Heliyon 9 (2023) e18808

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Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Review article

A comprehensive review on isolated and non-isolated converter

configuration and fast charging technology: For battery and plug
in hybrid electric vehicle
M.C. Annamalai, N. Amutha prabha *
School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Electric vehicle systems are a promising future transportation system because they play an
Battery electric vehicle important role in reducing atmospheric carbon emission and have become a focal point of
Current ripples research and development in the present era. The emerging fast charging technology has the
DC-DC converter
ability to have refueling experiences comparable to gasoline cars. This article discusses existing
Efficiency
Fast charging
electric vehicle charging infrastructure with a particular emphasis on rapid charging technolo­
Plug in hybrid electric vehicle gies, which would be needed to meet current and potential EV refueling requirements. Various dc-
Power losses dc converter topologies for battery electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles are compared and con­
Voltage ripples trasted in this article in terms of performance, output power, current ripples, voltage ripples,
conduction loss, recovery loss, switching frequency loss, reliability, durability, and cost. The
architecture, benefits, and drawbacks of AC-DC and DC-DC converter topologies for rapid
charging stations are also discussed in this article. Furthermore, this study addresses the crucial
problems and difficulties associated with electric vehicle converters for direct current rapid
charging. Eventually, technical and relevant contributions are provided for an electric vehicle
system development.

1. Introduction

Electric vehicles (EVs) have grown in popularity in recent decades as a result of their superior performance and efficiency. With
greenhouse gas pollution and the global warming and fossil fuel decline, electric vehicles have generally been recognized as
replacement for global environmental problems and CO2 emissions in the automotive industry [1]. Power electronic technologies
provide great dependability and efficiency in the conversion of renewable energy, as well as assisting in the reduction of harmful global
emissions [2]. The calculated greenhouse gas mitigation in 2030 is 40–215 Mt CO2 and in 2050 is around 340–1380 Mt CO2 in PBEV. It
arises the decarbonization in the transport sector [3]. A portable emission measuring system measures carbon dioxide emission.
CO2MPAS methodology used to calculate the CO2 emission accurately [4]. Low electricity prices and high oil prices drive electric
vehicles’ diffusion rate to 60–70%. Manufacturers’ production subsidies have a more significant impact on electric vehicles than
consumer purchase subsidies [5]. Biobatteries have the potential to be a promising green battery technology for the future, with lower
environmental impact than current metal lithium batteries, both for compact systems and the automobile industry [6]. Electric ve­
hicles employing Lithium-ion batteries face difficulties owing to different internal and external factors, in projecting precise health and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: annamalaimc@gmail.com (M.C. Annamalai), amuthaprabha@vit.ac.in (N. Amutha prabha).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18808
Received 22 December 2022; Received in revised form 5 July 2023; Accepted 28 July 2023
Available online 4 August 2023
2405-8440/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M.C. Annamalai and N. Amutha prabha Heliyon 9 (2023) e18808

Nomenclature

AC Alternating current
AFID Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Directive
AFIR Automotive Future Impact Report
BESS Battery Energy storage system.
BSS Battery storage system
BMS Battery management system
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CCS Combined Charging System
CAN Controller Area Network
CC CUK converter
CIBC Coupled inductor and Bidirectional converter
CC Constant current charging
CV Constant voltage charging
CC-CV Constant current -Constant voltage charging
DC Direct current
DCFC DC fast charger
DG Diesel generator
DSM Demand side management
DR Dynamic rating
EV Electric Vehicles
ESS Energy storage system
EENS Energy-not-served index
EMI Electromagnetic interference
FC Fast charger
GaN Gallium nitride
GNEP Generalized Nash equilibrium problem
GPS-BD Global positioning system -Beidou navigation positioning module
GB/T GuoBiao/Tuijian
HD Heavy duty
HV High voltage
HBGM Half bridge gallium nitride modules
ICT Information and communications technology
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
LQR Linear quadratic regulator
LV Low voltage
LFP Lithium iron phosphate
MPAS Model for Prediction Across Scales
MDBIC Multidevice interleaved bi-directional converter
MDIBC Multidevice interleaved bi-directional converter
MSCC Multistep constant current charging
MV Medium voltage
NPC Neutral point clamped converter
NTO Network topology optimization
NMC Nickel-manganese-cobalt
OEM Original equipment manufacturers
PBEV Plug in Battery Electric Vehicles
PEVs Plug-in electric vehicles
PCB Printed Circuit board
PFC Power factor correction
PWM Pulse with modulation
PC Pulse charging
QZBC Quasi z-source with Bidirectional converters
RE Renewable energy
RES Renewable energy system
RTTR Real time thermal rating
RTN Reliability test network
SPN Secondary pore network
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

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remaining functional life [7]. The energy supply and power control are the serious problems in electric vehicles with an ultracapacitor
and battery hybrid power storage system for proper management of the power distribution between the available drive systems [8]. A
distributed power generation and electric charging approach was introduced to minimize the operational costs of distribution systems,
including uncertainties on DG output power and the spontaneous charging power to electric vehicles (EV) [9]. Analysis relies on
generalized Nash equilibrium (GNEP) for controlling the charging of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) in a delivery grid [10].
Conception of a bidirectional linearized dc-dc converter that is used in energy consumption and recovery units, especially in compact
hybrid electric vehicles [11]. The Bidirectional dc/dc converter integrates primary energy storage, secondary energy storage, and a
dc-bus with changing voltage ratios in a hybrid electric vehicle system. Two modes operate the bidirectional power control: with dc, a
low voltage dual power supply and a high voltage regenerative energy [12].
With the help of a neutral auxiliary circuit, a ZVS full-bridge dc-dc converter for traction battery charging is made up of ac switches
that turn on at zero voltage throughout the complete load range. Traditional full-bridge dc-dc converters use primary-side diode
clamping circuits to prevent voltage spikes on the secondary rectifiers [13]. Quadratic as well as switched capacitor configurations are
used in electric vehicle applications. A bi-directional dc-dc converter ensures high voltage conversion levels, minimizes voltage stress
on semiconductor devices, and maintains a constant potential difference between higher and lower voltage ports and then a constant
current also at low voltage terminal. Synchronous rectification is indeed a technique for improving the performance of a converter
[14]. After removing the resonant peak, the design approach of the Filter (Wideband) for the HV input port and the PCB-level filter
design technique solved the problem that an CISPR25-2016 requirement is exceeded by vehicle converters for
high-voltage/low-voltage dc-dc interference voltage [15]. For automotive Electric vehicle a buck boost half-bridge with a double input
three levels play an essential role by converting energy from rechargeable batteries and fuel cells to the accelerator and ultra-capacitor
during the braking process. The converter can provide a high-power density and also a reliable energy conversion because of un­
regulated low voltage in the battery and fuel cell [16]. This charging system is termed to substitute the alternator of the car and also to
ensure efficient braking contact for driver even though regenerative braking energy is recovered in the main HV battery to be stored.
Furthermore, the total efficiency of a charging dc-dc circuit is more than the car alternator and therefore could be easily improved [17].
Charging architecture is classified in the single-way and two-way power flow direction into an on-board and off-board charger. The
interconnection problem in unidirectional charging may restrict the hardware requirement, but the two-way charge supports battery
energy storage back to the grid [18]. It can provide a fueling experience in comparison with gasoline vehicles, a technology for
high-speed charging used to resize the vehicles infrastructure [19]. The revolution towards sustainable energy gives flexibility to DC
fast charging. In DC, maintenance costs and costly grid reinforcement are offset by quick charging, which reduces the need for
additional energy storage [20]. The extent of permanent storage systems will increase profitability by reducing the costs of grid
connections in city and highway charging stations [21]. The infrastructure of powerful charging stations that can mitigate the gasoline
stations is being developed by fast-growing electric vehicles. The charger in the EV battery can be refilled easily by means of a simple
charger offboard DC [22].
The electric vehicle’s market share is to be increased by reducing the battery’s charging time, but it is limited by poor electrolyte
transport. The electrochemical modal of 2D Physics with SPN in either one or two electrodes used to boost the electrolyte transport
[23]. The virtual sync algorithm manages the bandwidth, harmonic reduction and compensate for the reactive power in the power
grid, mitigating the impact on electric cars of the ultra-fast loading stations [24]. The smart grid model, including intelligent com­
puters, ICT and energy storage networks, is combined with power station systems for electric vehicles [25]. A full a control strategy for
an electric drive system built into the wheels has to increase lateral vehicle stability when network-induced time delays are considered.
A concern with network-induced time delays in a linear quadratic regulator (LQR). Has been devised to reduce reference state
monitoring errors and control effort [26]. A global positioning system and Beidou navigation positioning module (GPS-BD) as well as a
low-cost initial measurement device are employed in a multi sensor fusion-based length vehicle speed estimate methodology for
four-wheel autonomous electric cars [27]. New Electric Vehicles have insufficiently accurate range estimators. To reduce this issue, a
specific power-based Electric drive energy usage model is required to determine an exact range estimate [28]. In order to have the
same driving rating and user acceptability as current petrol cars, Batteries only need 666 kg− 1 at cell level. The most advanced
ultra-capacitors focused on nanotechnology would certainly not match the battery technology’s energy capability [29]. Multi-energy
sources are used in Bidirectional converter and exchanges energy. It will be operated in stepdown and step-up mode. In breaking mode
also, the battery will be charged. It is mostly used in electric vehicle [30].
According to the literature review, most studies have addressed the general theory underpinning the evolution of the charging
infrastructure. Regrettably, there needs to be more clear advanced literature describing charging architecture, topologies,

