
moisture in the range of RH from 40 to 90 % [46].
As it can be seen in Fig. 4, the PSDs of both mortars progress mostly
similar throughout the range measured. M3 mortar exhibits a slightly
higher fraction of macropores between 1 and 10 µm which eventually
leads to a higher total pore volume. The steeper progress of the M2́ s PSD
between 1.7 and 50 nm induces the higher absolute and relative amount
of mesopores compared to M3. These results reflect the findings of the
GSD. M2 has a larger clay fraction and thus exhibits a higher amount of
mesopores. Both blocks, by contrary, have a significantly higher though
almost similar total pore volume (Table 4). However, the progress of the
PSDs greatly differs from one another. 3DF has a higher pore volume
down to a diameter of 6 µm, subsequently NF’s volume increases more
pronounced – especially between 6 down to 1 µm - and starts to flatten
significantly afterwards. The PSD of 3DF increases linear from 3 µm
down to ~100 nm and finally the progress of the PSD flattens signifi­
cantly, intersecting the NF curve at ~16 nm. The more pronounced
inclination of the 3DF’s PSD between 50 nm down to 1.7 nm results in a
higher total pore volume and absolute amount of mesopores. A com­
parison of the pore fraction of all materials is summarised in Table 4. The
differences can again be explained looking at the GSD. 3DF has a
significantly higher amount of fine grain and thus clay content.
The water vapour sorption isotherms show a distinct difference in
sorption behaviour between both blocks and both mortars again (Fig. 5).
The sorption of the 3DF block is constantly higher than of the NF block
and both mortars. The maximum moisture content at 95 % RH is 5.20 wt
% for 3DF and 3.96 wt % for NF blocks, both mortars yield considerably
lower values with 1.62 wt % (M2) and 1.33 wt % (M3) respectively. 3DF
displays the most pronounced hysteresis, which is also remarkable for
NF and very slightly exhibited in case of both mortars. Besides it should
7
Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026
also be noted, that in case of the desiccation, the moisture content is not
decreasing entirely. Some moisture remains in the materials when
reaching 0 % RH. One possible reason for this is a change of phys­
isorption towards chemical sorption at low RH levels which is in detail
described by Meng [47].
3.3. Evaluation and comparison of results
The test results show coherences which are essential to understand
the moisture behaviour of the various materials and eventually the
impact of varying RH onto the mechanical properties. Firstly, it is
apparent, that blocks, and mortars exhibit similar tendencies among
each other. But due to their different function in the masonry bond their
material mixture and thus the moisture behaviour differ significantly.
The composition of the GSDs directly influences total porosity and
the PSDs. The blocks exhibit a higher total porosity and a higher ratio of
meso-/micropores. Therefore, the water vapour sorption isotherms for
both types of material show significant differences. The 3DF blocks have
the largest proportion of clay, clay minerals and mesopores, thus they
have the highest moisture content at every ambient RH level. Further­
more, the content of organic aggregates also contributes to the sorption
and is considerably higher for both blocks compared to the mortars. This
relation is also reflected by the specific surfaces given in Table 3.
Moreover, the isotherms of the blocks show a pronounced hysteresis
of ad- and desorption. Type and amount of clay minerals as well as of
organic aggregates influence the hysteresis behaviour. Since moisture
content influences the load-bearing capacity, it is necessary to consider
hysteresis effects. The difference of the ad- and desorption moisture
content of the 3DF block can be up to 0.9 wt %. The mechanical prop­
erties consequently vary at the same RH depending on whether
adsorption or desorption occurs. Although this effect can be avoided by
the relation of the compressive strength with the moisture content, it
raises other challenges for the structural design that will be discussed
later. According to Arthur et al. [25], the cation exchange capacity
(CEC) may be used to indicate the extent of hysteresis of earthen ma­
terials. Based on the MBV determined, the CEC was calculated according
to Cokca an Birand [43] (Table 3). A comparison of the CEC with the
area covered by the hysteresis loop of the materials shows a linear
P. Wiehle et al.
Fig. 10. Stress–strain diagrams including fracture strain of displacement-controlled tests at different RH for 3DF blocks (left) and NF blocks (right).
relation (Fig. 6). Hence, the CEC based on the MBV can be employed to
estimate the hysteresis behaviour of earthen materials.
To sum up, the moisture behaviour of the tested earth masonry
materials varies significantly between blocks and mortars. In case of the
earth blocks, this variation depends on the manufacturing methods
which results in different material compositions. Depending on the
ambient climate conditions, the equilibrium moisture content increases
with an increasing amount of the clay fraction and the content of organic
aggregates. Since the clay fraction, acting as a binder, also governs the
compressive strength and the Young’s modulus of unstabilised earthen
materials, the following paragraph deals with the impact of RH onto the
mechanical properties.
