Servomechanism Fundamentals - Zeines, Ben, 1917 - 1959 - New York, McGraw-Hill - Anna's Archive

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Servomechanism Fundamentals
Se rvomecnanism
hani
1959
2 3^
Fundamentals
BEN ZEINES
RCA In.tlitutes, Inc.,
and Hofstra College
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
NEW YORK TORONTO LONDON
f -J 02.
Servomechanism Fundamentals
Copyright © 1959 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in the

United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof,
may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers.
Library of Congress Catalog Xo.: 58-59681
Frontispiece courtesy of Servo Corporation of America.
THE M.\PLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA.

Prefa ce
The purpose of this hook is to ac(iuaiiit the student and the

tecluiiciau in the field with tlie basic nietliods of servo systems
and data transmission systems. Fundamentals are stressed
rather than a detailed examination of any particular equip-
ment or system so that the reader may understand any type of
servo system or ecjuipment he may encounter. The method
of presentation isbased on the author's experience in teaching
servo-.system courses and has been proved successful in helping
students understand servo systems.
This book is intended for students studying servo systems or
control systems in technical institutes, technical junior or
community colleges, adult evening trade-technical programs,
area vocational-technical schools, and the upper grades of
technical high schools. It will he of special use to training
programs in both industry and the armed forces. Individuals
studying the subject on their own will find it especially helpful.
A minimum knowledge of mathematics is necessary'.
Mathematical formulas and analysis have been reduced as
much as possible, so that only a knowledge of arithmetic is
recjuired for most of the work. Some more advanced mathe-
matics has boon incorporated in tho appendixes for additional
information on motors, magnetic amplifiers, and stabilization
criteria.
The operation of each element used in most control systems
vi PREFACE
is discussed and oxplaiiUMl in detail in order to illustrate the

pvn-pose and action of each component in the composite sys-
tem. Illustrations are used profusely throughout the text for
visual instruction. Where possible, photographs of actual
commercial products are used throughout the text. Letter
symbols, abl:)reviations, and symbols used for circuit and sys-
tem diagrams have been selected in general to conform to the
adopted or recommended systems of the IRE and ASME.
Examples are used wherever possible to illustrate the princi-
ples discussed in the text. The values used in the examples
have been carefully selected and represent t3'pical values. As
an aid to the instructor and for student use, there are ques-
tions, and where possible problems, at the end of almost every
chapter. These values used in the proljlems represent topical
practical values. A bibliography is included to direct the
reader's attention to additional reading material.
Many industrial organizations have been of great assistance
in providing photographs and technical information regarding
their products. This aid has been gratefully acknowledged
throughout the text.
The author wishes to express his gratitude to his wife, Mrs
Ben Zeines, for her care in typing the manuscript and for her
other helpful assistance. The author also wishes to express
his appreciation to Îr. Harry Horstmann, formerly of RCA
Institutes, for the careful reading of the manuscript and for his
helpful suggestions concerning the technical information.
Ben Zeines
1
Contents
Preface v
1 Control Systems and Servoniechanisnis 1
2 Elenientar}^ Forms of Control Systems 11

3 Servo Systems 22
4 Synchros 49
5 Servo Elements 86
6 Electronic and Magnetic Amplifiers 103
7 Direct-current Servomotors 132
8 Alternating-current Servomotors 154
9 Performance Improvers 169
10 Methods for Servos and Measurement 197
1 Examples of Servos and Servosystems 208
Appendix 225
A Magnetic Amplifiers 227
B Direct -current Motors 232
C The Theory of Servoniechanisnis 235
D Elements of Mechanical, Acoustic,
and Electrical Systems 245
Bibliography 249
Index 251
I
Control Systems
and Servomechanisms
1-1 Introduction
To alter the course of a modern airliner requires the applica-

tion of far more force to the rudder, stabilizers, and ailerons
than can be supplied by a few men. The steering of ships
and the control of heavy machinery such as guns and radar
antennas also re(}uire great force.
Today, huge quantities of mechanical, electrical, or hydrau-
lic energy can be controlled by opening or closing a switch
or valve or by turning a wheel. The systems developed to

control or regulate this flow of energy are generally known as
control systems. They vary in complexity, depending on
their requirements, and also differ in that their operation can
l)e either dependent upon or independent of the flow of the
controlled energy. The latter statement points out the main

difference between the broad term "control system" and the
somewhat narrower term "servosystem" with which this
hook will deal. To expand on this, consider tlie home-
lieating system shown in Fig. 1-1. This is an open-cycle
J
2 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
system which derives its name from its lark of automatic
response to any chanjê in input conditions. For example,
when the switch is closed, the heater is turned on and the room
gets warmer, the temperature being indicated by the ther-
mometer. Opening the switch shuts off the heater and
allows the room to cool.
To maintain room temperature, the switch must
a constant
be opened whenever the thermometer reading exceeds a
predetermined value and closed whenever the reading drops
below that value. One waj^ these conditions can be met is to
station an operator at the switch to open and close it in
accordance with the temperature he reads on the thermometer.
Closed-cycle control sys-
However, if the operator is included, he introduces feedback or

foUowup into the system, causing it to resemble an automatic,
or closed-cycle, system.
To make this the truly automatic system shown in Fig. 1-2
requires that the operator and the thermometer be replaced
by a temperature-sensitive device such as a coiled bimetallic
strip. One end of the spiral is fixed the other opens and closes
;
the switch contacts as the strip expands and contracts with

temperature change. Thus, when the room temperature
exceeds a given value, the expansion of the spiral strip opens
the contacts, turning off the heat. As the room cools, the
strip contracts, turning on the heat, and the cycle repeats
itself over and over.
Those interested in further information on the manual
(open-cycle) type of control system will find a section of the
next chapter devoted to this topic. In keeping with the
theme of this book, only closed-cycle automatic systems will
be discussed at length.
CONTROL SYSTEMS AND SERVOMECHANISMS 3
As evidenced in the second example above, the closed-

cycle system provides a return of information (by means of
the bimetallic strip) to the controlling device (the contacts)
to tell how well the control orders are being carried out
and permits introduction of the following definition of a
servosystem.^
A scrvosystem is defined as a combination of elements for
the control of a source of power in which the output of the
system, or some function of the output, is fed back for com-
parison with the input and the difference between these
cjuantities is used in controlling the power. Thus, a servo-
system is an error-operated device, witli power amplification
generally implied.
In the second heating example, note that the controlled
energy is heat, while the error detector is the heat-sensitive
bimetallic strip. Xo meclianical motion such as the turning
of a radar antenna or a gun turret is involved. \\'hen
mechanical motion takes place, as will be found in most
servosystems the reader will encounter, the label servo-
mechanism is applied. As an example, consider the problem
of moving a heavy searchlight up and down. Figure 1-3
shows one of many possible ways this can be done. Poten-
tiometers Ri and R-i form a bridge circuit excited by an a-c
\'oltage. Moving the wiper arm of Ri unbalances the bridge,
producing a voltage at the input to the amplifier. This
signal is amplified and applied to a two-pha.se motor, causing
it to rotate. The gear trains couple this rotation to the
searchlight and also to R>, causing its wiper arm to move in
the proper direction to rebalance the bridge. As the bridge
rebalances, the signal at the amplifier input is reduced to
zero. The now comes to rest in a new position
searchlight
that will either be up or down from its previous position,
depending on the direction in which the wiper arm of Ri is
moved. This type of system is known as a position-control
servosystem and will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.
'
H. M. Jainos, X. B. Nichols, and H. S. Phillips, "Theory of Scrvo-
mpchaiiisins," vol. 25, .M.I.T. Radiation Lal)oratory Scries, McCMaw-IIill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947.
1 -2 Classification
There are many forms of classification which may be

appUed to servosj-stems. Commonly accepted classifications
are (1) as to use, (2) bj^ motive characteristics, and (3) by
control characteristics. These may be further divided as
follows: (1) systems such as remote controls, power amplifiers,
indicating instruments, converters, and computers; (2)
thyratron servos, hydraulic servos, pneumatic servos, ampli-
dyne controls. Ward Leonard controls, two-phase a-c servos,
and mechanical torque amplifiers; and (3), which is the most
important classification of servomechanisms, the relay,
definite-correction, and continuous-control types of servo-
systems. All of these forms will be discussed in succeeding
chapters of this book.
1 -3 Components
The servosystem shown in Fig. 1-3 may be represented by
the block diagram shown in Fig. 1-4. The potentiometers
comprising the bridge circuit are the error detectors. The
wiper arm of R\ is the input to the system, and its angular
displacement is represented by di. The wiper arm of Ri
provides the feedback signal, and its angular displacement is
represented by do. The difference between these two quanti-
ties is the error signal, represented by E = Bi — do. This
error signal drives the controller (normally an amplifier),
whose output drives the motor to position the load. Thus a
servosystem contains five basic components. A knowledge
of the types and characteristics of these components is
required if complete understanding of the servosystem is to be
arrived at. The functions of the basic components may be
summarized as follows:
1. The input shaft is the .system reference to which the
action of the load is made to correspond.
2. The load is the part of the system that is driven into
correspondence with the input shaft.
3. The error detector compares the actual position of the
load with the reference position in order to generate an error
signal.
CONTROL SYSTEMS AND SERVOMECHANISMS
4. Tlie controller is the cleinent (Irixoii by tlie ciror .si}i;nal.
'). The motor is the prime mover of tlie s\'.stem ami positions
the load.
The error detector is the most commonly encountered input
device for a system and will he discussed first.
An error detector may

be resistive (potentiometer), capaci-
tive, magnetic, mechanical, or electromechanical.
A commonly used magnetic detector is the synchro. This
device has been developed to a point where it is characterized
T
n
SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
is known as the E transformer and is shown in Fig. 1-5.
Alternating; current is apphed to the input coil on the center

leg of the core. A\'hen the armature is centered between the
outer legs, the magnetic field of the input coil is divided
equally between them and induces equal voltages in each.
Since the coils are connected in series opposition, the output
voltage is zero. When the armature is displaced, it produces
an output voltage proportional to the displacement that is in
phase for the other. The E transformer is useful when a
servo is required to position a mechanical part so that it follows
the position of another mechanical part. In this application,
one part is connected to the armature, while the other is
Motion Armature Motion
Output
Input
Fig. 1-5 Ty])ical E-transformer circuit.
connected to the core. The servo drives the core (follower)

to produce a zero output voltage.
The potentiometer is still another type of error-detecting
element. It is most often used when the input and output
motion of a servomechanism is limited. Potentiometers are
characterized by high accuracy, small size, and the fact that
an a-c or a d-c voltage may
be obtained as an output. Their
disadvantages include limited motion, the wearing out of the
brush on the potentiometer wire, and the fact that the output
voltage changes in discrete steps as the brush moves from
wire to wire. A further disadvantage of some is the high
driving torque required.
Servocontroller. The purpose of the servocontroller is to
amplify the error signal the required amount, change the
error signal into the type needed to control the servomotor,
CONTROL SYSTEMS AND SERVOMECHANISMS 7
and maintain stable, accurate, and fast servo operations A

block diagram of a typical servocontroller is siiown in Fig. 1-6.
The input to this controller is shown as an a-c signal, the
magnitude of which is proportional to the magnitude of the
error between the input and the output. The phase of the
input signal varies with the direction of the error.
The second component of the controller is a demodulator.
This element changes the a-c signal into a d-c signal. The
magnitude of the d-c signal is proportional to the magnitude
with the a-c signal
of the a-c signal, while the polarity varies
phase. Following the demodulator are networks that modify
the frequency characteristics of the error signal to permit
proper operation of the entire system with the amount of
gain re(iuired. The final controller component is a d-c
/l-c
error
SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
turo witli this reference phase l)y the servocoiit roller output.
Its output tonjue is proportional to the niafîiitude of the
its direction depends on a comparison of the
control voltage;
phase of the voltage driving the control winding with the
reference phase.
The most widely used motor is the shunt type. It is
d-c
controlled by varying armature or field current.
either the
The reference current in this type of motor is maintained
constant to preserve a linear relationship between motor
output torque and input voltage, or current. The field
windings are usually two differentially wound coils to facili-
tate direction control of the field current by the servocon-
troller. Field currents are not normally large and may be
obtained by using receiving-type electron tubes. Some
small motors ha\'e their field supplied by permanent magnets.
When control by armature cur-
Air fill
rent is to be used, thyratrons or
generators are normally em-
Oilbog -Accumulator ployed in the controller.
Hydraulic motors are used
in aircraft installations fre-
quently because of their rela-
tive simplicity. Under oper-
To load
ating conditions they rarely
have advantages over electric
Fig. 1-7 Typical hydraulic ac-
cumulator. motors. Where operation for
shoit periods separated by long
intervals is needed, it is possible to obtain tremendous output
from a small hydraulic motor using a hj'draulic accumulator.

Oil is stored in a bag, and air pressure in the body of the accu-
mulator forces the oil out to the motor at high pressure. The
chief advantage of the hydraulic motor is that it may be
filled from a small pump if the filling time required is long
enough (Fig. 1-7).

A number of other types of motors are used in servo work,
including a bellows that exerts a force when connected to a
high-pressure air line and heating elements that serve as
temperature-control servos.
CONTROL SYSTEMS AND SERVOMECHANISMS
1 -4 Performance Improvers — Dampers

In the system described in Fig. 1-3, the searchlight is
brought to rest at a position of zero error and will remain

there. There is a possibility, however, that the momentum of
the load will carry it past this zero point, causing what is
called overshooting. After the load has passed this point,

the error detector senses an error in the opposite direction,
causing the controller and motor to reverse their outputs to
return the load to the zero position. Successive overshooting
on either side of zero is called oscillation, or hunting.
To prevent hunting, a damper is added that causes the
motor to apply a reverse force to the load before the zero
position is reached. If too small a damper is used, the system
will hunt but the overshoots will decrease in size until the
oscillations finally die out. A

Flywheel
critically damped servosystem
reduces the error to zero with- Spring- Felt washer
out overshoots and maintains it
t here. An overdamped .system Adapter to

motor shaft
isone in which the load takes
an extremely long time to reach Pressure disc
zero position and zero error.

Damping or stabilizing a ser-
Fig. 1-8 ('iita\va\- view of friction
vosystem can be accomplished
(laini)er.
in a number of ways. One way
is through the use of a viscous damper. Since this type of
damper usually dissipates a large amount of energy in drag-
ging the motor shaft through the viscous medium, it is gen-
erally used in systems with low power consumption.
One type of viscous damper with extensive application is
the friction damper. This device applies damping to the
motor shaft only during the time the motor is rapidly acceler-
ating l)ut has little effect when the motor shaft is moving with
constant velocity. A cutaway view is shown in Fig. 1-S.
It contains a disk and bushing which can l)e clamped to the
motor shaft, a flywheel that is free to rotate with respect to
the disk, an oil-soaked felt washer which restrains the relative
JO SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
motion l)et\veon the flywheel and pressure disk, and a spring
that adjusts the restraining force. The action of this type of
damper is twofold. If the flywheel is held fixed, there will
be a drag on the motor shaft because of the viscous drag of the
pressure disk on the felt washer. This type of drag occurs
during acceleration of the shaft, since the inertia of the fly-
wheel causes it to remain relatively motionless. When the
shaft is rotating at a constant velocity, the drag of the felt
washer on the flywheel causes it to rotate at the motor speed,
reducing the drag on the motor shaft to zero.
The characteristic response of the friction damper can be
changed by varying the spring pressure with which the felt
washer presses against the inertia disk.
Another type of friction damper uses a reservoir of oil and
paddle wheels to damp the motor shaft viscously. Still
another type of damper, not of the friction type, is the
tachometer generator. This is a small generator whose
output voltage is proportional to its speed. By adding this
voltage at the proper point in the controller the effect will be
exactly the same as that of the viscous damper.
QUESTIONS
1. Define servosystem.
2. Draw a block diagram of a servomechanisin and hil)el each block.
3. List two examples of error detectors.
4. What is the purpose of a servocontroller?
5. What is the purpose of a servomotor?
6. What is the typical motor used in d-c applications: iu a-c applica-
tions?
7. What is the purpose of damping?
8. Xame two types of dampers.
Elementary Forms
of Control Systems
2-1 Elementary Control Systems

The l)asic function of a seivosystem is to control tlie opera-
tion of amachine or force from a remote position. A highly
primitive form of control .system is in operation when a man
commands a team of oxen. His mere word or gesture causes
a load (which has been attached to the team of oxen) to be
carried from one place to another. The energy expended in
commanding is converted into the energy required to move a
load. can be seen that this system involves the transforma-

It
tion of a source of energy from one form to another. How-
ever, it can also be seen that the use of an external source of
power, in most cases much greater than that used for the
control operation, is required. To aid in understanding the
principles involved in the various kinds of control systems,
some elementary forms will bo doscribed.
2-2 Manual Discontinuous Control

A (liscontiuuous electrical control system is illustrated in
Fig. 2-1 . It consists of a battery voltage E which is connected
?I
?2 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
to alamp liavinfj; a lesistaiico R tliiouj!;li a switch S. Closing
tiioswitch completes the circuit and allows energy to (low
from the battery E to the lamp R. Useful work is performed.
Opening the switcli stops the motion of energy in the system.
Thus, the operation of the switcli controls the flow of energy
from the battery or generator E to the lamp, making it either
zero or a value determined by the characteristics of the circuit.
Elementary as the circuit may be, this type of control
embodies some of the features of more complex systems.
Note that the energy required for opening and closing the
switch is in no way related to the amount of energy released
or controlled in the circuit. In the system described, the
controlling energy is mechanical, whereas the controlled
energy is electricaland the energy obtained from the load is in
the form of light and heat. Thus, it may be .seen, the con-
trolling and controlled energies can be of different forms.
f -=- R( =^ )Lomp
Fig. 2-1 Discontinuous electrical Fig. 2-2 Continuous control s_\s-
control sy.stem. tein.
2-3 Manual Continuous Control

electrical system of Fig. 2-1 may be modified to form a
The
continuous electrical control system. This is shown in Fig.
2-2. In place of the switch »S, a rheostat Rr is inserted
between the generator or battery E and the lamp load R.
When the sliding contact of the rheostat is in position 1, the
circuit resistance is maximum and minimum energy flows in
the system. The movement of the sliding contact to the
left decreases the resistance of the circuit. However, at first
the full resistance of the rheostat is lamp
in series with the
load R, decreasing the rate of energy flow toward the load
R. Further movement of the sliding contact to the left
gradualh' increases the rate of energy involved in displacing
'
ELEMENTARY FORMS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS J 3
tlie slider, or contact arm. 'I'liis is the cont loiliufj; eueij^y,

and it independent of the controlled electrical
is entirely
enerf^y operating in the system and its load.
2-4 Open-cycle and Closed-cycle Systems

At this point, note that the operation of the control unit
(for example, the switch in Fig. 2-1) may or may not he
independent of the result that the operation produces at the
load end. When the control operation is independent of the
result that the operation produces, the system is called an
open-cycle system. When the control operation is dependent
on the result that the operation produces, the system is called
a doficd-cyde system. Both open-cycle and closed-cycle
systems may be operated either manually or automatically.
2-5 Open-cycle Control System

For an example of an open-cycle control system refer to
Fig. 2-3. Here is shown the heating s3-stem of a home which
can be controlled by opening and closing the switch *S. The
home temperature is indicated on a thermometer T. In
order to maintain a constant
temperature in the house, the 5 Tin
—
I
switch is closed whenever the °''° Ai i \ i
L I
^^
I
thermometer indication falls <^^ |

|
below the preset value and

opened when the indicated tem-
-J ^ I
\
— I
perature exceeds this value. ' '
^''^'^'^ Opc.-cy.lc t.-mixTaturc-

The switch mav be turned on '
, -. , ,
control system,
and ott by an operator observ-
ing the thermometer and acting in accordance with its indica-
tions. Clo.sing and opening the control switch then controls
the operation of the system. If the operator is considered a
part of the system, the system is said to be a doacd-cyde con-
trol system.
2-6 Automatic Closed-cycle System

It uvdv that the al)ovc system be automatic.
\)v (losiral)l('
An c(|ui\al(Mit automatic do.sed-cycle temperature-regulating

]4 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
system is shown in Fig. 2-4. A temperature-sensitive device
T, a coiled spiral of thermostatic metal strip, is used instead of
a thermometer. One end of the spiral is secured in a fixed
position. The other end opens or closes a control 8 whenever
the strip expands or contracts
as the temperature rises above
or falls below a preassigned
E"^ I
</y^ i
value. Arise in temperature
I
I <* I
due to operation of the heater
causes the thermostatic strip
Fig. 2-A Automatic ,I<.s(.<l-(^v<lo
ô expand and to open the con-
tcmperaturc-rcgulating systcMn. tact S. The heater is thereby
turned off, and the house cools
down. As the house cools down, the thermostatic strip con-
tracts and closes contact S, causing the heater to go on and
the temperature to rise.
The above principles may be applied to other types of

control systems and in particular to systems for controlling
the position of a load.
2-7 Discontinuous and Continuous Position-control Systems
A discontinuous position-control system is illustrated in

Fig. 2-5. An electric motor
connected to a battery through
is
a three-contact switch. The shaft of the motor is mechani-

cally linked through a rack and suitable gears to an object or
load. When the switch is in forward position, the motor
moving the load to the left.
drives in the opposite direction,
The system shown in Fig. 2-5 therefore is similar to the
system shown in Fig. 2-1.
The distance that the load is displaced may be measured
directly at the load. However, if the load is located at some
remote or inaccessible place, it may not be convenient or
possible to make such a direct measurement.
The electromechanical system of Fig. 2-5 may be modified
to a continuous position-control system, as shown in Fig. 2-6.
The discontinuous on-off type of control provided by the
switch is here replaced by a giatlual or continuous type of
control furnished by the potentiometer.
ELEMENTARY FORMS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 15
The system of Fig. 2-o may be modified to predetermine and

to control the displacement of the load. This arrangement is
illustrated in Fig. 2-7 In addition to the elements of Fig.
2-5, a cord is attached to the load at A and passed over two
Platform
Fig. 2-5 Manual oix-ii-cyclc (liscoiitimious jjositioti-coiitrol system.
stationary pulleys B and C and a mo\'al)le idler arm l).
This idler pulley is mechanically connected to the switch arm,

as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 2-7.
If the free end F of the cord is kept stationary any dis-
placement of the load toward the right cau.ses the movable
Fig. 2-6 -Manual oix-n-cycic continuous position-control system.
pulley i) to be displaced upward; a displacement toward the
left produces a downward displacement of the same pulley.

Similarly, if the load is fi.xed, a displacement of the free end F
of the cord toward the left or right cau.ses a corresponding
displacement upward oi- downwanl lospectively of the pulley
D. Thus, a displacement of either end A or F of tlie cord
toward the pulley D causes the latter to move downward; a
displacement of either end of the cord away from D causes the
pulley to move upward. The displacement of the movable
pulley is equal to one-half the displacement of the particular
end of the cord moved.
if both ends A and F of the cord are displaced
It follows that
equal amounts and in the same directions, the position of the
pulley remains unchanged. But if the displacements of A
and F are unequal, the pulley will be displaced from its original
position by an amount e(iual to one-half the algebraic dif-
ference between the displacements of A and F. In other
Fig. 2-7 Automatic closed-cj'cle discontinuous jjosition-controi system.

C and B are fixed-pivot pulleys, D is a movable differential-idler pulley.
words, if the distance between the ends A and F is the same

before and after the displacements of the two ends, the
position of pulley D is the same. But if the displacements of
A and F are such that the distance between them is greater or
smaller than it was originally, the pulley will be displaced
upward or downward from its original position by an amount
equal to one-half the difference between the original distance
and the final distance.
The pulley combination thus constitutes a differential
device by which the relative positions of the two ends A and
F are compared. The deviation of the pulley from its original
position is an indication of the magnitude and direction of a
variation in the relative positions of the ends.
ELEMENTARY FORMS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 77
2-8 Automatic Control Systems

An example of an automatic (closed-cycle) discontinuous
position-control system is sliown in Fig. 2-7. In order to
understand the operation of the system illustrated in Fig. 2-7
suppose that the free end F of the cord is suddenly moved to
the right 2 in. Since the end A is stationary, the pulley
moves downward 1 in. This closes contact 3 of the switch,
and the motor starts rotating in a direction to drive the load
to the right. The end of the cord A is thereby pulled to the
right, causing the pulley to move upward. When the pulley
has been raised 1 in. (which corresponds to a 2-in. displace-
ment of the load to the right), the switch opens and the motor
stops.
Thus moving the end F of the cord to the right results in
an ecjual movement of the load to the right; and after this
result is ol)tained, the system automatically stops operating.
During this process, no energ}' is transferred through the cord

from the driving (input) end F to the load (output) end A.
Similarly, if the input end F of the cord is moved 2 in. to
the left, the motion will be taken up entirely by a 1-in. upward
displacement of the pulley D, without any energy being
transferred through the cord to the output end A and load.
However, the displacement of the pulley closes contact 1 of
the switch, and this causes the motor to rotate in such a
direction as to drive the load to the left. This in turn allows
the pulley to move downward. When the load has moved
2 in., the pulley is returned to its original position, opening the
switch and stopping the operation of the system.
In effect, the system is always operated in such a manner as
to restore the switch to its original open position.
The same reasoning holds true for larger or smaller dis-
placements of the input end F of the cord. Thus, a 1-in.
movement of F to the right causes a 1-in. movement of the
load to the right. Successive displacements of F in the same
direction cause equal successive displacements of the load in
the same direction.
It follows that a correspondence is established by the
sy.stcm described between the positions of tiic input end F
on one hand and the output end A and load on the other.
tlie
Tlic position of F constitutes a standard to which the position

of A and the output load is made to correspond through the
operation of the system. This correspondence between the
positions of A and F may also be described by saying that the
system operates in such a way as to maintain or restore to a
constant value the distance between the ends A and F of the
cord.
The sj^stem tends to stabilize the load in the position
assigned to it at the input end F. Suppose, for example, that
the load is subjected to a strong wind which tends to displace
it toward the left. If the end F of the cord is kept stationary,
a movement of the load toward the left displaces the pulley
downward. This, in turn, causes the closing of switch con-
tact 3 and starts the motor rotating in such a manner as to
drive the load toward the right. The pulley D then restores
itself to zero error position when the load is restored to its
original position.
The limitation of the above system isthat the accuracy of
the system is equal to the minimum displacement required
to open or close the contacts of the control switch.
2-9 Automatic Discontinuous Control System

In the control system shown in Fig. 2-7, it is found that a
displacement of the input member F results in an equal
finite
displacement of the output member A and load, in magnitude
as well as in direction. However, in the above description,
only the initial and final positions of the input and output
members are considered, without regard to the time element
involved in the displacement process.
In this connection it should be noted that the system
described is a discontinuous type of control; that is, as soon
as the input member is displaced from its original position
and the switch is closed, the full voltage of the corresponding
section of the battery is applied to the motor. The motor
then develops its full torque and accelerates the output
member at a rate determined solely by the electrical and
ELEMENTARY FORMS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS ?9
mechanical characteristics of tlic motor and load, independent

of the speed of the input member F.
If the speed of the input member is greater than that of the
load, the motion of the load will not restore the differential
pulley D to its original neutral position until some time after
the input member F has stopped in its final position. On the
other hand, if the speed of the input member than that
is less
of the load, the motion of the load will, in spite of the motion
of the input member, cause the differential pulley to return to
its original position and open the switch. The motor then
slows down until the continued motion of the input member
again displaces the pulley and closes the switch. At this
action the full motor tor(}ue is applied once more to the load.
Under these conditions of low input speed and high output
speed, a constant-speed input motion results in a periodically
varying speed of output motion. It follows that while the
respective ultimate displacements of the input and output

members are etûal, the instantaneous input and output
speeds are different. The combination of slow speed and
accuracy is not readily obtainable with discontinuous control.
2-10 Automatic Continuous Control System

If is replaced with a potentiometer,
the switch in Fig. 2-7
the system then defined as an automatic closed-cycle
is
continuous-position control system. This type of system is

illustrated in Fig. 2-8. The basic difference introduced by
this type of system is that the displacement of the variable
arm of the potentiometer is equal to that of the differential
idler pulley and the resulting voltage applied to the motor is
then proportional to this displacement.

Let us assume that the two battery voltages are equal and
the potentiometer tap is in midposition so that there is no
voltage applied to the motor. 'I'his zero position of the
center tap is produced by a definite position of the differential

idler pulley, to which the center tap is connected mechanically,
with respect to the defined positions of both input and load
terminals. If the differential idler pulley and the center tap
are moved from this zero position, a voltage proportional to
:
the amount of displacement will be applied to the motor.
The voltage can be either negative or positive depending on
the displacement direction. The motor will rotate in either
direction accordingly. If the motor is made so that its
torque is proportional to the applied voltage, the motor

torque is proportional to the displacement of the differential
idler pulley and the slider arm.
If the input member F is set in motion at a constant speed
to the right, the differential idler pulley and slider arm will
then move downward, applying a voltage to the motor. The
motor rotates and moves the load to the right. The speed of
motion of the load may be less than that of the input end, and
Fig. 2-8 Automatic cioscd-cycle continuous position-control system.
the pulley and the slider will continue to go downward

arm
as the input being moved to the right. This
member is
causes a greater voltage to be applied to the motor terminals

consequently, the motor torque increases, and therefore the
motor speed increases. The displacement speed of the load
may then exceed the speed of the input, causing the pulley to
go upward, reducing the voltage applied to the motor, and
thereby slowing it down. A point will then be reached where
the input and output speeds are equal. If the input speed
is increased or decreased, then the output speed will increase
or decrea.se similarly through the position change of the

differential idler pulley.
The torque developed by the motor and the resulting force
applied to the load serve to countermand the retarding force
ELEAAENTARY FORMS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 2?
produced hy friction wliicli i.s pie.senl in tlie ino\"ing parts of

the .sy.steni.
QUESTIONS
1. Illustrate a discontinuous control system. Explain its operation.
2. How would you modify your system to make it a continuous con-
trol system?
3. Define open-cycle control system; closed-cycle control system.
4. Illustrate a mamial open-cycle continuous control system.
K.\plain the operation of your system.
5. an automatic closed-cycle discontinuous-position con-
Illustrate
Explain the operation of the sy.stem.
trol sj'.stem.
6. Modify the system explained in Question 5 to an automatic
clo.sed-cycle continuous-position control system. Explain the
operation of this .system.
3
Servosystems
3-1 Servosystems
It is frequently necessary to control the position of a device
in accordance with some function of a signal supplied by a
controlling instrument. If the power required to operate
the device is large compared with the power available from
the controlling instrument, power-amplifying means must be
provided. When the amplification of the controlling signals
is carried out by machine or an automatic control system,
the element that amplifies the controlling signals and operates
the device is known as an automatic controller.
Automatic control systems are divided into two types,

depending upon the source of the signals that operate the
controller. As has previously been mentioned, if the signal
supplied to the controller is determined as a function of the
device being controlled, the system is known as a closed-cycle
control system. If the signal supplied to the controller is not
a function of the de\'ice being controlled, the system is known
as an open-cycle control system.
3-2 Definition
A servosystem is defined as a combination of elements for

the control of a source of power in which the output of the
22
SERVOSYSTEMS 23
system, or some function of the output, is fed back for com-

parison with the input, and the difference between these
quantitiesis used in controllinj? the power. Tlius a servo-
system is an error-operated device and, in general, power
amphfication is impUed.
The term servomechnnism is appHed to a type of servosystem
invohing the use of mechanical elements and mechanical
motion. The distinction between a servomechanism and an
Master unit
Spring
.---T^'
Input Output
Controller Motor
(b)
Fig. 3-1 (n) Opcn-tyclc control system. (6) Syinbolic rcproscntation.
open-cycle control .system can be shown most easily by com-

paring an example of each. First, let us consider a metering
problem in which it is neces.sary to repeat or reproduce at a
higher power level the indication of an instrument. One
method of accomplishing this is shown in Fig. 3-1. The
motion the master indicating unit is measured and is
of
proportional to the alternating voltage developed by a pair of
magnetically coupled coils. This alternating voltage is
amplified and supplied to a torque meter. The rotor of the
tonjue meter is coupled to the movement of the repeater
instiuineiit. If the voltage from tlie measuring coils of the
master unit is made proi)()rtioiial to the deflection of its
movement and the amplifier is linear (l)y linear meaning the
voltage output of the amplifier is made proportional to its
input voltage), the torque developed b}' the torque meter
will then he proportional to the deflection of the master unit.
Fig. 3-2 (a) Closed-cycle control system, (b) Sj'mbolic representation.
The deflection of the repeater is therefore proportional to the

deflection of the master unit.
The control system described above is an open-cycle control
system, since the signal supplied to the amplifier or controller
is a function of the motion of the master unit. This system
has an obvious disadvantage and should be avoided when
high accuracy is desired.
The same problem can be handled by the closed-cycle
control system shown in Fig. 3-2. The deflection of the
SERVOSYSTEMS 25
master unit is measured by a pair of coils similar to those

employed in the open-cycle controller previously described,
except that both coils are rotatable one by the movement of—
the master unit and the other by a shaft coupled to the
repeater. The signal voltage from the measuring coil is
amplified and used to operate the driving motor. The motor
is coupled to the movement of the repeater and to the refer-
ence coil. When the master unit is displaced, the motor is

operated, and the repeater indicator is rotated through an
angle sufficient to reestablish the measuring coils in their
respective perpendicular positions.
The .system shown in Fig. 3-2 is a closed-cycle system since
tlie signal activating the entire system depends on both the
position of the master unit and the position of the repeater.
Tlieadvantage of the closed-cycle system over the open-cycle
system is made clear by comparison of the two types. The
accuracy of the closed-cycle system depends onl}' on the
accuracy and tolerance of the parts used in the system.
3-3 Servosystem Components

A block diagram that comprises a simple position-control
servosystem is shown in Fig. 3-3. \\'hile this system is at
Controller ^Load
C - &[
9o
Fig. 3-3 Block diuj^ruin of a simple jjo.sition servo.
0, = input angular position

0O = output angular position
E = error, or the differeneo between input and output angular position.
re.st, let us suddenly rotate the input shaft. The angular

displacement activates the error-detection device or sensing
element This applies a signal to the controller which moves
.
the load to its re(juired position. The error reduces to zero

and thereby zeros the error-indicating device. The essential
components described are generally present in every position-
/ 7 O Z
ing servosystem. The elements are discussed here only from
the standpoint of their functions in a servosystem.
1. The input shaft or data-transmission unit is a reference to
which the load is made to correspond by means of the servo-
system (symbol di).
2. The load is that part of the system which is driven into
position correspondence by the input shaft.
3. The error-detector is a device to receive the actual posi-
tionfrom the load and compare it with the reference position
and originate an error signal. It is equal to input minus

output {di — do).
4. The controller is the element which is actuated by the
error signal and which controls the operation of the prime
mover and load.
o. The motor is the prime mover of the system and positions
the load.
3-4 Transmission System
In many servosystems, both the physical position of the

servo output and the origin of signals comprising the servo
input may be remote from one another and from the servo-
controller. The functions of the data transmission system are
to transmit from the servo input to the servo output informa-
tion which isrelated to the servo unit, to compare the input
signal with a signal directly proportional to the servo output,
and to transmit a signal proportional to the relative values of
the output and the input necessary for the servocontroller
to operate. The signal obtained by comparing the servo
input and output is called the servo error, and it is usually
defined as the difference between the input angle of rotation
and the output angle of rotation.
One component of the data transmission system is the
error detector, which is the mechanism for comparing the
input and output signal. The error detector may be resis-
tive (potentiometer), capacitive, magnetic, mechanical, or
electromechanical.
As pointed out in Chapter 1,a commonly used magnetic
error detector is the svnchro. The svnchro has been devel-
SERVOSYSTEMS 77
oped to tlie point where it is characterized by relatively high

accuracy, low noi.se levels, reasonably small driving torcjues,
and excellent life. Its primary advantage o\er oilier types of
error detectors is its unlimited rotation angle; that is, both
the input and the output of the synchro may rotate through
unlimited angles. The disadvantages of synchros include the
large size necessary for them to maintain high accuracy and
the fact that the output supplied to the servocontroUer is
always an alternating voltage.
Another type of magnetic device, shown in Fig. 3-4, is
known as the E transformer and is useful in applications in
which the error detector nvvd not nu)\e through lai-ge angles.
Motion Armature tiôfion
'-,- Output
Input
Fig. 3-4 'rraiisformcr circuit.
Alternating current is applied to the input coil on the center

leg of tlie core. When the armature is in zero position, the
magnetic field of the input coil is di\ided evenly between the
outer two coils, and the voltages induced in these are equal.
The coils are connected so that the induced voltages are
bucking and the net output voltage induced in one coil is
less than that in the other so that the output voltage is
proportional to the displacement of the armature (being in
phase with the input for displacements in one direction and
180 deg out of phase for displacements in the other direction).
The E transformer is useful when a servo positions a mechani-
cal part so that it follows the position of another part. One
part then carries the armature, the other part carries the core,
and the servo drives the follower part to a position for which
the output voltage is zero.
ytill another type of error-detecting element used in data
transmission systems is the potentiometer. Potentiometers

are usually used where the input and output of a servo-
mechanism have limited motion. They are characterized
by high accuracy, small size, and the fact that a d-c or an a-c
voltage may be obtained as the output. Their disadvantages
include limited motion, the wearing out of the brush on the
potentiometer wire, and the fact that the voltage output of the
potentiometer changes in discrete steps as the brush moves
from wire to wire. A further disadvantage of some potenti-
ometers is the high driving torque required.
3-5 Servocontrollers
The function of the servocontroller is to supply the required

amplification of the error-signal level, to change the error
form needed for controlling the servo-
signal into the required
motor, and to maintain stable, fast, and accurate servo
error
SERVOSYSTEMS 29
the servomotor is to be controlled by an a-c voltage of the
same frecjuency as the error signal, the demodulator might

be eliminated and the d-e modifying networks replaced by
a-c networks or by other methods that produce the required
result. Thus the functions of the servocontroller and its
components may vary widely in different control applications.
3-6 Servomotors
The servomotor is a device that supplies the torque and
power to bring the output of the load into correspondence
with the input. The servomotor is usually controlled by the
servocontroller. The ideal servomotor is one that requires
low power from the controller and is capable of accelerating
rapidly; it should be of small size and weight and have a
satisfactory life span, small time lags, and an adequate speed
range.
The two-phase induction motor is the most widely used a-c
servomotor. One phase of this motor is excited from a
constant reference source the other phase is excited in quadra-
;
ture with this reference phase by the servocontroller output.