Sic MOSFET Silicon carbide metal oxide semi-conductor field effect transistor.
SCBC Switched capacitor bi-directional converter
TRL Technology Readiness Level
TEN-T Trans-European Transport Network
UFC Ultra fast charger
WPT Wireless power transfer
XFS Extreme fast charging
ZVS Zero voltage switches
ZCS Zero current switch
ZVSC Zero - Voltage switching converter

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methodologies, and suggestions for the future. Thus, the following additions are made by this work relative to the current literature:
This article seeks to give a detailed and up-to-date assessment of PEV charging designs, focusing on conductive and inductive charging
techniques. The primary objective of this study is to assess the present needs, recent breakthroughs, and complex challenges associated
with power electronics converters to propose prospective enhancements to the charging ways of electric cars. Isolated and non-isolated
topologies utilizing soft switching methodologies are characterized and thoroughly studied based on their respective constraint as­
sessments. This research focuses on innovative power conversion architectures utilizing modular multi-level converters that facilitate
the optimal integration of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) with the primary power grid through efficiently utilizing distributed energy
storage systems and renewable energy sources. The presented topologies have been researched and assessed in terms of scalability,
efficiency, and peak charging power, with their impact on the primary grid’s power quality taken into account. This article’s
perspective covers the many types of charging methods for EV batteries, identifies various techniques to maximize energy storage
systems, examines a hybrid energy storage system, and investigates the benefits of a swappable energy storage system. The research
gap identified in the existing research that can be filled by additional investigation in the future.
The layout of this review paper is split into six parts. Section II parallels this presentation by presenting a charging infrastructure for
electric car applications. A summary of dc-dc converters used in quick charging technologies is presented in section III. Segment IV
deals with relevant topologies of dc-dc converters in order to electric battery cars, electric hybrid vehicle plug-in along with rapid-
charge converter topologies. Section V discusses a critical comparison of charging methods and probable future research ap­
proaches in designing and developing new rapid charging technologies to meet commercial and social needs. Finally, RE-based
freestanding hybrid EV charging stations’ ESS designs are described in Section VI. Section VII investigates the recent development
of FC, its architecture, and its infrastructures. Section VIII of this paper provides an overview of the charging technology used for
heavy-duty electric vehicles in the European Union (EU).

2. Infrastructure for electric vehicle charging

2.1. Charging standards

Due to major fluctuations, EV charging standards can vary according to the parameters of the global Low Voltage Grid, such as
voltage and frequency either be locally or nationally standardized, with global errors [31].
The IEC standards are also found in European countries. The SAE principles are mostly used in the United States of America. China
is the primary consumer of the GB/T specifications [32]. The Automotive Engineers’ Company (SAE) of North America defines
conductive methods for charging EVs in the standard SAE J1772 [33]. GB/T 20234.2 and GB/T 20234.3 are detailed specifications for
AC and DC conductor charging connectors [34]. The wireless power transfer (WPT) interface transmission protocol includes the IEC
61980- 2 specification for electric vehicles (EVs). It specifies the communication standards for EVs as well as charging infrastructure. A
main list of these standards is given in Table 1 [35].

2.2. Charging modes

A variety of charging modes have recently been introduced to address the basic needs of electric vehicles in various contexts. The
charging modes defined by the SAE J1772, IEC 61851-1, and GB/T 18487-1 standards are commonly used around the world [36]. The
most popular AC slow loading mode is AC Level 1, which can be easily accomplished using the inboard power converter from a
household socket. Normally, the Model 1 takes several hours to charge in this situation [37]. A safety mechanism integrated into the
cable connecting the EV to the connector is a possible solution to this issue when charging from a domestic socket outlet. When
operated through this charging mode, known as Mode 2 (AC Level 2), can reach a power demand of up to 19.2 kW by using a 3∅
voltage AC source [38]. AC quick charging is known as Mode 3. Special power units with control pilot function are needed as EVs are
linked to the power grid to resolve changes in AC voltage and frequency values between regions and meet the need for increased

Table 1
Electric Vehicle charging Standards.
STANDARD IEC [35] SAE [33] GB/T [32]

Connector 62196-1 J1772 20234-1

62196-2 20234-2
62196-3 20234-3
Communication 61850 J2293-2 27930
61980-2 J2836
61980-3 J2847
Topology 61439-5 J2953 18487-1
61851-1 29781
61851-21 33594
61851-22
Safety 60364-7 J1766 18384-1
60529 18384-3
61140 J2894-2 37295
62040

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charging capacity [38]. With a power level of 400 kW, Mode 4, when used in conjunction with a DC offboard charging unit, is a viable
option. Tesla also specifies the charging mode specifications. According to the most widely used guidelines, Table 2 lists conductive
charging device modes [38].

2.3. Connector for charging

Various charger plug types configurations are used depending on the charging conditions and modes of various countries. Men­
nekes connectors of types 1 and 2, which are based on SAE J1772 and IEC 62196-2, are frequently used for AC charging operations in
the United States and Europe. Often level 1 and level 2 connectors are mostly used for chargers [39]. Combined Charging System (CCS)
connectors use both the Type 1 and Type 2 charging pins and two most electric vehicle users in the world use the GB/T234 socket [40].
The CHAdeMO connector, made by Tepco, became the official Japanese DC charger standard. There are two main pins for sharing of
power and one for touch. The communication protocols CAN is used for GB/T and CHAdeMO, while PLC is used by the others. In
actuality, Tesla offers a proprietary cable which can support AC and DC in the charging stations of Tesla only. The proprietors will also
obtain an adaptor for the Tesla charger that enables their cars use of category 1 connector charging points. Fig. 1 summarizes the key
charging outlets for electric car connectors [41].

2.4. Charging system

EV charging systems typically have several power outlets, inverters/converters, and an internal battery [42]. Fig. 2 depicts a
conventional green energy-powered grid-connected charging device. Renewable technology can be used to charge EVs and excess
power is sent converters/Inverters to grid. Combine various sources of energy to power electric vehicles with a common power source.
The battery management system (BMS) controls battery resources and communicates with the battery [43]. Table 3 shows
commercially available of OFF-board EV battery charger and Table 4 shows specification of commercially available EV battery
charger.

3. Converter topologies for fast charging

3.1. AC-DC converter for quick charging

The AC bus architecture as shown in Fig. 3, the Fast-Charging Architectural design includes high-frequency transformers stages for
AC-DC conversion and, while the dc bus design stage low-frequency transformer includes a specific AC-DC conversion stage. According
to the SAEJ1772 standard, 600 v and 550 A of dc voltage in fast charging to charge the electric car in less than 10 min, the electric
vehicle should be charged, and a quick charger should be put outside the vehicle [45].

3.1.1. Bridgeless 3∅ boost converter

The 3∅ boost ac/dc full-bridge topology for the power conversion of higher power factor values is corrected as shown in Fig. 4. Any
changes in load and phase resistances alter the sliding mode regulation for the optimal output voltage and any uncertainties, resulting
in a power factor value close to unity [46]. This topology explores the application of hysteresis regulation with frequency constant to a

Table 2
Charging modes of conductive charging devices [36–38].
AC/DC Levels for charger Maximum voltage Maximum current Power Level Estimated charging time

STANDARDS OF SAE
AC Level I (On-board) 120 V (US), 20 A 1.9 KW 7–17 h
230 V (EU) 12 A 1.4 KW
AC Level II (On-board) 240 V (US), 32 A 8 KW 0.4– – 7 h
400 V (EU) 80 A 19.2 KW
DC Level I (Off-board) (200–450) V 80 A 40 KW 0.4–1.2 h
DC Level II (Off-board) (200–600) V 200 A 90 KW 0.2–0.4 h
DC Level III (Off-board) (200–600) V 400 A 240 KW 0.1–0.2 h
STANDARDS OF IEC
AC Level I (On-board) 1∅, 250 V 16 A 4–7.5 KW 7h
3∅, 480 V, 16 A
AC Level II (On-board) 1∅, 250 V 32 A 8–15 KW 3h
3∅, 480 V 32 A
AC Level III (On-board) 480 V 250 A 60–120 KW 30 min
DC Level IV (Off-board) 500 V 400 A 1000–2000 KW <0.1 h
STANDARDS OF GB/T STANDARDS
AC Level 1 1∅, 250 V 8A 27.7 KW 1.5 h–8 h
AC Level II 1∅, 250 V 16 A
AC Level III 1∅, 250 V 32 A
3∅, 440 V 63 A
DC Level IV 750 V, 1000 V 250 A 250 KW <0.1 h

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Fig. 1. Charging outlets of EVs connector.

