Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com
ScienceDirect

Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

2021 International Conference on New Energy and Power Engineering, ICNEPE 2021, 19–21
November 2021, Sanya, China

Joint charging scheduling of electric vehicles with battery to grid

technology in battery swapping station
Ran Dinga , Zhizhen Liua ,∗, Xianglin Lia , Yanjin Houb , Weize Suna , Huiqiang Zhaic ,
a
Xiaozhao Weic
School of Electrical Engineering, Shandong University, Jingshi Road 17923, Jinan 250061, China
b Energy Research Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Keyuan Road 19, Jinan 250014, China
c State Grid Henan Electric Power Research Institute, Songshan Road 87, Zhengzhou 450052, China

Received 31 December 2021; accepted 3 February 2022

Available online 17 February 2022

Abstract
With the proposal of carbon peak and carbon neutrality policy, electric vehicle as a clean new energy transportation tool
has attracted more and more attention. Battery swapping station (BSS) is an alternative method to charge electric vehicles
(EVs). This paper summarizes the development and present situation of battery swapping station and analyzes the distribution
probability model of EVs’ arrival based on the historical data of electrical swapping station, which approximately obeys
Poisson distribution. The convergence accuracy of traditional particle swarm optimization algorithm is improved by combining
the particle swarm optimization algorithm with the immune algorithm, which can find the global optimal solution more easily.
Then an economic scheduling method for battery swapping station based on monte carlo simulation was proposed, and the
function of BSS as an energy storage device to power grid (B2G) is analyzed. Next a mathematical model of multi-objective
joint optimization of battery swapping station based on B2G technology is established, considering the revenue of operator,
RMS of grid load and peak–valley difference as functions. Finally, the simulation analysis of this model is carried out. The
optimization results of ordered and disordered charging scheduling with B2G and without B2G are compared to verify the
effectiveness and superiority of this model. It can be seen that B2G root mean square and peak–valley difference decreased by
15.72% and 14.63% respectively, and the revenue of battery swapping station increased by 1.4%. Therefore, the application
of B2G technology in orderly charging scheduling is better than that without B2G technology.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on New Energy and Power Engineering, ICNEPE, 2021.

Keywords: New energy vehicles; B2G; Joint optimization scheduling; Battery swapping station; Adaptive immune particle swarm optimization

1. Introduction
In 1990, the concept of swapping battery appeared for the first time, and a man named Hartford from the Electric
Light Company in New York City applied the battery swapping station technology to the field of electric taxi.
However, due to the emergence of IC chip engine, the market share of electric vehicles was greatly reduced [1–3].
After stepping into the 21st century, as people pay more and more attention to environmental protection, electric
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: liuzhizhen@sdu.edu.cn (Z. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.02.029
2352-4847/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http:
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on New Energy and Power Engineering, ICNEPE,
2021.
R. Ding, Z. Liu, X. Li et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

vehicle, a clean and efficient new energy vehicle, has returned to the public’s vision. With the rise of electric
vehicles, battery exchange technology has gradually developed into a business model, which provides a convenient,
efficient and economic way to replenish electric energy for electric vehicles. It can also use new energy such as
wind power and photovoltaic to charge the replacement battery [4,5]. Compared to quick charging piles, advantages
of BSS include recharging the vehicle in a shorter time and charging during the load off-peak periods. By adopting
appropriate optimization strategies, BSS can further reduce the charging cost, power loss and voltage deviation of
the power grid [6]. The storage battery in the BSS can also be used as backup support to provide power for the
start-up of the generator to maximize power generation capacity. Such coordination is known as site-to-network
(S2G) or battery-to-grid (B2G). Swapping stations provide power to the grid to share the power supply pressure
during peak load of the grid, to achieve the effect of peak cutting [7–9].
Different from the quick charging of electric vehicles, BSS places the battery charging scene on the charging
machine in the BSS. Unified charging scheduling of many of standardized batteries will transport the fully charged
batteries to the changing cabinet through automatic mechanical equipment for the arrival of EVs [10,11]. The
purpose of studying BSS mode is to study the process of battery rapid replacement to realize the purpose of fast,
efficient and safe application. This is an effective way to solve the energy supply problem of electric vehicles at
present. Based on a large number of technical studies and the development and application experience of existing
battery rapid replacement equipment for electric vehicles, and with the use of manipulator with the application of
battery replacement fixture and logistics technology [12], the overall technical scheme of battery quick replacement
is determined in Fig. 1, which can be used in the general battery quick replacement automatic system of electric
commercial vehicles. According to different technology combinations, the system can be divided into three modes:
manipulator and rail automatic battery swapping mode, manipulator and suspension automatic battery swapping
mode and manipulator and stacker automatic battery swapping mode.