The motor tor(|ue is proportional to the magnitude of the
control voltage,and its direction depends on the relative
phase of the excitations on the control and the reference
phase.
The most widely used d-c servomotor is the shunt motor.
This motor is controlled by varying either the armature or
field current. The uncontrolled current is usually maintained
constant to preserve a linear relationship between the motor
output torcjue and the voltage, or current, input. The field
windings are usual]>' two differentially wound coils to facili-
tate direction control of the field current by the servo-
controller. The field current is usually controlled by small
vacuum tubes, whereas the large armature currents usually
require thyratrons or generators as current regulators. In
some very small motors the field may be supplied by a perma-
nent magnet.
Hydraulic motors are used fre(iuontly in aircraft instal-
lations, because of their relative simplicity. Where con-
tinuous operation is necessary, hydraulic motors rarely have
advantages over electric motors. Where operation is needed
for short periods separated l)y long intervals, it is possible to
obtain tremendous outputs from a small hydraulic motor by
using a hydraulic accumulator as a source of power. A
cutaway of a hydraulic accu-
Air fill
mulator is shown in Fig. 3-().
Oil is stored in a bag, and air

Oil bog -Accumulator
pressure in the body of the ac-
cumulator forces the oil out to
the motor at a high pressure.
The chief advantage of an ac-
To load
cumulator is that it may be
filled with oil by a very small
Fig. 3-6 Hydraulic accumulator. pump if the time for filling is
long.
A number of other types of motors are used in servo work,
including a bellows which exerts force when connected to a
high-pressure air line and heating elements which serve as
temperature-control servos.
3-7 Performance Improvers

In the system described in Fig. 3-3 the load is brought to
rest at a position of zero error and will remain there. There

is a possibility that the momentum of the load will carry it
past the zero point. This is called overshooting. After the
load has passed this point, the error detector senses an error
opposite to the original error and causes the controller and
motor to exert a force on the load to return it to its proper
position. Successive overshooting on either side of the zero
position of a servosystem is called oscillation, or hunting.
To prevent hunting, a damper is added that causes the
motor to apply a reverse force to the load before the proper
position is reached. Too small an amount of damping will
cause the system to hunt or oscillate, but the overshoots will
decrease in size until the oscillations finally die out. A servo-
system in which the load zeros after one or more overshoots is
called an underdamped servosystem. A critically damped
SERVOSYSTEMS 31
servosystem reduces the error to zero without overshoots in

the shortest period of time and maintains it there. An
overdamped servosystem is one in wliich the load takes an
extremely Ion}? time to roach zero position and zero error.
3-8 Damping for an On-Off Servosystem

A scrvomcchanism can be stal)ilize(l by various metliods.
One method which has l)een previously discussed is the
mechanical, or friction, damper (Fig. 3-7). This damper intro-
duces no velocity error and therefore is applicable in high-
precision servomechanisms where the velocities vary slowly.
Another advantage is that since
Flywheel
the damper is generally con-
nected to the motor shaft, the Spring- Felt washer
effect of nonlinearities in the

system such as noise, backlash, Adopter to
motor shaft
etc., is reduced. Note that,
in addition, the adjustment of Pressure disc
this type of damper is perma-

nent, reliable, and independent
Fig. 3-7 Cutaway view of a fric-
of line voltage variations. This tion (lain])('r.
type of damper usually reduces
the system acceleration constant. In some ca.ses this may be
desirable, whereas in others it may be totally undesirable.
Another type of friction damper uses a reservoir of oil and
paddle wheels to couple viscously the inertia of the load to the
motor shaft. A mechanism that illustrates viscous damping
in an on-off system is shown in Fig. 3-8. The main drive is
applied by virtue of a flexible shaft attached to the foUowup
shaft. The auxiliary drive is obtained through gears, rigid
shafts, and a slipping clutch. If the gears are arranged
properly, the auxiliary drive will move the followup shaft

more slowly than the followup head, except when the clutch
slips. The main drive tries to turn the followup head directly
with the followup shaft. The slipping clutch contains two
paddle wlieels rotating in a chamber of oil. One paddle wheel
is cormected to the driving shaft of the clutch; tlie otiier is
connected to the (lri\-er shaft. W'licn one paddle wheel is

rotated, it whirls the oil in the chamber, and this tends to
drag the other paddle wheel in the same direction. The force
with which the second wheel is dragged depends on the dif-
ference in speed between the wheels.
Let us assume that the load is stationary but not in its
proper position. This condition can occur when the position
order is changed suddenly. Since the load is at rest, the
slipping clutch transmits no force and the flexible shaft is
stationary. The followup head is therefore in its normal
position as though the mechanism were not present, and the
sensing element sees the error and turns the controller on.
The main drive attempts to rotate the followup head at the
Follow-up shaft
Follow-up
head
Slipping Oil Gearing

clutch
Fig. 3-8 Viscous damping mcchiinisin for un on-off servosj'stem.
same speed as the followup shaft. The auxiliary drive,

however, tries to rotate the followup head faster and succeeds
in doing this until the resistance of the twisted flexible shaft
is sufficient to balance the force transmitted by the slipping
clutch. The followup head is, therefore, shifted away from

its normal position whenever the followup shaft is rotating.
The direction of shift of the followup head is determined by

the speed. The amount of shift is in the direction of motion.
Thus the amount of shift is proportional to the speed with
which the followup shaft rotates. The load then moves
toward its proper position, and the followup head moves
toward a position of zero error. Just })efore the load reaches
its propor position, the error-detection element sees a zero
enor and turns the controller off. Immediately, after this is

SERVOSYSTEMS 33
done, it sees an error of the opposite si}2;n and reverses the

controller. This slows the load. If tiie system is properly
adjusted, the load will come to rest at zero position. At
the same time, since the foUowup shaft slows and finally
comes to rest, the shift in the position of the foUowup head is
reduced to zero so that it reaches its normal position, and the
sensing element sees a zero error as the load comes to rest.
The purpose of this type of system is to make an increasing
error appear larger and a decreasing error appear smaller or
even like an error in the opposite direction. A somewhat
similar damping result could have been obtained by running
the load and its driving mechanism in a bath of heavy, or
viscous, oil. This would exert a drag on the load that would
tend to oppose its motion with a force proportional to the
load speed. Because of this similarity, damping that depends

on load speed is known as viscous damping.
3-9 Viscous Damping for Proportional Servo
Viscous damping can be obtained for a proportional servo

in thesame w&y as for other servosystems, by the insertion
of the viscous damping mechanism described. A much
simpler way, however, is to develop the damping signal
electricallyand add it to the output of the potentiometer.
This is done by means of a tachometer generator, which is a
generator having an output voltage proportional to its speed.
Adding the voltage of the generator to that of the potenti-
ometer has tlie same effect as displacing the potentiometer
slider. If the polarity is correct, the effect will l)e exactly the
same as that of the viscous damping mechanism. Tlie
direction of the displacement depends on the direction in
which the load is moving. The amount of the displacement is
proportional to the speed at which the load moves.
3-10 Effect of Overdamping

In an on-ofT servosystem, the effect of overdamping is to
cause a reversal of the controller earlier than is necessary to
avoid overshooting or oscillation. In a proportional servo-
system, the effect is one of excessive damping force. In any
of the servos, tlic load takes lonjêr than necessary to reach
itsproper zero position. In {i;eneral, overdanipinjj; is niulesira-
ble and should be avoided. Many servosystems have what
are called antihunt controls. These controls adjust the
amount ofdamping and should not be set past the point of
critical damping where oscillation ceases.
3-1 1 Instrument Servomechanisms
Servomechanisms which are recjuired to drive light loads

are frequently classified as instrument servomechanisms. In
these servomechanisms, the load in the servomotor is essen-
tiallythe mass and bearing friction of the servomotor rotor
and the gear train associated with the system. Instrument
servos are generally used to repeat positions and have a wide
application in computing mechanisms. The power output of
the servomotor in these systems is usually less than Jô hp,
and the type servomotor used can be electric, clutch,

of
pneumatic, or hydraulic. However, servomechanisms that
employ pneumatic or hydraulic servomotors are rare, and the
applications that employ electric motors are much more
numerous than those which use the clutch type of servomotor.
In some computing applications the load imposed by
potentiometers, synchros, etc., that are coupled to the servo
can become appreciable. If the total powder required remains
within about ^lo hp, the servomechanism is still in the
instrument class.
3-12 Computing Applications

The application of instrument servomechanism to comput-
ing servomechanisms is illustrated by the block diagram in
Fig. The mathematical operations of addition, sub-

3-9.
traction, multiplication, and division can be mechanized by
means of servos. Multiplication of two numbers is accom-
plished in the following manner, as shown in Fig. 3-10.
Let us consider the equation A = BC. The assumption here
will be that neither B nor C
negative and that neither
is
number exceeds 10. The

potentiometer is used to
first
develop a voltage proportional to B. If the potentiometer is

SERVOSYSTEMS 35
connected across a 10-volt battery, its maximum output will
be 10 volts, wliicli will he etjual to the largest value of B.
If the shaft of the potentiometer is then set to an angle
corresponding to B (halfway from the bottom up B equals 5,

for example), the output will be a voltage that is numerically
equal to B. This voltage is used to excite the second potenti-
ometer, which has its shaft set at a position proportional to C.
Summing
network
Servo
controller
Servo
motor o
J/o--^,eo Feedbock
fylfji'i
network
Fig. 3-9 .Miilt,i])licati()n coinptitiiiK application.
Fig. 3-10 Sorvo.systcm multiplication.
The ouput of the second potentiometer is proportional to its
input voltage and to its shaft setting, or proportional to BC.

In order to find the constant of proportionality, it should be
noted that the maximum voltage across the C potentiometer
is B volts. This, however, corresponds to a C setting of 10
and an output of \0B. The output of the second potenti-
ometer is then BC multiplied by a factor of 0.1 volt per unit,
since the maximum output of 10 volts represents an A value
of 100.
The value of A represented by the voltage of the third
potentiometer, which is the value set on its shaft, is compared
with output of the second potentiometer, which is the
tlie
voltage corresponding to BC as given by the shaft settings of

the first and second potentiometers. If the setting is correct,
the A voltage will be equal to the BC voltage. If not, the two
voltages will be different, and when one is subtracted from the
other there will be an error voltage other than zero and
proportional to the error in the A setting. This is used to
control the servomotor which changes the setting of the third
potentiometer. Although the example illustrated is rather
simple, it is a good method of showing the operation of a
servomechanism computer.
3-13 Types of Servosy stems by Motive Characteristics

Many types of driving mechanisms and associated control
systems are available. The particular type used depends on
the type of operation to be performed, the available power
sources, the space and weight considerations involved, and
the amount of power required. The characteristics of some
of the drive systems are given here. No theoretical dis-
cussion of their operation is included at this time.
One of the more commonly used control systems for a high
power d-c servomotor is the Ward Leonard drive. This
control system consists of a d-c generator, the output of which
varies as the generator field excitation is varied. The error
signal used to excite the generator field, either directly or
is
through an amplifier, and the generator output is used to

power the servomotor. The Ward Leonard system is useful
in controlling the speed of an a-c motor. In many cases,
when applying the Ward Leonard drive to servos, there is a
tendency of the magnetic structure to remain magnetized
after the magnetizing current has been removed. Because
of this tendency, the d-c generator has a small output even
though there is no field excitation. This output is extremely
undesirable for servo applications, since the d-c motor will
continue to develop torque in the absence of the error signal.
This problem may be solved by putting additional windings
into the generator field. If these windings are excited by a
small a-c voltage, the resulting magnetizing force, which will
SERVOSYSTEMS 37
be alternating, will cause the average magnetization of tlie
generator field to fall to zero when no excitation for the

there is
main field windings. An obvious disadvantage of this type

of solution is tlie fact that alternating current in the added
coils also causes the magnetic field to fluctuate slightly,
tliereby producing a small a-c component in the generator
output. Therefore, small permanent magnets are sometimes
mounted on the armature. These revolve with the armature,
providing an alternating magnetizing force for the generator
field, and the d-c output of the generator then falls to zero
when there is no field excitation. However, since the perma-

nent magnets are fixed with relation to the armature coils,
they cannot induce voltage in the coils. Thus the generator
output is free from an a-c component.
3-14 Thyratron Drive
A system fre<iuently used to control a motor of the split-

field type is shown in Fig. 3-11. The major advantage of this
type of system is that it permits control of a d-c motor from
Thyratron control system for split-field d-c motor.
an a-c error-signal source without the addition of a phase-

sensitive detector (a detector which produces a d-c signal
having a polarity dependent on the phase of the a-c signal).
3-15 Theory
The thyratron is similar to a vacuum tube but is filled with
an easily ionized gas, usually mercur\' vapor. Most thyra-
trons have an iiulepondcntly heated eatliode, a control fj;ri(l,
and a hut some have a screen grid as well. Operation

plate,
of the tube depends on the fact that any flow of electrons will
ionize the gas molecules, that is, strip electrons from them.
If the grid is held sufhciently negative, the tube will not
conduct, even though the plate is positive. With sufficiently
high positive voltage on the plate for a given grid voltage, or
with sufficiently small negative grid voltage for a given
plate voltage, there will be enough electron flow to ionize
some of the gas molecules. When this happens, the elec-
trons that are stripped from the molecules become availa-
ble for current carrying, and they in turn ionize more gas
molecules. The result is that the current rises rapidh' to a
value determined by the external circuit components, a value
which will provide sufficient plate voltage to accelerate the
electrons to the point where they continue to ionize the gas
molecules. This sudden rise of current is called the firing
point, and once the tube has fired, the grid loses control
completely. Plate-current flow can be stopped only by reduc-
ing the plate voltage to the point where ionization stops.
3-16 Thyratron Control Circuit for Split-field

Direct-current Motor
The split-field d-c motor runs in one direction when voltage
is applied between one end of the center-tapped field and the
free end of the armature, and it runs in the other direction
when the connection is moved to the other end of the field.
In the system shown, alternating current is supplied between
each end of the field and the free end of the armature, with a
thyratron placed in each circuit. Since a thyratron passes
current in only one direction, it will act as a half-wave rectifier
in this circuit, prividing it fires on positive half cycles. If
the thyratron does not fire, the circuit is open. The two a-c
sources of the signal are 180 deg out of phase. The a-c error
signal is in phase with one a-c source and 180 deg out of phase
with the other. Reversing the sign of the error causes a
phase reversal of the error signal. If there is no error signal,
each thyratron will fire during the positive half cycle. The
SERVOSYSTEMS 39
motor is energized first in one direction, then tlie otlier, and

the net torcjue output is zero. In the presence of the error
sifj;nal, tlie fi,r'u\ of one thyratroii will swinji iu the positive
direction, and that thyratron will fire a little earlier than it
did when the error was zero. In the other thyratron the grid
swings in the negative direction, and that thyratron will fire
a little later than it did when the error was zero, or perliaps
will not fire at all. The result is that the torque output of the
d-cmotor is proportional to the error voltage for small errors
and assumes a constant value for large error voltages. The
direction of the torque is reversed when the sign of the error
signal is reversed. It is possible to use vacuum tubes in
place of the thyratrons, but the voltage drop across the tubes
will be larger and more power input will be re(iuired for the
same torque output.
3-17 Amplidyne Drive

An amplidyne drive consists of a d-c generator rotated l)\
an external motor as shown in Fig. .3-12. The control voltage
Output
D-c signal
input
Fig. 3-12 Ampliilyno drive system.
is used to excite the field of the generator and produces an

output voltage at the armature brushes. The two brushes
are connected, and the armatvn-e current which flows through
this short circuit pHxhices a second inaKnotic field. In the
fij!;ure, the field st ructure is shown as a pair of poles above and
below the armature. The output voltage is induced in coils
as they cross this field —
that is, in coils which lie in the vertical
plane. These are tied together and the resulting current
flowing in the armature produces a second magnetic field
perpendicular to the first. The armature coils, in cutting this
field, have voltage induced in them, and this induced voltage
appears at the second set of brushes and is the output of the

amplidj'ne drive.
A disadvantage of the amplidyne drive is that the output
voltage depends on the output current. When load current
flows, it flows through armature which produce a mag-
coils
netic field that opposes the main
field. Thus the system has
poor regulation. It is possible to correct this poor regulation
by adding additional windings to the field's structure and
passing the output curi-ent through them. The magnetizing
force produced by passing the current through these additional
coils can be made to balance the force produced by the flow
of output current thiough the armature. This type of s}'stem
is widely used for the control of high-power d-c motors.
3-18 Hydraulic Drive
The usual type

of hydraulic dri\e consists of a valve, which
may be operated by a solenoid or by a small motor. A
standard valve is shown in Fig. 3-13. This type of valve is
operated by the shaft sliding forward and backward. In the
neutral position, both lines to the hydraulic system are cut
off. Displacing the valve in one direction or the other
connects one of the lines of the hydraulic servomotor to the
high-pressure oil lines. As long as the motor does not move,
full pressure developed in the line leading to the motor when
is
the valve is (The other line is connected to the low-

open.
pressure line.) Motor motion causes a flow of oil and a
consequent pressure drop because of the narrow passage
through the valve. For a given oil flow, which corresponds
to some fixed motor speed, the drop in pressure is reduced as
the valve is opened wider. This is the method of operation
SERVOSYSTEMS 41
for the torque-spccd relation in a swash-plate motor or for

the force-speed relation in a hydraulic ram. The stall torcjue
or force is the same for any valve position, but the torque or
force falls off with speed, falling off less rapidly as the valve is
opened farther and reaching zero at a higher no-load speed.

To motor
From pump To sump

high pressure low pressure
Neutral
To motor ,
From pump To sump

high pressure low pressure
Fig. 3-13 Hydraulic valve.
The advantages of this system are its rapid respon.se and

ability to control large amounts of power; an obvious dis-
advantage is that long piping is required for data transmission.
3-19 Control Characteristics
One method performance of a servosystem

of evaluating the
is to observe the the system to a "unit step
respon.se of
input." If the data transmission system is suddenly dis-
placed, the loadis then off its zero position. The speed and
accuracy with wliieh the resulting error is corrected are a
measure of the performance of the servosystem.
3-20 On-Off Servo Response

The response of the on-off servo to a unit step displacement
is shown in Fig. 3-14. The load is accelerated smoothly until
it reaches full speed. The load then travels at a constant
Acceleration
Fig. 3-14 Oii-oflf servo response to unit step.
speed until it is acted upon by the motor in response to a

reversal of the error signal. If the compensating network or
damping mechanism is sufficient to balance the foUowup
head, the reversal will occur at the proper place and the load
will position at its zero point.
3-21 Step Correction

The response of a step-correction servo is the same as that
of the on-off ser\o with the load acceleration occurring in
/Acceleration Ourmg first step
'Coasting between steps

'Acceleration during second step
Deceleration
Fig. 3-15 Step-correction response to unit step.

SERVOSYSTEMS 43
steps rather than as a smooth acceleration, as shown in Fiji;.
3-1"). After the load has been accelerated to full speed, it
continues to operate at tliis speed between the steps, unless

frictional force tends to slow it down. The load is decelerated
l)y the motor after the error signal i-everses and if the damping
is set properly, the load will zero without overshooting.
3-22 Proportional Control
The response of a pioportionalcontrol servosystem is

shown in Fig. 3-1(5. displacement at the input to the
If tiie
data transmission is small, the lesponse of the system is as
. Acceleration
Time -
Fig. 3-16 l'n)])(irti(iiial-r()iiti()l-scrv()syst('in response^ to unit wtop.
Motion obtained by
proportional servo
Time-^*~
Fig. 3-17 ('oiistaiit-v('l()cit\ -input response.
shown. The loadis first accelerated to a speed where the
error signal is almost ecjual to the damping signal. It then
moves smoothly to its new position, decelerating as the error

becomes less, since the motor maintains the load speed at
the point where the position error signal is canceled by the
(l;inipin<j; signal, and the resultin}>; error signal is then zero.
If the load displacement is large, the resulting error signal
may drive the controller into saturation, particularly if the
controller consists of a vacuum-tube amplifier. In this case
the load is accelerated to full speed and moves
at a constant
speed thereafter until the error signal, which is the sum of the
error and damping voltages, falls below the level required to
saturate servocontroUer. At this point the load is
the
decelerated, and the load error then zeros as before. The
constant-speed portion of the curve shown in Fig. 3-17 is
present only if the servocontroUer is saturated.
3-23 Derivative Control
servomechanism it is necessary to obtain the rate of

If in a
change some signal and that signal is in the form of a shaft

of
position or can be converted to a shaft position, then a rate
generator coupled to the shaft will generate a voltage propor-
tional to the rate of change or derivative of the shaft position.
A rate generator, or tachometer generator, is an electro-
mechanical device resembling a small motor and having an
output voltage proportional to its shaft speed. Alternating-
current units are excited by the alternating current and
produce an output voltage of supply (input) frequency, whose
polarity is dependent on the direction of shaft rotation. Rate
generators which produce a d-c output have a permanent-
magnet field excitation. It is also possible to excite an a-c
type with direct current to obtain a d-c output voltage
proportional to the angular acceleration of its shaft.
3-24 Integral Control
The is the product

integral of a quantity over a time interval
of the average value of the quantity and the length of the
time interval. A unit step signal which is accelerated is
very seldom used in a servosystem.
A velocity input signal provides damping by making an
increasing error appear larger and a decreasing error appear
smaller. An accelerated unit step signal provides intensified
damping by making the increasing error rate appear larger
SERVOSYSTEMS 45
and a decreasing error rate appear smaller. Similarly, as the

velocity input signal allows the servo to anticipate the arrival
of the load at its proper position to zero it, the acceleration
signal allows the servo to anticipate the required force neces-
sary to zero the load. This type of control is useful when
mechanical parts of a servo are light and springy, so that the
load not only coasts but continues to accelerate after the
motor has stopped.
3-25 Performance Requirements

In all servosystems it is desirable that the load be in the zero
error position and that the speed of response be as rapid as
possible. When by a servo is at rest in a
a load controlled
position other than the one called for by the data transmission
system, the error detector recognizes the existence of an error
and the resulting error signal it originates causes the motor to
move the load to its proper position. However, the error
signal resulting from a small error may not be large enough to
enable the motor to o\ercome the starting friction forces in
the drive mechanism.
3-26 Static Error
If, for example, tiie load can be displaced 0.03 in. in either
direction from its proper position before the servo will operate,
the servo is said to have a dead region of O.OG in. ^^'henever
the load is in the dead region, the space 0.03 in. on either side
of zero po.sition, the servo will not operate. Dead space
results in inaccurate positioning of the load. Although dead
space cannot be eliminated completely, it can be reduced to a
minimum value. In the above case, the .servosystem will
operate only when the error displacement is greater than
0.03 in. on either side of zero.
In addition to the dead region, other errors are present.
These errors are usually determined by the degree of precision
and tolerance with which mechanical parts are made. With
reasonable care, these parts can be made with a precision of
±0.'i per cent.
Static errors of this type arc known as instriinirnlfil errors
and frtMiiiently are minimized by coarse-fine systems and
related circuits.
3-27 Coarse-Fine Systems

Dual data input systems, followups, and error detectors
are employed in the coarse-fine system. The fine followup
head, for example, may make 60 turns for one turn of the
coarse followup head. The same ratio is used for the fine
data receiver. If the servo operates from the fine error-
detector unit, the instrumental error can be cut to ^'^q of its
original value. Note that an deg on the fine
error of 1
followup head is equivalent to an error of ^^q deg on the

coarse system; a load movement of 6 deg on the coarse
followup head results in a complete revolution of the fine
followup head, and the fine error detector sees a zero error.
Thus it is possible to find a number of load positions for which
the fine error detector will see zero error, and these positions
will be separated by distances corresponding to one revolution
of the fine followup head. The physical construction of the
fine error detector must permit the followup head to rotate
continuously past the fine data receiver without damage.
The coarse control system is necessary because there is only
one load position for which both coarse and fine error detector
see zero error.
3-28 Dynamic Error
If the input to the servosystem is varying uniformly, the

load must move at a constant speed to maintain the position
desired. Under these conditions, viscous damping produces
an error called velocity lag. The effect of a viscous damping
system is to displace the followup head so that it leads the
load when the load isin motion. The servo, by reducing the
error signal to zero, makes the followup head move with the
data receiver. The load, lagging behind the followup head
and the data receiver, will also lag behind the data input.
The amount of lag will be proportional to the velocity with
which the load moves. Velocity lag is objectionable in any
servo whose input can change rapidly. It can be eliminated
SERVOSYSTEMS 47
by removing the damping mechanism, but this would cause

the system to be unstable, which is even more undesirable.
Two methods of elimination are generally used: (1) com-
pensation by addition of a velocity-input signal; (2) error-rate
damping.
3-29 Compensation by Velocity Input Signal

Since the load lags behind the input l)v an amount propor-
tional to the speed with which the load moves, a method of

eliminating velocity lag is to provide an imaginary position
order which is somewhat displaced from the original order.
If the displacement is properly chosen, the load will lag behind
the imaginary order by exactly the amount that allows it to

follow the real order without error. This can be done by
setting the data-receiver head to lead the position order hy an
amount equal to that by which the followup head leads the
load. A mechanism similar to the viscous damping type can
be placed between the data-transmission shaft and the data-
receiver head to achieve the desired result. Similar methods
can be devised for the types in which the position orders are
not transmitted mechanically to the servo.
3-30 Error-rate Damping

In this method of compensation the error signal incorporates
—
two parts one proportional to the position error which
serves to position the load, the other proportional to the
velocity of the load which provides viscous damping and is
responsible for the velocity lag. This type of damping is
usually used with a position servos^'stem. The damping

signal is then proportional to the rate with which the load
position varies, and it can be eliminated by subtracting a
signal that is proportional to the rate at which the position
order varies. Error-rate damping eliminates the velocity
lag causedby the damping but does not eliminate the velocity
lag caused by friction. Its name, error-rale damping, is
derived from the idea that the complete signal consists of
two parts one proportional to the error and the other
proportional to the rate of change of error, called error rale.
3-31 Acceleration Error
In addition to the velocity lag, which may be eliminated as

shown in the proportional servosystem, there is another error
called the acceleration lag. If the position order varies
noniiniformly, the ordered position will then move, with

variable velocity, and the load must follow. It requires
force, however, to accelerate the load in order to alter its
velocity. The motor is unable to exert any force unless the
error detector sees an error, and therefore the load will lag
behind its ordered position when it is being accelerated and

will lead its ordered position when it is being decelerated. It
is possible to compensate for acceleration lag, but tliis is very
seldom done. In practice, the acceleration error is small, and
compensation is not usually necessary.
3-32 Slewing Rate

The maximum rate at which the motor can move the load
is called the slewing rate. This must be distinguished from
the maximum following rate which, as the name implies, is
the maximum rate that the load can follow a changing position
order. At the maximum following rate the motor still has
some reserve that can be used to accelerate the load if needed.
The maximum following rate is always less than the slewing
rate.
QUESTIONS
1. Define servosystem; define servomechanism.
2. Enumerate the elements that comprise a pcsition-control
servot^ystem.
3. What i.s the function of the data transmission system?
4. What is the function of the servocontroller?
5. What the function of the servomotor?
is
6. Define hunting in a servosystem.

7. Li.st the various tj^pes of drive S3^stems.
8. What are the two methods of eliminating velocity lag?
9. What is meant by slewing rate?
Synchros
4-1 Error Detectors
A
necessary part of any closed-cycle servosystem is a device
to measure the error between the actual output of the system
and the desired output of the system. The error information
must be presented in the form most suitable for the other
parts of the control system. For example, the synchro
control transformer is a device that presents as an electrical
signal the error between the relative rotational positions of
two shafts. The sj'nchro differential presents the same error
information in mechanical instead of electrical form. These
devices are both electromechanical. The differential gear is a
purely mechanical device that is used to detect the error in the
relative positions of two shafts. Error in the phase relation-
ship of two electrical signals must sometimes be detected.
This can be done with an electrical circuit which presents the
error information in the form of an error voltage. The
operation of various types of error detectors is descri])ed in
the following paragraphs. The discussion involves the
principles of magnetism, vectors and vector addition, trans-
formers, vacuum tubes, and basic electricity.
49
The operation both the synehro receiver and the synchro
of
transmitter in order to make tlie exphmation of
is descril)e(l
the synchro control transformer and the synchro differential

more readily understandal)le.
4-2 Appearance and Application of Synchros

Figure 4-1 shows typical s3'nchros. A synchro is a small
a-c machine used for the transmission of shaft-position
information. Note that it is similar in appearance to a small
electric motor. Figure 4-2 shows two synchros connected
Fig. 4-1 Synchros. {Ford Instrument Co.)
together electrically in the simplest form of a synchro system.

The function such a system is to couple two shafts together
of
when one is turned, the other will turn in
electrically so that
exactly the same way. Note that there is no mechanical
connection between the two shafts. The electrical connec-
tions have substantially the same effect as if the two shafts
were actually connected mechanically, end to end. Because
no such mechanical connection is required, the two synchros
SYNCHROS 57
need not he close together. This ehniination of nieclianical

couphng between two shafts whicli must turn in exactly the
same way represents the major advantage of this system.
A system such as this might be used to transmit control
Fig. 4-2
information from a gun director to a gun station, or it might

be used to rotate the coil of the plan-position-indicator system
in a radar system in synchronism with the radar antenna.
4-3 Synchro Transmitters and Receivers

The unit whose shaft is turned is called the synchro trans-
mitter. The transmitter delivers an output voltage that
changes when the shaft of the transmitter is rotated. The
output voltage of one transmitter can be used to control
several synchro receivers (Fig. 4-3a).
The unit whose shaft responds to the change in transmitter
voltage is called the synchro receiver (Fig. 4-36).
The between the synchro transmitter and the
difference
synchro receiver is purely mechanical. The receiver has a
mechanical damper attached to its shaft, while the transmitter
does not. The damper is included in the receiver to prevent
the receiver shaft from oscillating or spinning continuously.
If the damper is not included, the receiver shaft would not
rotate from rest to a new position without first rotating past

the new position by some amount. The direction of rotation
would then reverse, and the shaft might rotate past the
new position again before coming to rest. The shaft of the
receiver miglit not come to rest at all hut might break into
continuous rapid rotation with the syncino receiver running
much as an electric motor. The mechanical damper is
designed to prevent this oscillation and rotation without
SLIP RING
SLIP- BRUSHES STATOR BEARING DAMPER

RING
COVER
(a)
END
SLIP RING ROTOR BEARING PIECE
15^
Fig. 4-3 Synchro transmitter and receiver.
hampering the normal transition of the receiver shaft from

one position to another. The damper is not needed on the
transmitter because the transmitter shaft is mechanically
driven from one position to another by a unit which is usually
too large for the transmitter to rotate. A transmitter should
never be used in a receiver position because the transmitter
SYNCHROS 53
has no damper and will tend to oscillate or spin when placed

in a receiver position. A receiver can l)e used in a transmit ter
position if absolutely necessary, although the higher cost of
a receiver as compared with that of a transmitter makes this
usage uneconomical.
4-4 Synchro Control Transformers

General. The synchro control transformer is a device used
to detect the error between the relative rotational positions
of two shafts.
Application. The control transformer differs in applica-
tion from the synchro receiver in that its output is an electrical
error signal rather than a change in the position of its shaft.
Fig. 4-4 .\i)])li(ati()n of control traiisl'oiiiicr.
The synchro control transformer is u.sed in automatic control

systems such as the one shown in Fig. 4-4. The handwheel
on the synchro-transmitter shaft is turned to indicate the
desired position of the radar antenna. The control trans-
former then an output voltage which depends for
deli\-ers
its magnitude and phase polarity' upon the position of the
'
The term phase polarity is used Ix'causc ail voitancs in syndiro systems
are either in phase or 180 de^ out of pliase. Therefore the ])ositive sign
can he used to indicate one pha.sc condition and the negative sign used to
indicate the opposite phase.
shaft with respect to the transmitter
colli lol-traiisfoiiner
siuift. output voltage or error signal is anii)lifie(l and

Tiiis
used to control the servomotor, which in turn rotates the
radar antenna. The servomotor also drives tiie control-trans-
former shaft. As the control-transformer shaft approaches
the position of the synchro-transmitter shaft, the error signal
reduces toward zero. At this point the radar antenna will
have the desired position as indicated on the handwheel.
4-5 Synchro Differentials

Dijferential Receiver. The synchro-differential receiver is
an error detector that is used to indicate either the sum of or

the difference between the angular positions of two synchro-
transmitter shafts. Figure 4-5 shows a differential receiver
Transmitter
270 270 270
Fig. 4-5 Simple differential system.
connected between two synchro transmitters. Note that the

position of the differential-receiver shaft is equal to the
difference between the angular positions of the two trans-
mitter shafts. One transmitter shaft is shown set to the
280-deg counterclockwise position. The other synchro-trans-
mitter shaft is shown set to the 20-deg counterclockwise
position. The angular difference between the positions of the
two transmitter shafts is 280 deg minus 20 deg, or 260 deg
counterclockwise. This is the angular position assumed by
the synchro-differential-receiver shaft.
Differential Transmitter. The differential transmitter is
used to receive an electrical signal corresponding to the shaft

position of a synchro-transmitter shaft, to modify this signal
by the amount corresponding to its own shaft position, and
to transmit this modified signal to a synchro receiver. This
SYNCHROS 55
modified signal may he in the form of information regarding

either the sum of or the difference between tlie anguUir
positions of the synchro-transmitter shaft and the (hfferential-
transmitter shaft.
Difference between Transmitter and Receiver.
Differential
The from tlie differential trans-
differential receiver differs
mitter in that the former has a mechanical damper much the
same as that of the regular synchro receiver.
4-6 Fundamental Theory of Synchro Operation

Positioning of a Shaft with Three Electromagnets. The
operation of a synchro can best be explained by first consider-
ing the effect of three fixed magnets on a magnet that is
permitted to rotate. Figure 4-6r/ shows three electromagnets
(o) ib)
Fig. 4-6 Positioning a shaft witii tlircc electromagnets.
whose axes are oriented 120 deg apart with respect to one
another. The magnets are energized from a d-c voltage
source. A permanent bar magnet, pivoted at its center so
that it is free to rotate, is centrallj- located with re.spect to the
fixed magnets A, B, and C. Magnet A is polarized so that its
south pole is nearest to the rotating magnet. Magnets B
and C are polarized so that their north poles are nearest to the
rotating magnet. Since opposite poles attract, the north
pole of the rotating magnet is pulled toward the south of
magnet A. The south pole of the rotating magnet is pulled
by equal forces toward the north poles of magnets B and C.
Note that all the battery current must flow through the coil-
energiziufj; niaguet A hut that tlii.s ciurent divides and only
lialf of it flows tiirough the coil-energizing magnet B, while the
other half of it flows through the coil-energizing magnet C.
If the number of turns used in all coils is the same, magnet A
will be twice as strong as either B or C.
Vector Representation of Forces Acting on Rotating Magnet.
Figure 4-7 shows how vectors may be used to represent the
action of Fig. 4-66. The length of the arrow or vector is
drawn proportional to the strength of
the corresponding electromagnet. Thus
vector A is drawn twice as long as either
B or C. The head of the vector is drawn
pointing in the same direction as the
north pole of the corresponding electro-
magnet. The direction and the magni-
tude of the force resulting from all three
electromagnets acting at once can be
found by vector addition. The vectors
resultant
are placed so that the head of one vector
is in contact with the tail of the next vec-
tor. The head of A is in contact with the

tail of B. The head of B is in contact
with the tail of C. Now a line is drawn
Fig. A-7 Vector repre- from the tail of the first vector, A in this
sentation of forces act-
ing on rotating mag-
case, to the head of the last vector C
net.
This line is called the resultant vector.
Its head is at the head of C and its tail is
at the tail of A. The direction in which this resultant vector
points indicates the direction in which the north pole of the
rotating magnet will point. The length of the resultant is pro-
portional to the combined strength of the three electromagnets
acting simultaneously.
Effect of Varying the Connections to the Electromagnets.
Figure 4-8 shows the effect of changing the connections to the
fixed magnets. The associated vector diagrams are con-
structed in the same manner. Note that when one magnet is
left unconnected, the same current must flow through the
SYNCHROS 57
two remaining magnets and the strengtli of tlie leniaining

ma^;nets is ecjual. A total of 12 different positions of the
rotating magnet (six of wiiich are shown) is possil)le l)y
varying onl>- the connections of the circuit. By means of
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 4-8 EfTcct (if varying the conncctionî to the clcrtronuignets.
Fig. 4-9 Intermediate positioning of the shaft.
tiie one sliown in Fig. 4-9 to vary the voltage

a circuit sucli as
to which one of the coils is coiuiected, the rotating magnet
can he turned to any desired position between and :i()() (leg.
Energizing Coils with Alterndtiny Current. If t he d-c voltage
source were replaced with an a-c voltage source, there would

be no net turning effect produced on the permanent bar
magnet. The polarity of the fixed magnets would be revers-
ing many times each second. Therefore, if magnet A were
attempting to pull the south pole of the rotating magnet
toward it at one instant of time, at the very next instant it
would be repelling the south pole. There would be no net
turning effect produced on the rotating magnet. If the rotat-
ing magnet is made an electromagnet and is also energized
from the a-c source as in Fig. 4-9, this difficulty is overcome.
Note that when the polarity of the fixed magnet reverses, the
polarity of the rotating magnet also reverses. The turning
effect is constantly in the same direction.
4-7 Synchro Receiver Theory^

Before we apply alternating current to the system, it would
be wise to review the basic principles. To make the state-
ment that voltage between two wires is varying at 60 cps
means that the voltage is changing from a positive peak to a
negative peak at the rate of 60 times a second. If the actual
voltage between two wires is viewed on an instrument such as
an oscilloscope, the resulting waveform would appear as
shown in Fig. 4-10. The graph
shows that the voltage rises to a
certain positive peak, returns to
zero, then goes just as far nega-
tively as it did positively, and
then returns to zero again. This
Fig. 4-10 Alternating voltage
process is repeated again and
at 60 cps.
again 60 times in 1 sec. If the
voltage between two wires is said to be varying at 1,000
cps, the above process would then be repeated 1,000 times
in 1 sec. If in addition we said that the magnitude of this
voltage is 115 volts, then the significance of this statement
would be that the voltage does not rise to a peak of 115
positive volts, but that this alternating voltage having a
magnitude of 115 volts has the same effect as a direct voltage
of 115 volts applied to the system.
'
The author feels that although the typical student should have the
above background, a brief review will do no harm. If the student is
familiar with the above material, this section may be eliminated.
SYNCHROS 59
In a discussion of a-c circuits, it is often useful to compare

the polarities of two voltages. Because of the reversal of
polarity in alternating current or voltage, it is useless to define
one voltage as positive and another as negative unless time is
specified. Usually the idea of phase relations is used. If
we have two alternating voltages varying in such a manner
that they are both positive and both negative simultaneously,
these two voltages are said to be in phase with each otlier.
Fig. 4-1 1 (a) In-phasc voltages. (6) Voltages in i)liase opposition or

180 (log out of phase.
An statement is shown in Fig. 4-1 la. If

illustration of this
thesetwo voltages vary in such a manner that one is out of
phase with the other by 180 deg, then the two voltages are
.said to be in phase opposition; that is, one voltage is positive
while the other is negative. This situation is shown in Fig.