Fig. 2. Electric Vehicle Charging system.

Table 3
Specification of OFF-board EV battery charger [44].
Manufacturer ABB TRITIUM PHIHONG TESLA EVTEC ABB

Model Tera 53 Veefil - RT Integrated Type Supercharger Espresso & charge Terra HP
Power 50 KW 50 KW 120 KW 135 KW 150 KW 350 KW
Input voltage 480Vac 380–480 Vac 380 Vac–480 Vac 380–480 Vac 400 Vac 400 Vac
600–900 Vac
Output voltage 200–500 V 200–750 V 200–750 V 50–410 V 170–500 V 150–920 V
Output current 120 A 125 A 240 A 330 A 300 A 375 A
Connector CCS Type-1 CCS Type 1&2 GB/T Supercharger SAE combo-1 SAE combo-1
CHAdeMO 1.0 CHAdeMO 1.0 CHAdeMO 1.0 CHAdeMO 1.0

Table 4
Specification of commercial EV battery charger [44].
EV Model Nissan Renault Zoe BMW X3 VW ID.4 Hyundai Chevrolet Tesla Model JAC Chery eQ
Leaf R135 Pro S IONIQ 5 Bolt Y IEV7S/E

Year 2021 2020 2021 2019 2020

Region Europe US China/Japan
Motor power (KW) 110 100 125 150 160 150 201 50 30
Battery capacity 40 54.6 43 82 73 66 75 24 22
(KWh)
Charging time 3 h 22 2 h 22 min 3 h 15 7 h 30 min 6 h 9 min 10 h 7 h 30 min 2 h 26 2 h 14
min min min min
OBC Rating (KW) 11 43 11 11 11 6.6 11/22 11 11

3∅ boost converter. When converter output voltage exceeds the maximum phase neutral input voltage by three times, this technique is
employed [47].

3.1.2. Vienna rectifiers, three phases

The Vienna rectifier is a 3∅, three-level rectifier used to increase power factor, decrease the harmonic current, and reduce reactive
power pollution in a dc charging pile. The current hysteresis regulation is used to control the Vienna rectification mechanism swiftly
and stably [48]. The topology employs virtual synchronous motor power on the Vienna rectifier to increase flexibility of the grid to

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Fig. 3. AC bus Architecture.

Fig. 4. Three phase boost converters without a bridge.

large-scale electric vehicle access. Electric vehicle chargers with periodic load swapping maintains the output voltage stability and low
total harmonic distortion of current, allowing the power device to respond to voltage and frequency fluctuations and increase inertia
damping at the interface. It offers the advantages of a high-power factor and low switch voltage tension, a high-power density, and a
steady output voltage, and it is increasingly being used for the front-end stage of the AC/DC component of electric vehicle chargers
[49]. The finite set model predictive control algorithm for Vienna rectifier for electric vehicle charger is used to control input current
distortions without requiring the importance of converter idealities and their variants [50].
The key switches Q1, Q2, and Q3 are all switched off, so the minimum voltage in each capacitor filter C1 and C2 is the input’s

Fig. 5. Three-phase Vienna rectifier.

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maximum line-to-line voltage. Therefore, the converter’s minimal boost voltage requirement is double the line-to-line voltage as seen
in Fig. 5 [51].

3.1.3. Three phases three-level neutral point clamped converter

The central converter topology is a neutral point clamp converter, and a novel balance strategy is used to increase the operating
range of the power converter in electric vehicles [52]. A three-phase dual output neutral point clamped three-level inverter topology
produces two groups of alternating current and voltage outputs with adjustable frequency and amplitude. It resolves the neutral point
voltage balance and acknowledges circuit modulation [53]. As seen in Fig. 6, a 3∅ three-level neutral point converter provides several
options for linking input sources and delivering a five-level output voltage. As a result, the dv/dt rating is lower, and the filtering
requirement is reduced. The negative and positive dc buses have a power imbalance that causes grid-side current instability [54].
Table 5 shows the comparative analysis of AC/DC topologies and Table 6 shows specification of AC-DC converter for quick charging.

3.2. DC-DC converter for quick charging

The dc bus charging station as shown in Fig. 7. There are three steps involved in the charger. The rectifier power factor is controlled,
and the DC-DC converter receives a steady dc voltage. While the DC-DC converter stage can be used to regulate the charging current for
improved response [55]. Unipolar and bipolar dc converters are utilized for ac-dc/dc-dc conversion in electric vehicle fast charging
application [56].

3.2.1. Multiple interleaved buck converter

The Multiple interleave buck converter has low voltage tension and a high step-down conversion ratio, and it is most widely used in
wherever requiring a lesser voltage in output by giving a high input. The switches are linked together with connecting capacitors; it
works under less than 50% of duty cycle with high frequency [57].
A buck converter with a single phase is used to power the batteries. It has a high inductor value, which raises the cost and scale, but
this is mitigated by using a multiphase interleaved buck converter, as seen in Fig. 8. The converter distributes current among the
multiphase modules and reduces the size of the inductor. This converter is not suitable for a device where a front transformer is present
at high frequency harmonics [58].

3.2.2. Full bridge LLC resonant converter

The topology is used for electric car charging. High efficiency, volume, electrically isolation, minimal electromagnetic interference,
low voltage tension, a broad output voltage range, and a high operating frequency are all advantages of this converter [59]. The bridge
resonant converter for dc-dc conversion as indicated in Fig. 9, for fast charging. It achieves zero voltage switching, with no rectifier
diode oscillation voltage and no reverse recuperation current [60]. The major downside is to control the battery’s output voltage, this
topology necessitates the use of a broad range of switching frequencies this complicates the transformer and filter design, and when the
battery voltage is down, the converter’s operation becomes less efficient [61].

3.2.3. Full bridge phase shift converter

A full-bridge phase shift converter used in control applications as shown in Fig. 10. These converter feature are, a fast control
mechanism, low current stress and soft switching for the primary switches. This converter has a number of drawbacks, including
excessive flowing of current during the freewheeling and excessive voltage stress on the bridge rectifier [62]. Table 7 shows the
comparison of dc/dc topologies and Table 8 shows the specification of dc/dc topologies.

Fig. 6. Three phase three-level NPC converter.

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Table 5
Comparison of AC/DC Topologies [46,48,52].
2-Level 3-Level NPC 3-Level Vienna

THD of output current High Very Low Very low

Peak voltage stress on active and passive devices High Low Low
Switching loss High Low Mid
Power density Low Higher High
Conduction loss Low loss Very- High loss High loss
Efficiency Low ɳ Very- high ɳ High ɳ
Cost Low cost High cost Moderate cost
Control Easy Moderate Moderate
Input inductor size Large Low Low
Thermal management Vast Challenging due to unsymmetrical loss distribution Mild
Bidirectional Yes Yes No

Table 6
Specification of AC-DC converter for quick charging.
Topology Power Frequency Output voltage Number of Switches/ THD Efficiency
(KW) (KHz) (V) Diodes

Bridgeless 3 phase boost converter [47] 1.5 200 400 6/8 <1.77% 98.2
Three phase Vienna Rectifier [49–51] 1.8 50 700 6/6 3.5% 98.8
Three phase three level neutral point clamped 30 10 858 12/6 2% 97
converter [53,54]

Fig. 7. DC bus charging station.

Fig. 8. LLC buck converter with multiple interleaved stages.

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Fig. 9. Full bridge LLC Resonant converter.

Fig. 10. Bridge phase shift converter.