8
Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026
4. Mechanical properties
4.1. Sample preparation and experimental set-up
Cylinders with a diameter of 50 mm were dryly core-drilled from the
blocks for uniaxial compressive strength tests. Because of the different
formats of the blocks, the cylinders have a height of 71 mm in case of the
NF blocks and 113 mm in case of the 3DF blocks and thus a slenderness
ratio of h/d = 1.4 (NF) and 2.3 (3DF) respectively. To identify the in­
fluence of the slenderness onto the compressive strength and the
Young’s modulus, one series of six 3DF cylinders with the same height as
the NF cylinders was prepared. Subsequently, upper, and lower side
were levelled through a fine layer of gypsum to guarantee parallel planes
for load introduction. Earth mortar was mixed with water for sample
preparation and adjusted to a spread flow diameter of 175 mm
P. Wiehle et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026

Fig. 11. Failure patterns of 3DF cylinder (A) and NF cylinders (B and C).

Fig. 12. Stress–strain diagrams of 3DF (top) and NF blocks (bottom) under cyclic, force-controlled loading at 50, 70 and 90 % RH.

according to DIN 18946 [7]. The tests were carried out on mortar prisms
of 160 × 40 × 40 mm3. Block and mortar samples subsequently were
stored at varying climate conditions in climate chambers. The main test
series was conditioned at 23 ◦ C and various RH from 40 to 95 %.
Additionally, a series cured at 10 ◦ C and four different levels of RH was
tested to identify the influence of temperature. An overview of the
experimental programme is given in Table 5. The series with identical
sample geometry to proof slenderness effects, was conditioned in stan­
dard climate conditions (23 ◦ C/50 % RH).
Compressive strength and Young’s modulus of the blocks were tested
using a 25 kN servo mechanical testing machine. Clip-on extensometers
were employed to measure displacements. The compression tests were
carried out following DIN 18945 [6]. Samples were tested under force-
controlled loading with three load cycles up to one third of the
maximum stress. The load speed was adjusted to 100 – 150 N/s
depending on RH, thereby failure occurred in between 30 and 90 s.
Additionally, displacement-controlled tests were conducted for some
levels of RH to allow a description of the post peak behaviour.
Depending on the RH a constant load speed between 0.7 and 0.9 mm/
min was chosen. Axial strain was constantly measured using three clip-
on extensometers. Test setup and loading scheme are depicted in Fig. 7.
The mortar samples were tested on a 10 kN servo mechanical testing
machine under unicyclic loading according to DIN 18946 [7].

9
P. Wiehle et al.
Fig. 13. Linear regression of normalised compressive strength (A) and Young’s modulus (B) for 3DF and NF blocks depending on RH.
4.2. Test results
The results of the compressive strength tests in relation to the
moisture content are reported in Figs. 8 and 9, whereas the error bars
show the standard deviation of the compressive strength. The standard
deviation in terms of the moisture content is not given in form of error
bars, since it is to poor to be visible. The results show a significant
dependence of compressive strength and Young’s modulus on the
moisture content for blocks and mortars. The values of the series
conditioned at 10 ◦ C exhibit a higher moisture content than the series
conditioned at 23 ◦ C at the same level of RH which is in accordance with
other materials and arises from the fact that the adsorption is an
exothermic process [48,49] The compressive strength consequently is
lower. The differences in slenderness ratio between 3DF and NF cylin­
ders does not influence the results. The series of six 3DF samples with the
same geometric dimensions as the NF samples (h = 71 mm) exhibited no
10
Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026
differences compared to the 3DF samples of original height (h = 113
mm), although the slenderness ratio for 3DF is significantly higher than
it is for NF specimens.
The 3DF block yields a higher compressive strength and Young’s
modulus than the NF block throughout the entire moisture spectrum.
The M3 mortar has a higher compressive strength at low moisture
content compared to the M2 mortar whereas the values progressively
converge with increasing moisture content. Apparently, the decrease of
compressive strength and Young’s modulus with increasing moisture
content exhibits a linear correlation for all materials.