4-11^. To denote
phase polarity, the method of notation
this
that will be used an open-headed arrow. A vertically
is
directed arrow will denote positive phase polarity (arrowhead

up). Reversal of the arrowhead will denote negative phase
polarity.
Let us see what happens if we use a fixed electromagnet
with a bar magnet. During the positive half cycle, the bar
magnet tries to rotate in the direction indicated in Fig. 4-12a.
During the negative half cycle, the bar magnet tends to
rotate in the other direction. Since the polarity of the
electromagnet is varying during each half cycle of applied
voltage, the bar magnet is pulled in one direction and then
N-)
115 volts
^)
Z\ GOcps \-,
115 volts
60 cPS XJ 115 volts
60cps_
\ r No turning
eftect
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4-12 Use of electromagnet with bar magnet.
in the other direction at the rate at which the voltage is
applied. The net result is that the bar magnet cannot follow
these variations rapidly, so that the pulls cancel each other
and the actual turning effect is zero. This is illustrated in
Fig. 4-126.
e tizrz
^
(a) (b)
Fig. 4-13 (a) Xo change in position. (6) Reversing leads 3-4 positions
electromagnet accordingly.
If we remove the bar magnet and replace it with another

electromagnet which is pivoted in the center, the results are
shown in Fig. 4-12c. With the application of an a-c voltage,
the two magnets are aligned as indicated. If the connections
to the two coils are reversed, the rotating coil will position
itself accordingly. According to the arrow method of
notation, it appears as shown in Fig. 4-13.
SYNCHROS 61
Receiver Stator. Fifûre 4-14 shows a syuchro-rcceh er

stator. This is the fixed part of the synchro receiver. The
stator is made vip of a iiumbor of turns of fine wire wound
around the inside of a hiniinated-iron fieUl structure. lOlec-
trically, the stator is composed of tin-ee .separate coils which

R-2
Mounting flange -*..<cS=^^^;^riK^ ^^ R-1
Fig. 4-14 The stator of a synchro receiver. (William R. Alirendt,

Serfontecltanism Practice, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1954.)
are used to set up three magnetic fields, much the same as

the three coils are used in Fig. 4-9. One side of each coil is
generally connected to a common point. As in Fig. 4-9, the

turns of wire compo.sing each
individual coil are so placed
that they .set up magnetic
fields, the directions of which
are 120 deg apart in space.

Receiver Rotor. Figure 4-15
shows a typical receiver rotor
Ball bearings
with the mechanical damper.
This is the part of the receiver Fig. 4-15 Receiver rotor with
that rotates and is similar in damper. (William R. Ahreniit,

Serfomechanisin Practice, McCIraw-
action to the rotating electro-
Hill Rook Company, Inc., New
magnet The rotor
of Fig. 4-9. York, 1954.)
is made by winding a number
of turns of fine wire into a single coil on a soft iron core. The
ends of the core are shaped in a definite manner for best
performance. The ends of the coil are fastened to slip rings,
wjiich in turn are fastened to the rotor shaft. The rotor
shaft is mounted on ball bearings to keep the friction low.
Receiver Wiring. The wire connections of standard synchro
receivers and transmitters usually are marked as shown in
Fig. 4-16. The rotor leads are marked R\ and R2, and the
stator leads are marked *S1, S2, and *S3. P'i{?ure 4-17 shows
Fig. 4-16 Synchro k'ad markings. Fig. 4-17 Synchro-receiver cross

section.
the cross section of the receiver with only one of the stator
windings in place.
Electrical Zero. In measuring the angular position of a
synchro shaft, some point must arbitrarily be chosen as the
reference or zero position. This reference is usually taken as
5,
Fig. 4-18 Receiver rotor at elec- 4-19 60-deg rotor displace-

trical zero. ment.
being the position that the rotor shaft takes when the axis
of the rotor coil lines up with the axis of the stator coil jS2 as
shown in Fig. 4-18. The rotor position is described in terms
of the number of degrees that the rotor is rotated away from
this reference position. This reference position is called
electrical zero.
SYNCHROS 63
Schematic Representation of Synchro Receiver. Figure 4-18

also shows the schematic way of representing the synchro.
The arrow at the side of each coil shows the direction of the
magnetic field in that coil with respect to the other coils.
The arrow indicates also that the voltage measured from the
head of any arrow to its tail will be in the same phase as the
\-oltage measured from the head of any other arrow to its
tail. The angle that the direction of the little arrow at the
(a)
-r/me
(h)
-Time
(c)
-Time
Fig. 4-20 Stator volta^*' \('rsus shaft jjosition.
end of the rotor coil forms with the axis of coil *S2 indicates the
number of degrees that the rotor is displaced from electrical
zero. In Fig. 4-19 the rotor is shown in the GO-deg counter-
clockwise position.
Stator-coil Voltage rers7is Shaft Position. By applying the
proper coml)ination of voltages to the stator- and rotor-coil
terminals the rotor can be made to turn to any dc^sired posi-
tion. Figure 4-20 shows a graph of the voltages that must
be applied between the different stator-coil terminals to make
the rotor assume any position l)etween and 3()0 deg. The
.
64, SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS

vertical axis of the s'âph is a voltaic axis scaled on a relative
basis. The horizontal axis is an angular-position axis cali-
brated to indicate the rotor position in terms of degrees of
displacement from electrical zero in either the clockwise or the
counterclockwise direction. Figure 4-20a shows the necessary
voltage measured from aSI to *S2 to turn the rotor to a given
position, Fig. 4-206 indicates the required voltage from »S2 to
<S3, and Fig. 4-20c indicates the required voltage from /S3 to *S1
Voltages above the zero axis are in the same phase as the
voltage from R\ to i?2; voltages below the zero axis are in
phase opposition to the voltage from R\ to R2. Note that
the applied stator voltages required for any rotor position
are either in phase with the rotor voltage or 180 deg out of
phase, but that no intermediate phase condition occurs.
Figure 4-20 is not a three-phase plot. For a 90-deg counter-
clockwise rotation of the rotor the voltage applied from *S1
to <S2 and the voltage applied from »S2 to »S3 must be 50 per
cent as great as the voltage applied from »S3 to <S1 and must be
180 deg out of phase with the voltage from R\ to R2. The
stator coils set up three magnetic fields which combine
vectorially to produce a single magnetic field of a definite
strength and in a definite direction. Rotation of the rotor is
caused by the rotor magnetic field aligning itself with this
resultant field set up by the three stator coils.
4-8 Synchro Transmitter Theory

Voltage Induced in Transmitter Stator Coils. When voltage
is applied to the rotor of a synchro transmitter, the magnetic
field set up by the current flowing in the rotor coils induces
voltage in the stator coils. Figure 4-21 shows a synchro
transmitter connected to a synchro receiver. Note that both
rotors are set to deg. Since the axis of the transmitter
rotor coil linesup with the axis of the stator coil S2, the
coupling between the rotor and S2 is a maximum. The
voltage induced by the rotor coil into coil *S2 is therefore a
maximum, or 90 volts. The angle made by the axis of coil
SI and the rotor coil is (50 deg. The same is true of the angle
formed bv the axis of coil *S3 and the rotor-coil axis. The
SYNCHROS 65
coupling between coils is proportional to the cosine of the

angle between the coil axis. The cosine of ()() (leg is ()..").
Since the induced voltage is proportional to the coupling, the

voltage induced by the rotor coil into the coils S\ and S'A is
Transmitter Receiver
ItSvoits
60cps
Fig. 4-21 Tniiisinittcr-rcccivcr coiiiicctioii.
only 50 per cent as great as the voltage induced by the rotoi'

coil into the coil *S2. Figure 4-22 indicates the voltage
induced in a stator coil for different positions of the rotor.
Note that when the coil axis forms a 90-deg angle, the induced
voltage in the stator coil is zero. In this position, the voltage
between »S1 and *S8 is in phase with the voltage from R\ to
Fig. 4-22 N'oltagc induced in coil .S2.
7?2 and equal to a maximum of lo5.HS volts. In this case the

cosine of the angle 30 deg and the voltage induced in
is O.SGG,
coil <S3 is 77.94 volts; the polarity is as shown in Fig. 4-20.
The total voltage measured between coils »S1 and »S3 would
then be la.^.SS volts; the voltage between »S2 and either of the
other stator leads is exactly 77.!)4 \olts.
Receiver Set lo Deg, Transmitter Set to 80 Deg. Fifrure 4-23
shows a syiK'liio receiver, with Odeg, connected
its sliaft set to
to a synchro transmitter with its shaft set to 30 deg counter-

clockwise. At one instant of time the magnetic polarity is as
indicated. An instant later
all polarities will reverse, hut
the magnetic forces will be acting to rotate the shafts in

still
the same direction. In Sec. 4-6 the use of a-c sources for both
rotor and stator coils was shown to produce a turning effect
which was constantly in the same direction and independent
of the rapidly reversing magnetic polarities. In Fig. 4-23
the receiver rotor is pulled toward the 30-deg position. The
Transmitter Receiver
Fig. 4-23 Tran.siuittcr and receiver 30 (leg apart.
polarity of the magnetic field set up by the coil *S3 is repelling

the pole of the rotor that is nearest to the coil ^3. Tlie
polarity of the magnetic field set up by the coil *S1 is attracting
this same rotor pole. Therefore the net effect is to turn the
rotor in the counterclockwise direction. The polarities at
the transmitter are such as to turn the transmitter rotor in
the clockwise direction. However, the transmitter rotor is
usually held in a fixed position by the unit that is attached to
its shaft. Since the receiver rotor is under the
free to rotate
influence of the magnetic forces, it approaches the 30-deg
counterclockwise position. As the receiver rotor rotates, the
voltages induced by the receiver rotor into the receiver stator
coils change. When the receiver rotor reaches the 30-deg
SYNCHROS 67
counterclockwise position, the voltafj;es induced in tiie receiver

stator coils are exactly ecjual to the voltafi;es induced in the
transmitter stator coils. The algebraic sum of the induced
voltages around any closed stator loop is zero at this point.
Therefore the stator currents are zero, and no magnetic field
is set up by the receiver stator coils. The receiver rotor comes

to rest at the 30-deg counterclockwise position.
Alternate Connections between Transmitter and Receiver.
Figure 4-24 shows alternate connections that are used between
a synchro transmitter and a synchro receiver when fixed
displacements are desired between the positions of the two
shafts or when the direction of rotation of the transmitter
shaft recjuired to be the opposite of that of the receiver
is
shaft. Figure 4-24a shows that the effect of reversing the

connections of one rotor with respect to the other is a fixed
angular displacement of 180 deg between the angular positions
of the two shafts. The direction of rotation of both shafts is
the same. In Fig. 4-246 a cyclic interchange of stator con-
nections is shown to produce a 120-deg displacement between
the relative positions of the two shafts. The direction of
rotation of both shafts is the same. In P'ig. 4-24c, inter-
changing the <Sl and *S3 transmitter and receiver connections
is shown to produce rotation in opposite directions. In
Fig. 4-24rf, reversing only Si and S2 causes a 240-deg dis-
placement between the positions of the two shafts and a
reversal of the direction of rotation of the two shafts. In
Fig. 4-24e the effect of reversing the *S2 and SS connections is
a displacement of the positions of the two shafts of 120 deg,
and a reversal of the direction of rotation as indicated. In
Fig. 4-24/, cyclic interchangefrom receiver to transmitter as
indicated (receiver S\-S2, S2-S3, »S3-<S1) is shown to produce
a 240-deg displacement between the relative positions of the
two shafts. The (hrection of rotation of the two shafts is the
same.
Previously we have shown that the reversal of the rotor
leads produces a ISO-dcg displacement between the two shafts
and that the direction of rotation was the same. Reversing
the rotor leads and reversing the SI-S2 leads as shown in
Fig. 4-24 Alternate transmitter and receiver connections.

SYNCHROS 69
Si
(g)
r*;/0
leads, with the i-otor leads reversed as shown in Fig. 4-24/,
causes a fixed angular displacement of 180 deg and a reversal
of the direction of rotation of the two shafts. A cyclic
interchange of stator connections, witii the rotor leads reversed
as shown in Fig. 4-24j, is shown
to produce a 300-deg dis-
placement between the relative position of the two shafts.
The direction of rotation of both shafts is the same. In A:,
receiver cyclic interchange of stator connections, with the
rotor leads reversed, is shown to produce a 60-deg displace-
ment between the relative positions of the two shafts. The
direction of rotation of both shafts is the same.
4-9 Torque of a Synchro

When the transmitter and receiver shafts are not in the
same relative positions, the currents that flow in the rotor and
stator circuits are responsible
for the force that tends to re-
duce to zero the angular differ-
ence between the shaft posi-
tions. It should be noted that
since the synchro acts much
like a transformer, with the
rotor as the primary and the
I ounce
stator as the secondary, an
increase in stator current is
(b)
accompanied by an increase in
Fig. 4-25 Meaning of torque.
rotor current. The force pro-
duced by this current flow is responsible for the torque, which
is a measure of how large a load the synchro shaft can turn.
Figure 4-25 illustrates the meaning of torque. In Fig.

4-25a the pulley attached to the shaft has a 1-in. radius and
the attached weight is 2 oz. The amount of torque that the
shaft must produce just to counterbalance the tendency of
the weight to rotate the pulley is given by the product of
the pulley radius and the attached weight. In this case the
torque required is 2 in.-oz. Note that in Fig. 4-256 the radius
of the pulley is 2 in. and the attached weight is 1 oz. The
torque is the same as in the first case. The torque of a
SYNCHROS 7?
synchro is usually measured in terms of inch-ounces. The

torque developed by a synchro depends upon the size of the
synchro and upon tiie relative positions of the transmitter and
receiver shafts. The developed torque is zero when the
transmitter and receiver shafts have the same relative posi-
tions. As the angular difference l)et\veen the transmitter- and
receiver-shaft positions is increased, the torque increases.
The torque is maximum when the shafts have a relative
displacement of 90 deg.
Figure 4-26 is a plot of the torque developed for different
amounts of displacement between the transmitter- and
receiver-shaft positions. Note that the tonjue is zero for a
180-deg shaft displacement. This is an unstable position.
30° 60° 90° )20° 150° 180"
Fig. 4-26 'rorqiic versus aiifûlar displaccincnt.
If the displacement changes slightly in either direction, the

torcjue produced will be such as to reduce the displacement to
zero rather than to maintain the 180-deg displacement.
Because the torque developed is low when the two shafts are
close to the same relative position, the load on the receiver
shaft must be kept low. If this is not done, the torque
developed by the receiver will be insufficient to reduce the

displacement between the relative position of the transmitter
and receiver shafts to zero. Bearing friction causes loading
on the receiver shaft, and this represents a source of error.
Precautions are taken to keep this friction as low as possible.
For small angular ('.isplacements between the relative posi-
tions of the transmitter and receiver shafts the developed
torcjue is appro.ximately proportional to the displacement.
4-10 Mechanical Analogy

The ineclianical anaii{i;cinciit shown in Fig. 4-27 has nearly
the same toniue-versus-angle curve as does tlie synciiro
system. Here the transmitter and receiver shafts are joined
by a spring connecting the crank arms on each shaft. Tlic
torque is zero when the angle between the twô arms is zero.
If the transmitter shaft is rotated slightly, the spring is
stretched, producing a tension of the spring. This tension

tends to rotate the receiver shaft in the same direction as the
transmitter shaft. The amount of torque produced by the
transmitter tending to rotate the receiver shaft increases as
the spring tension increases. The spring tension increases as
Transmitter
SYNCHROS 73
former. This application indicated that the control-trans-

former output is in tiie nature of an error voltage or error
signal. This error voltage appears across the rotor-coil
terminals of the control transformer. The control trans-
former contains a rotor and a stator much the same as the
synchro transformer and the synchro receiver. When the
stator-coil terminals of a synchro control transformer are
connected to the stator-coil terminals of a synchro transmitter,
a magnetic field is set up in the control transformer which
depends for its magnitude and direction upon the voltage
applied from the transmitter. The direction of this magnetic
field is the same as the direction to which the transmitter
shaft is set. If the shaft of the control transformer is set so
that the axis of the transformer rotor coil is at right angles to
this field, the voltage induced in the rotor coil is zero. For
any other position of the rotor a voltage is induced in the rotor
coil which depends for its magnitude and phase polarity
upon the relative position of the control-transformer shaft
with respect to the transmitter shaft. The rotor-coil termi-
nals of the control transformer are not connected to an a-c
power source as are the rotor terminals of the synchro trans-
mitter and the synchro receiver. Instead, the rotor-coil
terminals of the control transformer are the points across
which the useful output information appears.
Zero Position of Control-transformer Rotor. Figure 4-27
shows the zero position of the synchro-control-transformer
rotor. This position is chosen as one of the two positions
which makes the voltage induced in the control-transfornier
rotor coil zero when the control transformer is connected to a
transmitter that is set to electrical zero. This occurs when
the axis of the rotor coil is at right angles to the axis of the
stator coil *S2. The arrow indicating the control-transformer-
shaft position is therefore drawn at right angles to the rotor-
coil axis as shown in Fig. 4-28.
Rotor Voltage versus Rotor Position. Figure 4-29 is a plot
of the maimer in which the voltage induced in the control-
transformer rotor varies for different rotor positions when the
control transformer is connected to a synchro transmitter.
the .slmft of which is set to deg. For all positions between
and 180 deg the voltage induced in the control-transformer
rotor from R\ io R2 is in the same phase as the voltage from
R\ to R2 at the transmitter. For all positions between 180
and 360 deg the rotor voltage of the transmitter and the rotor
voltage of the control transformer are 180 deg out of phase.
Control transformer
5>
ig. 4-28 Zero position of control-transfonniT rotor.
In phase will)
Rf -R^ on
-irr\o generator
Out of phase
with Rt-R2
on generator
Fig. 4-29 Control-transformer rotor voltage versus angular disijlacement.
No Note that the rotor

intermediate phase conditions exist.
voltage is and again at the 180-deg
zero at the 0-deg position
position. In any given closed system the 180-deg position is
usually an unstable position. Slight displacement either
above or below 180 deg results in torque developed by the
closed system, which returns the control-transformer shaft to
its zero position rather than maintains it at the 180-deg
position.
SYNCHROS 7S
Construction. It is the function of the control transfornuM-

to tlcvelop an output \<)ltajj;e ratiier than a torcjue tendinji; to
ahgn its shaft with that of tlie transmitter. To prevent a

torcjue from being developed, the rotor of the control trans-
former is constructed in a cylindrical manner rather than with
distinct poles. This type of construction is illustiated in
Fig. 4-30. This construction also tends to reduce the air gap
in the of the magnetic flux .set up by the stator, tending
path
to give the stator coils of the control transformer more
inductance than the stator coils of either the transmitter or
the receiver. In addition, the stator coils of the control
transformer are wound with more turns of finer wire than that
Ballbearings
'Ball bearings Straight slofs
Fig. 4-30 Syiicliro-coiitrol-tnuisforincr rotor.
which is used for either the transmitter or receiver. This

also tends to increase the inductance of the stator coils. The
high inductance of the stator coils is necessary to keep the
current flowing in the stator-coil circuit down to a safe value.
Unlike the simple .synchro-transmitter-receiver .system, the
shaft of the control transformer does not immediately assume
the same position as the shaft of the transmitter thereby
reducing the stator currents to zero. Therefore high induct-
ance is used in the tran.sformer stator coils to limit this
current.
4-12 Synchro Differential Theory

General. As previously mentioned in S(>c. 4-7, the synchi'o
differential isused as an error detector to indicate the angular
difference between the relative positions of two synchro-
transmitter shafts. Synchro differentials have other applica-
tions. One such application involves summing up the angular
displacements of several shafts and representing the total as
the angular displacement of a single shaft. Such a device is
used to meter the rate of fuel flow in a multiengine plane.
In this application a differential is provided for each engine
and arranged in such a manner as to have the differential-
shaft displacement proportional to the rate of fuel flow. The
^'"''"^'^
Endbell
Boll bearings
Rotor windings
Fig. 4-31 Differential rotor.
shaft displacements of all the differentials are summed up,

and the total angular displacement is used to deflect a pointer
which then gives the total fuel flow to all engines. The action
of the differential can be explained in terms of the synchro-
transmitter and synchro-receiver theory. However, the
differential construction must
be understood.
first
Differential Construction. Figure 4-31 illustrates a typical

differential rotor. This rotor is different from the rotor used
in any of the previously discussed synchros. The differential
rotor is cylindrical in shape. In this respect it is similar to
the rotor of the control transformer. However, the dif-
ferential rotor is wound with three coils rather than with a
single coil. The coils are placed in equally spaced slots
SYNCHROS 77
around the rotor circumference. lOacli of the three rotor

coils, when enerpjized, sets up a magnetic field, and the
directions of these fields are 120 deg apart with respect to one
another. The differential stator is similar to the synchro-
transmitter and synchro-receiver staters.
Schematic of the DiJJ'erenlidl. Figure 4-32 shows the
schematic way of representing the differential. This diagram
is similar to the diagram used to represent the other synchros.
The arrow at the end of the rotor coil R2 indicates the position
of the rotor with respect to electrical zero. The rotor is shown
in the electrical zero position. Rotation of the rotor is
lepresented on the schematic by re-

volving all rotor coils about the com-
mon connection of the three coils.
Operation of the Differential. Figure

4-33 shows a differential connected be-
tween a synchro transmitter and a
synchro receiver. The transmitter
stator leads are connected to the cor-
responding differential stator leads.
The differential rotor leads are con-
, 1 ,1 , ]• •
Fig. 4-32 Schematic of
nected to the correspondmg receiver irc... .-, i
stator leads. The differential rotor is
rotated 120 deg counterclockwise while the transmitter rotor is
placed at electrical zero.The synchro transmitter acts on the

difTerential in the same manner that the synchro transmitter
acts on a synchro receiver. The transmitter causes currents
to flow in its stator circuit, which includes the differential
stator coils. These currents set up a magnetic field at the
differential as a result of the current flowing through the
differential stator coils. The direction of the magnetic field
set up at the differential is the same as the direction in which
the transmitter rotor is pointing. That this is true follows
from the fact that a receiver rotor aligns itself with the stator
magnetic field, and in so doing the receiver rotor assumes the
same position as the transmitter rotor. Therefore the mag-
netic field set up by the differential stator coils is in the same
direction as that in wliicli the transmitter rotor is pointing.
As far as the differential rotor is concerned, the magnetic field
set up by the stator has the same effect as the magnetic field
set up in a synchro transmitter by the transmitter rotor.
The differential rotor coils act like transmitter stator coils.
The entire action of the differential can be thought of as that
of a synchro transmitter. In this case the differential stator
field acts like the transmitter rotor, and the differential rotor
acts like the transmitter stator. In Fig. 4-33 the direction of
the magnetic field set up by the differential stator is deg
since the synchro transmitter is set to deg. The differential
rotor is set at 120 deg counterclockwise. But the differential
rotor acts like a transmitter stator. Therefore the differential
acts like a transmitter, the rotor of which is 120 deg clockwise
with respect to its stator. Therefore the synchro receiver
connected to the differential rotates to the 120-deg clockwise
position.
Alternate Differential Connnections. Figure 4-33 indicates
various other ways to connect a differential between two
synchros. In Fig. 4-33a the connection discussed above is
illustrated. Here the transmitter position minus the dif-

ferential position gives the receiver position. With the
connections illustrated in Fig. 4-33d and e the transmitter
position plus the differential position gives the receiver posi-
tion. In Fig. 4-33c the receiver position is the negative of the
sum of the transmitter and differential positions. In Fig.
4-33/ the receiver position is the negative of the difference
between the transmitter position and the differential position.
Depending on the application, both synchros might be
transmitters and the above relations still remain correct. The
differential might be either a differential transmitter or a
differential receiver, depending on the application.
When a differential is connected directly between two
—
synchros one being a transmitter, the other a receiver as —
shown in Fig. 4-33a, the shaft position of the unit connected
to the differential rotor is equal to the position of the trans-
mitter minus the position of the
shaft differential. An
example to ilhistrate this rule is shown in Fig. 4-336. Here
the transmitter shaft is rotated to 250 deg counterclockwise
Transmitter Differential set to Receiver goes to
set to 0° counterc/ocldvise 120° 120° cloclfwise
and the differential shaft is set at 200 deg. The receiver will
then turn to 50 deg, because 250 minus 200 equals 50 deg.
Thus a rule can be made for a differential used in this manner
(T — D = R). Another rule which can be made is: if both
the *S1-<S3 and the Rl-RS connections to a differential are
interchanged, the shaft position of the unit connected to the
differential rotor (usually the receiver) is equal to the position
of the other unit plus the position of the differential. Here
in d when the transmitter shaft is rotated to 50 deg and the
80 deg, the receiver will then
differential is positioned at
turn to 130 deg. Note that in this case the receiver posi-
tion is equal to the sum of the positions of the two shafts
(50 + 80 = 130).
4-13 Advantage of Electrical Zero as Synchro Reference

Synchro systems are usually set up so that the zero position
of any indicator or equipment connected to a synchro rotor
shaft coincides with the electrical zero position of the rotor
shaft. This permits individual synchro units to be set up
and adjusted without regard for the remaining units in the
system. An indicator dial may be attached to a synchro-
receiver shaft before the receiver is placed in the system. If
the dial is fastened to the shaft so that the zero dial reading
corresponds to the electrical zero position of the shaft, the
indicator will give correct readings when placed in operation.
No additional adjustment is required. However, to set the
dial on the shaft correctly requires knowledge of when the
shaft is in the electrical zero position.
4-14 Zeroing Synchro Receivers and Transmitters

General. The problem in zeroing a synchro transmitter or
a synchro receiver is one of making the zero position of the
equipment connected to the transmitter or receiver rotor
shaft coincide wuth the electrical zero position of the shaft.
The problem reduces to knowing when the rotor is in its
electrical zero position. The method for determining when a
transmitter or receiver rotor is in its electrical zero position
depends upon whether or not the rotor of the synchro is free
SYNCHROS 87
to turn. In some cases the rotor is held fixed and the stator
must be rotated with respect to tiie rotor to set tiie synchro
to its electrical zero position.
Rotor Shaft Free to Turn.Wlien the rotor siiaft is free to
turn, the connections shown V\\l.. 4-34 can l)e used to make
in
the rotor assume its electrical zero position. S\, S'i, and R2
are connected to one side of the power line; »S2 and R\ are
connected to the other side of the line. If the rotor is free
to turn, it rotates to the electrical zero position. These
connections place a voltage across the stator coils which is
somewhat higher than that for which the synchro was
designed. Continued operation with the connections siiown
in Fig. 4-34 will damage the synchro. An alternate method
clamps holdiiif^ the transmittcM- slator are loosened so that the
stator can be rotated with respect to the rotor. The stator
leads of the transmitter are disconnected from the rest of the
system, but the rotor leads remain connected to the power
line as indicated in Fig. 4-35. The is connected
*S2 stator lead
to the Rl rotor lead. An connected between
a-c voltmeter is
the Si and (S3 stator leads. The synchro stator is now

revolved until this voltmeter reads "0 volts." The position
of the stator with respect to the rotor is either electrical zero
or 180 deg away from electrical zero. The voltage between
aSIand R2 is measured to determine which of these conditions
exists. The position of the stator which makes the voltage
from *S1 to R2 less than power-line voltage is the electrical
Zeroing a transmitter.
zero position. Therefore the stator is in the electrical zero

position with respect to the rotor when
the voltage from SI
to S3 is zero and at the same time the voltage from Si to R2 is
less than power-line voltage.
4-15 Zeroing a Control Transformer

Figure 4-36 indicates the connections used in determining
when the control transformer is close to its electrical zero
position. All connections to the control transformer are
removed, and the control transformer is connected in the
manner shown in Fig. 4-36. *S1 and S3 are connected to the
power line. R2 is connected to the same side of the power
line as *S3. No connection is made to *S2. A voltmeter is
connected between Rl and Si as shown. If the rotor can be
rotated readily, it is turned until the voltmeter reading is a
minimum. If the rotor cannot be rotated readilv because of
SYNCHROS 83
coupling to some large equipment, this etjuipment is set to

its zero position. Tlie control-transformer stator is then
undamped and rotated until the voltmeter reading is a
minimum. To determine the exact electrical zero position,
the connections are now rearranged as indicated in Fig. 4-37.
one side of the power line; *S2 and R2 are connected to the
other side of the power line. The differential rotor then
turns to its electrical zero position.
Not Free to Rotate. This condition is
Differential Shaft
generally encountered with a synchro differential transmitter
Fig. 4-38 Zeroing a differential, the shaft of which is free to rotate.
rather than with the differential receiver. The circum-

stances are similar to the circumstances discussed in Sec. 4-14
concerning the regular synchro transmitter. Figure 4-39
shows the connections used to locate the approximate zero
position of the rotor with respect to the stator. The unit
connected to the differential shaft is set to its zero position.
Fig. 4-39 Rough zeroing of differential.
All connections to the differential are removed. The dif-

ferential is then connected as shown in the figure. *S2 and R2
are connected to one side of the power line, and Si is connected
to the other side of the line. A voltmeter is connected
between Rl and SI. No connection is made to <S3 or i?3.
The differential stator is undamped and rotated with respect
SYNCHROS 85
to its rotor until the voltmeter reading is at a mininiuni.

The differential now approximately at the electrical zero
is
position. The connections are now altered as indicated in

Fig. 4-40. »ST and S'.i are connected to one side of the power
Fig. 4-40 Final zeroing of cliffcrontial.
connected to the other side of the line. A voltmeter

line; »S2 is
isconnected between R\ and RS. No connection is made to
R2. The stator is rotated slightly until the voltmeter
reading is zero. The differential is now in the electrical
zero position. The stator is reclamped. and zeroing is
accomplished.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between a synchro transmitter and a
synchro receiver?
2. E.xplain the operation of a synchro transmitter.
3. Explain the operation of a .synchro transformer.
4. Explain the operation of a .synchro ditVerential.
5. Explain the zeroing operation of a syncliro transmitter; receiver;
control transformer: and ditTerential.
6. Draw a diagram of a .synchro tran.smitter connected to a synchro
differential connected to a synchro receiver.
Servo Elements
5-1 Resolvers
Use. The use of coordinate systems for specifying the

location of an object assumed for purposes of this discussion.
is
Coordinate information can be illustrated in two different

forms, namely, in the rectangular system and in the spherical
system. In certain applications the coordinate information
might be available in rectangular form when it would be
more desirable to have this information in spherical coordinate
form. In other cases the reverse might be true. Obviously
then, it would be convenient to be able to transform informa-
tion from one system to the other. The resolver is a device
capable of doing this.
Description. In appearance and construction the resolver
is similar to the synchro. The use of the term resolver for
this unit springs from the fact that the unit is used to break
into components a vector quantity which has been represented
electrically, or to resolve the vector into component vectors.
The resolver contains a rotor and a stator. Usually the
stator is composed of two coils whose axes are oriented at right
angles to each other, rather than of three coils oriented 120 deg
86
SERVO ELEMENTS 87
apart as in the case of the synchro. The resolver rotor is

wound with one or two coils, depending upon the appHcation.
When two rotor coils are used, the coil axes arc oriented at
ri«;lit angles to one another i
Fig. 5-1).
Fig. 5-1 A rcs()l\-or. (Reeves Instrutnenl Corp.)
5-2 Theory of Resolver Operation

The theory of resolver operation is similar to the theory of
synchro operation. The synchro transmitter is a vector
resolver. The voltage applied to the synchro-transmitter
rotor could define the magnitude of a vector, and the position
of the transmitter rotor could define the vector direction.
The .synchro transmitter resolves this vector into three
component vectors, one in the direction of each of the stator-
coil a.xes. The magnitude of each component vector is
established by the magnitude of the voltage induced in each
stator coil The re.solver acts in axactly the same manner,
but in general it resolves a vector into two instead of three
component In the synchro transmitter the com-
vectors.
ponent vectors were 120 deg apart in direction, but in the
resolver the components are at right angles to each other.
The resolver also performs the inverse operation of combining
vectors by u.sing the stator coils as the input along with a
servosystem for controlling the rotor position. This is
described in more detail in the following paragraphs.