Table 7
Comparison of dc/dc topologies [59,62].
Full bridge - LLC resonant converter Full bridge-phase shift converter

Peak device stress on primary and secondary side High Mid low
Transformer KVA rating High Medium
Power output to transformer KVA rating Low Medium
Input and output capacitor RMS currents High Medium
Operation Unidirectional Unidirectional
Conduction losses High Medium
Control complexity Moderate Very simple
Wide battery voltage, fixed bus voltage No, needs additional DC/DC stage Yes (with reduced efficiency)
Paralleling modules Intensive Easy
Switching frequency Fixed/High/(Si/SIC) High
switching loss when Turn ON ZVS ZVS
switching loss when Turn OFF Low (ZCS) High
Total losses Low Higher

Table 8
Specification of dc/dc topologies.
Topology Power Freq (KHz) Output voltage(V) No. of Switches/Diodes Efficiency

Phase shifted Full 1.2 100 209–350 4/4 95%

Bridge converter [62]
LLC Full bridge resonant converter [60,61] 3.3 83.33–220 250–450 4/4 98.2%
Interleaved buck converter [58] 1 16-32 350 4/4 98.5

4. Converter classification of battery and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

As seen in Fig. 11, electric vehicle converters are Classified in two different types: non-isolated and isolated. In electric vehicle for
medium to high power non-isolated converters are utilized, while low and medium power isolated converters for use in hybrid cars
[63].

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Fig. 11. BEVS & PHEVS converter classification.

4.1. Non-isolated dc-dc electric vehicle converter

4.1.1. Cuk converter

The output voltage is inverted and lesser or higher than input voltage is cuk converter. The topology for an Electric vehicle is
designed using two switches, two inductors, and two capacitors, as shown in Fig. 12 A capacitor is the primary energy storage portion,
where current flows continuously. The coils will share a common magnetic core, reducing ripple and increasing efficiency. The energy
flow is bi-directional by using a diode and a switch. The inductors L1 and L2 transform the energy from the battery storage system to the
electric motor. It can operate current operating modes both continuously and discontinuously [64]. The voltage gain can be written as
Vo − D
= (1)
Vi 1 − D
The cuk converter combines a buck and a boost converter with zero ripple. It consists of a single switching system and a shared
capacitor. At the input, the DC voltage is transferred with reversed polarity to DC voltage on the output. The cuk converter with a single
switched inductor in an Electric vehicle offers high step-up or step-down gain, less current ripple, and reduced component. The cuk
converter makes the constant input current and the output stress to be more or less than the input stress compared to Buck, Boost and
Buck-Boot converter [65].
For high power factor adjustment, the Bridgeless cuk converter is used in electric vehicle battery charges. The charger efficiency is
increased, and conduction loss is reduced by operating over one switching cycle, and thereby added advantage is unwanted capacitor
coupling is removed [66].
The topology of an extra winding, auxiliary diode, and auxiliary inductor are used in discontinuous capacitor voltage mode of a
soft-switching. It attains soft-switching operation without any active switches, and it reduces switching losses and also recycles the
leakage inductance energy [67]. In Bridgeless PFC cuk converter, when operating in discontinuous conduction mode the efficiency is
satisfactorily improved in the Electric Vehicle charger and battery current is regulated by using constant current and constant voltage
methods. It eliminates the extra inverse amplifier to change the polarity conversion. The advantage is a reduction of sensor and zero
current switching [68].

Fig. 12. CUK converter.

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4.1.2. Bidirectional converter and coupled inductor

In comparison to other converters, the coupled inductor with a bidirectional converter for a single magnetic core electric vehicle
application demands a lower volume of size as shown in Fig. 13 [69]. The voltage gain can be written as:
Vo 2 + n − D
= (2)
vi 1− D
The coupled inductor and voltage multiplier are combined to increase the gain of voltage. The remained stored energy is recovered
by applying passive clamps, and efficiency is improved. The high step-up continuous input current makes it suitable for rapid charging
of EVs application [70]. Across the switches, the voltage stress is lower in the coupled inductor bidirectional converter. On the low
voltage side, an interleaved technique achieves low current ripple, while phase shift angle modulation regulates the output voltage
[71]. For high-power electrical applications, the interleaved boost converter’s coupled inductor is used to increase its efficiency and
less electromagnetic emission. The Electrical performance is improved by connecting the inductor in the front end, which is
magnetically coupled. The DC flux level in the core is negligible, and the ripple current in the inductor is less by providing an inverse
coupling than directly coupled configuration [72].
In electric vehicle applications, the coupled inductor is primarily utilized for high voltage gain and low switch voltage tension and
also alleviating output diode’s reverse recovery issues [73]. it is tested using the buck and boost modes of activity in electric vehicles, a
bidirectional coupling inductor DC/DC converter is used to control the DC voltage [74]. In an electric vehicle application, the topology
of a DC/DC bidirectional converter with inductor coupled conducts bi-directional flow of current between input source and 3∅
inverter [75].

4.1.3. Bidirectional converters with quasi z-source

The Bidirectional converters with quasi Z-source consists of three switches S1, S2, S3, three inductors, and three capacitors as shown
in Fig. 14. The converter will work in either step-up or step-down mode, allowing power to flow between the low and high voltage
sides. S1 is the primary control transfer in step-up mode; it is switched ON, and S2 and S3 are synchronous rectifiers; they are switched
OFF. Power is passed from S1 to C2 and L2 after the capacitor C1 is discharged. The duty cycle is taken as d1 = 1− d2 = 1− d3 = dboost. The
voltage gain Mboost and duty cycle dboost may be expressed as in continuous conduction mode
1 + dboost
Mboost = (3)
1 − dboost

In step-down mode S2 and S3 operate as the main power switches, it is switched ON and S1 is the synchronous rectifiers is switched OFF.
C1 is discharged from S2, while L1, L2, and C2 are charged from S3. The duty cycle is taken as d2 = d3 = 1− d1 = dbuck [76]. Mbuck voltage
gain and duty period dbuck in continuous conduction mode can be written as
dbuck
Mbuck = (4)
2 − dbuck
Electric cars use DC-DC converters with a single switched capacitor that are quasi-Z-source. It provides a high gain in the output
voltage, low output voltage stress across the diodes, less current ripples in the switches, and increased performance [77]. The switched
Quasi Z-source inverter uses a switched impedance network, provides an excellent boosting capacity, low voltage stress through
switches and capacitors, low power consumption and a continuous input current suitable for electric vehicle applications [78]. The
dc-dc framework that has been built in extension of quasi-Z-source converters to n levels. It provides increased efficiency due to the
increased voltage gain. In a traditional quasi-Z-source converter, if any part fails, the whole structure is disrupted. In this converter, the
fault management system will isolate the stage and transfer power continuously [79]. In a hybrid energy system for an electric car, a
switching quasi-Z-source dc-dc converter is used. Three simple control switches comprise the structure, and it benefits includes a
considerably wider voltage gain bandwidth for an absolute common ground in step-up and step-down mode. The static and dynamic
outputs are appropriate, and it can connect to a low voltage battery pack and a high voltage direct current bus in an electric car driven
by a hybrid energy system [80]. A bidirectional inverter with a quasi-Z source is intended for use in a battery storage system, and
various controllers are used to optimize the battery current stress. Time domain and frequency domain controllers are used to regulate
power [81].

Fig. 13. Coupled inductors with Bi-directional converter.

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Fig. 14. Bidirectional converter with quasi-z source.

4.1.4. Multidevice interleaved bi-directional converter

The Multidevice interleaved bi-directional converter configuration consists of two power sources, a battery storage system and
switched capacitor as shown in Fig. 15. It makes use of interleaving techniques and drives multiple power stages in parallel to the gate
signals, which were modified by 3600/n, where n is the step count. Switching frequency that is effective and is proportional to step
count. Each switching system operates at the same frequency, but with an 180◦ phase difference. The current is splintering. Depending
on the duty ratio, the switching sequences of each phases can overlap [82]. The duty cycle of MDIBC may be stated as
( )
1 Vi
D= 1− (5)
N Vo
Bi-directional converter in three phases is popularly increase in Electric vehicles because it provides better performance and en­
sures output current ripple is minimum, high efficiency, and cost-effective [83]. To further maximize the output of the power train, the
optimized power electronic interfaces for battery electric vehicles it often handles power flow for each operating mode. This converter
can help to minimize the active and passive elements size, ripples of voltage and current and also increasing the device reliability of
battery-electric vehicles [84]. The converter is primarily suitable for a hybrid energy source in electric vehicle load. Load power is
flexibly distributed between input sources. Voltage harmonics, torque ripples in motors are reduced by using a multilevel inverter in
Electric vehicles. Two distinct operations are used to monitor the energy storage system’s charging and discharging states. A
small-signal model in the converter control system is used [85]. The three-port converter connects a Green power supply, battery
backup and charge at the same time. The power flow converter is a fixed energy conversion device that achieves high performance,
integration, and power density [86].
The high voltage conversion gain is accomplished in dc/dc converters with multiple inputs and a single output for electric vehicles
and their advantages are no limitation for switching duty cycle, less current stress, the control range is more comprehensive for
different input powers. If any input fails, it continuously provides energy to the load [87]. For high-power electric vehicle applications,
a multidevice interleaved boost is used. It reduces output voltage ripples, input current ripples, volume, and increases the performance
when handling high current at the input side [88]. The simplicity of multiport converters can be used to charge batteries in electric cars
by using hybrid sources [89]. The topology combines current doubler and buck chopper using galvanic isolation at high-frequency in
multiport converter. This converter achieves multiple current path smaller output capacitor and significantly less conduction loss [90].
The validated synchronous digitally operated multiphase multi-switch boost converter is an alternative to interleaved boost con­
verters. In the continuous conduction mode provides part count reduction and size. Its characteristics include low input current ripples,
high current capacity, even distribution of power loss, and high performance. This converter is mostly intended for use in the front end

Fig. 15. Multi-device Interleaved Bi-directional converter.