Fig. 1. Operation diagram of battery swapping station.

2. System model of BSS joint optimal scheduling

2.1. Probabilistic model modeling of EV arrival

Poisson distribution is how many random events occur in a given period. It was first proposed in a paper published
in 1838 by the French mathematician Simeon Denis Poisson. The arrival time of each electric taxi to the swapping
station is regarded as an independent event. The arrival time of the first electric taxi to the swapping station is
recorded as t1 , which is the first event. The time when n electric taxi arrived at the battery swapping station was
recorded as Sn , which was the nth event. When n > 1, the interval of the arrival time of n−1th and nth electric
873
R. Ding, Z. Liu, X. Li et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

taxi are denoted as tn . Therefore, Sn can be expressed as:

Sn = t1 + t2 + · · · tn , (n = 2, 3 . . .) (1)
Since the time for each electric taxi to arrive at the battery swapping station is an independent variable, the time
interval is also an independent random variable. The number of taxis arriving at the battery swapping station before
t follows the Poisson distribution with the parameter λt between (s, s + t):
(λt)k −λt
p(Yt = k) = e , k = 1, 2, 3 . . . n (2)
k!
where λ is the frequency of electric taxi in the battery swapping station between two battery swapping times.
R(t) = [r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . , rn ] (3)
where ri is the number of electric vehicles that drive into the battery swapping area for electric change in the period
i, R(t) is the number of electric vehicles in the period of total electric change.
R
λ= (4)
i
Ld
i= (5)
L step
where i is the number of charging time zones divided according to the actual situation, Ld is the length of the total
charging time zones, and Lstep is the length of each charging time zone.
qt = qt−1 + αt Pt ∆t − E t (6)
Nt
∑
Et = (E up,i − E down,i ) (7)
i=1
where ∆t is the length between two change time, and αt ∈{−1,0,1}; αt = 1 represents battery charge in period t;
αt = 0 represents neither charge nor discharge; αt = −1 represents battery discharge; Et is the change demand
of electric taxi at tth period; qt is the electric quantity stored in the battery cabinet; Pt is the charger power of
the battery to be charged; Eup,i is the changed new battery power by the ith EV; Edown is the swapped old battery
power changed by the ith EV; Nt is the total number of EVs arriving at the electric swapping area.
20%N Q N ≤ qt ≤ 100%N Q N (8)
20%N Q N + E t ≤ qt−1 + Pt ∆t ≤ 100%N Q N + E t (9)
Q N represents the rated capacity of batteries in the battery bank of the swapping station, and N represents the
number of remaining batteries.

2.2. Establishment of objective function

(1) Maximizing the revenue of the battery swapping station: The revenue of BSS includes the compensation
for the peak–valley-shaving auxiliary service, the fees paid by electric vehicle users, and the total electricity
purchase cost from the grid. After orderly management of EV battery charging and discharging, the operator
participates in peak clipping auxiliary service as a third-party independent main resource and obtains auxiliary
service compensation, which is shared by the swapping station and EV users.
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ∑96 ∑96 ∑ I ⎪
⎪δ
⎪
⎪ n(t) + χ (Q rate − Q i (t))⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬
t=1 t=1 i=1
F11 = max 96 ∑ K
⎪ ∑ ⎪
β η
⎪ ⎪
⎪−
⎪
⎪
⎩ k Pk (t)c(t)∆t ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎭
t=1 k=1 (10)
βk ∈ {−1, 0, 1}
{ }
1
η ∈ ηchange ,
ηdischange
{ }
c(t) ∈ cbuy (t), csell (t)
874
R. Ding, Z. Liu, X. Li et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