5-3 Resolvers as Coordinate Transformers
Polar-lo-Rectangular Coordinate Transformation. The

transformation from polar to rectangular coordinates is
accomplished through the use of a resolver luning two statoi'
and two rotor windings as illustrated in Fig. 5-2. The
relationship between rectangular and polar coordinates is
illustrated in Fig. 5-3a. In the polar coordinate system the
position is specified by the distance R and angle B. In the
rectangular coordinate system the position is specified by the
distances X and Y. From the geometry of the drawing it is
apparent that X = R cos 6 and F = E sin 6. If the position
information is represented in the
Pos/i/Ve direction
by a rotor voltage E^ pro-
j-gsol ver
Roforj^ of rotation
-* portional \to the distance
i-f
RJ and i
rotation of the rotor through the

angle B as shown in Fig. 5-3«, the
resolver transforms this informa-
tion into rectangular coordinate
"^
5^/ ^S4 form. The rotor sets up a mag-

r-^^nnnRT^ netic field and establishes the
p p stator-coil axis. Therefore the
c. c o
rig. 5-2
a u
bchematic if
or resolver
1 ° induced in the stator coil,
voltage '
with two rotor windings. ^he axis of which is horizontal, is

proportional to Er cos B; the volt-
age induced in the coil, the axis of which is vertical, is pro-
portional to Er cos (90 Since cos (90 — Q) is the sine
— Q).
of Q, the voltage induced in the coil, the axis of which is

vertical, is consequently proportional to Er sin Q. Since Er is
proportional to R, by reference to Fig. 5-36, the voltage

induced in the stator coils is proportional to the X and Y
coordinates of the original position.
Rectangular -to-Polar Coordinate Transformation. The
transformation of position information from the rectangular
coordinate system to the polar coordinate system required a
resolver having two rotor and two stator windings as illus-
trated in Fig. 5-4. A voltage, the magnitude of which is
proportional to the Y coordinate, is applied to the stator coil,
SERVO ELEMENTS 89
the axis of which is vertical. A voltage proportional to the A'

coordinate is applied to the horizontal stator coil. The stator
coils set up a resultant magnetic field, the magnitude and
direction of which can be found by vector addition in the
manner indicated in Sec. 4-6. This magnetic field induces
voltages in both rotor coils. The output of one of the rotor
Fig. 5-3 (a) Polar-to-r(>ctanfûlar tran.sfornuitioii. (b) Relation Ix'twcvii

polar and rectangular coordinates.
coils isconnected to a servoamplifier. The amplifier in turn

is connected to a motor which drives the rotor shaft. The
motor turns only as long as there is a voltage applied to the
amplifier input. When the rotor assumes a position such that
the axis of the coil connected to the amplifier is at right angles
to the resultant stator magnetic field, the voltage induced in
this rotor coil is zero and the motor stops. At this point the
axis of the second rotor coil is proportional to the intensit}-
of the resultant stator magnetic field. Figure 5-3 indicates
that the sum of the vector addition of the distances X and Y
is R. Therefore, the voltage induced in the second rotor
coil is proportional to R. The angle formed by the axis of
this second rotor coil and the stator coil whose axis is hori-
zontal is the angle 6.
Figure 5-4 also illustrates the case where R and 6 can be

determined if X and Y are known. The output of one of the
rotor windings is usually connected to a servoamplifier. The
servosystem tends to reduce this voltage to zero, which is only
possible when the angle of the rotor shaft is d. The results
I
Input I
P, x=Rcos 9 p^
Fig. 5-A Transformation of rectangular to polar coordinates.
previously determined are being attained continuously even

though the sides of the triangle are varying constantly.
Resolvers have the same problems of residual voltages and
errors that synchros have, and for the same reasons. In
general they are made with tolerances of a higher accuracy
than those found in synchros. Resolvers must maintain an
exact alignment (usually right-angle alignment) for the proper
voltage ratios. Resolvers are used to add or subtract voltages
to obtain zero error; therefore it is necessary that the excita-
tion of the coil windings be precisely in phase so that error
voltages are not developed when two voltages are added or
subtracted. The source impedance of the resolver usually
varies as a function of the angular rotation of the rotor, and
for that reason the load impedance used should be infinite.
SERVO ELEMENTS 9)
Since the output voltage of the resolver is proportional to

the sine of the angle d, the resolver sensiti\ity i the number of
volts generated pei' degree displacement from a given
of
position) changes with the sine of the angular position. Thus
there i.s a possibility that where the angle is zero the servo
unit may oscillate, and that it may tend to become sluggish
at angles close to 90 deg.
5-4 Potentiometers
Applicalivnti. In the preceding paragraphs the manner in

which an electrical signal can be related to the position of the
shaft was discussed. These operations required a-c voltages
and produced a-c signals. When it is desired to perform
certain operations relating a d-c voltage to a shaft position, a
device called a potentiometer is sometimes used.
Fig. 5-5 (a) Typical potcMitionictcr. (6) Symbol.
Construction. Figure o-o illu.strates a typical potenti-

ometer. The potentiometer is electromechanical in its
operation. It consists of two major parts, a resistance
element and a movable metallic slider having electrical contact
with the resistance element. The slider is mechanically
connected to a shaft. Rotation of the shaft causes the slider
to move along the resistance element. The resistance element
used in potentiometers is generally compo.sed of tine wire
wound on a form or card. Figure 5-6 shows several methods
of winding this element. In Fig. 5-6a the wdre is wound on a
rectangular card, in Fig. b-iSb tiic wire is on a toroidal form,
and in Fig. 5-Gc the wire is on a square card. The potenti-
ometer shown in Fig. 5-.") has a rectangular card winding
mounted in a circular ariangcMnent.
Contact
Shaff
Contact
Card
Shaft,
Contact Contact
\.
uj .] |il ..m»i .
»i,u» » >i
ju m
Card-
Toroid Shaft Shaft
(b) (c)
Fig. 5-6 Rpsistancp elements, Wire-wound toroid. used only with

(a)
rotary-motion shaft. (6) Wire-wound card used with linear-motion shaft,
or formed into a circle, used with rotary-motion shaft, (c) Deposited-film
clement used with linear-motion shaft, or formed into a circle, used with
rotar3'-motion shaft.
Square-card Sine and Cosine Potentiometers. Figure 5-7

shows a square-card potentiometer. The card is wound with
fine wire and contains a constant number of turns per unit
length measured in the Y direction. In the figure, two sliding
contacts are shown mounted on a shaft, the axis of which
passes through the center of the card. As the shaft is rotated,
the contacts follow a circular path over the surface of the card.
The two contacts are 180 deg apart on the circular path. If
SERVO ELEMENTS 93
a voltage is applied to the resistance element as .shown, the

voltage between the two contacts is a maximum when the
contacts are in a vertical line. When the shaft is rotated to

the position shown in the figure, the voltage l)etween the
Brush
holder
Brush
Brush circle
Rotor, fastened
to shaft, carrying
resistance card
Mounting flange brushes

anri brush arms
Terminals
Slip rinqs
Slip ring
brushes
Fig. 5-7 Sinc-cosiiie jjotcntiomctor. {The Gamewell Company.)
contacts equal to the product of the maximum voltage and

is
the sine of the angle B. This is true because the voltage

between the two contacts is directly proportional to the part
of the total card resistance that appears l)etween the two
contacts. Since the card resistance varies linearly in the Y
direction and is practically constant in the X direction, from
tlie geometry of tlie conslruction the resistance between the
two sliders is given by R sin d, where R is the maximum resist-
ance that can exist between the sliders (occurring when the
sliders are in a vertical line). Therefore, the voltage between
the two sliding contacts varies with the sine of the angle of
rotation. If a second set of contacts is fastened to the same
shaft in a manner such that the line through the new set of
contacts forms a 90-deg angle with the line through the first
set of contacts, the voltage between the new set of contacts is a
cosine function of the angle 6.
Resolution. The output of the potentiometer does not

change evenly as the mechanical arm is rotated. Instead,
the voltage variations occur in steps, the magnitude of each
step being equal to the voltage difference between adjacent
turns of wire. A potentiometer having 2,000 turns of wire
on the resistance element is said to have a resolution of one
part in 2,000 or a resolution of 0.05 per cent, which means that
the smallest change possible in the output is 1/2,000 of the
input voltage.
The resolution of any potentiometer is the minimum varia-
tion of resistance output obtained when the output shaft is
rotated, expressed as a percentage of the total resistance of the

potentiometer. thus dependent on the number of turns
It is
on the winding and upon the arc diameter
of wire per inch
through which the contact must travel. It is theoretically
equal to the angular spacing of adjacent wires expressed as a
percentage of the total angular travel of the contact.
Linearity. The linearity of a potentiometer is a measure
of how accurate the change in resistance is with respect to the
shaft angle. A potentiometer having a mechanical tolerance
of 0.1 per cent and a winding of 340 deg would have an error of
about 0.68 deg.
Potentiometers for Data Transmission. Since a linear
potentiometer develops a voltage proportional to its shaft
angle, it is frequently used as part of a data transmission
system. It may be used in rate servos and other systems
previously discussed. Instead of using a tachometer genera-
tor to control the speed of the load, a potentiometer, with
SERVO ELEMENTS 95
constant excitation across it, can be used l)y setting tlie shaft
to an angle corresponding to the desired speed of the load. It
is also possible to use a potentiometer to control the position

of a load in a servosystem. The load displacement is set on
the potentiometer shaft, and the output voltage is sent to
the servo error detector as an error voltage. This means of
data transmission is not desirable because of the limited
resolution of the potentiometer and also because of the fact
that the potentiometer output voltage is proportional to the
shaft setting and the input voltage. If the input voltage
varies, there is an introduction of error into the system. It is
nevertheless used frequently where precise indication is not
necessary.
5-5 Differential Gear

Use. When the parts of a servosystem are so located that
mechanical linkages between the input and output sliafts are
practical, a differential gear can be used to detect errors in
position and speed of rotation of the output shaft with respect
to the input sliaft.
Frame
Input
shaft
Fig. 5-8 ] )ilT(Tcntial j^car train.
Operation.Figure 5-S illustrates a simple differential gear.

The A is attached to the input shaft, and the
large bevel gear
bevel gear B is attached to the output shaft. Both input and
output shafts pass through beai-ings in the rectangular frame.
The pinion gear C whicli meshes with A and B is mounted on a
shaft attached to tlie frame. Gear C is also free to rotate. If
the gear B and its shaft are held in a fixed position while the
gear A and its shaft are rotated, tiie pinion gear C must
rotate. This, in turn, causes rotation of the entire rectangu-
lar frame. The frame
rotates through an angle that is exactly
half of the anglethrough which the gear A is rotated. If gear
A is rotated 60 deg in the direction indicated by the arrow,
the pinion gear is caused to rotate in the indicated direction.
The entire frame, having rotated through an angle of 30 deg,
assumes the position indicated bj- the dotted line. If gear A
Output gear. Input gear , Spider

D
Input shaft
Gear
Input gear
A
Spider gear
Output shaft
C
Error output indicating shaft
Fig. 5-9 Refined differential gear.
is now held fixed while gear B is rotated 60 deg in the direction

opposite to the original rotation of A, the frame returns to its
original position. Therefore if gears A and B rotate at the

same but in opposite directions, the frame remains
rate
stationar3\ If both shafts are at rest and one shaft is sud-
denly set in motion at a constant rate, the rectangular frame
starts to rotate in the same direction at half this rate. If an
instant later the second shaft is set in motion at the same rate
as the first shaft but in the opposite direction, the frame ceases
rotating. If it is assumed that the frame has not made a
complete revolution, the angle bj^ which the frame is displaced
SERVO ELEMENTS 97
from its ong;inal position is equal to one-half the anj^le by

which the two shafts are displaced from the relatixe i)osition
that they had at rest.
Rvjhicnicnls of Opcrnlion. Figure 5-9 shows the differential
gear with one side of the rectangular frame replaced l)y the
hevel gear D. This gear is not attached to the input shaft.
It merely acts as one side of the original frame. The hevel
gear D is made to drive an error-indicating shaft through a
gear E attached to the error shaft. If a 2: 1 step-down ratio
is used from gear D to the error shaft, the error shaft turns at
twice the speed of the frame. If in addition the output
shaft is attached to gear B through a 1 : 1 gear ratio, the direc-
tion of rotation of B is opposite to that of the output shaft.
Therefore when the input and output shafts rotate in the
same direction and at the same speed, gears A and B rotate in
opposite directions at the same speed. The pinion gear C is
stationary and the rectangular frame does not rotate. There-
fore the error-indicating shaft
is stationary. If the input and
output shafts rotate at different speeds, the frame rotates.

This causes the error-indicating shaft to rotate at a speed
which is exactly equal to the difference in the rotational
speeds on the input and output shafts.
5-6 Tachometer Generators

Use. A tachometer as referred to here is a device that
generates an output voltage that is directh' proportional to
the speed of a shaft rotation. When it is necessarj' to make
the angular displacement of one shaft proportional to the
speed of rotation of another shaft, a tachometer is sometimes
used. A d-c generator is an example of a tachometer.
Tachometers delivering a-c output voltages are also available.
Operation. Figure .5-10 illustrates a control system using a
potentiometer and a tachometer. The tachometer is driven
from the input shaft. It generates a d-c voltage proportional
to the speed of rotation of the input shaft. A fi.xed voltage E
is applied to the potentiometer as shown. A portion of this
applied voltage, indicated as appears between the potenti-
e,
ometer contact arm and the grounded tap. The input to the
I
amplifier is the sum of the tachometer output voltage and e.
This input voltage is amplified and used to drive the motor,

which, in turn, drives the output shaft. The potentiometer
arm is coupled mechanically to the output shaft. \\ hen the
motor rotates, the potentiometer arm moves in a manner
such as to reduce the input voltage to the amplifier to zero.
At this point the amplifier output is zero and the motor stops.
The voltage e is now of equal amplitude and opposite polarity
to the tachometer output voltage. If the rotational speed of
the input shaft changes, the output voltage of the tachometer
^ Input angular
g- variation
Amplifier
Data Error Error
and Load
transmission detector lOi-Ool motor
Toch
generator
i-^\AA/fAAA —
E
Fig. 5-10 Tachonu'tcr control system.
changes proportionally. A voltage again exists at the ampli-

fier input, and the motor starts to rotate. The shaft of the
potentiometer moves to a new position such that the input
to the amplifier is again zero. The output shaft has moved to
a new position also. The position of the output shaft is
proportional to the rotational speed of the input shaft, or to —
state it differently —
the position of the output shaft is propor-
tional to the rate at which the input shaft is changing position.
5-7 Signal Choppers
Applications. In certain servosystems it is necessary to

detect the error in the magnitude of one d-c voltage as com-
pared to another. One method of doing this is to subtract
one signal from the other, thereby producing an error signal.
SERVO ELEMENTS 99
Howpver, since generally the error signal is small, it must l)e
amplified. This error signal is a d-c voltage and recjuires

d-c amplifiers. Because of their inherent instability, d-c
amplifiers are not as satisfactory as a-c amplifiers. It would
be desirable to produce the error signal representing the
difference between the magnitudes of the d-c voltages as an
a-c voltage so that a-c amplifiers can be used. The vibrator
is capable of doing this.
Operation. The diagram shown in Fig. 5-11 illustrates the

use of a vibrator in a comparison circuit. The vibrator
contains two contacts A and B to which the d-c voltages to be
compared are applied. A reed is positioned between the
A ,B
-o fo—
TJWinn
Coil excitation
Input voltage
Input
-^-Output
Fig. 5-11 X'ibrator coniparison circuit.
contacts A and B. An a-c voltage, usually (iO cycles, is

applied to an e.xciting This cau.ses the reed to vibrate
coil.
and make alteinate contact with A and B. In the usual case
there is a small portion of the period of vibration during which
the reed contacts A and B simultaneously. If the voltages
applied to A and B are of the same magnitude and of the same
polarity, the reed is always at the same potential with respect
to ground. the magnitudes of the voltages are not equal,

If
the potential of the reed changes as the reed alternates from
A to B. This changing potential of the reed with respect to
ground is in the nature of an a-c error signal. The d-c
component of the reed potential with respect to ground can be
blocked through the u.se of a capacitor as indicated. The
error signal can now be amplified witli an a-c amplifier. The
magnitude of this a-c signal is proportional to the difference
in themagnitude of the two original d-c voltages applied to
A and B. It is usually necessary to know the sense of the
—
error that is, whether the voltage sit A or B is the larger.
This information is obtained by feeding the amplified error
signal into a phase detector. The phase detector is also fed
some of the 60-cycle voltage used on the exciting coil. The
phase detector converts the a-c error signal back to direct
current, the polarit}- of which is established by the sense of the
original error.
5-8 Detecting Frequency Error
Use of Discriminators. In many electronic devices an a-c

signal is generated through the use of conventional oscillator
Fig. 5-12 Discriminator characteristic.
circuits. In a large number of cases the oscillator frequency is

determined by the values of inductance and capacitance used
in the oscillator tank circuit. In such oscillators the fre-
quency is also determined, but to a minor extent, by the
voltages applied to the oscillator tube. The oscillator fre-
quency is subject to drift if the applied voltages change or if
the values of inductance and capacitance change because of

thermal expansion. A discriminator circuit can be used to
detect this frequency drift.
Discriminator Characteristics. Figure 5-12 shows the dis-
criminator output-voltage versus input-frequency charac-
teristic. As indicated by the graph, the discriminator is a
circuit that delivers an output voltage, the magnitude of which
SERVO ELEMENTS ?0]
depends upon the amount by wliicli the input fie(]uen('y lias

(lepartetlfrom some predetermined \ahie. The output
xoltaKe is direct current. The pohirity of this direct curient
depends upon the direction of freciuency departure — wiiether
to a higher or a lower value than the predetermined one.
Frequency-regulating Servo. Fijûre 5-13 shows how the
discriminator may be employed in a closed-cycle servosystem
to maintain the oscillator fretiuency at some piedetermined
value. The oscillator V()ltaf2;e is fed into the discriminator.
The discriminator' deli\eis a d-c output xoltage which depends
Reference
oc volfage
Fig. 5-13 t'lc'iiucncy-rc'ûlating system.
for its magnitude and polarity on the oscillator frecpiency.

Note in Fig. 5-12 that when the is at the correct
oscillator
frequency, the di.scriminator output voltage is zero. Therefore
the discriminator output is a measure of the error in the
oscillator frequency. This error signal is applied to a react-
ance tube. The reactance tube a vacuum tube
that appears
is
a.sa reactance to an external circuit connected between the

plate and cathode of the tube. In this case the external
circuit is the frecpiency-determining tank circuit of the
oscillator. The magnitude of the icactance repiesented b}-
the reactance tube varies, depending upon the erroi- xoltage
applied from the discriminator.
Therefore tlie complete action is as follows: If the oscillatoi-
departs from the desired frequency, the discriminator delivers
an error signal to the reactance tube. The error sigiud
contains information regarding the amount and direction of
the frequency drift. The signal also changes the apparent
reactance of the reactance tube. Since the reactance tube is
connected to the oscillator-frequencj'-determining circuit, the
oscillator frequency is affected. The change in reactance of
the reactance tube is in such a direction as to return the
oscillator to its correct fre(iuency.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the purpose and operation of a resolver.
2. What is the resolution of a potentiometer having 5,000 turns on
the resistance element?

3. Explain the operation of a differential gear.
4. Explain the operation of a tachometer generator.
5. Explain the operation of a vibrator.
6
Electronic and
Magnetic Amplifiers
6-1 Purpose of Servoamplifiers

In tlie pre\iou.s .sections, methods were discussed for detect-
ing the error between the desired output and tlie actual output
of the servosystem. The error information was shown to he
in the form of an error signal which is usually electrical in
nature. This error signal is used to correct the output of the
servosystem; but as it appears at the output of the error
detector, the signal is generally too small to be used directl}-
to correct the output of the sy.stem. Therefore the error
signal must be amplified. An amplifier was included in Fig.
3-2 to amplify the error signal produced by the synchro control
transformer. Again, in Fig. 3-5 an amplifier was included as
part of the system. In both of these illustrations the amplifier
output is used to control a motor which in turn corrects the
output of the .servo.system in such a manner as to reduce the
error signal to zero.In most .servo applications the amplifier
output eventually used to control a motoi-.
is The desired
control might be to rotate the motor shaft to a definite posi-
103
tion or to alter the motor speed. The former is referred to as
position control ; the latter isThe exact
called velocity control.
nature of the amplifier depends mainly on the nature of the
input or error signal and the nature of the desired output.
The latter characteristic is determined by the type of motor or
device that is to be driven by the amplifier.
Figure 6-1 is a photograph of a typical sprvoamplifier.
Fig. 6-1 Servoflex amplifier.
6-2 Types of Amplifiers

Three general types of amplifiers along with some of their
associated circuits are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Electronic, or vacuum-tube, amplifiers are discussed first,
followed by magnetic amplifiers and, finally, electromechani-

cal amplifiers. The last two types are usually used in con-
junction with an electronic amplifier.
6-3 Electronic Amplifiers
Types. Electronic amplifiers fall into two major classifica-

tions, namely, d-c amplifiers and a-c amplifiers. The d-c
ELECTRONIC AND MAGNETIC AMPLIFIERS 705
amplifier is characterized by the fact that conductive coupUng

isused between stages, whereas the a-c ampUfier uses non-
conductive coupUng.
Choice of Amplifier. The type of amphfier used depends, as
was previously mentioned, upon the input and output
signals. There are four possible combinations:
A-c INPUT AND A-C OUTPUT. An a-c amplifier is indicated.
D-c INPUT AND A-C OUTPUT. This Combination indicates
some device, such as the vibrator described in the previous
section, to change the direct current to an alternating current
followed by an a-c amplifier.
A-c INPUT AND D-C OUTPUT. This Combination indicates an
a-c amplifier followed by a phase detector to change the
alternating current to a direct current of the proper polarity.
D-c INPUT AND D-C OUTPUT. Here a d-c amplifier is indi-
cated. A
second arrangement can be used, consisting of a
vibrator or similar device, an a-c amplifier, and a phase
detector to change the alternating current to a direct current
of the correct polarity.
^^'henever possible, it is desirable to use a-c amplification.
The stability or drift problems that are associated with d-c
amplifiers are absent in a-c amplifiers.
6-4 Direct-current Amplifiers
Power-supply Considerations. Since the d-c amplifier is

conductively coupled as illustrated in Fig. 6-2, any slight
variation in power-supply voltage produces substantially the
same effect on the output of the amplifier as a variation in the
input-signal voltage. Note that if the potential to which the
plate of tube Ti is returned varies, a change in the grid-to-

cathode potential of Ti results. This change is of exactly
the same nature as that produced by an input-signal varia-
tion. Therefore, an amplified variation appears in the output
voltage at the plate of T2. The effect on the output voltage
of the arnpHfier cannot be distinguished from a voltage change
produced by a variation of the input signal. It is therefore;
obvious that special attention must be given to the stability
of the power supply.
If the and cathode potentials of the two tubes
plate
are by a voltage divider as indicated in Fig.
established
6-3, the resistance of the divider must be kept low. Note
that a variation of current in either tube must cause a
change in the potential on the divider to which the other tube
Fig. 6-2 Direct-current amplifier circuit.
is returned. If the divider resistance is kept low, this change

in potential is also low. Note also that the divider places a
resistance in the cathode-return circuit of the tube. This
resistance is in such a position that a part of the cathode
current causes a voltage to appear in the grid-cathode circuit
of the tube. The nature of this voltage is such as to reduce
Fig. 6-3 Potentials supplied from divider.
the effective gain of the stage. This reduction of gain can be

appreciable unless the resistance in the grid-cathode circuit is
kept low.
Zero Adjustment. Perhaps the greatest difficulty encoun-
tered when a d-c amplifier is used to amplify the error signal
is that of ensuring that the amplifier output is zero when the
ELECTRONIC AND MAGNETIC AMPLIFIERS J07
error signal is zero. The output of a d-c amplifier is not

necessarily zero for zero input as in the case of a noncon-
(luctively coupled amplifier. In the nonconductively coupled
amplifier the output for zero input, nejilecting noise, is zero.
This result is independent of theparameters such as
circuit
tubes, voltages, and resistors. In the conductively coupled
d-c amplifier the output for zero depends on all of the.se
parameters. In a specific application a definite output,
usually zero, is required for zero input. Since the circuit
constants are subject to change with temperature variation,
aging, and vibration, some means is generally provided to
compensate for these changes. The means for compensation
is called a zero adjustment. The zero adjustment takes the
Fig. 6-4 Efffct of hoatcr-voltagc variation.
form of a means for manually varying the potential applied to

the electrode of one of the early stages of the amplifier.
Heater-voltage Variation. One of the primary causes of
drift in the output of a d-c amplifier is variation of the heater
voltage applied to the tubes. The heater voltage cannot be
readily regulated or stabilized as can the plate- and grid-
voltage source. most troublesome
Heater-voltage variation is
in the first stage of the amplifier, since any disturbance

produced at this point is amplified by the remainder of the
amplifier. The effect of an increase in heater voltage on the
operation of the tube is the same as a decrea.se in the cathode
potential of the tube. This is illustrated in Fig. 6-4. The
effect of an increase in heater voltage is represented as a
battery of voltage AE in series with the cathode. The result
of the voltage AE is a decrea.se in the effective bias of the tube
and an increase in the tube cmrent.
The effect of the heater-voltage variation can be offset b}-
an e(iual shift of cathode potential in the opposite direction.
This can be accomplished l)y the inclusion of a separate tube,
with cathode and heater characteristics similar to those of
the amplifier tube, in the circuit shown in Pig. 6-5. In this
illustration, tube Ti is the amplifier, while T-z is for the purpose
of canceling the effect of heater-voltage variation. For this
circuit to be effective, it is essential for the resistor Rk to be
large compared with the value of 1/Gm of T2. Under these
conditions the action of the
circuit is as follows: If the
heater voltage increases, the
effect isan equal reduction
of the cathode potential of
both tubes. This decrease
in cathode potential is again
represented by the battery-
AE in series with the cathode
of each tube. The effect in
tube T2 is to cause the tube
current to increase. This in-
Fig. 6-5 Compensation circuit for crease in T2 current causes
heater-voltage variation. Ti is the the voltage drop across Rk
amplifier whose filament voltage is
to increase. The polarity of
kept constant. T2 circuit is the com-
the increased voltage due to
pensation circuit.
T2 current is positive on the
cathode side of Rk and negative on the ground side. The mag-
nitude of this additional voltage across Rk is almost equal to
AE if Rk is much larger than 1/Gm, as previously mentioned.
Since the voltage produced across Rk is equal in magnitude to
AE but opposite in polarity to the battery in the Ti cathode
circuit, the net effect is one of cancellation, and the potential
in the cathode circuit of Ti is unaltered by the variation of
heater voltage.
6-5 Differential Input Circuit
Figure 6-6 shows a differential input circuit for an amplifier.

This circuit can be used to compare d-c voltages in such a
manner that tlie output is proportional to the difference

between the two voltages. If the actual output of a servo-
sj'stem is represented as one d-c voltage and the desired
output is represented as a second d-c voltage, then the error
signal is the difference between these two \'oltages. Therefore
the output of the circuit shown under these conditions is
proportional to the error signal.
Ideally, the output should not depend on a change that is
common to the two inputs, such as might be produced by
supply-voltage variations or other drift effects. Note that if
El should inci'ease while E2 remains constant, the change in

input voltage causes a difference in the grid-to-cathode
Output
Input Ez
Fig. t-h Differential-input circuit.
potential of the tube. This change is amplified and appears

as output across the resistor Rx. If Ex and E-i should increase
by a like amount, the grid-to-cathode potential of the tube
would remain constant. However, there would be a change
in the output voltage, since the change of cathode potential
causes a change in the effective plate voltage of the tube.
This in turn causes a change in the plate current and therefore
in the output voltage across Rx. This change appears directly
in the plate circuit of thetube and is not amplified by the
tube. Therefore this circuit is more sensitive to differences
between E\ and Ei than it is to changes in the common levêl
of the two signals. The rate of the two sensitivities is
approximately e(jual to the amplification factor of the tube.

6-6 Alternating-current Amplifiers'
If a triode tube is connected as sliown in Fig. (S-7a, the opera-

tion of the circuit can be studied. When
a small negative
voltage — thatnegative with respect to the cathode is
is, —
applied to the grid of the tube, there is a resultant change
in the electron flow within the vacuum tube. Since the
electrons are the negative charges of electricity and like
charges repel each other, the negative voltage on the grid
tends to repel the electrons emitted by the cathode and thus
(") (6)
Fig. 6-7 Triode with a small negative voltage on the grid,

(a) (b) Grid-
voltage-plate-current curve.
prevents these charges from passing through the grid to the

plate. Since the plate is exceedingh' positive with respect to
the cathode, the attraction of the plate for electrons is sufii-
cienth' strong to allow some of them to pass through the grid

and arrive at the plate in spite of the barrier presented to
them by the grid. Thus a small negative voltage applied to
the grid of a vacuum tube will reduce the electron flow from
the cathode to the plate. This indicates that the value of
plate current has also been reduced.
^ The following section on a-c amplifiers was inserted for review purposes
onh". If the student does not require the review, this section may be
eliminated without detrimental effects.
—
If the plate current in the circuit of Fig. 6-7« is measured l)y

means of meter A, while liokUng the plate voltage constant
and changing the \oltage on the grid of the tube to make it
more negative with respect to the cathode, the plate current
will vary as shown in the grid-voltage -plate-current curve in
Fig. ()-7b. This type of curve is called an Ey-Ip characteristic
curve. From this curve it can be seen that as the grid of the
tube is made more negative, less plate current will flow since
the more negative the grid of the tube, the less electrons will be
permitted to pass on to the plate. It will be noted from the
characteristic curve that if the grid is made sufficiently
negative, or in this ease — 10 \olts, the plate current falls to
zero. Thus this value of negative grid voltage has cut off the
flow of electrons within the tube. A negative d-c voltage
which is applied to the grid of
a tube to hold its plate current
flow at a given value is known
as the grid-bias voltage or,
^^ ^^ y iôvoits'^^ ^
more simply, the bias; that "
value of grid bias which will cut
off the flow of plate current in
the tube is called the cutoff bias
^''^-
^'^ '''^^' "" '''-' ^'^"'^'
for that tube. Since the plate .T""'"*'^"
OM the grid.
current m
.
a tube
, .
mcreases as
the plate voltage is increased, the bias required to cut off
plate current flow will increase as the plate voltage applied to
the tube is increased.
The triode is now connected in a circuit where an a-c signal
voltage is applied to the triode in addition to the grid-bias
voltage. The a-c signal voltage is set at 1 volt as shown in
Fig. 6-8. Since the signal source and the .5 volts of negative
bias are in series, during the positive half cycle of the a-c
signal there will be —4 volts applied to the grid with respect to
the cathode ( + — 1 o = —4). During the negative half
e\-cle of the a-c signal there will be — (5 volts on the grid of the
tube (—0 — 1 = — G). From the grid-voltage plate-current
curve shown in Fig. G-9, it can l)e seen that when there is no
signal applied to the grid of the tube, the plate current will
be fixed at 4.2 ma by the 5 volts of bias supplied by the bias
battery. When the a-c sig;nal is applied to the tube during
the positive half cj'cle, there will be —4 volts on the grid of
the tube and the plate current will increase to 6 ma. On the
negative half cycle there will be —6 volts on the grid and the
plate current will decrease to 3 ma. Thus a 1-voltpeak
signal will cause a plate cur-
rent variation of 1.8 ma on the
positive half cycle and 1.2 ma
variation on the negative half
cycle, or a total variation of 3
ma per one 1-volt a-c signal
input.
150 volts =r
Fig. 6-9 Plato-current waveform Fig. 6-10 Triodc with 3-volt bias.
with a-c grid voltage.
If the tube operated with 3 volts bias as shown in Fig.

is
6-10 and a 1-volt a-c signalis applied to the grid of the tube,
by the same method of analysis, this signal will cause a total

variation in plate current of 4 ma. For example, since the
signal source and the 3 volts negative bias are in series,
on the positive half cycle of the a-c signal there will be
— 2 volts applied to the grid with respect to the cathode
( + 1
— 3 = —2); on the negative half cycle there will be —4
volts on the grid of the tube ( — 1 — 3 = —4). From the
grid-voltage-plate-current curve shown previously in Fig.
6-11, it can be seen that when there is no a-c signal applied to
the grid of the tube the plate current will be fixed at 8 ma by
the 3 volts of bias supplied by the bias battery. During the
positive half cycle, there will be —2 volts on the grid of the
tube and the plate current will increase to 10 ma; but on the
negati\'(' half cycle tiiere will he —4 volts on tiie grid and

tlie plate current will decrease to 6 ma. Tiuis in this case
the 1-volt a-c signal will cause a total platc-cunont \-ariation
of 4 ma.
From this it can be seen
that as the negative bias volt-
age on the grid of a tube is
increased, the plate current
is decreased; and as tlie bias
on the tube is decreased,

the plate current is increased.
This method of controlling
the plate current of a tube by
varying the bias voltage is of-
ten used as a means of volume
control in a radio receiver. It
should be noted that if the
grid voltage is increased to too
Fig. 6-1 1 I'latc-current waveform
high a negative value, there is
resulting from an a-c grid voltage.
noticeable distortion of the
output plate-current wave. This is shown in Fig. 6-12. A dis-
tortion of the output is generally but not always objectionable.
Plate current
:"ffiz
(b)
Fig. 6-12 («) Distortion due to high grid l)ias. (b) Low cathode tem-
perature.
6-7 Plate Loads
In Older to make use of the variation in the plate current

of a triodo due to variations in grid-bias voltage, some sort of
??4 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
device must be present in the plate circuit of the tul)e to act
as a load. This plate load can be a resistor, an inductor
(coil), or a tuned circuit.
A typical triode circuit with a resistive load is shown in
Fig. 6-13. If the tube of this circuit is biased at —3 volts and
the applied a-c voltage to the grid is 1 volt at peak, the plate-
current variation of 4 ma will produce across a resistive load
of 10,000 ohms, a 40-volt variation. On the positive half
cycles, the negative voltage of 2
volts applied to the grid causes
a current flow of 10 ma through
the plate-load resistor and pro-
duces a voltage drop of 100 volts.
On the negative half cycles, the
negative voltage of 4 volts ap-
plied to the grid causes a current
flow of 6 ma through the plate-
Fig. 6-13 Triode using a resistor
load resistor and a corresponding
as a plate load.
voltage drop of 60 volts. The
differencebetween these two voltage drops, or 40 volts, is the
voltage variation in the plate circuit produced bj^ the a-c
voltage applied to the grid.
Thus can be seen that a signal voltage change from — 1
it
to +1, or a total change of 2 volts, can produce a voltage

change of 40 volts in the plate circuit; in other words, the
original grid-signal voltage has been amplified 20 times. This
process is the basis for all vacuum-tube amplification.
6-8 Inductive Load

The use of a resistor as a plate load of a vacuum tube has
one disadvantage in that its resistance will reduce the actual
d-c voltage applied to the plate of the tube, and in this manner
it reduces the amplification of the tube. To overcome this
loss in plate voltage, inductors are chosen to be used as plate
loads of vacuum-tube circuits. This is illustrated in Fig. 6-14.
By choosing a coil which has a high value of reactance at the
frequency of the alternating current, a large voltage will be
built up across the reactance because of the plate-current
t'haiijfes in tlic tube. Ilowcxcr, the d-c plate voltage applied

to tiie plate of liic tube will he (luite high, since the d-c
resistance of the coil may be very small, and therefore the

amplification of tiie tvibe will he increased.
Fig. 6-14 'I'liodc usiiiK a c-oil as a Fig. 6-15 Catliodc )iasiny;
plate load. ciiciiit.
6-9 Biasing Methods

There are .se\eral methods of obtaining a negative grid-bias
voltage for a triode. The simplest of these is the fi.xed bias,
where a suital)le negative voltage is obtained from a fixed

.source such as batteries or a rectifier type of power supply.
The battery type of power supply to provide bias has been
illustrated on previous triode circuits.
-V vacuum-tube circuit can be made to produce its own bias;
such a method is known as self-bias. One type of self-bias

circuit called the cathodc-return-resistor bias is shown in the
triode-amplifier circuit in Fig. 6-15. In this circuit, the plate
current from the battery flows thiough the cathode resistor
on its wa}' through the tube and returns to the battery through
the plate-load re.sistor. Since the current is flowing through
the cathode resistor, there will be a voltage drop acro.ss the
resistorwhich will make the grid negative with respect to the
cathode. This is the pioper method for biasing. Tiie con-
venience of this type of biasing is obvious, since it eliminates
the need for a separate source for this bias voltage. For this
reason, cathode biasing is used in all types of systems that
require the u.se of a tube as an a-c amplifier. Omis.sion of the
shunt capacitance, or too small a value of this capacitance,
produces degeneration as a result of the variations of giid bias
which then accompany the a-c variations of plate current.
The capacitance should have a low value of reactance at the
signal frequency to keep the cathode resistor from passing the
a-c signal as well as the d-c plate in voltage.
6-10 Triode Characteristic Curve
There are two general types of characteristic curve for

triodes. One is for a no-load condition in the plate circuit
and is called the static characteristic curve; the other is for
a loaded state in the plate circuit and is known as the dj^namic
characteristic curve. Illustration of the static characteristic
200
150
50
.state regardless of tlie plate current, whereas with a plate

load the potential across the load, and therefore the plate-to-
cathode voltage, varies with the plate current. Let us a.ssume
that the normal operating point the same for the tube with
is
or without external load; that regard the operating point as

is,
the point of intersection of the two curves of the above figure.