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and rear end of fuel cell electric vehicle applications [91]. The interleaved multiphase, multi-switch boost converter is mainly intended
for use in fuel cell electric vehicle applications. It has enhanced current module-level capabilities by sequential operation of several
parallel power and switches. By selecting proper parallel switches, the current sharing problem is avoided [92].

4.1.5. Switched capacitor bi-directional converter

The switch-capacitor Bi-directional converter configuration consists of four switches, three capacitors, and one inductor, as shown
in Fig. 16. As S1, S3 are switched on, current is passed from the battery storage device to L, and by C2, capacitor C1 is charged. S2, S4 are
switched ON in step-down mode, while S1, S3 are turned off. C2 charges, followed by C1 being charged from Co [93]. The voltage gain
of switched-capacitor Bi-directional converter is expressed as:
Vo 2
= (6)
Vi 1 − D
In an electric car, the switched capacitor interleaved bi-directional converter has an enormous voltage gain. The low voltage side
features low current ripple, low voltage stress across switching devices, and an input/output common ground [94]. The low voltage
side of the bidirectional interleaved switching capacitor dc-dc converter is connected in order to achieve a high step-up/step-down
voltage gain. By connecting to a high voltage, it reduces current ripple and achieves a high voltage gain. Besides, without adding
extra hardware’s synchronous rectification operation, it is carried out and increases the converter’s efficiency [95]. To reduce the total
switch, phase shift switch capacitor integrated with a PWM converter and regulate the load or battery phase shift angle and duty cycle
should control [96]. A bidirectional switching capacitor dc-dc converter can be used to control the voltage gain for electric cars
equipped with a hybrid energy source. It has several benefits, including reduced part count, increased voltage range, low voltage
tension, and common land. Additionally, a synchronous rectifier enables zero voltage switching without the use of additional hard­
ware, thus increasing the performance of the converter [97]. To enhance the voltage, a switched capacitor replaces the pricey inductor
with a capacitor. The switched capacitor converter enables higher power density to raise or buck the voltage while still reducing part
count and cost. This converter applies to all power conversions [98]. To maintain the voltage balance of battery packs, a combined
buck-boost and switched capacitor converter based on equalizers is used [99]. Lithium-ion batteries suffer energy and power loss in
cold conditions. A regular operation of an Electric Vehicle involves heating. AC heating systems are unsuitable for use in electric
vehicle applications. Specifically, a sine wave heater is used, and its features are low cost, small size and excellent stability and ease of
control [100]. Non isolated converters for electric vehicles are compared in Table 9.

4.2. Isolated converter (dc-dc) for electric vehicle

4.2.1. Flyback converter

A Flyback converter configures the electric vehicle. It has two switches, two capacitors, and for isolation, the transformer is placed
as shown in Fig. 17. When the switch is in ON mode, voltage is created on each side while transformer action takes place [101]. The
magnetizing current for the closed switch and open switch operation becomes
VsDT
ΔiLimclosed = (7)
Lm

N2
Vs = Vp (8)
N1

− Vo (1 − D)T N1
ΔiLimopen = (9)
Lm N1
The fly-back converter is often used to transfer between AC and DC as well as DC and AC and is insulated in galvanic form between
incoming and output. It’s like a squeeze converter then the inducer is divided into a transformer form. So, a further advantage is the
voltage ratio compounded [102]. During on state, energy is stored, and while in an OFF state, it transfers energy [103]. The flyback
converter can be operated in variable frequency. Due to its low cost and high separation characteristics, it is mostly used in low power
applications. The performance of converter efficiency is affected by high-frequency losses and switching losses [104]. It is used in high

Fig. 16. Switched capacitor bidirectional converter.

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Table 9
Non-isolated converters for electric vehicles are compared.
Type DC-DC Objective Conclusions Advantages Drawbacks
converter

Non-isolated CC [64–66] To avoid a large amount of energy being Ensure that the output is smooth and free of Inductor’s peak-to-peak ripple Stabilization is difficult
converter wasted. ripples. current is lower. Resonance is uncontrolled and undampened.
Continuous input and output
current
SCBC To obtain high gain of voltage while also A high level of efficiency above 90%. economical. several ripples in the current.
[93–95] achieving high level of performance Convenient design Improving efficiency across a broad range of
Current output is limited. input-to-output voltage ratio is difficult.
CIBC [69,70] To minimize ripples in output current and Increased efficiency is achieved by Size is little. There is limited possibility of failure.
15

inductor current. increasing the coupling coefficient. The price is low. Voltage ripples are not taken into account.
Ripples have been reduced.
QZBC Achieve a broad gain range and a perfect The maximum and minimum efficiencies are Reduce switch-related stress. Input current is discontinuous
[76–78] common ground. 96.44% and 88.17% Component rating is reduced. The capacitor is subjected to a high voltage stress.
Capability to buck/boost.
MDBIC To keep the number of passive components to Undergoes lower EMI as well as low stress. Current stress levels are low. Owing to the large number of elements, the circuit
[82–84] a minimum. Decreases current and voltage ripple by half Extremely effective. is complex.
To decrease ripples in input current and as compared to IBC. Ideal for conversion of large Under load heterogeneity, the duty period is
output voltage. Reduces the bulk of the inductor and amounts of energy. extremely vulnerable.
To achieve adequate control and a rapid capacitor by half as comparison to IBC. A straightforward way to It’s difficult to study in both steady state and
transient reaction. control. intermittent environments.
Reduced the size of the heat sink
and component.

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Fig. 17. Fly-back converter.

load voltage application due to elimination of freewheeling diode and saving the cost by removing the inductive filter in filtered output
[105]. Improved numerical model of the flyback converter is designed for Electric vehicle consists of transformer and resistor and
integrated circuits [106]. Multipower port topology is used in hybrid electric vehicles to handle multiple power sources and maintain
wide load variation, high voltage gain, less ripple current, and modular structure parallel energy battery [107].

4.2.2. Push-pull converter

A rectifier diode, condenser and transformer as well as four switches S1 S2, S3& S4 at the same time are used for the push-pull
conversion for the EV train as illustrated under Fig. 18. The output transformer determines the turn ratio, and the output voltage is
regulated by feed-forward by transformer action [108]. The voltage gain is expressed as
Vo
= nD (10)
Vin
Electric vehicle applications are well-suited to the 3 ∅ push-pull converter. it resolves the converter’s hard-switching issues, and it
realizes zero voltage switching. Thus, lowers swapping loss and boosts efficiency [109].
Soft-start mechanism is used to restrict the starting power draw, and a push-pull dc/dc converter with soft start PID configuration is
used as power transfer for the auxiliary system in electric vehicles [110].

4.2.3. Isolated zero voltage switching dc converter

As seen in Fig. 19, On the input and output sides of the transformer, the zero-voltage switching converter circuit is a half bridge
circuit. The switches and capacitors combined to form a soft switching in the converter. It works in both buck - boost modes [111]. The
duty cycle for ZVSC is expressed as
n x Vout
(1 − D) × D = (11)
2 Vin
A capacitive filter of dc-dc converter is used in the charging of PHEV batteries. It can accommodate soft switching, clamps the
voltage through the output rectifier and has a low di/dt ratio, which reduces reverse recovery losses and improves reliability across an
inductive output filter [112]. The phase shift zero voltage switching converter is a complete bridge phase shift converter, and more
suitable for electric vehicles. The maximum voltage in switches is the same as that of the half-bridge switch as compared to the
push-pull converter and not need a center-tapped transformer that it makes it more compact and straightforward circuit [113]. The
ZVS Bi-directional dc-dc converter’s topology has the advantage of no total device rating penalty, high reliability, which is utilized in
medium-to-high -power applications, such as auxiliary power source in fuel cell vehicles [114]. To reach zero-current switching
conditions for the lead lag, an auxiliary transformer is used in a zero-voltage zero-current full bridge converter with insulation
transformer. It works from no load to short load, providing high performance [115]. To ensure that the converter operates at zero
voltage zero current and to achieve maximum performance. The system relies on a current-driven rectifier to clamp the output diode
bridge’s voltage even under all load situations [116]. In the case of hybrid electric vehicles, a bi-directional converter is frequently
used to charge and drain a battery stack at the same time. It runs at zero voltage switching and creates a significant voltage diversity,

Fig. 18. Push-pull converter.