where Pk (t) represents the charging or discharging power of the kth charger in the charging area at tth period; c(t)
represents the electricity price; δ represents the electricity swapping service fee, 10 yuan/time; n(t) represents the
number of electric vehicles serving in time period t; χ is the electric retail price, 1.5 yuan/kWh; Qrated is the rated
power of the battery; Qi (t) is the remaining electric quantity of the ith electric vehicle arriving in time period t;
I is the total number of electric vehicles; βk ∈{−1,0,1}, and this article considers the BSS discharge as an energy
storage device to the grid, so βk = 1 represents charging, βk = −1 represents the discharge, βk = 0 represents
neither charge or discharge; η is charge–discharge efficiency; c(t) means time-sharing electricity price of purchasing
the grid power and selling electricity to the power grid. The above three parts of right-hand of the equation are total
service fee, retail price and cost of electricity purchase respectively.
(2) Root mean square(RMS) of load is taken as an objective function: Root mean square of load represents the
dispersion degree of power grid load. The large value of RMS indicates that the grid load fluctuates greatly and the
grid loss is large. From the point of view of safe operation of power grid, it is necessary to smooth the fluctuation
of power grid load properly and reduce the energy loss of power grid. In order to avoid the need to consider the
complex topology when minimizing the power grid energy loss as the goal, the model is modeled to minimize the
power grid load root mean square.


1 ∑ 96
F12 = min √ (PLk + Psk − Pav )2 (11)
96 k=1
96
∑
Pav = (PLk + Psk )/96 (12)
k=1
where ∆t stands for charging time region length, which is 15 min; P Lk is the base load at kth period of grid load
excluding battery charging load, which is obtained from daily load prediction; Pav is the average daily load. Psk is
the total charging power of EV’s battery charger.
(3) Take the peak–valley difference as the objective function:
F13 = min{max(PLk + Psk ) − min(PLk + Psk )}, k = 1, 2, 3 . . . 96 (13)
(4) Joint optimization scheduling of multiple objective functions: To carry out unified measurement of multiple
objective functions, the three objective functions are normalized and given corresponding weight coefficients.
F = min {λ1 F1rated /F11 + λ2 F12 /F2rated + λ3 F13 /F3rated } (14)
where F1rated , F2rated and F3rated are the rating values of the three objective functions respectively.

2.3. Establishment of constraint conditions

(1) Charge and discharge power constraint: The purpose of power constraint is to maintain the voltage and current
in a normal threshold range, avoiding too high-power damage to the charging equipment or too low power affecting
the charge–discharge rate.
Pkc min ≤ Pkc ≤ Pkc max (15)
Pkc max = min(Pke max , Pkb max , Pkl max ) (16)
Pkd min ≤ Pkd ≤ Pkd max (17)
where Pkcmin means the minimum power that a battery can withstand in kth period, and Pkcmax represents the
maximum power. Pkemax is the maximum charging power which the charger can provide to the battery. Pkbmax is
the maximum charging power that the battery to be recharged in the battery bank of the swapping station can bear.
Pklmax is the transmission capacity of the power supply line in the swapping station. Pkdmin indicates the minimum
discharging load power of the battery; Pkdmax is the maximum discharge load power of the battery.
(2) Battery’s SOC constraint: This constraint ensures that the remaining power in the battery is kept within a
reasonable range, so that the battery life cannot be shortened due to overcharging, and the low remaining power
cannot affect the travel of electric vehicle users.
Q k min ≤ Q k ≤ Q k max (18)
875
R. Ding, Z. Liu, X. Li et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

where Qk is the charged electric quantity of the battery to be charged in the swapping station, Qkmin represents the
lower limit of the battery to be charged, and Qkmax means the upper limit.
(3) Constraint on battery swapping of electric vehicles: This constraint ensures that the number of fully charged
batteries in the swapping station is always greater than the swapping demand in each period.
S(k) ≥ M(k), t = 1, 2, . . . , 96 (19)
where S(k) is the spare capacity of the battery library of the battery swapping station at kth period, and M(k) is
the battery swapping demand.
{
S(1) = M
(20)
S(k) = S(k − 1) − M(k − 1) + F(k − 1), k = 2, . . . , 96
where M represents the total amount of spare batteries in the swapping station, and F(k) represents the number of
batteries filled during kth period.