Without an external load, during the positive swing of signal
potential X the plate current rises bj- an amount }'. With
an external load, the increase in plate current which follows a
positive grid swing is in turn accompanied by a potential drop
across the load resistor. Therefore tiie potential across the
tube (plate-to-cathode voltage) is leduced, and the increase
Fig. 6-17 Triodc cliaractcristic curvos. (a) Without external load. (6)
With external load, (c) Corre.sponding charaeteristics.
in plate currentZ is less than it was under the no-load condi-

tion. During the negative half cycle of the signal voltage the
plate current is reduced, and the potential drop across the
load is less than it was when there was no signal applied.
Thus the voltage across the tube rises, so that the available
plate-to-cathode potential exceeds the corresponding value
under the no-load condition.
A typical set of static plate characteristics for various grid
potentials is shown Note that from this set of
in Fig. 6-18a.
static characteristics any two of the three quantities grid —
potential, plate potential, and plate current will determine —
the third. Thus, corre.sponding to a plate current of .50 ma
and a plate potential of 250 volts, the recjuired grid potential
is —18.75 volts. Let us now assume that it is desired to
obtain the.se .same relations plate current of 50 ma, plate
potential of 2r)0 volts, and tlie grid potential of —18.75
volts — with a load resistance of 1,000 ohms. This requires a
total plaic-supply potential of 250 + 1,000 X 0.05 = 300
volts, 250 volts across the tube and 50 volts across the load
resistance.
Tlie current in the resistance follows Ohm's law; that is, the
potential across the load resistance is directly proportional to
the current flowing through the resistance. This propor-
tionality can be represented by a straight lineon the current-
voltage graph illustrated in P'ig. 6-186. The line is determined
100 ^ 200 250 300

Grid potential
(«)
Fig. 6-18 (a) Pkite current versus grid potential. (6) Load line for a
triode.
by any two points on it, two convenient points being Q and C

as shown in Fig. 6-186. Q point denotes a current of 50 ma
and a voltage drop across the tube of 250 volts; 50 volts are
dropped across the load. C denotes the point at which the
tube current is zero and therefore there is zero voltage across
the load, full potential being applied to the tube. If Q is
assumed to be the normal operating point, the grid swing due

to an incoming signal voltage will cause variations along the
load line in both directions from Q. The plate current and
voltage across the load which correspond to a 15- volt grid
variation can be found by following the 15-volt characteristic
to where it intersects the load line. This means that the
swing about the Q point will vary the grid potential from
— 3.75 volts to —33.75 volts. From the curves of the charac-
ELECTRONIC AND MAGNETIC AMPLIFIERS JI9
t eristics, this yi(>l(ls 100 ma plate current and 200 volts plate
l)()tcntial and 'M)i) - 200 = 100 volts drop across the load.
The family of phite-current plate-potential curves is thus
useful determining the limitations of a paiticular tube
in
under various operating conditions. A particular tube can
be selected either to fit certain circuit constants or, vice versa,
on the ba.sis of the information contained in the vacuum-tube
characteristics.
6-1 1 Special Characteristics of Vacuum Tubes

Since many diffeient types of vacuum tubes are used in
modern electronic systems, it is important to have different
means of classifying these tubes according to the performance
that can be expected of them. Among these characteristics,
as they are called, are the amplification factor, the mutual
conductance, and the plate resistance of the tube.
AmpUficalioti Factor. The amplification factor, or /x, of a
tube is the ratio of the plate-voltage change to the grid-voltage
change required to produce the same plate-current change in
the tube. For example, if the plate voltage of a tube must
be increased 30 volts in order to increase the plate current as
much aswould a 1-volt change in grid voltage, the tube is
said to have an amplification factor of 30. The amplification
factor of a tube is stated for a given set of operating conditions,
such as grid-bias voltage, plate voltage, etc., since the ampli-

fication factor will change if the.se conditions are changed.
The amplification factor of a tube gives a theoretical approxi-
mation of the maximum voltage amplification which can be
expected from the tube under given operating conditions.
Mutual Conductance. The mutual conductance or trans-
conductance of a tube is a characteristic from which the power
sensiti\'ity can be estimated, since it determines the plate-
current change that can be expected from a given grid-voltage
change under a given set of operating conditions. Mutual
conductance or transconductance is the ratio of the small
change in plate current to the change in grid voltage producing
it. It is measured in mhos, which is simply the word ohm
spelled backward with an s added. For example, if a grid-
voltage change of 1 volt produces a plate-current clmnge of
1 amp tube under certain operating conditions, the
in a given
tube will have a mutual conductance of 1 mho. Since very
few tubes will stand a plate-current flow of 1 amp (receiving
tubes draw only a few milliamperes), it is more convenient to
rate the mutual conductance in micromhos (millionths
of a mho). Thus, if a tube has a mutual conductance of
5,000 yumhos, a 1-volt change in grid voltage will produce a
5-ma change in plate current.
Plate Resistance. The plate resistance of a tube is the
resistance between the plate and cathode of the tube to a-c
flow. It is the ratio between the change in plate voltage and
the corresponding change in plate current. For example, if
a 15-volt change in plate voltage produces a 1-ma change in
plate current, the resistance is 15,000 ohms.
6-12 Variable-^t Tubes
The amplification of a tube is controlled by varying the

bias voltage applied to the grid, but normally the range of this
control is limited by the value of cutoff bias for the tube. It
is sometimes very desirable that large values of signal voltage
can be handled by the tube. To permit this increased range
of gain control, the variable-yu tube was developed. This type
of tube is also known by several other names, two of which are
supercontrol and remote cutoff. The only difference in
construction between the variable-ju type of tube and the
normal, or sharp-cutofT, type is the spacing of the turns of the
grid. In sharp-cutoff tubes the turns of the grid wire are
equally spaced, while in remote-cutoff tubes the grid turns are
closely spaced on both ends and widely spaced in the center.
When small negative voltages are applied to the grid of a
variable-/i tube, the electrons will flow through all the spaces
of the grid. As the negative voltage is increased, however,
the electrons will no longer be able to pass through the narrow
spaces on the ends of the grid structure, but they will still
be able to pass through the relatively greater spaces at the
center of the grid. A much greater value of negative voltage
will thus be required to cut off the plate current in this type of
tube. This remote-cutoff tube is so named because the cut-

ofF-bias value is greater than (remote from) the value required
to cut off plate-current flow in tubes of evenly spaced grid

turns.
Figure 6-19 illustrates the Eg-Ip curves for a typical sharp-
cutoff pentode and a typical remote-cutoff pentode on the
same graph. Note that the cutoff bias for a tube with a
uniformly spaced grid is —6 volts. Thus the range of gain
control which can be effected by grid-bias variation and the
maximum value of signal voltage which can be applied to the
grid are both limited. But the curve for the remote-cutoff
type of tube shows that plate current flows even for a grid bias
of —24 volts. Thus by the use of a variable-^ type of tube,
both the range of gain control by grid-bias variation and the
value of signal voltage which
p/afe can be handled by the grid
Current
have been greatly increased.
Plate
\ 2,000
ohms
^100
T volts
(-A/WVWVW
5 volt
Grid poter^fio! <ô-c^
Fig. 6-19 Comparison between a Fig. 6-20 Directly lieated cathode.
sharp-cutoff and a remote-cutoff
pentode.
6-13 Directly and Indirectly Heated Cathodes

A catliodc wiiicii is in the form of a filament directly heated
by passing a current through it has the disadvantage of
introducing ripple in the plate current when alternating
current is used for heating. The ripple is most objectionable
if the plate and grid returns are made to one side of the
filament. In Fig. 0-20 the resistance /?/ r,epre.sents a filament
J22 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
which heated by applying 5 volts of alternating; current
i.s
across \\'hen no current flows through the tube, the

it.
plate is maintained at a potential of 100 volts above the point

Y on the diagram. For a 5-ma steady plate current, the
potential across the tube from Y to the plate is always
100 - 2,000(5/1,000) = 90 volts, depending upon the poten-
tial of point X
relative to point Y.
The total plate current rises and falls at the frequency of the
filament current. This condition is remedied to a large
extent bj- connecting the grid and plate returns to the elec-
trical center of the filament as illustrated in Fig. 6-21. But
even with a center-return arrangement, there is still present
-T z^ (^mr^
-J ^
+T~ /^-c input +
j
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6-21 Methods of using a-c filament supply.
a 120-cycle modulation of the plate current. This double-

frequency ripple ari.-ês from the effects on the plate current
provided by the intermittent rise and fall of the filament
temperature, the voltage drop in the filament, and the alter-
nating magnetic field set up by the filament current. Tem-
perature fluctuations in the filament are ordinarily negligible.
The magnetic field about the filament serves to deflect the
electrons from their normal paths and in effect serves to reduce
the plate current. The resulting plate current is largest
when the heating current is zero, that is, at intervals which
occur at double the heating-current frequenc}'.
With a voltage drop in the filament, the space current from
the negative half of the filament exceeds that from the positive
half because of the manner in which space current varies with
the electrostatic field across the tube. (Space potential varies
as the three-halves power of the plate potential.) The result is
that each time the current is at a maximum in either {iircction

in the fihunoiit -that is, at a freciuency which is douhh' tlie
ileal infr ficniuency the space current is shf!;htly greater than

its vahie duiinK tiiose instants when the current throusli the
fihunent is zero and the potential of the filament is uniform.
In most tubes of the type found in the receiving-tube
manual, indirect heating of cathodes is desirable. An
indirectl}' heated cathode is formed l)y a sleeve (metallic type)
closely surrounding a heated filament and electrically insu-
lated from the filament. The cathode is heated by radiation
from the filament. Such an emitter is sometimes referred to
as an ecjuipotential cathode, since all parts of it are of the
same potential.
6-14 Amplifier Output Circuit
The natureof the a-c amplifier used in servosystems does

not differ materially from that of the a-c amplifiers used for
audio signals. The point of departure between the audio-
amplifier and the servoamplifier is at the output stage. This
is to be e.xpected since the servoamplifier is intended for motor
control whereas the audioamplifier ultimately drives a loud-
speaker. The output stage of servoamplifiers will now be
discussed.
The purpose of the servoamplifier is to increase the magni-
tude of the error signal sufficiently to enable it to act as a
motor control. Therefore the output stage of the servo-
amplifier must be constructed in a manner that permits this
aim to be realized. The exact nature of the output stage
depends on the type of motor to be controlled and upon
whether velocity or position control is desired.
6-15 Direct-current-motor Position Control
Figure G-22 illustrates a circuit that can be used for position

control of a split-series d-c motor. This type of split-field
motor is discussed in detail in the following section of this
book. The coils Li and L^ represent the field coils of the
motor. Note that the current flowing in Li must pass through
tube T\. The coils Li and L-i are wound on the motor in such
a manner as to produce zero net field when the current
through Ti is equal to the current through T2. Under these
conditions, the torque developed by the motor is zero. The
tubes Ti and T2 act as rectifiers, the currents of which can be
controlled by variations of the grid bias of the tubes. Note
that the plate-supply voltage is alternating.
A d-c error signal is applied between the control grids of
Ti and T2. When the error signal is zero, the operating
conditions of Ti and T2 are identical. The same value of
plate current flows in each tube. The field in the motor set
up by Li is equal in voltage and opposite in phase to the field
set up by L2. The net field and the torque are therefore zero.
"f
ph^'sical size. Thyratrons or gas-filled tiiodes are more

efficient in both these respects.
6-16 Thyratron Control of an Alternating-current Motor
Figure 6-23 illustrates a circuit for the control of an a-c

motor. The motor used is a two-phase a-c induction motor,
the operation of which is described in Chapter 7. The two
windings are indicated as Li and L^.
The capacitor is for adjusting the phase of the voltage across
Li as compared with that of L2, as required for proper opera-
tion of this type of motor. In this system the primary' of a
standard transformer, usually stepped up in ratio, is connected
in series with the load, and the thyratron is connected directly
/ Two- phase
^ motor
Fig. ^23 Tiiynitron control of a-c motor.
across the secondary. During the portion of the cycle that T\

is forced into conduction, the alternating voltage across the
primary is small. Since Ti is in the nonconductive state,
the impedance of the primarj' of the transformer is verj' large,
and thus almost full line voltage is applied to Li of the motor
and acro.ss the capacitor to Li. The motor is rotated in the
oppo.site direction by forcing Ti into conduction and T\ out
of conduction. Note that in this system the magnitude of the
torque applied by the motor is a function of the conduction
time of the thyratrons. The conduction time of the thyra-
trons can be varied by increasing or decrea.sing the grid bias.
When large amounts of power are to be controlled, the
vacuum methods described are not efficient. The lo.sses
witliiii the tubes are high, and the equipment tends to get
}26 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
l)ulky as the power reciuirements increase. More efficient
methods for controlUng large amounts of power will now be
described.
6-17 Magnetic Amplifiers

The a-c permeability and, therefore, the inductance of
an
iron-core coil depends upon the amount magnetic flux
of d-c
present in the core material. Therefore the inductance of a
coil can be controlled by varying the d-c flux in the iron core
material. A coil operated in this manner is called a saturable
reactor. Figure 6-24 illustrates how a saturable reactor can
Fig. 6-24 Saturable reactor used for power control.
be used to control the a-c power delivered to a load. The

reactor has four terminals. The A and B terminals are used
to apply the control voltage which varies the coil inductance.
The C and D terminals are used to connect the reactor in
series with the a-c load. The voltage available from the
power source is divided between the reactor and the load. As
the voltage applied to the control terminals is varied, the
reactance between the C and D terminals varies. Therefore
the division of the available voltage changes. More voltage
is when the reactance between C and D
applied across the load
is Less voltage appears across the load when the
low.
reactance between C and D is high. This type of control has
the advantage that through its use a small amount of d-c
power can control a much larger amount of a-c power. The
ratio of a-c power controlled to d-c power required for con-
trol can be greater than 35: 1.
Figure 6-25 illustrates a simple type of saturable reactor.
Li, the d-c control winding, is on the center leg of the iron
core. The a-c \\iiKlinf>;s L> and L3 are on the two outside legs.
The a-c \vindinfi;.s are wound in a manner such tliat the a-c
flux in the center legis zero. This prevents any of the a-c
voltage from appearing across the d-c control terminals.
This method of power control can be extended to include
saturable transformers. A saturable transformer is shown
schematicallv in Fig. 6-20. Winding .4 is the d-c control
'

signal input. Therefore, under this balanced condition the
xoltage applied to the control windinp; of the two-pliase a-c
induction motor is zero. In the presence of an error signal,
the direct current in the control winding of one transformer
increases, while the current in the control winding of the other
transformer decreases. A
net voltage appears across the
control winding two-phase induction motor. The
of the
phase of this applied voltage reverses with a reversal in the
polarity of the error signal. This in turn causes a reversal in
the direction of motor rotation.
Figure 6-28 illustrates a typical circuit using saturable
transformers for the control of a two-phase a-c induction
\SR
Controlled
a-c power
output
D-c input Lood
-pJJMflM^-t—
\SR
Fig. 6-27 Basic circuit of fuil-\va\e satural)le transformer.
motor. Tx and T> are the amplifier-output tubes. The d-c

control winding L\ of transformer A is in the plate lead oi T\\
the control winding L-i of transformer B is in the plate lead of
T-i..The plate-supply voltage for Tx and T-i is supplied by
transformer 1. Note that the plate-supph- voltage is alter-
nating. Also note that the phase of the plate voltage fed to
Tx opposite to that fed to Ti-
is The error signal is a-c in
nature and can be in phase with the plate voltage of either
Tx or T-i, depending on the sense of the error.
Nointermediate phase conditions exist. Plate current
flows in Tx and T-i only during the half cycle of the plate-
supply voltage that makes the plate of the tube positive with
respect to its cathode. The magnitude of the current that
flows while the tul)e is conduc'tins depeud.s on the xahie of the

grid voltage during this period. Note that the giids of 7'i
and T-2 are connected directly to each other. The phase of

the voltage at both grids must therefore be identical. If the
error signal has the same phase as the voltage supplying 7'i
plate, the grid of T] will l)e going more positive at the same
time that the plate of 7\ is going positi\e. A large curient
Fig. 6-28 Actual circuit witli saturable reactor for control of a-c motor.
flows. On the other hand, the plate voltage of T> must be

out of phase with its grid voltage. Therefore when T2 plate
is going positive, T^ grid is going more negative and less
current flows in T^ than in Ti. The plate currents of Ti and

Ti flow in pulses, but it is the average d-c value that deter-
mines the degree of transformer saturation.
The capacitor
across the control winding is for the purpose
of smoothing out the current flow. In the above example,
transformer A becomes more highly saturated than trans-
former B. The priniaiies of the two transfoiiners are con-
iiected in series across tlie a-c power source. The available
source voltage divides between the primaries of A and B.
More voltage appears across B because of the highly saturated
condition of.4.. The secondaries of A and B are connected in
series,phase opposing. There is a net voltage applied to the
control winding of the motor because of the unbalance.
With zero error-signal input the circuit is balanced and the
voltage across the motor control winding is zero. The
potentiometer in the tube cathode circuit provides a manual
zero adjustment to compensate for unbalance in the tubes
and other circuit parameters.
6-19 Electromechanical Amplifiers
Separately Excited Generator. A d-c generator used as

illustrated in Fig. 6-29 acts as a power
amplifier. Such a
system is called a Ward Leonard drive and is described in
Chapter 7. Its action as an amplifier is as follows:
When the output of the amplifier in Fig. 6-29 is zero, no
voltage is applied to the main-field terminals of the generator.
Constant
speed
motor
Fig. 6-29 AVard Leonard drive.
In spite of the fact that the generator armature is rotated

continuously by the constant-speed a-c motor, no voltage
appears at the output terminals of the generator, A and B.
Therefore no power is supplied to the d-c motor. This d-c
motor is used to correct the output of the servosystem.
The power consumed by the system under these conditions
is the power required to rotate the constant-speed motor
when coupled to the armature of the unloaded generator.

it is
When an error signal is applied to the amphfier input, the

amplifier supplies a voltage to the main-field lerminals of the
generator. A voltage appears at terminals A and B and
power is supplied to the d-c motor. However, the power
supplied to the motor is much greater than the power supplied
by the amplifier to the generator field. The additional power
is drawn from the a-c line by the constant-speed motor.
As a result of the power supplied to the generator field, cur-
rent now fiows in the generator-armature circuit. This
armature current sets up a second field in the generator which
interacts with the main field, making the armature more
difficult to turn. The load on the constant-speed motor is
increased, and the power input to this motor goes up. There-
fore the generator-output power used to drive the d-c motor
comes mainly from the a-c line through the constant-speed
motor. Only a very small part of the power consumed by the
d-c motor must be delivered by the amplifier. This system
is much more efficient for large power requirements than are
the .systems described previously in Sec. 6-15.
QUESTIONS
1. What are the advantages of d-c amplifiers?
2. What is the purpose; of a differentia! ini)ut system?
3. Illustrate and explain the operation of a differential input circuit.
4. What effect will an increase in the negative grid voltage of a
triode have on the amount of plate-current change with a given
input?
5. Define amplification factor of a tube in terms of tube voltages.
6. Define tube resistance in terms of tube components.
7. Define mutual conductance of a vacuum tube.
8. Illustrate and explain the operation of a magnetic; type of
amplifier.
Direct-current
Servomotors
7-1 Error Correctors
Figure 7-1 illustrates a simplified servosystem. The

ultimate purpose of a servosystem is to have the load follow
the input. This may mean that the input shaft of the trans-
mitter is rotated to a new position, in which case the load
shaft should rotate correspondingly. This is known as posi-
tion control, because the load is shifted to a position relative
to the input shaft. The error signal is in this case the dif-
ference between the position of the input shaft and the position
of the output shaft, as shown in Fig. 7-1.
It may also be desired that the load rotate at a speed cor-
responding to the speed of a rotating input shaft. For
example, the system of Fig. 7-2 is in equilibrium, indicating
that the output shaft is rotating at the same speed as the
input shaft. If the speed of the input shaft is suddenly
varied, then the output shaft should instantaneously follow
the variations in speed. Here, the error signal is the difference
between the speed of the input shaft and the speed of the
132
DIRECT-CURRENT SERVOMOTORS 133
output shaft, as shown in Fig. 7-2. Tlie error signal is

determined by the error detector and is (lien fed into tlie
controller, which corrects the output shaft in such a manner
as to bring the error to zero. \\ hen the error is zero, the
controller will have no input and will therefore make no

further corrections in the output shaft. This is the desiied
frror defector
Input Amplifier Load
Fig. 7-1 Simplified servo.systpm showiiij^ position control.
condition, for it indicates that the displacement or velocity

of the output shaft is in correspondence with the input shaft.
The error corrector operates only when an error is present.
It has been shown that the output shaft of the synchro
repeater will follow an error signal. Usually, however, the
synchro repeater cannot develop sufficient torque to move the
load. The need for a larger motor is therefore indicated.
This motor is called a servomotor.
Amplifier Motor
Fig. 7-2 Simplified servosystem showing s|)ee(l control.
In addition, since the output of the error detector is small in

magnitude, it is necessary to amplify the error signal to a
value that will enable it to operate the servomotor. The
combination of .servomotor and amplifier comprises the con-
troller or error-corrector unit.
It is de.sirable that the servomotor l)e of a varial)!e-spee(l
J34 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
and variable-torciuc type, one in which the speed or torque
can be externally controlled. The speed of a d-c motor can
easily be controlled and the torcjue or driving force developed
made proportional to the error signal. Therefore, the d-c motor
(Fig. 7-3) lends itself most easily to servomotor applications.
FIELD COILS
BRUSHES
ARMATURE
Fig. 7-3 Typit-al d-i- motor.
7-2 Direct-current Motors — Basic Principles
Whenever there is a current-carrying conductor in a mag-

netic field, there will be a force exerted on this conductor
(refer to Fig. 7-4). Current in the field windings will set up
in the pole pieces and the air gap between the pole pieces a
magnetic field in the direction shown by —>. This magnetic
field is proportional to the field current. The force exerted
on the conductor is directly proportional to the strength of
the magnetic field and the armature current. Its direction
will be as shown in Fig. 7-5a. This can also be represented by
the left-hand rule, as shown in Fig. 7-56. If the thumb, fore-
finger, and center finger are held mutually perpendicular to

each other, with the center finger pointing in the direction of
the electron flow in the conductor and the forefinger in the
direction of the magnetic field, the thumb will point in the
direction of the force. The two forces shown in Fig. 7-3
DIRECT-CURRENT SERVOMOTORS J 35
T Field excitation
Magnetic
field
Field coil
Pole
. piece
Armature conductor
Current
Commutator segments
Torgue acts in
Shaft this direction
Armature
Current
source
Fig. 7-4 l)ir(>ct-(urrent motor simplified.
Current
Force
Field
^ Field
^ Current
Force
(a) ih)
Fig. 7-5 («) R('lati()iislii|) ol field, force, and current, (h) Left-hand rule.
cause the armature conductors to rotate about the axis of

rotation. Reversal of the direction of the magnetic field by
changing the polarity of the voltage applied to the field wind-
ing,and thus the direction of the field current, would change
the direction of the force and therefore the direction of rota-
tion. A cliauKe in the direction of armature current caused

by changing the polarit.y of the armature supply voltage would
likewise change the direction of force. However, a simul-
taneous change of field and armature current will cause no
change in the direction of rotation. The direction of rotation
can therefore be changed by reversing the polarity of either
field or armature supply voltage, but not by reversing both.
The speed of the motor varies directly with the voltage
applied to the armature and inversely with the magnetic field.
That is, as the magnetic field is decreased, the speed of the

motor is If the load is light, then a small magnetic
increased.
correspond to a great speed, which would damage
field will
the motor unless some means such as damping were taken to
prevent runaway of the motor. Of course, the motoi- itself
is more complicated than the one shown in Fig. 7-3, but the
basic principles are the same.
7-3 Field-current Control
Direct-current motors may have one or more field windings,

depending on the particular application. A single field
winding as shown in Fig. 7-6 is es-
pecially adaptable for speed control.
-=- The variation of field supply volt-
age will cause a variation of motor
p. -,.„•, ^ ,
, • , speed from a minimum value to
Fig. 7-6 bingle-held wind-
very high speeds. Ihe mmimum
speed is determined by the resistance
of the fieldwinding and the field supply voltage. Since the
speed varies inversely with the magnetic field, the minimum
speed corresponds to the maximum magnetic field, or the
maximum field voltage permissible. The armature supply
voltage should be constant so that there is a direct relationship
between and speed. If the motor is to be used for
field
position control as shown in Fig. 7-7, then at zero error signal
there should be no driving force. In this case, the error signal
would be applied to the amplifier unit, and the amplified error
signal would be applied to the field winding. As the error
—
diminishes, the magnetic field and thus the force decreases. —
DIRECT-CURRENT SERVOMOTORS ) 37
'Load
—^
In addition, the split-field winding adapts itself readily for
position control as shown in Fig. 7-10. Here, if the fields
are made to oppose one another, the driving force will be
zero when the two opposing fields are equal. This would
correspond to zero signal error. An error signal would cause
unbalance in one direction or the other and thus cause the
power
input
Fig. 7-10 Position control using split fiek
rotor to move in a correcting manner. Once again the motor

must be damped or geared to a heavy load.
7-5 Armature Control

The speed of the servomotor may be controlled also by vary-
ing the voltage applied to the armature, since the speed is
directly proportional to the armature voltage. In such a case,

the field would be maintained
constant. As shown in Fig.
7-11, one method would be
to insert resistance in series
with the armature. Then
the drop in voltage across the
Fig. 7-1 1 Armature control.
arma-
resistance due to the
ture current flowing through the would also
resistance
decrease the voltage applied to the armature and thereby
decrease the speed. Such a method, however, is costly
because of the large power loss in the resistance. In addition,
the speed regulation is poor. That is, a relatively small
—
change in load such as a drop in wind velocity on a radar
—
antenna would cause a drop in armature current, since less
DIRECT-CURRENT SERVOMOTORS 7 39
(Irivinp; force need be developed. Tliis drop in arniatiiro

current would lessen the voltajê drop across the resistance
and thus increase the voltajê applied to the armature itself.
The increase in armature voltafj;e would cause the motor to
speed up, which is desirable in a constant-speed application.
The insertion of resistance in the armature circuit is, however,
a method which may be used to slow a motor in case of emer-
gency, when better means are unavailable.
A much better method for armature control of speed would
be to control the armature supply voltage. This method
would control the speed from zero to any maximum value.
Numerous methods have been developed to control the
—
armature supply voltage among them, the Ward Leonard
system, amplidynes, and other electronic means.
7-6 Direct-current Motor Drives

An example of the Ward Leonard system is shown in Fig.
7-12. In this system a generator is used to supply armature
1
J
Fig. 7-12 U'linl I^coiiard system.
voltage to the motor. The voltage output of the generator is

proportional to the speed of the armature of the generator
and the magnitude of the magnetic field in the generator.
The armature of the generator is driven by a constant-speed
motor, thereby making the generator voltage directly propor-
tional to the field of the generator. By varying the field
current of the generator, the output voltage of the generator,
which is the voltage applied to the armature of the servo-
motor, may be varied from zero to a maximum value. The
UO SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
direction of lotation of tiio servomotor may be changed by
changiiifj; the direction of generated field current, which in
turn changes the polarity of the generated voltage. As shown
in Fig. 7-13, the voltage applied to the generator field can be a
function of the error signal.
1
J
Dn'fer motor
for generator
Fig. 7-13 Ward Leonard servosystcm.
Exciter nôfor
Prime mover for
exciter and generator
Fig. 7-14 Ward Leonard system with exciter.
A more sensitive Ward Leonard system uses a small exciter

to supply the voltage to the field of the generator as illustrated
in Fig. 7-14. The exciter is a small generator and its armature
ison the same shaft as the armature of the main generator.
Here there is a small change in the field current and, cor-
respondingly, a very large change in the armature voltage of
the servomotor. The Ward Leonard system acts as an
amplifier.
7-7 Amplidyne
A .sy.stein similar to the Ward Leonard system, except for the
fact that it is the amplidyne
uses a special type of generator,
system. The between the amplidyne
principal difference
and the ordinary generator is that the field of the amplidyne
requires a much smaller amount of control power for the
same value of output power. Figure 7-15 shows the magnetic
Cross-magnetizing field
Fig. 7-15 (rt) .Magnetic fields in a conventional li-c {Generator. (6)

liciuivalent circuit.
fields in a conventional d-c generator supplying a load current

of 100 amp. The field current required to create the neces-
sary excitation flux may
be in the neighborhood of 5 amp.
Because the diawings, there is a
of this flux, lal)eled
(/>« in
south pole in the machine frame at the left and a north pole
in the frame at the right. Since the armature current of
100 amp also flows through turns of wire on an iron core, the
armature itself becomes an electromagnet. Magnetic flux is
shown in I''ig. 7-15 by the flux loops labehMl 0,,. If the direc-
tion of the current in the aiinatui-e conductors is considered,
it is evident that tlie armature reaction flux is at right angles

to the excitation flux, as in Fig. 7-15.
If the external load is removed from the armature circuit
and a short circuit is connected across the brushes as shown in

Fig. 7-16, the excitation, or control-field, current must be
reduced greatly to prevent damage to the generator because
of excessive armature current. The only resistance in the
'
' 100 amp
(b)
Fig. 7-16 (a) Magnetic fields in a short-circuited d-c generator. (6)
Equivalent circuit.
armature circuit in this case is that of the armature con-

ductors, the brushes, and the short-circuit connection.
Therefore, only a very small voltage need be induced in the
armature to produce 100 amp in the armature circuit, and the
control-field currentmust be reduced from 5 amp to perhaps
J.^0 amp.Figure 7-16 shows the magnetic fields set up in a
short-circuited d-c generator. If the armature current is
limited to 100 amp by reducing the control field, the magni-

tude and direction of the armature reaction flux are the same
as in the loaded generator of Fig. 7-15, but the control flux is
verv small. The currents that flow in the armature conduc-
tors because of tlie short {'ircuit are such tliat th(> armature
reaction fiux remains fixed in space, just as if tlie armature
were a stationary coil with its axis at rijijht an^los to tlie axis
of the control-field winding.
Since the armature conductors are iuiif()rml\' distrihuled
about the armature, it is evident tliat some of these conduclors
100 amp
(a)
ilowiiis thiouf^h tlie bhort-ciicuited path. Since the control-
field flux has to build up to only a low value and since the
resistance of the short-circuited armature is very small, full
load current may

be obtained in an exceptionally short time.
In this way, changes in the control-field current are amplified
almost instantaneously by the amplidyne.
Compensating
© winding
i.iâin field
Compensating winding
(b)
Fig. 7-18 (a) Addition of compensating winding to single-cycle d-c

generator. (6) Equivalent circuit.
The direction of the load current is such, however, that it

produces a second armature reaction flux in Fig. 7-17,
<\>\,
which is at right angles to the short-circuited armature

reaction 0a and in direct opposition to the original control
flux. The armature reaction flux of the load will be much
greater than the control flux and will prevent the control-field
current from controlling the output. It is very important
that the small control flux should not be aiTected by the
armature reaction if it is to retain control over the output.
Therefore, a series compensating winding through which the
load current flows is wound around the control-field poles.

The number of turns in this winding is usuallj' adjusted so
that the compensating flux in Fijj;. 7-1 S exactly cancels the
armature reaction flux of the load for all values of load cur-
rent in the operating range.
Compensating flux, rf^ ,Confrol flux
In this case the effective mag-
netic fields are as shown in
Fig. 7-19.
Since any residual magnet-
ism along the axis of the con-
trol field would have a great
effect on the amplidyne out-
put, it is necessary to demag-
Control flux
netize the core material. This or d-c
demagnetization is accom- 0.05
plishedby attaching an Alnico "^^
magnet to the end of the arma-

ture. The magnet revolves
within a separate field wind-
ing and generates a small a-c Fig. 7-19 IM'iVctivc niiignetic field
in aniplidyiic.
x'oltage which is applied to
two sets of opposed windings on the field poles as shown in Fig.
7-20. Thus the generated alternating current neutralizes any
residual magnetism when the control-field current is zero.
'-vaMiL/-' kMftii^ KsiSiSiSiMJ' ysismsiSLr-^
Fig. 7-20 Dcinagnotization windiiig.s for aniplidyiic generator.
It may be noted that the production of the short-circuited

current and its associated armature reaction fhix by a small
control field represents the first stage of amplification, whicii
can be regarded principally as current amplification. The use
of this large current and the flux it produces to
induce sufli-
cieut v()ltafi;e to drive an e(iually larse current through the
external load eircuit represents the second stage, which can he
regarded essentially as voltage amplification. The com-
pensating winding, in addition, can he regarded as a feedhack
circuit, where exact compensation corresponds to zero feed-
back. The power gain of an amplidyne may range from
3,000 to 10,000, and perhaps higher in certain machines. This
is in contrast to the gain of ordinary generators which will
likel}' range from 25 to 100.
The amplidyne drive as commonly used consists of the

basic system shown in Fig. 7-21. Note that the symbol used
Fig. 7-21 Basic amplidyne drive.
for the amplidyne genei'ator is similar to that of the conven-

tional except that an extra set of brushes
d-c generator,
connected by a curved shorting bar has been added. The
amplidyne generator is ordinarily driven by an a-c motor
since a-c motors are essentially constant-speed motors. The
control field is shown as a split winding because it is common
to supply the field by means of a control amplifier having
separate outputs for each polarity of the applied error signal.
The series compensating windings are usually omitted from
schematic drawings to avoid complications. The field of the
d-c motor can be supplied by a rectifier.
7-8 Thyratrons
A third control system makes use of one or more thyra-

trons, which are gas-filled triodes. A briefreview of the
essentials of thyratron operation is presented below.
A thyratron is a three-electrode tube filled with argon gas or
merciHT vapor. It is in effect an electronic switch. The

structure of a typical thyratron is shown in Fig. 7-22. When
the plate-to-cathode voltage reaches a certain value known as
the firing potential, the gas ionizes and the tube conducts.
For plate voltages less than the firing potential, no current
flows and the plate circuit of the tube acts like an open circuit;
ANODE INSULATOR
SHIELD GRID
HEATER
CONTROL GRID CATHODE
BASE-PIN-TO-
CATHODE CONNECTION
Mi
Fig. 7-22 'rhyratron structuro. {Radio Corii. of America.)
for plate voltages greater than the firing potential it acts as a

very low resistance. The grid-to-cathode voltage controls the
value of the firing potential. For example, if tlu; grid is
made slightly positive with respect to the cathode, a smaller
plate voltage is recjuired to cause the tube to conduct. Once
plate current starts flowing, however, the grid voltage has no
further control. The plate current continues flowing until
the plate voltage is reduced to the extinction voltage, a
M8 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
considerably lower value than the firing potential. Thus,
the thyratron acts as an electrical switch, which may be made
to close when a small positive voltage is applied to the grid
and to remain closed until the plate voltage is greatly reduced.
7-9 Basic Thyratron Motor Drive

Thyratrons arc most commonly used with an a-c supply as
shown in Fig. 7-23. When a thyratron is operated on alter-
nating voltage, the tube is extinguished near the end of the
m
A graph of applied a-c voltage and critical grid voltage

versus time is shown in Fig. 7-24. The solid curve rep-
resents the sinusoidal applied voltage \' ,, in the circuit and is
equal to the instantaneous plate voltage up to the time of

firing. The other curve represents the instantaneous grid
voltage. Again, under the assumption that no grid cur-
rent flows previous to firing, the grid voltage Cg is ecjual to
Vg up to the instant of firing. The dotted curve indicates the
critical grid voltage at which the tube would fire at the
instantaneous plate voltage I'p. The critical-grid-voltage
curve can be derived from the grid-control characteristics by
plotting values of critical grid voltage corresponding to the
Âpplied plate voltage
/^ ^\ Critical grid bios below which tube

f \ / .cannot conduct
P\ Mmmum plate voltage to

^•^ _-'^ V maintain /lontzation
\ 7 Grid bias
Tube cannot conduct
on negative ^
cycle
Fig. 7-24 ("ritical urid voltaic and plate voltaîc versus time.
plate voltage at various instants of the cycle as illustrated in

Fig. 7-25. The tube fires at the instant in the cycle when the
grid voltage is less negative than the critical grid voltage.
The plate voltage then becomes equal to the tube voltage
drop. The instant in the time cycle at which the tube fires is
determined by the intersection of the applied-grid-voltage

curve and the curve of critical grid voltage.
In reference to Fig. 7-23, the value assumed for Cg is as
shown in Fig. 7-26. The tube fires at the point indicated in
the diagram. The crosshatched portion is voltage applied to
the motor. The shaded portion is the voltage drop across the
tube, which is constant during conduction. The average
value, which is ecjuivalent to the d-c value, of the voltage
applied to the motor is proportional to the crosshatched area.
By causing the tube to conduct earlier, the d-c voltage applied
to the motor will therefore be greater. The least d-c value
J 50 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
Fig. 7-25 Construction of critical-grid-voltago curve.
Non -conducting
'Applied voltage
Fiq. 7-26 Firina; of thvratrons with direct current on grid.