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Fig. 19. Zero - Voltage switching converter.

allowing battery bank voltage gain to be transferred to higher voltage level [117].

4.2.4. Resonant converter

The architecture of a resonant converter, as shown in Fig. 20. In electric vehicle and vehicle-to-grid applications, the bidirectional
resonant dc-dc converter is employed over a huge range of voltage levels, results in great efficiency [118]. The quality factor(Q) and
resonant frequency (fr) for dc-dc resonant converter is expressed as
√̅̅̅̅
Lr

(12)
Cr
Q=
Rac

1
Fr = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (13)
2π Lr Cr
The quick charger light electric vehicle includes an AC/DC rectifier and an LLRC with a full bridge, because of its high reliability
and minimal switching failure due to zero voltage switching. It is commonly utilized throughout the industry [119].
The unregulated resonant converter topology is in responsible of whole system galvanic separation, using constant current/con­
stant voltage method in buck converter charges the battery within the electric vehicle, and achieving high performance at all times
during the battery charging profile [120]. Electric vehicle fast charger benefits from higher operational efficiency from LLC resonant
converter. It also reduces conduction by increasing lossless resonance and switching losses [121]. The current and voltage in the circuit
are formed using a virtually resonant bidirectional converter. Switching of zero voltage is achieved. In a converter of high frequency,
switching loss exceeds power loss soft swapping results in complete failure elimination. As a result, the working temperature and
heatsink are lowered. The problem with using GaN switches in bidirectional converters is of high voltage tension, which is handled in
an active stacked configuration by connecting the HBGM [122]. The primary switches of a double full bridge LLC resonant converter
are used to charge batteries for electric vehicles at constant current and constant voltage. The ZVS and ZCS is achieved in the
continuous charge action for current and voltage for all primary switches, which leads to high efficiency [123]. The topology of
two-way resonant converter for electric vehicle to grid communication over a wide range of battery voltages, provides a
high-efficiency. These switches are hard to turn off both in forward and reverse direction, two bottom switches on the front side are

Fig. 20. Resonant dc-dc converter.

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used for Sic- MOSFET. It is a resonant converter for full bridge pulse width modulation and is a resonant half bridge boost converter in
the transverse direction. It has benefit of having a broad reverse voltage range [124].

4.2.5. Isolated dc multiport converter

The Multiport Isolated Converter is used to restore power from regenerative braking to the input sources. It is combined with
multiple input sources, increasing the converter’s performance. The addition of a transformer raises the converter’s weight. As the
number of devices increases, synchronization gets more complex as shown in Fig. 21 [125]. The energy flow between the ports is
maintained by duty cycle and phase shift regulation, it is used to maximize system operation in order to minimize the overall system
failures. The control is primarily applicable to hybrid electric vehicles’ multiple voltage electrical systems [126]. An isolated multiport
converter can regulate power flow in multiple directions and connect electric vehicles to the grid. A smart microgrid is used to deliver
power to loads in order to mitigate the impact of load shedding and increase energy efficiency. This microgrid requires an electric
vehicle and other distributed energy storage units [127]. The interleaving technique links the input sources while reducing input
current and output voltage ripples [128]. Table 10 compares isolated dc/dc converters; Table 11 compares dc/dc converters generally
in electric cars; Table 12 provides specifications for both isolated and non-isolated converters.

5. Fast charging techniques

Charging and discharging affect battery performance, safety, and durability. Each charging technique for LIBs in EVs has benefits
and drawbacks. These charging techniques vary in charging time, efficiency, battery temperature, lifetime, SOH, energy loss, and
deterioration. Below are some current quick charging techniques. Every charging technique affects battery life [129].

5.1. Constant current charging method (CC)

The primary and frequently utilized CC battery charger is rugged. Fig. 22a shows this way of charging the battery at a tiny constant
C-rate. When Vb reaches its pre-set value, this procedure stops charging. First used to charge NiCad and NiMH batteries, and subse­
quently LIBs.
This method is charging the current rate determines battery function. The hardest part of this strategy is choosing a charge C-rate
that balances capacity usage and battery charging speed. Using high current rates (C-rates), CC charging speeds up but accelerates
battery aging. Low charging current rates allow high-capacity use but reduce battery performance and decrease EV use. Overcharging
permanently ruins the battery; hence this CC charging method demands a 100% fully charged detector. This is not easy to implement
and increases system complexity and expense. This charging method causes undercharging, overcharging, energy loss, and excessive
temperatures. Overcharging damages both electrodes and increases energy loss and temperature [130].

5.2. Constant voltage charging method (CV)

This method avoids overcharging by charging the CV to adjust the battery voltage. As shown in Fig. 22b, this charging technique
reduces the battery charging current until it reaches the specified threshold. Early charging requires a high current flow to maintain the
controlled terminal voltage. However, this fast charging rate increases the battery’s temperature, resulting in grid breakdown and
increased heat loss. The key challenge with this charging technique is finding the optimal constant voltage value to balance charging
speed, battery capacity use, and electrolyte breakdown. CV charging speeds up charging but damages batteries and wastes energy. It

Fig. 21. Isolated DC Multiport converter.

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Table 10
Comparison of Isolated dc/dc converters.
Type DC-DC converter Objective Outcomes Benefits Drawbacks

ISOLATED Fly-back converter To accept a wide variety of input Reduces leakage inductance to an appropriate performance is separated from Ripple current.
CONVERTER [101–103] voltages level. the primary. Losses are higher.
Multiple output voltages are More capacitance at the output and input.
possible. In the compensation loop is the right half
Ability to control multiple pole.
output voltages.
Push-pull converter To adjust the DC power supply’s starting power is limited. Transistors and transformers Transformer for the central tap.
[108,109] voltage On the main line, it achieves low current and are used more efficiently. In the flux walking phenomenon, two
voltage. EMI is reduced. switches are rarely used.
Filtering isn’t as necessary.
Zero voltage switched To provide enough power over a wide In all load conditions, achieves zero voltage EMI is poor. It is necessary to use a large capacitor.
19

capacitor [111–113] variety of load variations.
To achieve an adequate level of soft-
switching reliability.
The output diode bridge voltage is
clamped.
Resonant converter To minimize magnetic components
[118–120] and passive filters
Multiport Isolated dc-dc Optimizing the system’s efficiency by
converter [125,126] controlling the duty cycle.
To reduce overall device losses as
much as possible.
To look at the complex analysis and
the control strategy that goes with it.
switching.
The symmetric auxiliary circuits ensure a safe
and efficient operation under no-load
conditions.
Achieves a high level of step up/step down
capability.
Achieves a high level of quality.
Offers a broad range of voltage gain
Achieves a dynamic response is fast.
Power flow can be regulated independently.
High efficiency is achieved by duty cycle and
phase shift management.
Switching losses is low.
There is no need for an
additional clamping circuit.
Low cost. Conversion rate is
very high.
High productivity.
Voltage gain is high.
Low ripple current in the
output voltage.
Isolation by galvanic action.
Current ratings are High.
Fault-tolerance is lacking.
Expensive controller.
Complex integrated transformer.
Under steady-state and intermittent
conditions, complex analysis is performed.
The duty cycle under load shifts leads to
high sensitivity.
Synchronization is difficult to obtain.

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 M.C. Annamalai and N. Amutha prabha
Table 11
Comparison of dc/dc converters in electric vehicles.
DC-DC Converter Current/Voltage Switching Complexity of Control Circuit High power Conversion EMI Suppression Cost Voltage Gain Active Passive
Ripple Frequency components components

D SW HFT L C

CC [65,68] Simple High Simple Appropriate Reduced Low − D 2 2 0 2 2

1− D
SCBC [94,98] Moderate High Moderate Appropriate Needed Medium 2 4 4 0 1 3
1− D
CIBC [69,72] Moderate High Moderate Appropriate Needed Low 2+n− D 3 3 0 2 3
1− D
QZBC [77,80,81] Simple High Complex Appropriate Needed Medium 1+D 3 3 0 2 3
1− D
20

MDIBC [84,90–92] Complex Low Complex Appropriate Reduced Low 1 16 16 0 4 1

1 − nD
PPC [108,110] Simple High Complex Appropriate Reduced Low nD 4 4 1 1 1
FC [102,106,107] Simple High Moderate Not appropriate Needed Low nD 2 2 1 0 2
1− D
RC [119,121,124] Simple High Moderate Appropriate Reduced Low n [j2πfsw] 8 8 1 2 3
ZVSC [113,115, Complex Low Complex Appropriate Reduced Medium 2 4 4 1 1 5
D (1-D)
π
116]
MPIC [126,128] Complex Low Complex Appropriate Needed High n+1 12 12 1 2 1
1− D