3. Charging strategy solution based on immune particle swarm optimization

Since the number of electric vehicles arriving in a certain period is subject to a probability model of Poisson
distribution, monte carlo algorithm is adopted for probability sampling. Firstly, the Poisson distribution data matrix
is established by MATLAB, then many random sampling simulations are carried out, and finally the stable optimal
scheduling results are obtained. The value of λ is given by the battery swapping station operator based on big data
analysis. The more monte Carlo algorithm samples, the more results approximate the optimal solution.
Mrated − M
S OCremain = ∗ S OCrated (21)
Mrated
S OCchange = S OCrated − S OCremain (22)
In the above formula, Mrated represents rated mileage, M stands for miles traveled, SOCrated stands for rated
capacity, and SOCchange represents net exchange capacity after the battery is replaced.
Adaptive particle swarm optimization (APSO) is a kind of intelligent evolutionary algorithm [13]. It starts from
the random solution and searches for the optimal solution through iteration. The algorithm evaluates the quality of
the solution through fitness and searches for the global optimal by following the current optimal value found. Each
particle in the population has its own position vector, velocity vector, and most importantly, a fitness value, which
is determined by the objective function. In the process of iteration, the position and velocity of particles (decision
variables) are updated as follows (see Figs. 2 and 3):

Fig. 2. Update mode of particle position.

4. Simulation and analysis

4.1. Setting of simulation parameters

Firstly, to simplify the model and facilitate calculation, 24 h in a day were divided into 96 time periods, and the
battery swapping station scheduling was analyzed for each period. Then, the overall calculation was carried out. It
is assumed that the electric vehicles use the same battery type, and the power of the charging or discharging process
876
R. Ding, Z. Liu, X. Li et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

Fig. 3. Flow chart of APSO.

of the battery is constant. Assume that it takes 5 min for an electric vehicle to change power, and that the mileage
of electric vehicle users obeys the normal distribution of (80,0.882), and that the maximum number of batteries that
can be stored in a swapping station is 400 (see Table 1).

Table 1. Configuration parameters of battery swapping station.

Parameters Value
Rated charge/discharge power 6 kW/6 kW
Charge/discharge efficiency 0.95/0.9
Battery capacity 30 kW h
Full mileage 100 km
Total number of batteries in the station 250
Number of battery replacement devices in the station 10
Number of charging and discharging machines in the station 30
Swapping retail price 1.5 yuan/kWh
Electricity swapping service charge 10 yuan/time
TOU power price
Classifying prices Peak time Plain time Valley time
o’clock 10:00−15:00 7:00−10:00 23:00−24:00
18:00−21:00 15:00−18:00 0:00−7:00
21:00−23:00
Grid electricity price (yuan/kWh) 1.0044 0.6950 0.3946
A feed-in tariff (yuan/kWh) 0.45 0.31 0

Monte carlo sampling simulation is carried out according to formula (2) and Table 2, and the sampling times are
set to 100, so that the average number of EV arrival in 96 time periods in a day can be obtained [14]. Firstly, Poisson
distribution data matrix is established by MATLAB according to formula (2) and Table 2. Then, rand function is
used to conduct random sampling simulation for many times. Finally, the average distribution of EV users arriving
at the station is obtained. The value of λ was calculated by the battery changing station operator through big data
analysis. The more samples of the Monte Carlo algorithm, the closer the result is to the optimal solution. Driving
877
R. Ding, Z. Liu, X. Li et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

Table 2. Probability distribution of the number of bus arrivals per hour.

o’clock λ o’clock λ o’clock λ
[0,1) 0 [8,9) 14 [16,17) 81
[1,2) 0 [9,10) 23 [17,18) 90
[2,3) 0 [10,11) 36 [18,19) 99
[3,4) 0 [11,12) 86 [19,20) 72
[4,5) 0 [12,13) 126 [20,21) 59
[5,6) 0 [13,14) 113 [21,22) 32
[6,7) 9 [14,15) 90 [22,23) 13
[7,8) 27 [15,16) 54 [23,24) 0

mileage of EV users obeys the normal distribution of (80,0.882), and the battery capacity is 30 kW h and the
maximum driving range is 100 km.

4.2. Analysis of simulation result

(a) Scheduling optimization effect under B2G(Battery to Grid) technology and non-B2G technology
Monte carlo sampling is carried out from the probability model of EV arrival quantity and mileage, and the
simulation results are as follows (see Fig. 4):

Fig. 4. Monte carlo simulation results.