outside of zero, however, would be ccjuivalcut to Cg just beius

equal to the most negative critical value of grid voltage. As
can be seen, thisnot a sensitive method of control. A moie
is
sensitive method would be one in which the grid

of control
voltage cut the critical-grid-voltage curve more sharply.
This could be done by superimposing an a-c voltage on the
some sort of trigger circuit. However, this system is not
always feasible. Pulse operation is illustrated in Fig. 7-28.
7-10 Application
The thyratron drive can be used for either position control

or speed control. For reversible section, two thyratrons are
used, so that current will flow through the motor in either
Fig. 7-28 Pulse operation of thyratron.
direction. For example, the error may be used as a d-c signal

on the grids of the thyratrons, as shown in Fig. 7-29. In this
case, the error adds a positive voltage to the grid of Ti and
a negative voltage to the grid of T^. Ti, therefore, will not
conduct and Ti will fire. Since electron current flows from
cathode to plate, electron current will flow from Zj, to a in
the armature of the motor. The amount of voltage applied
to the motor depends upon how positive the error signal
applied to the grid of Ti is. Reversing the polaritj' of the
error signal applied to the grids will cause T-2 instead of Ti to
conduct, and current will then flow thiouf^h llie motor from
a to b. Since the kept constant, ohanfîng the direction
field is
of armature current in the motor will change the direction of

rotation of the motor. The regular d-c voltage to the grid is
adjusted so that neither tube conducts when there is no error
signal. Since the plates of Ti and T2 become alternately
positive with respect to the cathode on alternate half cycles
of the input, it is imperative that both grids are not sufficiently
positive to fire both tubes since the armature would then be
Fig. 7-29 l>ror-signal control of thyratrons.
subjected to alternating current, and serious damage to the

motor would occur.
QUESTIONS
1. Using a diagram, explain the operation of a d-c motor.
2. Explain the ditTcrence between field-current control and arma-
ture control of d-c motors.
3. What is the advantage of a split-field winding in .servomotors?
4. Explain the operation of the amplidyne generator. Use vectors

to show the fields existing within the machine in your explanation.
5. Explain the operation of a thyratron.
6. What is the .significance of the critical grid-voltage plate-voltage
curve?
7. What methods can be used to control thyratron operation?
8. How would you use thyratron drive systems for position control?
8
Alternating-current
Servomotors
8-1 Alternating-current Motors
Since the servomotor should be of variable-speed type,

most a-c motors will not fill the requirements for a servomotor.
However, a two-phase servomotor with a high resistance
rotor does have torque-speed characteristics similar to those
required for most applications of servomotors. Normally
the two-phase induction motor is essentially a constant-speed
motor, though the motor may be either the squirrel-cage type
or the wound-rotor type, with the rotor short-circuited.
The squirrel-cage type is shown in Fig. 8-1 and consists of
copper or aluminum bars put into slots in the rotor stack.
The ends of the bars are joined by copper rings. In the
wound-rotor type, the rotor has a conventional winding, and
the leads are brought out to slip rings. Brushes riding on the
slip rings are shorted externally. If it so desired, the charac-
teristics of the induction motor can be changed by placing a

resistance instead of a short circuit between the brushes.
Induction generators are shown in Fig. 8-2.
154
ALTERNATING-CURRENT SERVOMOTORS J 55
When two phases are appHed to the stator wiiuliuj^s of the

induction motor, there is set up in the motor a revolving
magnetic field. Tiie magnetic field rotates about the stator
at a constant speed called synchronous speed. This speed
depends upon the way the stator is wound and the frequency
applied to the motor. For an example, refer to Fig. 8-3. If
it is assumed that the xoltauc appliccl to phase ti is positive,
Fig. 8-1 IntiTiial cuii.strui-tiuu of .•sciuiiicl-ca.gc scrvomutor. {Diehl Manu-

facturing Company.)
Fig. 8-2 liidtutioii ji,ciiciati)i>. \ KoHsiikui 1 itdrttnu nl Corp.)
electron current will flow out of the paper in a', the return
conductor. The same assumption will hold for phase b.
About any current-carrying conductor a magnetic field is set

up. The direction of the field is illustrated in Fig. 8-4 accord-
ing to the direction of current. If two conductors are in
parallel, as illustrated in Fig. 8-5a, and if it is assumed that the
current is coming out of the paper, the field cancels in the

center and adds on the outside, as shown in I'ig. S-5fc. The
o b
Phase
voltages
Time
6
bo Ob
9
/ Stator
conductors
Fig. 8-3 Phase voltages ajjplicd to stator of induction motor.
Fig. 8-4 Magnetic field of current-carrying conductor.
Resultant field-
0W (a) {h)
Fig. 8-5 (a) Two conductors in parallel. (6) Field addition and sub-
traction in parallel conduc-tors.
direction of the field is always taken from a north pole to a

south pole in an air gap.
As can be seen in Fig. 8-6, a field is set up which rotates in
space. This rotating field then cuts the rotor conductors
and generates a voltage in the conductors. Since the rotor
conductors are shorted, current will flow. Now, there is a
ALTERNATING-CURRENT SERVOMOTORS 157
current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field, and a force
will be exerted on this conductor. This force will be in such

a direction as to cause the rotor to rotate in the same direction
as the rotating field. However, the rotor can never rotate
as fast as the rotating field; for if it did, there would be no
cutting of the rotating field by the rotor conductors, no gener-
ated voltage in the conductors, no current in the conductors,
Fig. 8-6 Hotutiiif;; maffiictic fields.
and therefore no force on the conductors. Thus the rotor

must always go more slowly than synchronous speed. The
difference between synchronous speed and actual rotor speed
is called slip speed. The ratio of slip .speed to synchronous
speed is called slip or, as a percentage, per cent slip.
The torque developed by the induction motor is propor-
tional to each of the phase voltages. It is also proportional
to the sine of the angle with which one of the phases lags the
other. This makes the induction motor particularly suited
for position control. A standard voltage may be applied to
one phase of the motor and the error voltage applied to the
other phase. Changing the polarity of one phase reverses
the direction of rotation of the synchronous field and therefore
the direction of rotation of the motor.
The induction motor can be used as a phase-sensitive device
or an amplitude-sensitive device or both. That is, torque
developed can be proportional to either the phase angle of the
error or the amplitude of the error or to both. An error will
produce a torque in the proper direction, causing the motor to
tuin the load in such a direction as to reduce the error to
Transducer
Fig. 8-7 :Ser\'oini'(lianism with two-phase iiuluftion motor.
zero. When the error goes to zero, there will be no further

correcting torque developed.
An example of a servomechanism using a two-phase induc-
tion motorshown in Fig. 8-7. Here, the error voltage is
is
determined by the transducer, which converts a mechanical

displacement into electrical voltage. At zero degrees, the
two coils of the transducer will be perpendicular and zero
error voltage will be produced. At any other angle, the
voltage produced will depend upon the angle. The error
voltage is then amplified and fed to one winding of the two-
phase induction motor. WTien the error is zero, there will be

no field due to this winding and, as a consequence, no torque.
A shift in the movable coil of the transducer in either direction
from that point corresponding to zero error will cause error
/l-c
supply
inside a stator which is mounted eccentrically with respect to
the motor. This eccentric mounting causes the vanes in the

rotor slots to move radially thus varying the volume in the
pump and causing a pumping action between adjacent vanes.
Vane pumps are capable of handling pressures between 1,000
and 1,500 psi.
Fig. 8-9 Gear pump. Fig. 8-10 \';inc pump.
Bo// and Tilt box^ Ti/t control arm

socket joint
Valve plafe
Cylinder block
Flexible fluid lines

Universo/
drive joint
Fig. 8-11 Hydraulic pump.
Systems for handling the highest pressures incorporate the

piston type of pump. These pumps are made to operate in
the pressure region of 1,500 to 5,000 psi. The pistons may be
either axial or radial with respect to the drive shaft. The
piston type of pump has the highest efficiency of the three
types and is also the most expensive.
A typical variable-flow type of pump is shown in Fig. 8-11.
It consists of a rotating cylindrical block having several
pistons uniformly spaced aioiind the center of the block. The

axes of the snuiU cylinders into which these pistons fit are
parallel to the axis of the cylinder block. Tiie entire assembly
is mounted in a tilt box or cylinder head in which the cvlindei'
block rotates. As tiie block turns, the small cylinder openinfj;s
pass under the inlet and outlet ports in a valve plate. The
cylinder block is driven by a drive plate through a universal
joint so that the axis of the block may be varied by an angle
of up on either side of the center line of the main
to 30 deg
drive shaft. This angle variation causes the small pistons
attached to tlie dri\e plate by ball-and-socket joints to move
in and out of the block as it lotates.
Variable flow Hydraulic

hydraulic motor
pump'
Drive
motor
To electrical
cor)trol systems
Fig. 8-12 Hydraulic drive system.
The greater the angle of the l)lock, the longer the stroke;
conversely, the shorter the angle, the shorter the stroke.
At zero angle there is no motion between the piston and the
cylinder block, and thus there is no pumping action. As the
angle of the block pas.ses through zero to the oppo.site side of
the drive-shaft center line, the po.sition of the piston varies
with respect to the inlet and outlet ports. The piston, which
was on the compression stroke of the cycle, is now on the
suction stroke. This position change results in a reversal
of the direction of the pumping operation. In most systems
the pump is operated at a constant speed, with the pumping
action dependent on the angle of tilt. Therefore a change in
the angle, usually by external means, serves to control both
the amount and direction of flow. The hydraulic motor is
similar in construction to the pump, but the cylinder block
of the motor has a fi.xed angle of tilt of approximately 30 deg
with respect to tiie drive shaft.
pump is coupled to a hydrau-

A\'hcn a varial)l('-(lisplafement
lic motor, the (•oml)i!iation is referred to as a hydraulic drive
system. An illustration of this type of system is sliovvn in
Fi^. 8-12. Any error varyiiifj; the motor speed of the drive
will regulate the magnitude and direction of flow to the fixed-
displacement oil motor which positions the output shaft of
the load.
8-4 Hydraulic Amplifiers
Control valves are used to meter the flow of liquids from

the high-pressure supply to the motor. When the valve is
Mam
51
pilot HOI
valve
ri>
Oil Main C
from- Oil - Motor

pump supply^
Relay
volve
Liner -N Amplifier
pilot valve
Fig. 8-13 Hydraulic amplifier system.
moved by means of a motor, it produces large variations in

output pressure and flow. Generally there are three types of
—
valves piston, nozzle, and jet. The piston valve can be
subdivided into an open-center and a closed-center type. A
closed-center valve system is a system which permits no flow
of oil in the neutral position and which is supplied \\ith nearly
constant oil pressure at all times. An open-center valve
system is one which allows free flow of oil from the pressure
port to the return port in the neutral position. This system
is also known as a constant-flow system. An open-center
system is inherently more gentle in operation than a closed-
center type, since the pressure increase is gradual except in

certain specific cases.
A hydraulic amplifier system is shown in Fig. 8-13. The
purpose of the liner is to ensure an exact alignment of the
amplifier pilot valve with the main pilot valve by preventing
continued movement of the amplifier pilot valve. If wo
assume that an error signal causes the piston of the main
pilot valve to rise, then oil will flow thiough the hole in the
sleeve, or liner, into the relay valve. The oil forces the
piston of the relay valve to go down. This action raises the
piston of the amplifier pilot valve and at the same time raises
the liner until the holes in it are aligned with the pistons of
the main pilot valve. Oil then ceases to flow and the entire
system comes to rest. The main oil supply now flows into
the motor, and the piston of the amplifier pilot valve is
exactly aligned with the piston of the main pilot valve. The
main pilot valve is usually a small valve attached to the rotor
of a differential.
8-5 Magnetic-clutch Servo
Another type of error controller is one which employs a

magnetic clutch. A magnetic clutch consists of two disks
placed in a cylindrical box. The two disks are separated by
an oil and powdered-iron mixture that solidifies when a
magnetic field is applied to it. The amount of solidification
depends upon the strength of the magnetic field. If one of the
disksis rotated, the other disk will rotate at a speed dependent
on the solidity of the mixture. With a maximum field, the

mixture will completely solidify and the disks will rotate at the
same speed. At zero field there will be maxinuim slippage,
and the only torcjue e.xerted on the second disk will be that
due to the viscosity of the fluid, which is relatively small.
The magnetic clutch is suitable for position control. In
such a case, two clutches are used. The first disks of the
clutches, called the stators, are on the same shaft as a con-
stant-speed-drive motor. The second disks of the two
clutches, called the rotors, will drive the load by means of a
differential arrangement. The error signal is applied to the
slip lilies and thus to the coils on the first disk. This error
signal sets up a magnetic field which solidifies the mixture
and thereby delivers torque to the rotor disk. The polarity
of the error signal determines which of the two clutches is
magnetized. An error signal of one polarity will energize one
of the clutches and drive the load in the correcting direction.
An error signal of the opposite polarity will energize the
other clutch and drive the load in the opposite direction. For
example, in Fig. 8-14 let us assume an error signal positive
with respect to ground. Then tube A will conduct and clutch
Fig. 8-14 Scrvomechanisin using magnetic clutclies.
1 will be magnetized and the load will rotate in the direction
shown. If the error signal is negative with respect to ground,

then clutch 2 will be magnetized and the load will rotate in
the opposite direction.
8-6 Gear Trains
The general purpose of a gear is to change rotational speeds

from one value to another. Since the efficiencies of gear
trains are very high and since power is equal to the product of
torque and rotational speed, the gear train will also change the
amount of torque. Since the power input is about equal to
the power output, a decrease in angular speed will result in an
increase in driving torque.
For example, in Fifj;. S-l.') let {>;ear have 100 teeth and gear
1
2 have 10 teeth. l'\)r every 10 revolutions of gear 2, gear 1

will make one revolution, and therefore gear 2 will rotate at a
speed ten times that of geai- 1. At the same time gear 1 will
deliver ten times the torciue that is being delivered by the
drive motor to gear 2. In this way, it is possible to use as a
servomotor a high-speed motor developing little torcjue and
ha\ing much less armature current in the motor. It is
#/ #^
Fig. 8-15 (iCiir tniins.
possible therefore to ha\e a mucli finer control of speed as well

as to re(iuire less copper foi- the motor, which results in smaller
power losses.
8-7 Backlash
Friction in the gearing of a servosystem is a serious problem

since most of the error results from gear friction. These
errors are a result of too-tight a gear mesh, variations in the
teeth or their spacing, or any flaws on the surface such as
nicks, dirt, or pits. Another factor affecting the error is the
type of material used in gear marmfacture. Gears made from
nylon have less friction than those made from metal. Back-
lash can be defined as the amount b\' which the spacing
between teeth exceeds the thickness of an individual engaging
tooth. In many servo.sy stems a fiaction of a degree of
backlash may cause a system to be unstable. Backlash can
be measured with a dial indicator by holding one gear fixed
and gently rocking the other. It is also possible to approxi-
mate the backlash by the same method, but without dial
measurement. Backlash is the total movement possible
between meshing teeth measured at a tangent to the pitch
circle as illustrated in Fig. 8-1(3.
^66 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
8-8 Split Gearing

sometimes used to maintain backlash at a
Split ficars are
minimum. Asear consists of two parts: a fixed gear
split
which is secured to a shaft and a free gear which is free to
rotate on the shaft. The two parts are connected by springs.
The teeth of a normal gear meshed with a split gear are
pinched between the teeth of the two parts of the split gear,
and lost motion is eliminated. \\'hen the direction of rotation
causes the teeth of the external gear to press against those of
the fixed gear, operation is the normal one of a pair of gears.
Backlash ^
Dedendum
circle
Fig. 8-16 Spur-gear nomenclature.
For rotation in the opposite direction, force is developed

between the external gear teeth and those of the free gear.
Torque is then transmitted by the springs of the split gear.
These springs must be reasonably stiff to avoid lost motion in
the system. This requirement placed upon the springs
limits the use of split gears to light-duty servos. Practically,
it is not necessary to use split gears except at the load end of
the gear trains.
8-9 Two-speed Synchro Drives

If the servosystem requires speed of follo\\'up and accuracy,
a two-speed sjstem may be devised using coarse and fine
control. In this system, the coarse positioning units have a
1 1 ratio.
: The shaft is of the driven type to avoid ambiguity,
since there are a number of different positions where fine
control may be activated. When the desired position is
ALTERNATING-CURRENT SERVOMOTORS -\67
approximately roaclKMl, tlic taken over l)y the fine

control is
control unit to establish accuracy. To accom-

tiie re(iuire(l
plish this, a voltage-amplitude sensing element can be con-

nected to the coarse unit of tiie system so that if the output
voltage increases by a gi\en amount, a relay disconnects the
fine control unit and connects the coarse unit. This unit
drives the system to approximately zero position, ^^'hen the
>\ . /-
QUESTIONS
1. n(>fiiie slip speed. CJive the eciiiatioii for per cent slip.
2. I^xplaiii tlie operation of an a-c motor.
3. E.xplaiii the difference between a split-phase motor and an a-c
motor.
4. List the three types of pressure pumps.
5. Explain the operation of any one of these types.
6. What is the purpose of a hydraulic amplifier?
7. List the three types of hydraulic amplifiers.
8. What is the purpose of a gear?
9. In Fig. 8-15 gear 1 has 85 teeth, and gear 2 has 17 teeth. If
gear 1 hasmade three revolutions, how many revolutions has

gear 2 made?
10. Define backlash. Give one method for determining the amount
of backlash in the system.
Performance
Improvers
9-1 Introduction
Although the basic components of all servosystems are

essentially the same, the refinements depend upon the per-
formance requirements of the servosystem. In all servo-
systems, it is desirable that the performance result in zero
error and that the speed of response be as fast as possible.
Feedback control or closed-loop operation makes for accurate
performance since the control system endeavors continually
to correct any error that exists. However, this corrective
action can cause the dangerous condition of unstable operation
when used with control elements having large amplification
and sufficient time lags in their response. An unstable
control system is one that no longer maintains zero error but
instead causes large variations or sustained oscillations of the
output. Furthermore, it is necessary not only that the
system can be stable ))ut also that the system have an ade-
quate margin of stability and recover rapidly and smoothly
from the shocks of irregular inputs. This necessity of rapid
169
recovery will be discussed under dynamic or transient
response.
The refiuirements of accuracy and speed of response are
not independent of the requirements of stability. To be
accurate, if a system requires high amplification, the time in
which corrective action takes place should be decreased.
\Miereas time delay in a low-gain system may have negligible
effects on system performance, it can have an appreciable
effect on a system with high amplification. After corrective
action has been instituted in a servosystem, the time delay
of the system may prevent stopping of the corrective action
in time to avoid overshooting the desired position of the load.
If the overshoot is very large —
larger, for instance, than the
—
action which initiated the control action then the continua-
tion of corrective action will build up sustained oscillations.
Therefore, it is seen that attempts at improving accuracy may
cause instability or that providing a "safe" margin of stability
may decrease accuracy unless additional methods are used.
As has been pointed out, the inherent time delays of the
it
system cause the instability. Thus, by anticipating the

overshoots and compensating for them, it is pos.sible to obtain
a high-gain system with satisfactory stability. This section is
devoted to those circuits and elements which will anticipate
the overshoot and compensate for the inherent time delays
of the servosystem.
9-2 Antihunt Control
When the input of a position-control servosystem is sud-

denly rotated a certain number of degrees, it is desired that
the output shaft rotate the same number of degrees and come
to rest in as short a period of time as possible. If there were
no friction in the system, the load would never come to rest.

For example, let us consider a load of large moment of inertia
and very little friction. suddenly moved in a certain
It is
direction with the object that the load move a given distance
and no further. Since the load has a large moment of
inertia, once in motion it will tend to remain in motion. Since
there is very little opposing force due to friction, the load
PERFORMANCE IMPROVERS 171
will overshoot the maik and have to he collected hy the

servosystein.
If there is sufficient time delay in the circuit, sustained or
violent oscillations will probably occui'. At best, the load
will have a damped oscillation. On the other hand, if there
were considerable friction in the load, the load would not tend
to overshoot the desif>;nate(l position, since the opposing force
due to friction would nullify the effects of the inertia of the
load. However, with considerable friction in the system, the
load would take a relatively long time to reach its fixed posi-
tion (see Note 2 as an example of the effect of friction).
Consider the proportional-control servo shown in Fig. 9-1.
Fig. 9-1 I'roportioiial-i'oiitriil scrNosystcin.
This system is a propoitional-contiol unit l)ecause the cor-

recting torque is directly proportional to the error.
The damping factor is defined as
/; = /
2VkJ
where J = polar moment of inertia of load
/ = coefficient of viscous friction of load

k = proportionality constant
Note 1 : A- is a measure of the sensitivity or stiffness of control and is
usually measured in pound-feet per radian.

Note 2: The coefficient of viscoun friction is tlic ratio of friction force
to unit speed, or
F =fv
where F = friction force
V = velocity (translational motion)
/ = friction coefficient
For rotatioiKil motion
T=/co
where T = friction tortjue
w = iuifûhir velocity
/ = new friction coefficient
Coulomb friction is the condition existing where the friction force
is independent of the speed.
Static friction is the condition present between two soUd bodies at
rest where a certain minimum force must be appUed to start the
motion of one body against the other. Only viscous friction will be
considered in most of the applications discussed in this book.
It is seen that D is directly proportional to the coefficient of

friction. Then for a sudden displacement of the input shaft,
r/me — »- f/me-
Unit step input
Fig. 9-2 Response of proportional-control system to a sudden displace-

ment of input shaft.
the output shaft will follow in the manner shown in Fig. 9-2,
varying with the value of D or the amount of friction in the
load. The value of D equal to 1 gives rise to the critically
damped case, that is, the minimum value of / without over-
shoot. Any value of D greater than 1 gives rise to the over-
damped case, and values of D less than 1 give rise to the
underdamped case where overshooting occurs.
Referring to the graph of Fig. 9-2, note that the under-
damped cases of Z) = 0.6 or 0.8 give faster response than the
critically damped and the overdamped cases. Therefore, if a
slight overshoot is permitted — and it usually is — then the
underdamped case of D = 0.6 would be a desirable one, since
the system responds to it most rapidly. It is evident that a
certain amount of friction or damping should be present in the
system to prevent hunting or repeated overshooting yet there ;
should not be too much friction. Tlie friction in the sy.stem

may he introchiced in a number of ways: (1) by mechanical
friction devices such as dashpots, friction disks, etc., linked to
the output member and adjustable by mechanical means;
(2) by electromagnetic friction devices such as eddy-current
dampers which consist of a metal disk rotating? in a magnetic
held; (3) by using a servomotor that has the characteristic of
viscous friction; or (4) by insertion of an electric circuit wliich
will have the same effect.
9-3 Mechanical Friction Devices
An example of a mechanical friction device is illustrated in

Fig. 9-3. The action of the dashpot is to produce a reaction
Lme to maintain
constant pressure
VZZZZZZZZZZZZZZlt
r'Y^W'^
Support for
Movable
/ Fixed piston with piston
cylinder small orifices
Fig. 9-3 The dashpot.
force proportional to the speed of motion of the movable

cylinder - that is, the speed with which oil or fluid is being
forced through the orifices as the pressure on both sides of the
piston tries to remain eciual. The load is linked to the
movable cylinder. If the cylinder tends to move too rapidly,
the oil will not have time to flow through the orifices and will
thus maintain a large pressure differential across the piston,
which in turn restrains the motion of the cylinder. In this
manner, the speed of the moving cylinder is limited.
9-4 Electromechanical System
Auxiluirtj Dcriccs. As was previously stated, one method

of intioducing damping is through the use of an eddy-current
(lampei-. in this method an aluniiiiuin disk or cxlinder is
linked to the load. This cylinder is the rotor of a small motor
in which the magnetic field is produced by a direct current in
tlie motor tield winding. If we refer to f'ig. 9-4, the cylin(l(M-
may be thought of as a number of conductors in parallel.
Since the cylinder is rotating in a constant magnetic field,
voltage is induced in the cylinder and causes current to flow-
as shown. The current comes out of the paper opposite the
north poles and goes into the paper opposite the south poles,
rotation
^^^
Direction of
^^ c
^^\^flo^v producing a clock-
Cylinder
/ wise direction of rotation.
There is now a current-car-
rying conductor in a mag-
netic field, however, and
there will be a force exerted
on this conductor. The
Winding-
-Stator
Rotor-
Winding
^-pr
Fig. 9-4 Electromechanical damping. Fig. 9-5 Electromagnetic
damper.
force produces a torque in the counterclockwise direction by the

right-hand rule. This tortjue is an opposing torque and gives
the appearance of viscous friction since it is directly propor-
tional to current flowing in the cylinder, which in turn is
directly proportional to the speed of the cylinder. The

opposing torque can be adjusted by changing the amount of
direct current in the field and further increasing or decreasing
the opposing current in the cylinder.
Another electromechanical system is one similar to the
magnetic clutch explained previously. In this system there
is a fixed stator, and the rotor is linked to the output shaft as
illu.strated in Fig. 9-5. Between the rotor and stator is a
solution ofpowdered iron in oil. When a magnetic field is
—
impressed on this solution by causing current to flow through
windings, for example — the solution will solidify. The extent

of solidifieation is proportional to the stren}j;th of the mafiiietic
field. Partial solidifieation inereases the friction between the
rotorand stator of the magnetic brake; complete solidification
would cause the rotor to
stop. MotorJor£ue_
L
Inherent Motor Character-

istic. The characteristic of
Retarding torque
viscous friction is that as the %
due to friction
speed is increased, the re- ^5
tarding torque due to friction Resultant

driving torque
is increased, thereby tending
to reduce the net driving
^
torque. The resultant driv- Speed^*-
ing torcjue, efjual to the Fig. 9-6 Tvi)ic:il toniuc-spced c-liar-
motor minus the re-

tor(}ue acteristic.
tarding torque due to viscous

friction, will decrease linearly with increases in speed as
illustrated in Fig. 9-6.Instead of using a damping circuit to
produce the typical resultant torque-speed characteristic of a
viscously damped system, a servomotor that has an inherent
Increasing
voltage
Speed —*- Speed

Fig. 9-7 T()r(iii('-s])C('(l curves for Fig. 9-8 I'ainily of curves (toniue-
iiuiuctioii motor. Hi)ee(l) for a two-phase induction
motor.
performance characteristic that produces the same result

may be used. The recjuired properties aic found in particular
ill induction motors. The output torcjue-speed cuix'e for an
induction motoi- with constant applied voltage is shown in
Fig. 9-7. Curve 1 .shows the characteristic of a motor with a
low-resistance rotor. Curve 2 shows the an
characteristic of
induction motor with a high-resistance rotor. A servo-
control system using an induction motor that has a high-
resistance rotor obviates the need for a friction damper. The
family of curves for a two-phase induction motor with one
variable-voltage phase winding is shown in Fig. 9-8. This
motor has a high-resistance rotor.
9-5 Electrical Networks

Previously, stabilization was shown to be obtainable
through viscous damping. The output torque was a function
d£
dOo
dn +
'0^ dt
Fig. 9-9 Output-rate-damped servomechanism diagram.
of the error,and the torque was inversely proportional to the

speed. Let us consider a position-control system in which
the input has been changed instantaneously. The error is
equal to the input minus the output angle. Since the time
rate of change of input (after it has been changed) is zero, the
time rate of change of error is equal to the negative of the
time rate of change of output. Mathematically it can be
expressed as
z — Qi — do
dt _ _ ddo
di
~ m
Consider the system shown in Fig. 9-9. The symbol used
to denote the time rate of change For example, the
is d/dt.
time rate of change of error is dt/dt. Thus the resultant

torque equals the algebraic sum of two torques, the damping
torque and the error-rate-of-change torque. The constant
PERFORMANCE IMPROVERS M7
used in error-rate-of-change torque will l)e A, which is defined
as a toicjue per unit of error rate, or so many foot-pounds per
unit radian per second. Since tiie error rate of chanjj;e is
equal to the negative of the time rate of change of the output,

the resultant torque is proportional to the time rate of change
of the output, which is defined as the speed of the output.
Therefore, the .system has the same effect as that of an induc-
tion motor output torque is some function minus
in that the
a retarding force proportional to the output .speed. This time
rate of change may be arrived at in several ways. One
method is illustrated in Fig. 9-10. The output voltage of the
Amplifier
Synchro Synchro
ond
tronsmitter tronsformer
motor
Tachometer
generator
Fig. 9-10 <)utput-rate-(lainj)i'(l scr\omochanisin.
tachometer generator is directly proportional to the speed of

the rotor of the generator. If the rotor is geared to the output
shaft, theoutput voltage of the generator is then proportional
to the speed of the output shaft. The output of the synchro
control transformer is the error voltage. Thus the torque is
equal to k times the error minus L times the rate of change of
the output with respect to time.
The fact that introduction of rate of change of the output
increases the damping may be seen in the illustration, since
the output torque must equal the torcjue taken by the load
plus the product of the coefficient of friction and the angular
speed of the load.
Instead of a tachometer generator, a so-called differentiat-
ing circuitmay be inserted in the error-voltage channel to
produce an error rate of voltage. Such a network is often
preferred to the generator since it has no moving parts and is
easy to coiustruct. The circuit i.s illustrated in Fig. 9-11.
Note that the capacitor C connected across R charged to is
the level of the difference in potential produced between the

terminals of this resistor l)y the current flowing in the circuit
R-Ri and that plays no part in the process as long as the
it
error does not vary. However, if the error changes to another

value, the current variation produces in turn proportional
variations of the voltage drops
across the resistors R and R\ re-
spectively. As the voltage across
R varies, the charge on C must
vary accordingly, since the capaci-
tor voltage must at all times be
equal to the voltage across R.
Differentiatinu; cir- rrn , ,
•
i-, i
the resultmg criarge or discharge
current is proportional to the rate
of charge of the capacitor voltage; therefore, it is proportional
also to the rate of charge of the error.
9-6 System Accuracy

For purposes of comparison, the characteristics of a servo-
mechanism are spoken of in the following terms:
1. Its error under steady-state conditions of sinusoidally
varying inputs.
2. Its error during a transient or following a sudden dis-
turbance of input.
An example of the steady-state condition can be shown by
the control of the rotation of a radar antenna. This control is
operated to transmit a signal which will require the antenna
to swing around at a certain rate or to rotate back and forth
periodically. If the input signal calls for a constant angular
velocity, a misalignment between the antenna direction
desired by the input signal and the actual mount direction is
said to be an error in position caused by the constant-velocity
operation. This error is said to be the steady-state velocity
error and is illustrated in Fig. 9-12. Transient or dynamic
errors occur whenever the system is called upon to correct for
a sudden variation in the input. Immediately following the

sudden change in the input, a dynamic error exists while the
control tends to erase the error. Performance considerations
require that the error be corrected in aminimum of time, and
the dynamic response then becomes a significant charac-
teristic. However, as was demonstrated previously, flecreas-
ing the response time may cause instability. Therefore,
compensating networks must be used.
A servosystem may ))e compensated by placing a com-
pensating network either in series with the amplifying system
or as a feedback circuit. With cascade or series stabilization,
in many cases, small inexpen-
sive resistance-capacitance net-
works may be used with am-
plifiers to provide the neces.sary
stability for the system. By
proper design, the system may
be changed to give l)etter per-
formance. Since for cascaded
networks the changes in any
one network will show up in het
over-all characteristic of all the

networks, close manufacturing
Fig. 9-12 Input and output posi-
tolerances and expensive mate- tion of tinio.
rials may be required to ensure
uniform performance; otherwise instability for increases in
gain, or high errors for decreases in gain, may result.
On the other hand, in a feedback system much wider toler-
ance may be placed on the individual components when a
large amount of feedback is employed. Over an important
range of frequencies, the performance characteristics of a
group of control elements can be made dependent primarily
on the feedback element rather than on the control element.
Since the feedback element may be .selected for its accuracy
and stability, better system performance can be obtained.
Unfortunately, this means of obtaining feedback-signal
frequency involves costly and bulky equipment.
/I
PERFORMANCE IMPROVERS ?8J
20
10
^-20
-J
-30
-40
^ -50
^-100
§^-150
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6.7.8.91 2 3 456789
Fig. 9-14 Curve of maf^nitudc and pha.'^c .sliift of 1/(1 -\- jwr) versus
fr('(|U('iicv.
crosses tlic iSO-deji; point is called tlie phase crossover.^ The
difference between ISO des and the phase sliift or ( ISO deg ± (f>)
at the fre(iuency correspon<ling to jiain crossover is defined as

margin.- The value of the log |G1 at the frecjuency
tlie plidse
corresponding to phase crossover is called the gain margin J

If the phase margin is negative, the system is unstable; if
the gain margin is positive, the system is unstable. Thus a

stable system should have a positive phase margin and a
negative gain margin. If the phase angle never reaches
log 6
^Phase margin
(negative in this case)
Fig. 9-16 Graph of log IGI and <^ versus log co.
— 180 deg at a finite frequency, the term gain margin is
meaningless. Recommended values for gain and phase

margin vary, depending on the system under consideration.
Generally typical values are 10 to 20 db for the gain margin
and 30 to 60 deg for the phase margin.
' The ASA definition for phase crossover is a frequency on the plot of the
loop ratio at which phase angle is 180 deg.
its
- The
ASA definition of phase margin is the angle by which the phase of
the loop ratio of a stable system differs from ± 180 deg at gain crossover.
' The
ASA definition for gain margin is the amount by which the magni-
tude of the loop ratio of a stable system is dilTerent from unity at phase
crossover. It is frequently expressed in decibels.
PERFORMANCE IMPROVERS J83
Amplifier
ond
servo motor
Fig. 9-17 lilock diafiniin of scrvosystcm.
Let us assume tliat in tiie system illustrated in the block

diagram in Fig. 9-17, the servosystem has a negative phase
margin. To correct tlie unstal)ility, the transfer ciiaracteris-
tic must be changed. The
R'
correcting network may t)e
added in cascade or parallel
to properly stabilize the re-
sulting system.
G =
9-8 Cascade Compensation

The unstable system re-
Fig. 9-18 Differentiating and in-
ferred to in Fig. 9-17 can be
t('f;;i:itin}i; network to improve stability.
made stable with the addi-
tion in cascade of the network shown in Fig. 9-18. A con-
sideration of the graphs shown in Fig. 9-19 will demonstrate
Fig. 9-19 Traiisfer-ftmetion characteristic of differentiatinf;; and integrat-

ing network.
— —
G - = - G
Log\G\
Log 4/—^
180° f^^=^ iî eout
margin
Fig. 9-20 Over-all open-cycle sys- Fig. 9-21 Direct-current pliase-
tem. lead network.
o—wv\ R
o
R
vvw
6in C —r- ôut 6in ôut
X
Log\G\
Fig. 9-22 Fig. 9-23
184
this point. The over-all opcn-cycle-system characteristic

with this addition would he G, shown in Fig. 9-20. Note
that the gain margin is negative and the phase margin is
positive. The system has been stabilized.

therefore It
can be seen that by having the proper network to put in
cascade, it is possible to stabilize the system. Some types of
electrical systems that can be used for stabilization are shown
with their transfer characteristics in Figs. 9-21 to 9-23.
9-9 Feedback Compensation

As we have seen, in series or cascade staliilization, the effect
of the stal)ilizing network multiplies the initial transfer
function of the system so that the magnitude of the resultant
fv
Then for the over-all transfer funetion
G' = D
A
Substituting, D = CGi
A = B + C
G' =
1 + G^G2
where Gi and Go have not only magnitudes but phase angles

as well. G' can also be expressed
G" - (l/GQGA
1 + G1G2
It is extremely difficult to design a feedback stabilization

circuit exactly. By the use of some approximations, however,
a feedback network may
be designed. For example, if G1G2
is much larger thanthen G' will be approximately equal to
1,
I/G2. If G1G2 is much less than 1, then the over-all transfer

function G' is equal to Gi. It must be remembered that the
approximation is particularly subject to error for G1G2 about
equal to 1. By
the use of approximations, G2 can be deter-
mined in order to reshape the over-all transfer function.
9-10 Dynamic Response

The transient response of a servomechanism can be deter-
mined from the response to a sudden disturbance of the servo-
mechanism. This disturbance of the servomechanism might
Amplifier
and
seruo-motor
Fig. 9-25 Block diagram of a proportional-control system.
be a sudden displacement of the input shaft. The response

of the output would then be noted. For example, consider
the simple proportional-control system shown in Fig. 9-25.
For a constant displacement, the steady-state error is zero.
For a constant-velocity input, tlie steady-state error is directh'

proportional to tiie constant velocity of the input shaft.
The steady-state error is defined as ecjual to
where 9. = constant velocity of input shaft

/ = coefficient of viscous friction
A- = constant ecjual to torque per unit error
This definition for the steady-state error means that the out-
put shaft will rotate at the same speed as the input shaft l)ut
will lag the input shaft by an
angle as illustrated in Fig. 9-2().
The damping ratio which deter-

mines the amount of overshoot
is equal to f/2\/Jk, where J
equals the moment of inertia.
The larger the damping ratio,
the less the overshoot. The
steady-state error and small
damping ratio can be compen-
sated by either cascade or feed- Fig. 9-26 Velocity versus time.
back compensation.
The corrective networks which have been discus.sed in
preceding sections are designed to operate in cascade with the
element of the main .servo loop. In certain cases, however,
improved servo operation is obtained when the needed cor-
rection in the servosystem is secured.
The dynamic response characteristics of a servomechanism
can be improved by the use of proper compensating networks.
The type of network used depends on the particular response
characteristics of the servosystem and the desired response.
The dynamic response of most servos comprises time lags
introduced by the system masses or inertia, electrical circuit
delays, etc. The.se time lags all introduce phase lag (usually
negative phase lag) into the system. By making proper use
of servocontrollers with positive-phase frequency characteris-
tics, it is possible to improve the dynamic response of the
servo by compensating for the negative-phase frequency
caused by the time lags in the rest of the
cliaracteristics
system. Such compensation permits tlie system gain to be
increased without changing the system damping ratio and
increasing the speed of response of the servo.
9-11 Direct-current Phase-lead Networks
A d-c phase-lead control network is shown in Fig. 9-27.