The stress–strain diagrams of the unicyclic, displacement-controlled
tests in Fig. 10 show a pronounced non-linear material behaviour for
both blocks, which is known to be typical for earthen materials with a
certain fibre content [18]. Ductility and post-peak behaviour are inde­
pendent of the moisture content in case of the NF block, while the 3DF
block shows a tendency of increasing ultimate strain and ductility after
P. Wiehle et al.
Fig. 14. Linear regression of normalised compressive strength for mortars
depending on RH.
curing at 80 % RH and upwards. The absolute values of ultimate strain
of 3.7 to 11.5 mm/m for both blocks are high compared to other ma­
sonry materials [50]. The decrease of compressive strength and Young’s
modulus can also clearly be seen.
Failure usually is induced by diagonal shear cracks in an angle of
~60◦ which is also common for autoclaved aerated concrete or calcium
silicate bricks [51]. In rare cases a failure pattern in the shape of an
hourglass was observed (Fig. 11). Failure mechanisms and patterns are
independent of the moisture content.
Cyclic loading according to [6] yields distinctive hysteresis which is
known to be typical for elasto-plastic material [9,51]. In Fig. 12, the
stress–strain diagrams of the force-controlled tests are shown for
selected specimens cured in various ambient RH. The diagrams show an
increase in residual strain with increasing moisture content whereas the
first load cycle leads to the highest residual strain compared to the
second and third load cycle. The elastic strain is almost the same for the
first and second load cycle which indicates strain hardening of the ma­
terial. In general, the NF block has higher residual strain compared to
the 3DF block. Moreover, a delayed elastic strain can be observed during
the 30 s retention time before starting the third load cycle and creeping
is existent at the end of the 30 s retention time at one third of the
maximum stress of the third load cycle. Both, the delayed elastic strain
during retention and creeping increase with increasing moisture
content.
4.3. Evaluation and comparison of results
To illustrate the influence of RH onto the mechanical performance,
compressive strength and Young’s modulus of blocks and mortars are
transferred to normalised values and illustrated in dependence of the
RH. This enables a direct comparison of the materials in dependence of
the ambient climate conditions and furthermore allows a direct com­
parison to the compression testing of masonry specimens, where a
relation to the ambient climate conditions is mandatory. The normal­
isation is made dividing the mean value of the compressive strength and
the Young’s modulus of each RH level by the respective mean value
determined at standard climate conditions (23 ◦ C/50 % RH).
As it can be seen in Figs. 13 and 14, the decrease in compressive
strength and Young’s modulus for all materials in good approximation
can be described by a linear relation, whereas the decrease in case of the
3DF blocks is slightly higher than of the NF blocks. Regarding the
mortars, the decrease in compressive strength is slightly higher for the
11
Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026
M3 mortar compared to the M2 mortar. The relative decrease of the
block’s Young’s modulus is significantly higher than it is of its
compressive strength, which decreases between 9.4 and 11.8 %
regarding a 10 % increase of RH. The Young’s modulus decreases 14.4 to
16.2 % respectively. Considering the tests carried out at 10◦ C, for both,
NF and 3DF blocks it can be observed, that the decrease in compressive
strength and Young’s modulus is regardless of temperature. The
decrease of the mortars compressive strength throughout the range of
RH is comparable to the blocks, yielding a reduction of 49 % (M3) and
47 % (M2) between 50 and 95 % RH. The decrease becomes more pro­
nounced from 80 % RH on upwards.
In contrary to the results of Müller et al. [16] and Miccoli et al. [23] a
reduction in the decrease of the compressive strength between 40 and
70 % RH could not be observed. Both authors correlate this behaviour
with the shape of the sorption isotherms and conclude that the devel­
opment of the compressive strength depending on the RH follows the
sorption isotherm mirrored at the ordinate axis. However, the sorption
isotherms measured in this study show a mostly linear increase in the
range of 40 to 70 % RH, whereas from 70 % up to 95 % RH, the isotherm
is inclining significantly which cannot be linked to an increasing drop in
compressive strength and Young’s modulus. Considering the mortar, M2
is more hydrophilic than M3, although the compressive strength exhibits
a similar behaviour for both mortars. A possible explanation may be the
content of organic aggreagtes. These seem to have a reinforcement ef­
fect, preventing a sudden drop of the block’s compressive strength and
Young’s modulus in the range of higher moisture contents.
The relation between compressive strength and Young’s modulus
remains proportional throughout the entire range of moisture contents
and can be described by the following equations (Fig. 15).
NF blocks: Young’s modulus Y33 = 660 ∙ fc(φ) (1)
3DF blocks: Young’s modulus Y33 = 860 ∙ fc(φ) (2)
This relation becomes of interest for the structural design of ma­
sonry, where values of the blocks Young’s modulus are usually given in
dependence of the compressive strength. The blocks Young’s modulus is
primarily governing the masonry’s Young’s modulus but is not explicitly
included in the structural analysis [26]. However, a differing behaviour
in dependence of the moisture content would have to be considered.