This simulation focuses on the scenario of BSS as an energy storage device to send power to the power grid. We
respectively compare the scheduling optimization effects of B2G technology and non-B2G technology. The same
weight coefficients λ1 = λ2 = λ3 = 0.33, are used for the objective function, and the simulation results are as
follows (see Fig. 5 and Table 3):
As can be seen from the above simulation images, B2G and no-B2G with orderly charging scheduling both have
the effect of valley filling on the power grid. However, B2G also has the effect of load peak clipping. During the
load peak period, BSS, as a power source, undertakes part of the power supply function of the power grid. B2G root
mean square and peak–valley difference decreased by 15.72% and 14.63% respectively, and the revenue of battery
swapping station increased by 1.4%. The effect of B2G peak cutting and valley filling is significantly better than that
without B2G technology, and the operating income of B2G swapping station is also higher and the comprehensive
benefit advantage is more significant. Therefore, the application of B2G technology in orderly charging scheduling
is better than that without B2G technology (see Fig. 6).
(b) Comparison of B2G technology under ordered and disordered charge scheduling
878
R. Ding, Z. Liu, X. Li et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

Fig. 5. Comparison of simulation results under B2G and non-B2G.

Table 3. λ1, λ2, λ3 = 0.33, 0.33, 0.33

Root mean Peak to valley Revenue of The value of the integrated
square/kw difference/kw BSS/yuan objective function after
normalization
B2G 874 3115 21242 0.0546
NO-B2G 1037 3649 20945 0.1593
Change in the 15.72% 14.63% 1.4% 65.73%
objective function

The above simulation results are respectively simulated under three weight coefficients. When λ1 = 1, λ2 = 0, λ3
= 0, only optimization scheduling is carried out for the income of the battery swapping station. This can be seen that
this is the maximum income of 20,962 yuan, an increase of 23.92% compared with disordered charging scheduling.
Moreover, it is larger than the scheduling value in the other two cases (the reduction percentage is 16.69% and
19.35% respectively), and the optimization effect is significant. When λ1 = 0, λ2 = 1, λ3 = 0, only load mean
square deviation is scheduled. The results show that under this parameter, load root-mean-square decreases from
1250 kW to 523 kW, a decrease of 58.16%, which is higher than the other two cases (the decrease percentage is
36.11% and 28.00% respectively). In this case, operation loss of power grid is the lowest. When λ1 = 0, λ2 =
0, λ3 = 1, only valley-to-peak is optimized, and the maximum difference is reduced from 5801 kW to 3595 kW
with a decrease of 38.03%, which is also higher than the other two situations (the decrease percentage is 34.33%
and 28.23% respectively). It is worth noting that when only one objective is optimized, the other two objective
functions also have some improvement. This shows that when an index is taken as the objective to optimize the
decision variables, the changing trend of three kinds of objective functions is consistent with the influence of the
objective function (see Table 4 and Fig. 7).
(c) Optimization under other weight coefficients
From the above simulation results, the ordered charging scheduling proposed in this paper is superior to the
disordered charging under B2G in terms of root mean square load, peak–valley difference, BSS benefit and
comprehensive objective function value. The larger the weight coefficient of an objective function is, the more
significant the optimization effect of this objective function is. BSS operators can set corresponding weight
coefficients for joint scheduling optimization according to different emphases of objective functions. This shows
that the optimal scheduling model proposed in this paper is very effective.

5. Conclusion
This method considers battery charger operation optimization of battery swapping station from three aspects
of root mean square, peak–valley load difference, revenue of operation. Firstly, the concept of BSS is introduced
879
R. Ding, Z. Liu, X. Li et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

Fig. 6. Optimization under different coefficients.

880
R. Ding, Z. Liu, X. Li et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

Fig. 7. Optimization under other weight coefficients.

Table 4. The objective function value under combinations of different weight coefficients.
λ1, λ2, λ3 Root mean square of Peak–valley Income from BSS/yuan Synthesize the objective
load F12 /kw difference of function values
(disorder/order) load/kw (disorder/order) (disorder/order)
(disorder/order)
0.1, 0.3, 0.6 1407/965 6207/3427 16661/18993 0.8256/0.2656
0.3, 0.4, 0.3 1427/837 5615/3272 15877/19467 0.4413/−0.0468
0.6, 0.2, 0.2 1352/649 5532/3356 16204/19588 0.8092/0.2617
0.7, 0.1, 0.2 1455/663 5994/3312 17135/20047 1.1284/0.4610
0.1, 0.8, 0.1 1418/948 5596/3918 16589/20100 −0.6498/−0.9370