The series impedance i2i is a high resistance, so that the
greater amount of the total voltage drop appears across it,
and the resulting current flow through the network is propor-
tional to the input voltage. Thus, since the voltage across
R,
Output
Frequency^*-
Fig. 9-27. Direct-current phase-lead control network.
the shunt resistance is in phase with the current, it is propor-

tional to the input voltage. The voltage across the induct-
ance is proportional to the rate at which the current varies
and therefore proportional to the rate at which the input
voltage varies. If the error signal is a voltage proportional
to the input, the voltage across the resistance will be propor-
tional to the error,and the voltage across the inductance will
be proportional to the error rate. These are known as the
positioning and error-rate voltages, and their sum is the error
signal which is sent to the controller.
The phase-lead control circuit can best be described in
terms of its response to signals of various frequencies, and
almost any circuit having the same frequency-response
characteristic will serve as a phase-lead control circuit. For
direct current and at low frequencies, the reactance of the
inductance is negligible, and the circuit consists of two
resistances in series and acts as a voltage divider. At some
PERFORMANCE IMPROVERS J89
frequency, the reactance of tlie inductance will etjual tiie
value of the resistance of the shunt. Above this frequency,

the shunt resistance may be neglected since the reactance
of the inductance increases with frequency. The circuit then
looks like a divider consisting of a series resistance and the
inductance, and the ratio of the output to input increases
rapidly with increasing freciuency. At some still higher
frequency, the reactance of the inductance equal to the
is
series resistance; above that frequency, the circuit has

negligible attenuation.
9-12 Alternating-current Phase-lead Networks
An explanation of the operation of a-c phase-lead networks

may be simplified by a brief review of the function of d-c
phase-lead networks. The general objective of a servosystem
is to make the unit activating the output directly proportional
to a proper function of the servo error. In the simplest
servosystem, this is obtained with no compensating by
causing the torque of the servomotor to be proportional to the
servo error. It can be shown that this simple type of servo-
system is unstable unless the load upon which the motor
torque acts produces a countertorque proportional to the

velocity of the output. In order to maintain stability and to
be free of this load limitation, the servosystem may be set up
so that the output (the torque of the servomotor) is propor-
tional not only to the servo error itself but also to a properly
chosen time function of the error. It is frequently convenient
to employ units which do not provide a d-c signal proportional
to the servo error but use instead alternating voltages of the
desired frequencies, the amplitude being proportional to the
servo error. This type of signal is usually a carrier frequency
modulated by the error voltage.
An a-c phase-lead network is shown in Fig. 9-28. The a-c
phase-lead network is very similar to the d-c pha.se-lead
network, except that for zero frequency the a-c lead network
substitutes a defined fre(iuencv. Thus, if the d-c phase-lead
network has a certain lesponse at 30 cycles, the a-c phase-lead
network must have the same response at 30 cycles below the
signal frequency as well as 30 cycles above the signal fre-
quency. A
30-cycle signal in the d-c lead network appears as
a 30-cycle modulation of the d-c frequency, whereas in the a-c
lead networkit appears as a 30-cycle modulation and develops
two sidebands spaced 30 cycles above and below the a-c

frequency. A characteristic of all such circuits is that their
response changes rapidly in the region of the carrier frequency.
\AAAA^
Output
Frequency ^*-
Fig. 9-28 Alternating-current phase-lead network.
Care must be taken to ensure stability in the network com-

ponents. The a-c phase-lead network can only be used where
relatively stable carrier frequencies are available.
9-13 Direct-current Phase-lag Networks

The integral of a quantity over one cycle is the product of
the average value of the quantity and the length of the time
interval. The integral of a large error over a short period of
time maybe equal to the integral of a small error for a long
period of time. Thus, if the integral of the error over a period
of time is zero, the average error over this period of time is
zero. A signal proportional to the integral of error is also
used occasionally in viscoush' damped servosystems to ensure
that the average error over a period to time will be zero.
A netwôrk which can be used is shown in Fig. 9-29. A d-c
phase-lag (or integrating) network consists of a series resist-
ance so that the current flow is proportional to the input
voltage. The voltage across the shunt impedance has two
components; one component of voltage across the resistance is
proportional to the input voltage, and the other component of
voltage across the capacitance is proportional to the charge
on it. Since the average charging current is proportional to

the average input voltage, the total charge is proportional to
the average of the input voltage multiplied by the period of
time it is applied. The network therefore supplies a voltage
having two components, one proportional to the input
voltage and the other proportional to the integral of the
input voltage.
For direct current applied, the circuit does not attenuate,
since the reactance of the capacitor is infinite. At some
fre(}uency, the reactance will be e(}ual to the .series resistance.
Above that frequency, the respon.se falls because of the
decreasing reactance. At some still higher frecjuency, the
—VsAA/v-
&//! 6out Output
Frequency^^'
Fig. 9-29 Direct-current i)hase-la}^ network.
reactance is ecjual to the shunt resistance, and for frequencies

above the network it becomes a simple voltage divider com-
po.sed of two resistances. The characteristics of this type of
circuit do not permit integration if the error voltage is too
large. The drop across the capacitor is then no longer
negligible in comparison with that of the series resistance, and
proper operation is no longer maintained.
9-14 Alternating-current Phase-lag Networks
The a-c phase-lag network can he tleveloped from the d-e

phase-lag network in the same manner that the a-c pha.se-lead
network was developed from the d-c pha.se-lead network.
Figure 9-30 shows as a-c phase-lag network. The frequency
re.spon.se is also shown. With the theory developed pre-
viously being similar, the circuit used is the one which has the
appropriate response characteristic.
If the servosy.stem is linear, a desired ovor-all characteristic
)92 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
can 1)0 obtained by the methods of compensation indicated,
although each problem has its unique method of solution.
When dealing with a nonlinear system such as a gear-backlash
on-off type of amplifier, etc., it is usually possible to com-
pensate by use of feedback networks, whereas cascaded net-
works may aggravate the effect.
The feedback signal from the servosystem output to the
servocontroUer input is usually obtained from a small a-c or
Output
Frequency -
Fig. 9-30 Alternatinfi-c'urrent phase-lag network.
Preamp — Demod — omphfier

D-c Servo
motor
Feedback
voltage
filter network \
Fig. 9-31 Servomechanism with d-c tachometer feedback.
d-c generator coupled to the servomotor or to the load. A

servosystem which employs tachometer feedback is shown in
Fig. 9-31. The output voltage of the d-c generator is propor-
tional to the servomotor speed and is applied to the servocon-
troUer through an RC feedback network. This RC feedback
network is a high-pass filter which removes the d-c and low-
frequency components of the generator output. If the output
is varying in speed, tending toward oscillation, etc., the
capacitor C acts as a short circuit and any signal from tlie
feedback loop results in a reduction of gain in the part of

the system that the tachometer-generator signal is fed to. The
lowered gain in that part of the system is compensated by
increasing the gain of the preamplifier.
A\'hen the servo output is in a static position or rotating at a
constant velocity, the capacitor C acts as an open circuit
because the voltage at the input .side is not changing. If the
feedback signal at the input of the controller amplifier is zero,

the gain of the d-c amplifier and servomotor is very high.
The over-all effect is to decrease positional and constant-
velocity errors. This type of circuit is a good method for
correcting lags in the servomotor and its controller.
9-15 Transient Voltages in RC Circuits
The characteristics of the waveforms, such as slope, dura-

tion, or repetition frecjuency,
are determined to a great de-
gree by controlling the varia- i
^1°
°
tion of voltage with respect to

time. The charging or dis- ^^
charging of a capacitor through
a re.sistor requires time. These Fig. 9-32 Direct current applic.l
RC circuits are commonly used to an RC circuit.
in antihunt sy.stems.
To understand how an RC circuit affects a waveshape
applied to us see the voltage and current changes which
it, let
occur when a d-c voltage is applied to the system. Generally,
most RC circuits are reducil)le to a circuit containing a
battery, a capacitor, and a resistor as illustrated in Fig. 9-32.
The diagram shows a series circuit consisting of a battery, a
switch, a capacitor, and a resistor.
If the switch is clo.sedand zero charge is a.ssumed on the
capacitor plates, there are three methods of determining the
instantaneous values of voltage acro.ss the components of RC
circuits. The first is a rough estimate from the exponential
curve shown in Fig. 9-33. The second method is a close
approximation from a very accurate exponential curve drawn
on a universal time-constant chart. This type of chart is
illustrated in Fig. 9-84. The
third method involves solving
the equation for the curve.
In the circuit under discussion,
^R
the necessary equation for the
voltage across the resistor is
The required equation for the evaluation of the instanta-

neous capacitor-voltage-charge curve is
c. - EhbH - e-'/«^) volts
where Cc = capacitor voltage at any time t
Example 1 : In the circuit of Fig. 9-32, the following values are

known:
R = 10(),()0() ohms
C = 0.001 Mf
/ = 200 fisac
Ebb = 200 volts
Find the capacitor voltage at this point.
Solution:
Cr = Kbt.{\ - €-"«^) volts
Substituting the known values in the problem, we have
= 200
/ 2 X lO-'' \
e,
1 - ^"P [- 10^ xlo^V
\()ltS
Cc = 172.94 volts
Example 2: Using the same circuit and values, hnd the resistor
voltage.
Solution:
er = EM.e-'i"''
Substituting the proper values into this cciuation gives
200exp(^--— X---j^j
/ 200 10-«\
e. = .,.-„
Cr = 27.06 volts
Example 3: In the .same circuit, using the same values except that
the time is unknown, find the time it will take for the resistor voltage
to drop to 120 volts.
Solution:
Transposing, we obtain
/.'
Invcrtiiifj; {îves
+tiRa
RC = '"
Uj
t = RC În
t = lO'X 10-9 In 20%2o

i = 51 /isec
The various values for e"* can be evaluated on the more expensive
slide rule by placing the hairline on the A scale set to the value
t/RC and reading the value of e""*^ on the LLOO or LLO scales.
QUESTIONS
1. Define viscous friction, coulomb friction, and static friction.
2. If a slight overshoot is permitted, what is the value of the damp-
ing factor most commonly used? Whj^?
3. What methods are used to introduce friction into the system?
4. Illustrate and explain the operation of a mechanical friction
device.
5. Illustrate and explain the operation of an electromechanical
damping device.
6. tachometer generator in a system. AVhat
Illustrate the use of a
purpose?
is its
7. Define tran.sfer function. Give an example of a transfer

function.
8. Define phase margin; gain margin; pha.se cro.ssover; gain cross-
over.
9. Given the circuit illustrated in Fig. 9-32, with R = I Meg,
C = 0.0001 Mf, J^hh = 100 volts, find the value of
a. £« at = 300 usee.
<
b. Ec a-t = 150 usee.

t
10. Given the circuit illustrated in Fig. 9-32, with R = î Meg,

C = 0.005 nf, Ebb = 100 volts, find the time required for the
voltage to be
a. 80 volts across the resistance.
b. 60 volts across the capacitor.
lO
Methods
for Measurement
10-1 Position Error
Theoretical calculations of servompchanism response are

usually tedious and laborious and are limited in accuracy by
the percentage of error that has been tolerated in the design of
the servo components. Such theoretical paper work should
be supplemented wherever possible by careful laboratory
study of a complete system. The recjuired testing element
used in laboratories is known as a dummy director. This is a
device that can provide position changes, constant velocities,
and sinusoidal variations of controlled amplitude and fre-
quency for servo inputs.
The instantaneous system error can be conveniently and
permanently recorded by applying the output of the error
detector to some type of recorder such as an oscillogiaph.
Several types are available; some employ an inking pen to
record directly on paper, and others record on film.
The transient response of a servosystem can be found by
ob.serving the variation in the error signal when a unit step
}97
signal is applied to the input. Tlie step input is easily
injected into the system by deenergizing the servomotor and
inserting the desired displacement error into the system.
Upon application of the power to the .servomotor, the servo-
mechanism tends to zero error. The curve of the output
amplitude can be plotted on a recording oscillograph as shown
in Fig. 10-1. By repeating the test for different values of
1.50
1.25
1.0
0.75
0.50
0.25
METHODS FOR MEASUREMENT J99
transmission system. Such enons must usuall}' be measured

independently.
The restoring torque of the servosystem for a specific static
error an indication of the over-all stiffness of the servo-
is
.system. The torcjue-error constant (torcjue per unit error)

can be evaluated by measuring the error signal as various
load torques are applied to the load output of the servosystem.
The ratio of the servo-output velocity to the component of
error necessary to produce this velocity is known as the
velocitj'-error constant. It is expressed as the input speed in
radians (or degrees) per second necessary to produce a servo
error of1 radian (or 1 deg). This constant is measured by
keeping the servo input at a constant speed and measuring
the average value of the servo error.
10-3 Acceleration Error
The acceleration-error coefficient is the ratio of the input

acceleration (radians per second in 1 sec) to the com-
ponent of error (radians or degrees) resulting from that
acceleration. The dummy director is usually designed to
provide a sinusoidal input of known amplitude and frequency
to the servo. From the fixed values of such an input function,
the optimum input acceleration can be measured or evaluated.
The error corresponding to the optimum input acceleration
can be measured at the point of maximum acceleration of the
load indicated by the position record. The acceleration-error
coefficient is a function of the frecjuency of the input sine
wave. If this frequency below the natural frecjuency
is far
of the system, the coefficient is almost constant.
The frequency response of a servo can be obtained by
applying a sine wave of constant amplitude and varial)le
frecjuency to the servo input. The recording oscillograph is
connected to the indicating device. This indicating instru-

ment is fastened to the servo output or load and indicates
the servo-output amplitude. The phase relation between
servo output and input may be secured by a comparison of
the displacement of the .servo input and the corresponding
servo-output displacement.
111 some cases, a sine- wave-modulated voltage can be used
to provide a periodic servo displacement for fre(iuency-
rcsponse measurements. A modulated signal of this type can
be obtained from a synchro control transformer. If the
synchro stator windings are excited from a constant three-

phase voltage source, the synchro output is an alternating
voltage amplitude-modulated by the rotation of the rotor.
Single-phase stator excitation can also be used if two of the
stator terminals are tied together.
10-4 Dummy Director
A mechanical block diagram of a dummy director is shown

in Fig. 10-2a. An induction motor coupled to the 4-in. ball
is
disk, the motion of which is transmitted to an output shaft

through a steel ball which rolls between the integrator-shaft
output and the disk. A continuously variable gear ratio can
be obtained by positioning the ball with respect to the disk
center. The ball is positioned by a rack which is controlled
by a shaft attached to the front panel of the director (see Fig.
10-26).
The output of the integrator is coupled to one input of a
differential gear mechanism and also to synchro transmitter
no. 1. The second synchro transmitter isgeared to the other
differential input in the same ratio as synchro transmitter
no. 1, so that if the differential spider is held fixed, the
two synchros rotate at the same speed. A shaft extension
from the differential spider is coupled by suitable gears to
a shaft which extends to the front panel of the dummj'
director. Movement of this shaft produces a relative dis-
placement between the rotors of the two synchros through
the action of the differential gear.
The mannerin which a dummy director can be connected
to determine the frequency-response characteristics of a
typical servosystem is shown in Fig. 10-3. The output
voltage from the synchro receiver of the servo data trans-
mission system and from the input synchro of the servosystem
is held fixed. The synchros in both the director and the
servosystem are excited bj^ voltages of the same phase and
METHODS FOR MEASUREMENT 201
E
fiXHiuency. The output voltage from the dummy-diroctor
synchro no. produces a sine-wave error at the input
1
of the servocontroller, and the servosystem tends to reduce the

error signal to zero. The amplitude of the error signal from
the director is controlled by varying the stator excitation of
the dummy-director servo synchro, and the frequency of tlie
Servo iMj\
motor /
V ^"-S ^ Oxis'^''
Fig. 10-3 Connections of dummy director for frequency-response

characteristics.
error signal is controlled by adjusting the rotation speed of the

synchro.
Since the synchro receiver of the servo is directly coupled
to the servo output, any phase difference between the modu-
lation envelope of the input voltage from the dummy director
and the output voltage from the synchro receiver corresponds
to the phase error between the servo input and output. The
voltage from the servo synchro receiver is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates of an oscilloscope, and the output
of synchro no. 2 is applied to the vertical deflection plates

of the oscilloscope. Adjustment of the phase of synchro
no. 2 by means of the shaft which extends from the
differential spider is contimied until the oscilloscope pattern
becomes a straij^ht line. The phase dial, which is calibrated
in terms of relative phase displacement between modula-
tion envelopes of synchros no. 1 and 2, provides a direct
reading of the phase error between the servo input and
output.
The servo synchro-receiver voltajijc between terminals 1
and 3 is proportional to the output displacement of the

servo, and the voltage between terminals 2 and 3 is pro-
portional to the servo-input voltage from the director.
The ratio of the magnitudes of these voltages is a measure of
the amplitude of the servo output with respect to the servo
input. The relative magnitudes of these two voltages can
also be determined by means of the oscilloscope.
10-5 Use of the Oscilloscope for Phase Measurements

The phase relationship of two xoltages is usually measured
bj' means of an oscilloscope. The \oltages whose phases are
to be measured are applied -one
to the horizontal plates of the
oscilloscope and the other to the
vertical terminals of an oscillo-
scope with the gain controls set at
any arbitiary point which makes
the pattern of reasonable size for
analysis. If it is required to know
only the phase difference ijetween
the two voltages, the method illus-
trated in Fig. 10-4 is used. From Fig. 10-4 i'liasc iiiciisiircincnt.
this pattern the phase between
the two voltages can be measured by the following formula
A
= sin"
B
That is, the phase shift is the angle in degrees whose sine is
the ratio of .1 and B. The various patterns ilhistrating phase
rehitionships from to 3()0 deg are .shown in Fig. 10-5.
A much more accurate way of measuring phase differences
between two voltages is the null method, which incorporates
the use of a phase-shifting
network. In this method, the
test voltage is applied to the
vertical input terminals of the
oscilloscope, and a standard
voltage whose phase can be
0-deg phase varied is applied to the hori-
zontal terminals. The phase
of this standard voltage is
varied until a straight line ap-
pears on the scope screen.
] 80-c/eg phase 270-deg phase Since the phase of this stand-
ard voltage is known, the
phase of the test voltage is
also known.
The circuit of Fig. 10-6a is
a convenient method for

phase-shifting the reference
360-deg phase
voltage. The locus of the out-
Fig. 10-5 Phase measurements
from to 360 deg.
put voltage of the netwôrk is
the circle shown, and the phase
of the reference voltage can be varied from through 180 deg.
For operation from the 60-cycle line, the transformer may
have a unit ratio (isolation transformer), Ri and R2 may have
foJ (b)
Fig. 10-6 (a) Phase-shift network and (6) relationships.
any convenient values as lon^ as tliey arc (Mpial, (' may

be a l-/xf capacitor, and R may be a variable oO-kilohm
potentiometer.
The principle of operation for this system is readily
explained l)y the vector diaîam in Fig. 10-66. Vectors FA
and AD represent the two equal voltages across Ri and R^.
Vectors FB
and BI) represent the voltages across C and R,
respectively. Thus vector AB represents in both magnitude
and phase the voltage rise from A to B. Since the triangle
DFB is a right triangle, A is the center of a circle passing
through points D, B, and F, or AB equals both FA and AD in
magnitude. The voltage represented l)y AB varies in direc-
tion l)ut not in magnitude. The phase shift is twice 6, </>
and tan 6 equals R/Xc- A simpler and often more accurate

method is to measure the voltage drops across the resistance
and capacitance and from these compute the phase shift:
tan d = j^
• c
10-6 Use of Oscilloscope for Frequency Measurements
If a voltage having a certain sine-wave frequency is applied

to the vertical terminals of an oscilloscope and another
voltage of different sine-wave frefjuency is applied to the
horizontal terminals of an oscilloscope, the pattern that
results more complicated than the circle, the ellipse, or
is far
the straight line that have already been considered. The
resultant pattern is known as a Lissajous figure. If the
horizontal and vertical frequencies are in a constant ratio to
each other, the resulting patterns permit us to find one of
these voltages when the other is known by finding the ratio of
these frecjuencies. Let us illustrate this method of dctcmiin-
ing the frequency of an unknown voltage. In Fig. 10-7 is
shown a means of connection. The unknown frecjuency is
inserted on the vertical terminals of the scope, and a variable

fre(iucncy standard is placed on the horizontal terminals of
the scope. An examination of Fig. 10-7 will show that the
horizontal frequency is three times that of the Ncrtical input.
Fig. 10-7 Three-to-one Lissajous pattern.
Fig. 10-8 Two-to-one Lissajous pattern.

In Fig. 10-8 is illustrated a method for detenniuinfj; fre-

quency relationships with the oscilloscope. The frecjuency
ratio is defined by the ratio of the number peaks tangent
of
to the vertical axi.s AB in Fig. 10-8 to the number of peaks
tangent to the horizontal axis AC in the diagram:
Frequency on horizontal axis _ no. of points tangent to AB

Fre(iuency on vertical axis no. of points tangent to AC
Another method of determining the frecjuency of an
unknown source is to u.se the time base of the oscilloscope
itself. The unknown fre(iuency can l)e inserted on the
vertical terminals of the oscilloscope, and the time base of the
scope one or two cycles appear. Remove the
will \'ary until
unknown frequency, and on the same terminals (leaving all
controls set as they were) insert the standard frequency into
the scope and vary until the same one or two cycles appear.
Thus the frequency of the standard and the frequency of the
unknown voltage must be eciual at this point. This method,
called the substitution method, is valid only on measurements
within the frequency limitations of the time base of the scope.
II
Examples of Servos
and Servosystems
11-1 Gyroscope Shaft-positioning System

One example of a servosystem is a unit which positions a
shaft in coincidence with the position of a gyroscope. A
functional block diagram of the system indicating the various
components is shown in Fig. 11-1.
The connections of the single-speed synchro data trans-

mission system conform to conventional practice as shown in
Fig 11-2. The synchro-generator rotor is coupled directly
to one of the gimbals of the vertical gyro, and its stator is
attached to the cage of the gyroscope assembly. The block

diagram of the controller voltage and power amplifier is shown
in Fig. 11-3. There are three stages of voltage amplification
in this These networks are followed by a phase
system.
in\'erter, which is necessary to provide a push-pull drive to
the final power amplifiers. The power amplifiers are devel-
oped as a standard operating unit and can be used as a basic
controller amplifier in other servos in the director. It can be
provided with an optional feedback loop, usually negative,
208
EXAMPLES OF SERVOS AND SERVOSYSTEMS 209
Feedback bop
60cps High-pass D-c

converter filter tochometer
Phose- Resistance
Voltoge Phose Power
shifting summing
amplifier inverter omplifier
network
Error signal (£=9i-9oJ Motor control

voltoge
Synchro Synchro 360 : I Two- phose

gear induction
generator receiver
reduction motor
Input
Output
Fig. 11-1 Block (lia>j;riim of .scrvoinccliiuiisin with t:i(hoinot(>r f('('(ll)ack.
^1 ^^ Error
sigrtol
s Output
From shaft
gyroscope
gimbal
Fig. 11-2 Singlo-speod-syncliro data system.
500
GOcps
error Voltage Voltage Voltage Phase Power 250
signal amplifier amplifier amplifier inverter omplifier
input
from
synchro
Feedback
receiver To control
0. selector
selec
phase of
servo motor
Fig. 11-3 Hlock (lia(;iain of controlicr amplifier.

from the output transformer to the cathode of the first voltage
ampHfier. Tlie ratio of negative feedback usually used is
10:1. The amplifier under discussion is operated without

feedback. The gain of the over-all system is al)out 30,000
without the feedback and about 20,000 with negative feed-
back, all measurements taken with respect to the 2o0-ohm tap
on the output transformer.
In order to reduce errors to reasonable values, a tachometer
feedback system is incorporated. A schematic diagram of the
Output from
^
.
A AA
d-c tachometer^
coupled witfi
servomotor
60-cps error a a . * a a
'^T^NA^-j^.Âq^
i
5igr,alfrom
synchro error I
I I
detector \ -r -r
{Controller
amplifier
Tachometer feedback circuits.
circuits is shown in Fig. 11-4. The magnitude of the d-c

output voltage of the tachometer is proportional to the speed
of the servomotor, and its polarity is determined by the
direction of motor rotation. The amplitude of the tachom-
eter voltage is reduced by a resistance-divider network and
applied to a high-pass filter (iSC-network type). Since the
error signal, at the point where the feedback signal is inserted
into the controller,an a-c voltage, it is necessary to convert
is
the d-c signal from the filter network into a proportional

60-cps a-c voltage.
The converter is basically a single-pole, double-throw relay
locked into the 60-cycle line voltage. This relay is polarized
by means of a permanent magnet so tliat one contact is

always closed dining the negative half cycle. The outpnt
voltage from this vibrating relay is therefore a (iO-cps voltage
whose amplitude is proportional to the d-c output of the high-
pass filter. This feedback voltage is combined with the
displacement error signal from the data-transmission synchro
in a resistance-summing network. The approximation of an
ideal integral type of controller obtained in this manner is
sufficiently good to reduce the system velocity and static errors
to reasonable values in this particular control application.
11-2 Compass Repeater Servo

Compass readings are usually desired at more than one
point either on a ship or in an aircraft. Instead of installing a
separate compass at each point where the information is
needed, it iscustomary to install a single master compass of

high precision. A servosystem activates the coarse and fine
synchro transmitters so that the compass readings are
available in the form of synchro data. At points where the
compass readings are recjuiretl with only low precision, synchro
receivers are used as remote indicators; but where high pre-
cision is required, servo repeaters are used. The unit which
will be discussed positions a rotating indicator deflection coil
in acordance with signal information from the gyro repeater
compass and the radar antenna.
The components of the system and the connections of the
synchro data transmission system are shown in Fig. 11-5.
The stator excitation of the differential generator is oljtained
from the rotor of the .synchro generator which is positioned l)y
the repeater compass. This differential generator is essen-
tially a three-phase transformer. The voltage induced in its
rotor is a function of both the stator excitation and the relative
displacement l)etween the rotor and the stator. The stator
voltage of the control tran.sformer, and hence the null voltage
position ofits rotor, is therefore dependent on the positions
of both the radar anteiuia and the repeater compass. Any

variation in repeater-compass heading produces an equal
variation in the rclatixe-displacement angle between the
antenna and the indicator deflection coil. The radar pres-
entation thus stabilized so that a particular position on the
is
indicator always represents a fixed direction in space.
Antenna
motor
Control
Servo E omplifier
motor p^
600
rpm
D* !zi
Error signal
Fig. 11-5 Dampor-stabilized sprvosystom.
Error
error-signal input. The anij)lifi(M- systoni used is conventional

and no further control methods to modify the error-
reciuires
signal characteristics. In this system the power-supply filter
used is a simple RC combination. This type of filter is
adequate for the successful operation of the system and
represents a saving in space and weight over the usual LC
filter.
In a previous discussion, was indicated that a control

it
system will have a stable response without excessive

amplitude
error at resonance only if the system is adefjuately damped.
The damping present in servomotors and loads generall}'
associated with servomechanisms is usually insufficient to
limit this amplitude error, so additional system damping
must be provided. In the servosystem under discussion, the
damping is applied directly to the servomotor by means of a
tuned inertial damper.
Any servosystem which develops with small time lag an
output tonjue proportional to error and in which the load
exerts a torque proportional to its displacement is highlj'
stable. It is not possible to realize such an action in the case
of a servo whose output displacement is rotational and
therefore very large. The spring type of mechanical damper
approximates this desired restraining action by substituting
for the fixed point of constraint a mass free to rotate with the
motor. The mass should have a moment of
stabilizing
inertia of the same order of magnitude as the moment of
inertia of the system to which it is coupled. Damping must
be provided between the stabilizing mass and the servo.
A unit which can be used for this purpose consists of a metal
shell rigidly fastened to the servomotor shaft. The stabilizing
mass is located inside this shell and coupled to the motor
shaft by a flat spiral spring. The stabilizing mass is also
coupled to the shell by viscous friction supplied by the oil
with which the shell is filled. The viscous friction is a result
of the shearing of the oil between the outer diameter of the
stabilizingmass and the inside of the shell. By controlling
the spacing and the viscosity of the oil, proper values of damp-
ing can be obtained.
The inertia of the stabihziup; mass is usually made from one
to four times the inertia of the system to whieh it coupled,
depending; on the temperature range to whicli the damper is
to l)e sul)je{'ted. In tiie case of the large stal)ilizing mass the

over-all system response is less affected by the changes
in the damper-fluid viscosity which result from temperature
variations.
The inertia-stabilizing mass of the damper is usually
machined from type metal. This heavy metal is used so that
the required inertia can be obtained with a minimum diameter.
The inertia of the mass used in this case is about three times
the inertia of the motor rotor and the reflected load. The
outer shell is usually constructed of a magnesium alloy, since
its adds directly to the inertia of the servomotor.
inertia
A silicon damping
fluid is used to minimize the effect of tem-
perature variations on the viscous damping. The spring
constant is determined by the sensitivity factor desired in the
servo.
A mechanical damper of the type described above can be
used with either two-pole or four-pole servomotors. How-
ever, because of the increased inertia of the servomotor rotor
which results from the stabilizing mass and the outer shell of
the damper, a four-pole servomotor is usually used in prefer-
ence to the higher speed two-pole motor. When the servo is
recovering from a large input displacement, the servomotor
generally reaches a speed which exceeds its normal operating
speed. Since the two-pole motor usually reaches a greater
speed during synchronization than the four-pole motor, the
torque required to stop the two-pole motor when the correct
synchronization point is reached is greater than that required
for a four-pole motor. The two-pole motor therefore over-
shoots the correct synchronization point by a large amount,
and the servo requires a longer time to stabilize.
Dampers of this type are sometimes coupled to the motor
shaft through a clutch which is adjusted to slip at the maxi-
mum torque of the servomotor. As a result of this coupling,
the servo overshoots the correct synchronization point only by
the amount necessary to develop the full motor restoring
torque, at which time the chitch and the servomotor stop.

The aiuonnt of the overslioot is tlierefore reduced.
A servomeclumisni whicli is used to position a small IFF
(Identification, Friend or Foe) antenna of a ship-borne radar
system is shown in Fig. 11-7.
1 1 -3 Data Transmission System

The components of the data transmission system sliowii in
Fig. 11-7 include a synchro rec(Mver, a transmitter, and a

differential generator operated at a single speed with respect to
1 1 -4 Servocontroller System
A schematic diagram of the servocontroller system is shown

in Fig. 11-8. The essential components of the servocontroller
system include an error-signal demodulator, a d-c amplifier,
and a pair of thyratrons that control the armature current.
A double triode is used as a demodulator and converts the
synchro a-c error signal to a proportional d-c voltage differen-
tial between the grids of the d-c amplifier. The plate voltages
for each section of the twin triode are supplied by transformei"
Ti and are 180 deg out of phase. The synchro a-c error signal
is applied to both grids of this tube and is in phase with the
plate voltage of one section and out of phase with the other
plate voltage. The section of the twin triode in which the
instantaneous plate and grid potentials are in phase has a
higher average plate current than the other section of the
tube, and this difference causes a voltage difference between
the grids of the d-c amplifiers. As the sign of the servo erroi-
reverses, the sign of this voltage difference also reverses
because of this reversal in the synchro output voltage.
The average current through each thyratron is a function
of the length of its conduction period during each cycle of
alternating potential. This conduction period is frequently
referred to as the conduction angle and is expressed as degrees
of the anode alternating-voltage cycle. The best way of
controlling the conduction angle is to vary the potential of
the thyratron control grids. For any particular grid-bias
potential there exists a minimum value of plate voltage
necessary to start conduction in a thyratron. During con-
duction periods the grid loses control and the normal potential
drops between the thyratron plate and cathode. When the
plate voltageis reduced below this value, the tube ceases to
conduct and the grid regains control.

The effect of control-grid-bias variations on the angle
of conduction for a thyratron operated with a-c plate voltage
is shown in Fig. 11-9. The thyratron is assumed to have
zero plate-to-cathode voltage drop during conduction. This
means that once conduction has started, the plate-to-cathode
—
nnn nmrsw^
^ H
^^|-iÂAÂA/VHl
217
voltajj;emust drop to zero l)efore the tube cuts off. It is also
assumed that the load in the thyratron circuit is a pure
resistance. The waveform of the thyratron current is shown
for three possil^le values of grid bias, which corresponds to the
initial plate voltage required to operate the thyratron. This
voltage is sometimes known as the firing voltage. The three
values are denoted on the diagram as Ea, Eb, and Ec. As the
firing voltage is varied from Ea to Ec by changing the control-
grid voltage, the angle of conduction varies from 90 to 180 deg.
In the servocontroUer, the firing time of each thyratron
during the positive half cycle of its plate voltage is a function
of both the output voltages from the d-c amplifiers and an
exponentially decreasing voltage which is superimposed on
the signal from these d-c amplifiers, plus the back voltages of
the servomotor. The thyratron plate voltages from trans-
former T2 are 180 deg out of phase. During the negative
half cycle of the plate voltage of each thyratron, a rectified
voltage is produced across the RC combinations {R3C3 and
Rid) by the selenium rectifiers which are connected in series
with the low-voltage secondary windings on transformer T2.
The polarity of the rectified voltages across the RC combina-
tion is such that the control grids are driven negative by the
rectified voltages. During the positive half cycle of the plate
voltages, these RCcombinations in the control-grid circuits
discharge exponentially. The control-grid voltage of each
thyratron, therefore, consists of a d-c component produced by
the d-c amplifiers and the exponentially decreasing voltage
resulting from the discharge of the RC combinations in each
control-grid circuit. The bias-control potentiometer Pi is
normally adjusted so that both thyratrons remain non-

conducting over the entire cycle of their plate voltages when
the servo error is zero and the servomotor is at rest. Any
servo error causes a voltage differential between the thyratron
grids because of the unbalanced output from the demodulator.
One of the thyratrons then conducts over a portion of the
positive half of its plate-voltage cycle, and the servomotor
tends to reduce the error to zero.
The back voltage of the servomotor is coupled to the thyra-
tron control grids from the junction of resistors R„ and R^-

The effect of this feedback voltage is greatest during the
periods of motor deceleration. As the motoi' decelerates, the
decreasing l)ack \'oltage of the motor causes a change in
the thyratron control-giid voltages whicii tends to increase
the rate of motor deceleration.
In addition to the .stabilizing action obtained from the back
voltage of the motor, the servo is further stabilized and the
f.i-
Fig. 11-9 \':iriati<)ii of thyratron condiictioii aii(jl<" witli applii'd plate

voltaj^c.
errors which result from a constant \elocity input are reduced

by the application of the negative feedback in the controller
amplifier. The RC combinations /?iCi and R2C2 between the
plates and grids of the d-c amplifiers produce a controller
response which approximates the response of an integral
controller. The
respon.se characteristics of feedback net-
works type and their effect on the characteristics of a
of this
proportional amplifier have been previously discu.s.sed.
11-5 Ward Leonard System

A block (liaj!;ram of a servosystem incorporating the Ward
Leonard metiiod of motor control is shown in Fig. 11-10.
This system may be used to position a searchlight. The
elevation of this searchlight may be controlled by a similar
Data Error Control
transmission selector omplifier
D-c
generator
Filter
network
° /to volts
Load ° D-c
Fig. 11-10 Servomechanijsra with Ward Leonard motor control
ÂA^ -r-
Error signal
output
Stick-off voltage
Fig. 11-11 Data transmission s.vstem.

mechanism. The
(hita tiansmission system sliown in Fifj;.
11-11 utihzes two synchros of tlie control-transformer type
operatinfj; at 'M') speed and at single speed. A switching relay,
controlled by the output of the single-speed synchro, switches
control of the system between the single-speed and the 30-
speed synchro to maintain correct system synchronization.
There is a provision to insert a small alternating voltage,
.Speed Rotation-
(a) A
0>)
(r)
Fig. 11-12 Ai)|)li(;iti()ii of stick-uff voltaK*'.
sometimes referred to as "stick-off voltage," in series with the

single-speed synchro output. The purpose of this voltage is
to eliminate the false zero point which may occur at the
180-deg synchronization point. This is iidicrcnt in all
even-.speed synchro data systems.
The way that this stick-ofT voltage eliminates the false
zero point simply explained by referring to the curves shown
is
in Fig. 11-12. A represents the output voltage before the

stick-off voltajê is applied to tlie single-speed synchro. The
stick-off voltage, which is of constant amplitude and phase,
causes a shift in the single-speed voltage relative to the 36-
speed voltage as shown in b. The magnitude of the stick-off
voltage is usually chosen so that the phase shift it causes be-
tween the single-speed and the 36-speed synchros corresponds
to about 90 deg on the high-speed synchro. If the synchro
alignment caused by the stick-off voltage is corrected by

shifting the rotor of the single-speed synchro relative to the
rotor of the 36-speed synchro, the voltage curves shown in c
are obtained. Synchronization at the 180-deg point is then
impossible because the single-speed synchro voltage at this
point is enough to
shift control of the servo to the single-speed
synchros. appears that the servo might falsely synchronize
It
at point C. However, the 36-speed-synchro voltage at point
C represents an unstable operating condition. Before the
servo can approach points D or E, which are stable operating
points for the 36-speed system, the servo error becomes large
enough to cause the single-speed synchro to regain control.
11-6 Servocontroller
The function of the servocontroller used in this system is to

produce a generator field current proportional to the servo
error. The servocontroller shown in Fig. 11-13 incorporates
a demodulator which converts the a-c error signal from the
S3^nchros to a d-c signal. The d-c voltage is then amplified to
the power level required to control the generator field current.
The generated field consists of two differentially wound coils,
so that the field current is equal to the difference between the

currents of the individual coils.
The demodulator two double-triode tubes con-

consists of
nected as full-wave rectifiers. The plate voltages of these
rectifiers are obtained from the transformer T3, the primary
winding of which is excited by a constant voltage of the same
voltage, phase, and frequency as the synchro excitation
voltage. The rectifier grid voltages are obtained from trans-
former T2, the primary winding of which is excited by an a-c
error signal. Transformers T2 and T3 are so connected that
at any one instant the grid and plate voltages of one rectifier
are in phase while the voltages in the other rectifier are in
phase opposition. When the error reverses, the phase of each
grid voltage reverses. If the servo error is zero, the rectified
voltages across Ri and R> and therefore the grid voltages are
equal. If a servo error produces in-phase grid-to-plate
voltages in Ti, the rectified voltage across /?, increases. Since
the grid and plate voltages in the other detector are then out
of phase, the rectified voltage across R-, decreases. Under
Fo armature of
d-c servomotor
Fig. 11-13 Demodulator iuul p(j\v<'r amplifier.
these conditions the bias on more negative with respect

V'3 is
to the cathode. The between the two

difference in voltage
grids is amplified by Y z and F4 and produces an unbalanced
current through the generator field, and the resulting gener-
ator-output voltage drives the servomotor in the direction
required to reduce the error to zero.
A reduction in the velocity error of the .servo and an
improvement in the dynamic response are obtained by placing
a negative feedback circuit between the armature of the
servomotor and the input circuit of the controller. The
network in series with the feedback voltage is a pha.se-lead
network which blocks the feedback voltage when the servo-
motor-armature voltage is constant or changing at slow rates.
At frequencies, the controller gain is reduced by the action of
the feedback voltage. The over-all system gain may be
adjusted without causing excessive amplitude errors at the
resonant frequency. The effect of the increased system gain
is to reduce the servo errors when the servo is following
constant-velocity inputs and to decrease the errors introduced
by the load torque.
Appendix
Appendix A
Magnetic Amplifiers
The use of saturable core reactors together with their

associated circuitry comprises a magnetic amphfier. Gener-
ally some method of self-saturation or feedback is implied in
the operation of the magnetic amplifier. Thus the theory of
saturable reactors is actually the study of magnetic amplifiers.
Magnetic amplifiers have several distinct advantages over
electronicand electrical amplifiers:
1. There is no power wasted in the heating of filaments.
2. Rapid operation —
warmup time for tul)es is eliminated.
3. No moving j)arts little or no maintenance is re(juired.
4. They are extremely rugged.