Eventually, the following paragraph reveals coherences between mate­
rial composition and moisture related mechanical performance of the
materials studied and some additional observations will be discussed.
5. Discussion
The results of this study confirm that strength and stiffness of earth
building products depend on the material moisture. The material
moisture is defined as the equilibrium moisture regarding a certain
ambient RH and can be described by the water vapour sorption
isotherm. The characteristics of the sorption isotherm again, are gov­
erned by the material composition. The material composition, finally,
depends on the application (mortar or block) and manufacturing
method and is a trade-off between strength and durability issues as well
as a cost optimisation.
In terms of the material composition, the amount and type of clay
minerals play a key role. As described in paragraph 3.3, the 3DF blocks
have the highest proportion of clay and thus the highest content of clay
minerals. Besides the clay fraction, both GSDs exhibit widely similar
compositions (Table 1). Hence, it is logical that 3DF yields the highest
absolute values of compressive strength and Young’s modulus at stan­
dard climate conditions (23 ◦ C/50 % RH). The higher absolute and
relative amount of mesopores (Table 4) leads to a higher water uptake
and thus equilibrium moisture content in case of the 3DF block, which
can be seen from the sorption isotherms (Fig. 5). As a result, the 3DF
block exhibits a more pronounced decrease of mechanical parameters
with increasing RH (Fig. 13).
P. Wiehle et al.
Fig. 15. Correlation of compressive strength and Young’s modulus of 3DF (left) and NF block (right) for the entire range of RH, values for 23 ◦ C and 10 ◦ C.
In comparison to the blocks, both mortars contain considerably
smaller proportions of clay and amounts of mesopores (Table 1 and 4),
causing a relatively low water uptake during sorption, but the decrease
in strength with increasing RH is comparable. In other words, regarding
the mortar, a slight change in material moisture leads to a striking
change in compressive strength. This fact cannot solely be attributed to
the amount and type of the clay minerals and the mesopores. The
compressive strength of the mortar prisms at standard climate condi­
tions is not prominently lower than it is of the blocks, although the clay
fraction of the mortar is only 4.13 wt % (M3) and 6.67 wt % (M2)
12
Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026
respectively. As described by Perrot et al. [52] and Laborel-Préneron
et al. [53], the compressive strength of earthen materials containing
organic aggregates is always lower compared to the material without
any organic aggregates. Thus, it is assumed, that the mortars compres­
sive strength is relatively high due to the low content of organic ag­
gregates. Increasing RH leads to a decrease in binding forces that cannot
be compensated by the grain structure or the content of organic fibres or
chaff. More precisely, the more uniform GSDs of the blocks ensure a
grain-to-grain load transfer although the binding forces decrease and
additionally the fibres cause a certain interlock effect and thus are
P. Wiehle et al.
Fig. 16. Gradient of RH depending on the compressive strength related to clay content in wt % (d < 0.002 mm).
stabilizing the matrix. Both effects reduce the decrease in compressive
strength and Young’s modulus of the blocks and are not existent in terms
of the mortars. This effect becomes prominent between 80 and 95 % RH,
where the decrease in compressive strength for both mortars signifi­
cantly increases (Fig. 9).
Regarding the stress–strain behaviour it can be seen from Fig. 10,
that the NF blocks develop a slightly more ductile material behaviour,
which is surprising at first sight, considering that 3DF contains twice the
amount of organic aggregates as NF. Obviously in this case, the type of
organic aggregates has a greater influence onto the mechanical behav­
iour than the amount.
The normalisation of the absolute values of the compressive strength
and the Young’s modulus of blocks and mortars shows a linear depen­
dence of both on the RH. Although, material composition and thus
physical properties vary, the relative reduction in compressive strength
between 50 and 95 % RH is comparable and lies between 46 and 52 %.
The reduction of the block’s Young’s modulus is more sensitive to
increasing RH and sums up to 68 % (NF) and 75 % (3DF) respectively in
the same range of RH (Figs. 13 and 14). These findings suggest that
materials fulfilling the requirements as load-bearing materials according
to the standards DIN 18945 [6] and DIN 18946 [7] exhibit a comparable
moisture related load-bearing behaviour regardless of the material
composition. Thus, a generally valid reduction coefficient can be
employed to describe the impact of RH onto the compressive strength.
The initial strength values of blocks and mortars for the structural design
can then be adapted regardless of the material composition in depen­
dence of the predominant ambient climate condition, which differs i.e.
in case of interior or exterior walls.