briefly, and then this paper focuses on the modeling and analysis of multi-objective joint ordered charging scheduling
in BSS. Then a statistical model of daily battery swapping demand based on historical data was established to
generate EV energy demand scenario set. At the same time, it adopts the method of monte Carlo simulation
for a large number of random samplings, and uses adaptive immune particle swarm optimization algorithm to
solve the problem. Adaptive immune particle swarm optimization (APSO) is a heuristic algorithm. Compared with
optimization algorithm, it is an algorithm based on intuitionistic or empirical construction, and it takes less time
to solve. At the same time, when iteration falls into local solutions, it can also perform global optimization by
reassigning some individuals to escape from local solutions through the immune process. This paper presents an
optimal scheduling model of TOU base station, which considers the special constraints of TOU base station [15].
Next, the optimization results of ordered and disordered charging scheduling with B2G and without B2G are
compared. Simulation results show that compared with disordered charging and non-B2G scheduling, the orderly
charging scheduling method proposed in this paper can significantly improve the profit value of battery swapping
station, reduce the operation cost of power grid load, and play a good role in peak cutting and valley filling.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgment

This research was funded by Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province, China under Grant No.
ZR2021ME009.
881
R. Ding, Z. Liu, X. Li et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 872–882

References
[1] Revankar Swapnil R, Kalkhambkar Vaiju N. Grid integration of battery swapping station: A review. J Energy Storage 2021;41.
[2] Mulhall P, Lukic SM, Wirasingha SG, Lee Y, Emadi A. Solar/battery electric auto rickshaw three-wheeler. In: 2009 IEEE vehicle
power and propulsion conference. 2009, p. 153–9.
[3] Kang Q, Wang J, Zhou M, Ammari AC. Centralized charging strategy and scheduling algorithm for electric vehicles under a battery
swapping scenario. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 2016;17(3):659–69.
[4] Xie Pingping, Li Yinhong, Zhu Lin, Shi Dongyuan, Duan Xianzhong. Supplementary automatic generation control using controllable
energy storage in electric vehicle battery swapping stations. IET Gener Transm Distrib 2016;10(4).
[5] Qarebagh AJ, Sabahi F, Nazarpour D. Optimized scheduling for solving position allocation problem in electric vehicle charging stations.
In: 2019 27th Iranian conference on electrical engineering (ICEE). 2019, p. 593–7.
[6] Yang Qin, Zhao Hui Liang, Yan Ai Zheng, Zhao Guan Hao, Luo Sheng Zhao. The mode and key technology of battery quick change
research for electric commercial vehicle. Appl Mech Mater 2013;2432.
[7] Bahramara S, Golpîra H. Robust optimization of micro-grids operation problem in the presence of electric vehicles. Sustain Cities Soc
2018;37:388–95.
[8] Kühnbach M, Stute J, Klingler AL. Impacts of avalanche effects of priceoptimized electric vehicle charging - does demand response
make it worse? Energy Strategy Rev 2021;34:100608.
[9] Shen ZJM, Feng B, Mao C, Ran L. Optimization models for electric vehicle service operations: A literature review. Transp Res B
2019;128:462–77.
[10] Welzel F, Klinck CF, Pohlmann Y, Bednarczyk M. Grid and user-optimized planning of charging processes of an electric vehicle fleet
using a quantitative optimization model. Appl Energy 2021;290:116717.
[11] Xu W, Kang C, Xia Q. Extension of the probabilistic sequence operations and its operation properties. Tsinghua Univ 2010;50(1):31–4.
[12] Ioakimidis CS, Thomas D, Rycerski P, Genikomsakis KN. Peak shaving and valley filling of power consumption profile in
non-residential buildings using an electric vehicle parking lot. Energy 2018;148:148–58.
[13] Chandrol S, Anand V. Optimal location of battery swapping station for EV using PSO. In: 2020 3rd international conference on
intelligent sustainable systems (ICISS). 2020, p. 1531–6.
[14] Ni X, Lo KL. A methodology to model daily charging load in the EV charging stations based on Monte Carlo simulation. In: 2020
international conference on smart grid and clean energy technologies (ICSGCE). 2020, p. 125–30.
[15] Zhang L, Lou S, Wu Y, Yi L, Hu B. Optimal scheduling of electric vehicle battery swap station based on time-of-use pricing. In:
2014 IEEE PES Asia-Pacific power and energy engineering conference (APPEEC). 2014, p. 1–6.

882