5. They can be used in circuits and systems reciuiring power
outputs from 100 watts to 25 kw.

When current flows through a winding of an iron-core
inductor as shown in Fig. A-1, a magnetizing force is developed
which sets up a magnetic field in the core. The force versus
the magnetic field can be plotted, and the result is the B-II
curve demonstrated in Fig. A-1. Note that a variation in the
227
current will cause a change in H with a corresponding change
in B. The induced voltage is proportional to the rate of
change of B. If B is proportional to H, then the induced
voltage is proportional to the rate of change of current.
Let us insert a small direct current on one side of the winding.
Now H will vary about the value which corresponds to the
direct current instead of zero. Figure A-2 illustrates this
relationship. Note that the area underneath the curve
defines the power loss in the core. The sinusoidal variation
AB
^^ \^D-c point
of operation
H
Magnetizing
force
Ât-A
Fig. A-1 B-H curve. Fig. A-2 B-H curve of the satura-
ble reactor.
about point A defines the change in H. Let us denote the

change in H
by A// (delta H), the a-c variation by M, and the
change in B by AB. Then
AH
CE = At
=
AB
DE At
and the slope of the curve is equal to DE/CE. Substituting

MAGNETIC AMPLIFIERS 229
the above values for CE and DE into the eciuation, we have
DE
= ^^ =
AB/M
Mope of curve (1)
^j^j^^
The following magnetic relationships can now be used:
B
Load Line
Consi(l(M- the simplified circuit shown in Fijj;. A-3:
(4)
E' = {IR,y + {E,y (5)
{IRlY E.
E'
+ =^
.
= 1 (6)
Equation (6) is the ecjuation of an elUpse of the form
— -u ^ = 1
We draw our load line on the static characteristics similar to

vacuum-tube theory, and in this manner we are able to
predict the operation of the saturable-core reactor.
Fig. A-3 Circuit for load-timo Fig. A-4 Static characteristics of

analysis. magnetic amplifier.
Since the magnetic amplifier is primarily a power amplifier,

the power gain (PG) is expressed as the ratio of power output
to power input. Mathematically, the equation is
{AiLrRL
PG =
{MeYRr)
where II = load current
Ic = control current
Re = control resistance
Rl = load resistance
MAGNETIC AMPLIFIERS 231
Example: Tl»e winding of a certain magnetic amplifier has a

cotitrol
resistance of 100 ohms. TIk; load has a resistance of 1,000 ohms.
When a control-winding current of 10 nia is used, the measured
alternating current through the load is 300 ma. When a control-
winding current of 50 ma is u.sed, the measured alternating current
of the load is 900 ma:
{MrVRr
(J)00^-J«)0)^103 ^ ^
(50 - 10)M0-' "'
Note that the gain of a magnetic amplifi(>r is defincMl as the ratio of

the change in load current to the change in control- winding current:
^^'^
r -
Appendix B
Direct-current Motors
When servosystems are used to control loads requiring

large amounts of power, a d-c motor is generally used. A
motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy. The physical concept of the motor has
been previously discussed, and therefore we shall consider
the mathematics of the machine only.
The speed of a motor is directly proportional to the counter
emf and inversely proportional to the field. Thus
b = K 7 rpm
where la = armature current

Ra = armature resistance
= magnetic flux
Et = terminal voltage of the armature
K = a constant
With a constant field excitation, the torque developed in the
motor is proportional to the armature current. The torque
232
DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 233
can be expressed as
T = KriA
The voltaso from a power }:;eiierator is generally applied to the
armature of the d-e motor, whose field is excited with a
constant direct current. In this manner tlie motor is the
load to the generator, and thus their combined characteristics
must l)e considered.
eo'K.vif
Gout
Fig. B-1 Separatch- excited gener-

ator.
Factoring out the R and clividiiifj; both sides by c, we have
Co _ KN_ 1
e R \ -\- Lp/R
Let p^ = a
R ^
^^ ""
Then
e 1 + Tp
The expression just determined is the transfer function of the
generator with the motor open-circuited. If the motoi- is
included in the circuit, then the above equation must be
revised as follows: Let
Rt = R, + Rm
The subscripts g and m

stand for generator and motor, respec-
tively. Note that we require an additional equation,
_ dia
Co — T?
-K/Za
J
,
-\- Lit
J,
The transfer admittance function defines the relationship of

motor current to field-winding voltage and is stated mathe-
matically as (assuming zero armature reaction)
a:
ia
^ 1
e (1 -\- Tp) R„{\ -f Ttp)
The proof of the al)ove statement is as follows:
Co _ ot
e ~ 1 + Tp
ea.
or Co
1 + Tp
^"
{R, + L,p)ia 1 + Tp
Thus, with algebraic manipulation,
ia OL 1
(1 + Tp) R,{\ + Ttv)

Appendix C
The Theory of Servomechanisms'
Let us first define the dif'feroiicc^ l)ct\voon coiitiol and

regulation:
Control adjusts a quantity (v()ltaj>(', cunont, speed, time,
temperature, torcjue, etc.) to a pi-edeternuncd \ahie by
reference to an independent fix(Ml <iuantit\-.
e/ffj
Dota transmisson Amplifier controller
(rl n
mj
# System and error
meosuring means
ond
servomotor
Load (J)
^
Fig. C-1
Regulation tends to maintain a (juantity constant by feedin{>;

back an indication of the (luantity to the input or contiol
region of the system so that random changes in the (juantity
automatically cause equal and opposite changes to restore it
to its previous value.
The theory of linear continuous-control servomechanisms
will be approached from the difTerential-ecjuation point of
view. Let us consider a block diagram (Fig. C-1) of a servo-
' Reprinted by courtesy of RCA Institutes, Inc.
235
iiu'clumisin that controls tlie angular position of a load in
accordance with the position of the input shaft.
Nomenclature
6,(t) = input angle (radians) as function of time
d„{t) = output angle (radians) as function of time
t{t) = angular error in radians = di{t) — do(l)
Tc{i) = controller or servomotor torque (Ib-ft)

J = effective load moment of inertia referred to output
shaft (slug-ft2)
r = effective viscous-friction coefficient of load referred
to output shaft (Ib-ft/sec/radian)
Tl = external disturbing torque on load (Ib-ft)
The data transmission system compares the position of the

input and output shafts. An error signal t{t), either electrical
or mechanical in nature, produced and is then amplified
is
and used to control the servomotor. The servomotor applies

a torque Tdt) to the load in order to turn it into corre-
spondence position. The load is assumed to be characterized
by a moment of inertia J and a viscous friction coefficient r.
If gearing is present, both of these quantities may be referred

to the output shaft. For mathematical simplicity, friction
will be regarded as obeying a linear law. Thus, frictional
torque is to be considered proportional to the angular velocity
of the output shaft. In certain applications, there may be a
disturbing torque Tl, tending to turn the output shaft away
from correspondence. Tl may be constant or may vary as
a function of time or may be a combination of both. The
positive directions of the angle and torque will be taken in the
direction of the arrows in the diagram.
A equation for the motion of the output shaft
differential
may now- be The moment of inertia times the
written.
angular acceleration of the output shaft may be equated to the
sum of torques acting upon it, giving
J^= -r-^ + T,{t) + Tl (1)
where -\-r -^ — frictional torcjue

THE THEORY OF SERVOMECHANISMS 7-^7
In order to proceed further, it is necessary to know in what

way the controller tortjue TM)
depends upon the error e(/).
Various types of servomechanisms may be distinguished in
accordance with the law by which tit) is made to determine
TM).
Proportional Control
The simplest controller law is to make the torcjue 7',. at any

time I proportional to the error at that time. Let
TM) = k-t{t) = kidi - do) A- > (2)
The proportionality constant k (pound-feet/radian) is a

measure of the sensitivity' or stiffness of the control. Insert-
ing this law in Eq. (1), we ol)tain the differential equation
governing the motion of the output shaft:
J ^" + r
^+ kd„ = kd, + Tj^ (3)
From a comparison of the left member of this equation witli

that of a mass-friction spring system, appears that the it
controller constant This is

k acts like a spring constant.
obvious also on physical grounds, since the effect of propor-
tional control is to make the restoring torque proportional to
any displacement of the output shaft from the equilibrium
position. The closed-cycle control, therefore, acts like a
spring here. The analogy with the RLC electrical circuit is
also readily recognized.

It will be convenient at times to have Eq. (3), in a modified
form, rearranged so that the error t(l) is the function sought,
instead of Boil). Tliis results in
J
dh . dt .
, rd'-d, ,
do, rp /.x
In order to discuss the behavior of the servomechanism,

various input motions di{t) will be assumed. The principal
inputs to be considered are a step function of displacement, a
step function of velocity, and a siinisoidal motion over a
suitable fretiuency range. Since the eciuations arc linear,
:

the supcMjiositioii principle applies, and therefore the effect of
tlie (list nil )infi; torciue 7'/, may be considered separately.
Response to Step Function of Displacement

Assume that at ^ = (Fig. C-2) the output shaft is instan-
taneously at rest at 0„ = and that subsecjuent to / = the
input shaft is held at a con-
9, ItI
stant position </)». One way
of approximately realizing
this situation physically is to
f ^ have both shafts at corre-

spondence at ^ = 0. Then,
^'^
^'^-
SLt t = 0, turn the input shaft
suddenly to 0,, keeping the output shaft at 0, and at < =
suddenly release the output shaft. In either event, the follow-
ing equations apply
t)
,(0 = 4>i for / ^
(5)
and
^
THE THEORY OF 5ERVOMECHANISMS 239
state error is zero; in other words, since ultimately hotli

shafts come to rest, there is zero static error.
The transient portion of the solution may now be investi-
gated. The roots of I']q. (8) are
mA ^ —r ± y/r"^ — AiJk r if r \- k
m,] 2J = 27 ± \\2j) - J ^^^
Three cases may be evaluated according to the relative

magnitudes of the terms under the radical.
Case I
k r
ih)' J 2 VJk
This case is {hvfrirliondl, or orcrddiupcd, case.
Case II
r \- k T ^
^1) ' J "' 2vrk = ^
This case is known as the critically damped case.
Case III
(r \^ k f
w ^j "' 2vrk
^
'
This case is known as the undcrdaniped case.

The quantity r/2-\/Jk is called the damping ratio and is
denoted by b. For a system of variable damping, the critical
case is attained for r^^-^^ = 2y/jl;, so that in general for any
amount of damping, we may write
r r
~ 2 \/lk ~ ^crit
In other woids, 5 is the ratio of the actual damping to critical

damping.
In discussions of the RL(^ electrical circuit a figure of
merit, or Q, of the circuit is usually defined. At resonance,
Wr = \/y/LC; therefore,
^'- R -R\^ (11)
Recalling the analogj- between electrical and mechanical

quantities and comparing Eq. (10) with Eq. (11), it is seen
that 5 is analogous to l/2Qr-
In Case I (Fig. C-3), the overdamped case, 6 > 1, and the
roots mi and m^ are real, unequal,
and negative:
Wi = —ax
< ai < a2 (12)
m-i = —a2
Fig. C-3
The transient solution consists of
decaying exponentials and Eq. (7) becomes
Bait) = 4>i + ê-«" + 5e-«^' (13)
The constants A and B may be evaluated from the initial

conditions in Eq. (5) bj' substituting / = in Eq. (13) and
its derivative, yielding the
equations
A +B 0,
(14)
aiA + a-iB
from which
— «2</>t
A = — Oti OC-l
B = a2 OCi Fig. C-4
Note that A < 0, B >

and magnitude A i\A\) > B. The
0,
solution for the output motion of the overdamped case may
be graphed (Fig. C-4) from Eq. (13) by addition of ordinates.
It is seen that the output shaft gradually comes into cor-
respondence with the input shaft without overshooting or
hunting.
THE THEORY OF SERVOMECHANISMS 241
In Case II (F\^. C-5), tlie ciitically damped, or aperiodic,

case, 5=1, and the roots of Kq. (S) are real, ecjual, and
negative:
r
rrn = jn-i = - 9j = -(7 > 0) (lo)
The general solution of I](i. ((>) now takes tiie form
d = 4>, + (A -\- B()t-'^ (16)
where A and B must again he evaluated from the initial
e,w
Fig. C-5 Fig. C-6
conditions in lOq. {5). By substituting / = in Eq. (1(5) and

its derivative, the results are
.4 = - 0,
B= -70,
so that the solution is
do(t) = (/),[1 - (1 + y ()€'''

A graph of do(t) for this case is
shown in Fig. C-6. The curve

looks the .same as that for Case
I, except that the rate of rise
is more rapid. In fact, the
critical case gives tlie most
rapid response that can be ob-
tained without overshooting.
In Case III (iMg. C-7), the
underdamped ca.se, 5 < 1, and
the roots of Eq. (8) are conjugate complex:
nil r
m2 27
±j ^-{6)^ -^±^"'
where we define
r
7 27
It will be seen that 7 determines the rate at which the tran-

sient decays, to is 27r times the frequency at which hunting
takes place, and co^ is 27r times the undamped natural

frequency (i.e., the frequency at which hunting would occur
in the absence of damping). The general solution of Eq. (6) is
doit) = 4>i + Ae(-^+>->' + 5e(->-^->' .j^.

'
or d,{t) = <t>i + e-^'(A€>-' + 5e-^-0 ^
Since do must be a real number for all values of /, it follows

that A and B must be conjugate. Using the i-elations
e -"*"' = cos oi\t ± t sin oixt
we can write Eq. (18) as
e^ = 0,. + (C cos (Jilt + D sin coiO"^' (19)
where the integration constants C and D are real. In order to

evaluate C and D from the initial conditions in Eq. (5), we
differentiate Eq. (19):
dBo
dt
e ^'[ — Coji sin coj/ + Deo coscoi< Cy cos oi\t
— Dy sin uit] (20)

Setting t = Q'm Eqs. (19) and (20) gives
C = -0,-
so that the solution becomes

'
y
+—
>
cos coi< sin coit
COS (jJit + - sin cjit I (21)
Go = 0.[1 — €~' sec i2(cos 12 cos wi/ + sin V. sin ojif)]

THE THEORY OF SERVOMECHANISMS 243
where tan f2 = 7/coi as shown in the diagram. Therefore
e^ = (/),[1 -e-^' sec fi cos (co,/ - 12)] (22)
From this, it is seen that tlie error between do and </>, lias the
form of a damped sinusoid of fretiuency coi/27r. The output
shaft overshoots the correspondence position and hunts back
Fig. C-8
and forth with exponentially decreasing amplitude, ultimately

approaching the correspondence position. Since
5 = -'"— = ^
we have
(23)
SO that Eq. (22) may also !>(> written
d„ = 0,[l -e-*-' sec 12 cos ( Vl '-^8"^

<^rt - 12)] (24)
With small damping 5 is close to 0, so that hunting takes place

at a frefpiency close to oj^ 27r, the undamped natuial fre-
(}uency, and dies away slowly. As 5 increases, the hunting
occurs at lower frecjuencies and dies away more rapidly. As
5 approaches 1, the frecpiency and overshoot decrease further,
approaching the critical case for 5=1. The duration of the
transient may be estimated by noting that since €~^ ^ 0.05,
the transient falls to 5 per cent of its original value for
yl o 3.
Curves of do/<t>, as a function of oo4, for various values of 8,

apply universally to problems of this type, since both ordinate
;

and abscissa are nondimensional (or relative) variables. An
important conclusion to be drawn is that, since the non-
dimensional time is 0)4, as cor increases, the actual time t in
seconds decreases. For fast response, therefore, a high
undamped natural frequency is seen to be desirable. Dif-
ferentiation of Eq. (24) reveals that the maxima and minima
occur for
Wrt = —- ^
Vi - 52
Calling the relative overshoot rj, so that
we have
rj = e Vi^' (25)
It is readily seen that if the first overshoot is 77 0,, the second

overshoot will be rj-0, in the opposite direction.
Appendix D
Elements of Mechanical, Acoustic,
and Electrical Systems
A. Symbols
Electrical Rotational Linear Acoustic
rm
rr
2A6 SERVOMECHANISM FUNDAMENTALS
B. Analogies
MECHANICAL, ACOUSTIC, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 247
mass. Now, if we take tliis inechaiiical vibrating force and

apply it to a pure spring (no mass and no resistance), there
will be potential energy stored within the spring. This
potential energy increases as the spring is stretched and com-
pressed further and further, and the mathematical equation
stating this relationship is
dx ^
smce '^ ^ hJ
U =
f' (4)
where C,„ equals mechanical compliance of the spring, or the

reciprocal of the stiffness factor of the spring (centimeters/
dyne). Again, the electrical analogy would be a vibrating
voltage applied to a pure capacitance. Thus the equation
relating these quantities is
=
.
I (5)
Therefore, since Eqs. (4) and (o) are identical, the solution of
one will be the solution of the other, with one stipulation for
the mechanical circuit — that is, providing Hooke's law holds
for the spring. [Hooke's law: If stress (f„,/A) does not exceed
the elastic limit, then the strain (x/l) is proportional to
stress.]
Now let us deal with mechanical resistance. Friction
force between two bodies completely separated by a fluid is
nearly independent of the load and the nature of the surfaces
and is dependent on the relative velocities of the bodies and
the nature of the fluid. Energy will be changed to heat by
motion opposed to friction, or velocity is maintained by a
mechanical force (/„) against resistance (r,„). We shall
assume that frictional force is proportional to velocity, which
is approximately true. The reasons for this assumption are:
1. To make our analogy with the electrical system hold.
2. In most systems we analyze, friction will not be a
controlling parameter.
Bibliography
For further information in the field of servomechanisms,

the author suggests the use of the following hooks:
Ahrendt, W. R., and John F. Taplin: Automatic Feedback Control,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., Xew York, 1951.
Brown, Gordon S., and Donald P. Campbell: Principles of Servo-
mechanisms, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Xew York, 1948.
Chestnut, Harold, and Robert W. Mayer: Servonwchanisms and
Regulating System Design, vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Xew York, 1951.
James, Hubert N., Nathaniel B. X'ichols, and Ralph S. Phillips:
Theory of Servomechanisms, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., X'ew York, 1947.
Lauer, Henri, Robert Lesnick, and Leslie E. Mat.-ôii: Servomccha-
nism Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., X'êw
York, 1947.
Porter, A. W. : to Servomechanisms, 2d ed., John Wiley
Introduction
& Sons, Inc., Xew
York, 1953.
Thaler, George V., and Robert G. Brown, Servomechanism Analysis,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., Xew York, 1953.
249
Ind ex
Accumulator, hydraulk', 8, 30 Amplifiers, electromechanical, 130-

Accuracy, system, 169-170, 178- 131
179' electronic, 104-123
Actuating signal, (Icfiiiition of, 26, a-c, 110-123
42 characteristics of, 116
Alternating current, energizing coils d-c, 105-108
with, 57-58 differential type, 108-109
phase of, 59-60 distortion in, 106-108
(See also Voltage) stability of, 107-108
Alternating-current motors {see hydraulic, 162-163
Motors) magnetic, 126-130, 227-231
Amplidyne generator, ai)i)lication, advantages of, 227
146 B-H curve, 228
disadvantages, 40 bias windings, 127
drive, 39-40 circuits, 128
equivalent circuit, 143-144 construction, 126-127
magnetic fields in, 142 gain, 231
power gain, 146 load line, 230
stabilizing means, 144 operation, 129-131
theory of, 141-146 symbol for, 127
wiiiflings, 144-145 theory of, 227-231
Ami)lification factor, definition of, required gain of, 197-198
119-121 rotating, magnetic fields in, 157
25 J
1

Analogies, electromechanical, 245- Control, automatic, 17-18
248 closed-cycle, 13-14, 24-25
mechanical, 72 continuous, 14-16, 19-21
use of, 246 discontinuous, 14, 16, 18-19
Angular position, measurement of, definition of, 235
197-198 derivative, 44
Antihunt control, 170-173 integral, 44-45
Anti-stick-oiT voltage {see Stick-off manual, 15-16
voltage) continuous, 12-13, 15
discontinuous, 11-12, 15
Backlash in gearing, 165 networks, 188-193
measurement of, 165-166 projjortional, 33, 43-44, 173-175
Bearing friction, 71 shaft, 208-211
B-H curve, shape of, 228 Controller, block diagram, 7, 28
Bias, grid, 111-114 definition of, 5
Biasing, for a-c amplifiers, 115 example 216-219
of,
for magnetic am])lifiers, 230 function 28-29, 222-224

of,
Block diagram, as aid to under- Converter, 98-100

standing, 5 Coulomb friction, definition of, 172
convention used, 171 measurement of, 197-200
Cascade compensation, 183-185 Dampers, eddy-current, 173-174

Cathodes, directly heated, 121- electromagnetic, 174-175
123 friction, 31, 213-214
indirectly heated, 121-123 Damping, 9-10, 171, 213
Chopper (see Vibrator) electromagnetic, 174
Closed-cycle system, automatic, electromechanical, 174
13-14, 16, 24-25 error-rate, 47
definition of, 13, 22 friction, 9-10
manual, 16 for on-off servosystem, 31-33
Clutches, magnetic, 163-164 (<See also Viscous damping)
Coarse-fine control systems, 46, Dashpot, 173
166-167, 220-222 Data transmission, definition of, 26
Command, definition of, 1 system, 215, 220
Compass repeater servo, 211-214 Derivative control, 44
Compensating networks, 179, 185 Differential, mechanical, operation
Components, servosystem, 4-8, 25- of, 95-97
26 purpose of, 95
Computer applications, 34-36 synchro (see Synchros)
Continuous scrvomechanism, auto- DifTerential equations, 236
matic, 19-21 Differentiating networks, 177-178
definition of, 14-15 Direct-current motors (see Motors)
manual, 15 Discriminator frequency, 100
Control, accuracy, definition of, characteristics, 100-101
41-44 purpose, 100
INDEX 253
Distortion in amplifiers, 106-108 Error detector, 4-5, 75-85, 95 97

Doublc-specci transmission, 46, (Sec also Potentiometer; Syn-
166-167 chros)
Drift in d-c amplifiers, 106 108 Error-rate <lami)ing, 47
Dummy director, 197
construction of, 200-203 Feedback in electronic ami)lifier,
purpose of, 200-203 218-219
Dynamic error, 46 Feedback compensation, 185-186
re(iuirements, theorj- of, 170 173, Feedback control systems, defini-
235-244 tion of, 185-186
Dynamic response, 186-188 Feedback stabilization circuits, 185-

186
Field-current control, ]3() 137
K transformer, 6-7, 27-28
Filter networks, use of, 177, 192,
example of, 6, 27
210-212
Electrical zero {see Zero)
Fre(iuency-regulating system, 101-
Electromagnet, 59-60
102
Electromagnetic (lami)er, 174-175
Frequency resi)oiise of servosystem,
Electromechanical analogies, 245- 200 203
248 measurement of, 200-207
symbols, 245 Friction, coulomb, definition of, 172
use of, 246-248 electromagnetic, 174-175
Electromechanical dampers, eddy- in gearing, 165
current, 173-174 in motors, 51
Electronic amplifiers (see Ampli- static, definition of, 172
fiers) viscous, definition of, 171-172
Electronic switch, 147 Friction damjjers, construction of,
Error, acceleration, 48, 199-200 213-214
compensation, 183-186 performance analysis, 173-175
dynamic (see Dynamic error) Friction load, 236
fre(iuency, 100, 178
gearing, 165 Gain, definition of, 180
position, 132 Gain crossover, definition of, 181
measurement of, 197-198 Gain margin, definition of, 182
servo, 26 illustration of, 184
signal, 132 Gas tubes (see Thyratrons)
static, 45 Gear train, differential type, 95
stead j'-state, 178, 186, 187 illustration of, 95
system, 46-48, 178-179 operation of, 95-97
measurement of, 197-200 purpose of, 164-165
transient, 178, 235-244 Gearing, backlash, 165
measurement of, 186-188 friction, 1(55
velocity, 132, 178-179, 187 split, 166
measurement of, 47, 198-199, of typical servomechanism, 166—
223 167
Generators, separately excited, 130- Instrument servos, applied to com-
131 puters, 34-36
signal for servo testing, 200 definition of, 34
(See also Amplidync generator; Integral control, 44-45
Rate generator; Synchros;
Tachometer generator) Lag, acceleration, 48
Grid-bias voltage, 111-114 velocity, 46
Grid voltage, 110-114 Lag network, alternating-current,
Gyroscope shaft-positioning system, 191-193
208-211 direct-current, 190-191
Lead network, alternating-current,
191-192
Hunting, 9, 30
direct-current, 184, 188-190
Hydraulic accumulator, 8, 30
Lissajous figures, 205-207
Hydraulic amplifier, 162-1(33
use for frequency' measurement,
Hydraulic motors, 29, 40-41, 159
207
Hydraulic pumps, 159-161
Logarithmic plot, magnitude vs.
constant-displacement type, 159-
frequency, 181
161
Loop gain, definition of, 185-186
variable-displacement type, 161-
Loop transfer function, 185-186
162
Hydraulic servomechanism, advan-
^Magnetic amplifiers (see Amplifiers)
tages of, 41
^Magnetic clutch, 163-164
components of, 40-41
Magnetic coupling, 157
disadvantages of, 41 Measurement, of angular position,
drive, 40, 161-162
197-198
systems, 40, 162-163
of error, 197-200
of frequency response, 200-207
IFF system, 215, 217 of torque, 198-200
Induction motor, 29 Motors, 29-30
construction, 154-155 alternating-current, 154-159
magnetic fields in, 157 application of, 158-159
slip speed, 157 construction of, 154—155
synchronous speed, 155 magnetic fields in, 157
torque in, 157-158 saturable reactor for control of,
two-phase, 157-159 129-130

used in servomechanism, 158 sHp speed, 155
(.See also ^lotors, alternating- squirrel-cage type, 154-155
current) synchronous speed, 155
Inductive load, 114-115 thyratron control of, 125-126
Inertia damper (see Friction dam- torque in, 157-158
pers) torque speed curves for, 175
Inertia stabilizing mass, 214 two-phase, 159
Input (see Data transmission) direct-current, application, 139-
Instability, 9-10 140
INDEX 255
Motors, direct-current, armature Phase shift, adjustment for, 204

control, 138-139 in amplifiers, 210
drive, 139-140 in control of thyratrons, 151
field control,136-138 to feed servomotor, 209
position control, 123-125 measurement of, 203
shunt type, 8, 29 network, 184, 188-193, 204, 223
speed, 232 Plate current, 110-113
split-field, 137-138 Plate load, 113-114
theory of, 134-136, 232-234 Polar coordinates, 88-91
thyratron control, 38 Position control, 19-21, 25-26, 133
torque, 233 continuous and discontinuous,
transfer function, 234 14-16
hydraulic, 29, 40-41, 159 d-c motor, 123-126
synchro, 51-64 Potentiometer, applications, 91, 94-
(See also Synchros) 95
characteristics, 28
Network transfer function, 180-186 construction, 91-94
Networks, compensating, 179, 185 for data transmission, 94—95
filter, 177, 192, 210-212 linearity, 94
lag, 190-193 resolution of, 94
lead, 184, 188-190, 223 sine and cosine, 92-93
phase-shifting, 184, 188-193, 204, square-card, 92
223 Power gain, of amplidynes, 146
Nomenclature, 235 of magnetic amplifiers, 231
Normal time response, 172, 197 Prime mover (see Motors)
Proportional-control servosjstem,
On-off servosystem, 42 response, 43-44
damping for, 31-33 theory of, 237
Open-c\cle system, 1-2, 13-15 viscous damping, 33, 173-175
automatic, 1, 15 Pumps, constant-displacement,
definition of, 22 159-161
example of, 23-24 gear, 159
manual, 14 hydraulic, 159-162
Oscillation, 9, 30 piston, 160-162
Oscilloscope, use of, 203-205 vane, 159-160
Overdamping, 33-34
Overshooting, 9, 30, 172 Radar system, IFF type, 215
Rate generator, application to
Performance improvers, 9-10, 30, servos, 97, 192
169-170 direct-current application, 97-98
Phase adjustment, 204 measurement of servo perform-
Phase crossover, definition of, 182 ance, 197
Phase margin, definition of, 182 operation of, 97-98
illustration of, 184 I)urpose of, 97
Phase measurement, 203-205 RC circuits, voltage, 193-196
Receivers {see Synchros) Signal chopper, applications of, 98-
Rectangular coordinates, 88-91 99
Rectifiers used with magnetic operation of, 99-100
amplifiers, 128 Slewing, 48
Reference input, definition of, 4 Slip speed, 157
Regulation, definition of, 235 Speed control, 132-134, 152, 157
Resolution of potentiometers, 94 Spht-field winding, 137-138
Resolvers, construction of, 86-87 Stability, 41-44
as coordinate transformers, Static error, 45
88-90 Stator, 61
theory of, 87-91 voltage, 63-65
use of, 86 Steady-state error, definition of,
Response time, 42-44 178, 187

Rotating amplifiers, magnetic fields friction damper for reduction of,
in, 175 213-215
Rotor, 61 measurement of, 197-200
construction, 75 Steady-state requirements, 178-179
voltage, 72-74 Steadj-state response, 180-183
Step-correction response, 42-43
Saturable reactors, advantages, 227 Step function, 172, 238-244
B-H curve, 228 Stick-ofT voltage, 166-167, 221
bias windings, 127 Synchronizing systems, 46, 166-167
circuits, 128 Synchros, 5, 26-27, 49-85
construction of, 126-127 application, 50-51
gain, 231 differential, 54-55
load line, 230 connections, 78-80
symbol, 127, 129 construction, 76
theory of, 227-231 symbol, 77
Saturable transformers, 127-130 theory, 75-80
Saturation of amplifiers, effect of, zeroing of, 80-81, 83-85
113 receiver, 51-53
Servocontroller (see Controller) connections, 62, 65-70
Servomechanism, block diagram of, construction of, 61
5 54
differential,
definition of, 3, 23 symbol, 62-63
hydraulic, 40-41, 161-163 theory, 58-64
typical, operation of, 130 zeroing of, 62, 80-82
Servomotors (see Motors) theory of operation, 55-58
Servosystem, classification, 4 torque, 70-72
components, 4-8, 25-26 transformer, 53-54
definition of, 3, 22-23 connections, 74
error, 235-244 construction of, 53, 75
simplified, 132-133 symbol, 74
types, 36-37 theory of, 72-74
Shaft-positioning system, 208-211 zeroing of, 82-83
1
INDEX 2S7
Synchros, transmitter, 51-53 Transient voltages, 193-196

connections of, 65-70 Triode, in a-c amplifier, 110-115
construction, 52 characteristic curve, 116-119
differential, 54-55 T\vo-spe(>(l control, 166-167, 220-
symbol, 62 222
theory of, 72-74
zeroing of, 80-82 Unit stej) function, 42, 172
System accuracy, 169-170, 178-179 Universal time-constant cliart, 194
definition of, 178
System error, 46-48 \'a(uum tubes, characteiistics of,
definition of, 178 119-120

measurement of, 1 97-200 Valves, hydraulic, 40 41, 162
jet type, 162
Tachometer generator, ai^piication nozzle type, 162
to servos, 97, 192 open-center, 162
direct-current application, 97-98 piston, 162
feedback system, 209-210 Variable-M tubes, 120-121
measurement of servo perform- Vector forces, 56
ance, 197 Velocity error (see Krror)
operation 97-98
of, Velocity-input signal, 47
purpose of, 97-98 Vibrator, application of, 98, 210-21
Testing, 200-205 operation of, 99-100
Tiiyratrons, for motor control, 37- Mscous damping, definition ot, 171
216-219
39, 125-126, produced by rate generator, 177
theory of, 37-39, 146-152 of proportional servo, 33, 173-175
use of, 152-153, 216-219 (See also Damjiing)
Time constant, definition of, 1 94 Viscous friction, 9-10
evaluation of, 193-195 Vôltage, amplifiers, a-c, 110-113
grapli, 194 d-c, 105-108
Time lag, definition of, 48 firing, 218
inservosystems, 48, 187 in-phase, 59
Time r('S])onse, 172, 197 principles of, 58
Tor()ue, definition of, 70 in /eC circuits, 193 196
graph of, 71 in rotors, 72-74
measurement of, 198-199 in stators, 63-65
speed characteristic, 175
syndiro, 70-72 Ward Leonard system, drive. 36 37,
Total overshoot, 243 130-131, 139-140
Transfer function, definition of, 180 to position scarchligjit, 220-224
Transformers (see Synchros)
Transient error, 178 Zero, electrical, 62, 73, 80
measurement of, 18(>-188 Zeroing, 80-82
tiieory of, 235-244 r(>ceivers and transmitters, 62,
Transient response, measurement 80-81, 83-85
of, 197-199 transformers, 82-83
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72774

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McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

NEW YORK TORONTO LONDON

Copyright © 1959 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in the

Frontispiece courtesy of Servo Corporation of America.

THE M.\PLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA.

The purpose of this hook is to ac(iuaiiit the student and the

is discussed and oxplaiiUMl in detail in order to illustrate the

1 Control Systems and Servoniechanisnis 1

2 Elenientar}^ Forms of Control Systems 11

To alter the course of a modern airliner requires the applica-

or valve or by turning a wheel. The systems developed to

controlled energy. The latter statement points out the main

Closed-cycle control sys-

However, if the operator is included, he introduces feedback or

the switch contacts as the strip expands and contracts with

As evidenced in the second example above, the closed-

There are many forms of classification which may be

An error detector may

Alternating; current is apphed to the input coil on the center

Motion Armature Motion

Fig. 1-5 Ty])ical E-transformer circuit.

connected to the core. The servo drives the core (follower)

and maintain stable, accurate, and fast servo operations A

from a small hydraulic motor using a hj'draulic accumulator.

enough (Fig. 1-7).

1 -4 Performance Improvers — Dampers

brought to rest at a position of zero error and will remain

called overshooting. After the load has passed this point,

oscillations finally die out. A

t here. An overdamped .system Adapter to

zero position and zero error.

2-1 Elementary Control Systems

load. can be seen that this system involves the transforma-

2-2 Manual Discontinuous Control

Fig. 2-1 Discontinuous electrical Fig. 2-2 Continuous control s_\s-

control sy.stem. tein.

2-3 Manual Continuous Control

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS J 3

tlie slider, or contact arm. 'I'liis is the cont loiliufj; eueij^y,

2-4 Open-cycle and Closed-cycle Systems

2-5 Open-cycle Control System

switch is closed whenever the °''° Ai i \ i

thermometer indication falls <^^ |

below the preset value and

perature exceeds this value. ' '

^''^'^'^ Opc.-cy.lc t.-mixTaturc-

2-6 Automatic Closed-cycle System

An c(|ui\al(Mit automatic do.sed-cycle temperature-regulating

The above principles may be applied to other types of

2-7 Discontinuous and Continuous Position-control Systems

A discontinuous position-control system is illustrated in

a three-contact switch. The shaft of the motor is mechani-

The system of Fig. 2-o may be modified to predetermine and

Fig. 2-5 Manual oix-ii-cyclc (liscoiitimious jjositioti-coiitrol system.

stationary pulleys B and C and a mo\'al)le idler arm l).

This idler pulley is mechanically connected to the switch arm,

Fig. 2-6 -Manual oix-n-cycic continuous position-control system.

pulley i) to be displaced upward; a displacement toward the

left produces a downward displacement of the same pulley.

Fig. 2-7 Automatic closed-cj'cle discontinuous jjosition-controi system.

words, if the distance between the ends A and F is the same