Apart from that, earth block masonry exhibits a similar load-bearing
behaviour and failure mechanisms as conventional masonry [2]. In
conclusion, a semi-probabilistic design concept according to DIN EN
1996–1-1 [26], considering the impact of RH seems reasonable for earth
block masonry. The introduction of application classes depending on the
ambient RH, like the design of timber structures according to DIN EN
1995–1-1 [24] is possibly suitable. To do so, it seems to be reasonable to
relate the mechanical parameters of earth masonry and its components
directly to the RH as a universal reference parameter.
However, one must consider, that the earthen materials used in this
study, in particular the blocks exhibit a pronounced sorption hysteresis.
The 3DF block for example has an equilibrium moisture content of 3 wt
13
Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128026
% either at 80 % RH in case of plain adsorption or at 65 % RH for plain
desorption. In other words, the compressive strength at one ambient RH
in theory can vary up to approx. 15 %. The sorption isotherms in prac­
tice surely will constantly lie between ad- and desorption branch and
usually there will be a gradient of moisture content in the material when
exposed to transient climate conditions. Both effects will rather mini­
mise hysteresis effects. In conclusion, we propose to employ a sorption
isotherm averaged from the ad- and desorption branch to relate moisture
content and RH. Based on plain ad- or desorption isotherms the
compressive strength will be over- respectively underestimated. Besides,
the sorption isotherm is depending on the temperature. As it can be seen
from Figs. 8 and 9 the moisture content of the specimens cured at 10 ◦ C
is constantly higher than for the series cured at 23 ◦ C. The sorption
isotherms thus should be determined based on the expectable predom­
inant ambient climate conditions.
Another interesting aspect is, that the proportion of the clay fraction
and the negative gradient of the compressive strength-RH graph
(Figs. 13 and 14) show a linear correlation for both blocks and the M2
mortar (Fig. 16). This approach assumes, that the compressive strength
of materials without any clay is not affected by changes in RH. Hence,
the decrease of the compressive strength with increasing RH can be
estimated if the content of clay and any value of the compressive
strength for one ambient RH is known. Via this approach the moisture
related development of the compressive strength of earth blocks can be
estimated in good approximation and intensive testing at a huge variety
of RH is redundant. Furthermore, the development of the Young’s
modulus can also be estimated via the correlation of compressive
strength and Young’s modulus given in Fig. 15. This method can be of
particular interest for existing structures such as heritage sites or historic
buildings to predict structural reliability throughout the future life cycle.
Less material needs to be extracted from the structures to be intensively
tested and thus, cost and effort are minimised, and the grade of
destructive intervention is limited.
6. Conclusion
Industrially manufactured unstabilised earth masonry products were
investigated to provide a detailed overview of the mechanical perfor­
mance in dependence of the moisture content. Compressive strength and
Young’s modulus of the unstabilised earthen products investigated
P. Wiehle et al.
exhibit a decrease with increasing relative humidity which can be
described by a linear relation. The Young’s modulus is more sensitive to
changes in relative humidity than compressive strength. Throughout the
entire range of relative humiditiy, even at high levels above 80 %, all
materials still have sufficient compressive strength and stiffness for the
use in load-bearing structures. In case of the materials tested, a large
proportion of clay leads to higher compressive strength and Young’s
modulus in rather dry ambient climate conditions, but also increases the
reduction of these parameters with increasing relative humidity. The
amount and type of organic aggregates significantly influence the
moisture and mechanical behaviour. This influence becomes more
prominent at a lower proportion of clay. However, the impact of organic
aggregates onto the physical and mechanical properties is not yet fully
understood.
In conclusion, the dependence of normalised compressive strength
and Young’s modulus of the investigated materials on ambient relative
humidity can be expressed in form of a linear relation and is largely
independent of the material composition. Thus, initial strength values
for the structural design can be determined regardless of the block and
mortar type and its compressive strength class. On this basis future
research will focus on the transferability of these findings onto masonry
structures. RILEM masonry wallettes as well as storey high walls will be
tested under centrical and eccentrical compression loading and exposed
to varying RH. Finally, durability issues such as creep resistance and
fatigue strength will be investigated.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Philipp Wiehle: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft,
Visualization, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
Sebastian Simon: Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Investi­
gation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Johanna
Baier: Formal analysis, Investigation. Luise Dennin: Formal analysis,
Investigation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This research was conducted in the framework of a funding by
Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt (DBU). The authors wish to acknowl­
edge the companies claytec e.K. and conluto® for providing materials
and their expertise. Special thanks are directed to Johanna Baier and
Luise Dennin for their tremendous dedication and great commitment
during this work.
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