CC-CUK converter, SCBC-Switched capacitor bidirectional converter, CIBC-coupled inductor bidirectional converter, QZBC-Quazi z-source bidirectional converter, MDIBC-Multidevice interleaved
bidirectional converter, PPC- push-pull converter, FC- Fly-back converter, RC-Resonant converter, ZVSC- Zero voltage switching converter, MPIC- Multiport Interleaved converter

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Table 12
Overall specification of isolated/non isolated converter.
S. Topology Fig Vin Vo Fs ILmax ΔILmax ΔVo No. of Turns Po D L (μH) C
No. No. (V) (V) (KHz) phase (KW) (μF)

1 Cuk converter [67,68] 12 160 300 20 – – – – – 0.85 0.29 299.67 1.32

260 0.39 2000
2 Bidirectional converter 13 48 380 40 – – – – 1:1 3.2 0.5 200 27
with coupled inductor 800 270
[71,72].
3 Bidirectional converter 14 30 200 100 6.5 – – – 1:1 0.4 0.57 300 10
with Quazi Z source 100
[79–81]
4 Multidevice interleaved 15 250, 400 20 100 10 4 3 – 30 0.5 187 160
bidirectional converter 200 160
[86–88].
5 Switched Capacitor 16 48 400 400 10 – 2.5 – – 30 0.5 100 1000
bidirectional converter
[96–98]
6 Fly back converter [106, 17 200 400 40 75 3.75 4 1 1:2 30 0.5 1200 14.64
107]
7 Pull converter [110] 18 200 400 10 15 – – – 3:5 1 0.5 780 2500
300
8 Isolated zero voltage 19 100 300 20 – – 3 1 1:3 1.6 0.35 560 10
switching converter
[114–116]
9 Resonant Converter 20 150 380 30 7.5 0.75 4 4 – 5 0.5 6670 25
[120–122]
10 Isolated multiport 21 280 400 20 – – – – 1:2 30 – 175 150
converter [127,128]

Fig. 22. (a). Constant current charging; (b). Constant voltage charging; (c). Constant current and constant voltage charging; (d). Multistage
Constant Current Charging; (e). Pulse charging method.

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causes a high charging current and damages the SOC while charging the battery from low voltage. This CV approach’s initial charging
current rate exceeds the battery’s acceptance value, collapsing the battery lattice and pulverizing the active ingredient in the battery
electrodes. CV charging is rapid because it maintains the average battery current. CV charging is slow, which limits battery charge. CV
charging rapidly affects battery life owing to electrolyte oxidation and high initial charging currents [131].

5.3. Constant current and constant voltage charging method (CCCV)

In Fig. 22c, this charging method lowers the battery charging current until it hits the threshold. Early charging requires a solid
current to sustain terminal voltage. However, quick charging raises battery temperature, causing power outages and heat losses. Two
charging stages—constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV)—are used (CV). If the battery SOC is below the specified threshold
value (say 1.2 V), the charger operates in trickle current (TC) mode with a low charging rate (0.1 C) to minimize deep discharge
damage. Fig. 22c shows the charger switching from TC to CC mode when the battery SOC exceeds 1.2 V. TC pre-charging mode. LIB
chemistry determines the CC stage’s current rate and threshold [132]. CC mode charges the battery at a constant current until it hits
the higher cut-off voltage, such as 4.2 V. When VB Equals 4.2 V, the charger automatically switches from CC to CV. CV stage extends
battery charging time by gradually reducing the charging current until it reaches the cut-off current [133]. The CV stage maintains
terminal voltage and lowers cell overvoltage stress. CCCV charging takes longer but charges almost wholly. The CC phase current rate
determines the charging duration, which ranges from 1 to 2.5 h. A low charging current rate in CC mode gives us a longer battery life,
excellent charging efficiency, and a longer charging time [134]. This CCCV approach may employ a high current rate to shorten the
charging time, but the battery’s internal IR voltage drop increases the CV phase Due to the cell’s IR drop, the charger shifts to the CV
stage before the cell reaches 4.2 V, increasing the charging time to charge the battery completely. To reduce charging time, compensate
for internal IR drop voltage or move the reference value slightly beyond the specified threshold value so cell voltage hits 4.2 V and the
charger switches to CV mode. Thus, CV mode charging time improves, reducing CCCV method charging time [135].

5.4. Multistage constant current charging method (MSCC)

Internal IR voltage loss in the CC step of the CCCV approach makes charging LIBs difficult. The conversion period from the CC to the
CV stage affects charging time and battery degradation [136]. CCCV can cause overcharging and extended charging times. MSCC
addresses these CCCV issues. MSCC charges LIBs quickly and easily. The CV stage follows two or more CC phases [137]. Fig. 22d shows
that each CC stage’s charging current rate decreases (IC1 > IC2 > IC3), showing the five MSCC phases. Each step charges the battery at
a lower constant current rate. The charger enters the next CC step when the battery voltage exceeds a threshold. Algorithms determine
this threshold value. MSCC employs Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Taguchi, Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC), Ant Colony System
(ACS), Genetic Algorithm (GA), Taguchi Orthogonal Arrays (TOA), and others to optimize charging current rate. CC rate charging will
decrease till it hits 4.2 V under minimal current. This approach charges faster than CCCV at the same beginning charging current rate
[138].

5.5. Pulse charging (PC) method

PC charging reduces the main problem of conventional charging: lengthy charging time. Fig. 22e shows this PC approach charging
the battery with pulses and rest intervals. In this charging approach, rest intervals remove concentration polarisation at the electrode/
electrolyte interface, distribute ions evenly, and reduce lithium plating. This charging technology reduces charging time, enhances
energy and charge efficiency, extends battery longevity, and degrades materials with low heat [139]. The rest intervals between pulses
evenly distribute ions in the electrolyte, so the next charge pulse absorbs the ions, increasing power transmission and reducing
charging time Advanced battery-charge systems utilize this charging approach. Pulse charging settings must be carefully selected to
maximize battery longevity and performance. Pulse charging eliminates the risk of charging batteries at low temperatures. Many
researchers have created pulse charging techniques (PCMs) that employ high peak charging voltages and currents, reducing the
charging schedule compared to the CCCV approach. Controlling pulse duty cycle, frequency, and amplitude improves charging [140].

Table 13
Comparison of battery charging approaches in EVs.
Approach Advantages Disadvantages Key elements

CC [130] Easy to implement Capacity utilization is low Charging constant current rate
Terminal condition
CV [131] Easy to implement Easy to cause the lattice Collapse of battery Charging constant voltage
Stable terminal voltage Terminal condition
CC-CV [132, Capacity utilization is Difficult to balance objectives such as charging speed, energy loss, Constant current rate in CC
133] high temperature variation phase
Stable terminal voltage Constant voltage in CV phase
Terminal condition
MCC Easy to implement Difficult to balance objectives such as charging speed, capacity utilization and The number of CC stages
[136–138] Easy to achieve fast battery lifetime Constant current rates for each
charging stage

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Table 13 compares battery charging in electric vehicles, while Table 14 compares charging methods qualitatively.

6. Charging station configurations

Sustainable plug in electrical vehicle (PEV) charging stations use multi-energy Renewable energy system (RES) to generate power.
Hybrid charging stations operate outside the grid. These systems need storage technology to fulfil load demand at night or during peak
periods. These separated charging stations offer auxiliary services and power fluctuation protection [141]. Researchers designed
remote charging stations with various energy storage system (ESS) designs [142]. The ESS in isolated hybrid PEV charging stations
typically has three variants.

6.1. Single energy storage system configuration

This setup supplies power utilizing locally accessible renewable energy resources and a single energy storage device. Due to having
only one sort of storage, these systems are simple and cheaper. Fig. 23 shows the basic construction of this design. This system may
employ a diesel generator to generate electricity from renewable sources in an emergency. Li-ion batteries are more efficient and cost-
effective in a single-storage design [143]. The battery evolves from lead acid to nickel-based and lithium-ion [144]. The battery
charging time and energy cost depend on an electric vehicle’s arrival time. Considering EV arrival time and state of charge, the authors
constructed a wind, solar, and Li-ion battery-based plugin electric charging station. Using a genetic algorithm, the design was opti­
mized. Compared to a traditional grid design, a standalone hybrid system with a single storage configuration requires less investment
and generates more profit from delivering power to electric automobiles. Standalone systems have higher battery replacement costs
than others but do not pay for grid electricity [145,146].

6.2. Hybrid energy storage system configuration

The critical drawback of renewable energy (RE)-based hybrid systems is the energy storage devices’ short lifespan [147]. Re­
searchers suggest hybrid energy storage systems. This combination improves storage capacity and economics depending on RE re­
sources utilized for power generation. High-power storage systems deliver high power for a short time, whereas high-energy storage
devices supply average power over a longer time. High power and energy storage technologies yield the most significant economic
returns [148–150]. The plugin EV may store surplus electricity during off-peak hours and return it to the charging station during peak
hours, helping other local energy storage systems. Fig. 24 shows the fundamental system structure. The standalone microgrids use
battery and supercapacitor storage. A hybrid system is used because batteries store energy, and supercapacitors store power and also
suggested another two-layered hybrid energy storage system. This system combined Li-ion and lead acid batteries for typical loads and
supercapacitor-based storage for abrupt power fluctuations [151]. This paper presented a freestanding hybrid EV charging station
using Li-ion batteries, hydrogen, and ammonia-based storage to charge 50 vehicles per day [152].

6.3. Swappable storage system configuration

Electric vehicle (EV) charging system technology includes swappable storage. The charging station’s fully charged battery replaces
the EV’s low battery. In the battery-swapping charging station architecture, EVs enter and depart a charging station area. It has a
battery stacking unit to receive the battery and a battery replacement robot mounted in the charging station area to replace the battery.
A data acknowledgment unit collects data about the EV that enters the charging station, such as type, size, charging state, delivery
date, charging date, and battery type. Its charging station control unit controls the battery-switching robot. Fig. 25 shows a simple
charging station structure. The biggest obstacle to EV adoption is the time it takes to charge an EV at a specialized charging station.
Battery charging stations are another option. Swapping stations must standardize EV batteries and build a commercial strategy for
pricing allocation and operation and developed a rigorous economic comparison approach to assess battery-swapping station setup
costs with optimized battery-swapping station planning for EV owner satisfaction [153,154]. Zubaida Fakhruddin Khan and Rajesh
Gupta created a wind-powered EV battery-swapping station. These batteries enable wind backup and vehicle storage. Van Ga Bui et al.
suggested hydrogen cylinders for two-wheeler EV storage [155]. Steffen Schmidt suggested a battery swap loan program to increase
economic and environmental benefits [156]. This vehicle has a battery charge management location and communication system. It can
transport batteries from a RE-powered remote charging station to EVs [157]. EV owners are not compelled to buy Li-ion batteries. EV
owners lease these batteries [158]. A. Rezaee Jordehi et al. placed freestanding battery-swapping stations with PV, wind, and
geothermal power and plug in hybrid energy storage (PHES) [159]. A bi-directional approach by Yang Li et al. reduced the cost of an

Table 14
Qualitative comparison of charging methods [130,131,134,135,139,140].
Methods CC CV CC-CV PC

Life cycle Low Low Medium Low

Control Complexity Low Low Medium Medium/high
Charging Efficiency Low Low Medium Medium
Charging time Medium High Medium Medium

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Fig. 23. Standalone single energy storage system.

Fig. 24. Hybrid energy storage system.

Fig. 25. Swappable energy storage system.

isolated RE-based microgrid and increased the profit of its battery-swapping station Energy management can reduce the cost of battery
replacement and charge in a freestanding battery-swapping station [160]. Table 15 shows battery configuration in recent research
work, and Table 16 shows an overview of EV charging configuration.

7. Recent trends and challenges in EV fast charging

EVs will drastically increase energy consumption. Fig. 26a shows the three key markets’ EV energy demand trend [44,161]. As
shown in Fig. 26b, DCFC adoption will expand dramatically but slow ac charging will remain dominant through 2030.

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M.C. Annamalai and N. Amutha prabha Heliyon 9 (2023) e18808

Table 15
Battery configurations in recent research work.
Battery Resources Storage type Merits Demerits
configuration

Single storage Wind and Li-Ion battery High energy density Li-ion battery capital costs are very high.
[144–146] solar
Solar and Lead acid battery Decreases in CO2 emissions of 34.68% when solar Adverse effects of lead-acid batteries on
Biogas energy is combined with biogas and lead-acid the ecosystem.
batteries for storing
Wind and Fuel cell Extended storage life. hefty storing costs for hydrogen.
solar
Hybrid Storage Wind and Li-ion battery, Economical operation of the outlying station for Li-ion batteries have a restricted amount of
[147–152] solar Hydrogen, Ammonia 50 car charging. charging cycles. Store with a limited
storage energy density.
solar Li-ion battery and SC is used to extend battery life. • The capacity of storage increases, and SC
super capacitor Design of the economic structure. is only used to manage power variations.
• Durable energy storing
• Lithium-ion batteries have a higher energy
storing capacity than lead-acid batteries.
Swappable storage Solar Li-ion batteries improved generation and ESS sizes. There is no particular energy control
[153–159] The issue with the prolonged recharge times is strategy.
resolved. Only Photovoltaic production increases in
costs.
Wind and Li-ion batteries Bi-level scheduling optimization between the There is no consideration of the
solar isolated microgrid and battery swap station. microgrid’s reactive power.
Maximising profits.

Table 16
Overview of EV charging configurations [145,149,151,156,158].
EV configurations Merits Demerits

Only grid power is used at the charging station.
Charging station that uses grid power and a
system for storing energy
Charging station using grid power, renewable
energy, and energy storage
Technologies for battery swapping
Operating expenses will be less.
It can assist with peak load levelling.
Adaptable operation in the face of
failure.
The owners will benefit from ESS.
The operating cost is too inexpensive.
Convenient for charging multiple
sources simultaneously.
The battery cells’ durability will
increase.
Oversaturation of the grid.
Infrastructure for charging is required at a large capital cost.
Systemically difficult
Grid integration is a significant disadvantage.
Capital expenditures are substantial.
Intricate in operation.
Developing a system with efficient control algorithms will
necessitate a greater financial investment.
Identifying a defective system is challenging.
Initial establishment costs are substantial.
Infrastructure for charging is required.
The voltage, energy density, and shape of batteries need to be
standardized by global OEMs.

Fig. 26. (a). Energy demand for EVs; (b). Energy demand by charging level.

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 M.C. Annamalai and N. Amutha prabha
Table 17
Status of Fast charging standards [162,163].
Standard CHAdeMO GB/T CCS 1 CCS 2 Tesla Chaoji

Connector

Inlet
26

Maximum voltage (V)/current (A)/power (KW) 1000/400/400 750/250/185 600/400/200 900/400/350 500/631/250 1500/600/900
Maximum market power (KW) 150 125 150 350 250 N. A
Communication protocol CAN CAN PLC PLC CAN CAN
Start @ 2009 2013 2014 2013 2012 2020

Heliyon 9 (2023) e18808

M.C. Annamalai and N. Amutha prabha Heliyon 9 (2023) e18808

FC guidelines are rapidly developed to aid UFC. CCS (EU), CHAdeMO (Japan), and GB/T (China) are the most common FC
standards. The three FC standards are compatible with worldwide AC and DC charging modes (IEC 62 916, IEEE 2030.1.1, and SAE
J1772). Tesla’s FC standard is exclusive to the Tesla Supercharger and EVs. Table 17 shows that GB/T 20 234.3–2015 has the lowest
maximum charging power at 185 kW and CHAdeMO the highest at 400 kW. To fulfil the requirement for increased charging power,
CHAdeMO and China Electricity Council launched ChaoJi, a new standard compatible with GB/T and CHAdeMO. CCS and IEC are
helping the ChaoJi workgroup comply [162,163].
DC fast chargers (DCFCs) charge at 50 kW moving towards ultra-rapid charging. Mainstream EV batteries average 60.1 kWh (317
km range). Drivers prefer 15 min over overnight charging. Table 18 displays EV models’ 15-min charging electricity. The long-range
EV charges at 228 kW. Battery capacity increases charging power. 350 kW DCFC meets demand [164–166].

7.1. Architecture of extreme fast charging stations

Figs. 27 and 29 show that the local distribution network between several chargers, local Renewable energy system (RES), and
energy storage can be either ac or dc. The advantages and difficulties of each strategy are listed in Table 19. The following sections
discuss these issues, possibilities, and the two types of charging stations’ implementation strategies [167].

7.1.1. XFC stations with AC connected system

For systems that use AC power, a step-down transformer links the distribution network to a three-phase AC bus with a line-to-line
voltage of 250 V–480 V. At the station, each converter has its own AC/DC stage and gets power from the AC bus. This method
dramatically increases the transfer steps between the distribution network and the EV or RES dc port. When more conversion steps are
added to an AC-connected system, it works less well, making the system more complicated and expensive. The availability and
maturity of rectifier and inverter technology, ac switchgear and protective devices, and well-established standards and practices for ac
power distribution systems are all benefits of utilizing the ac bus. Most Extreme fast charging (XFC) stations are ac connected systems.
Fig. 28 shows the Tesla supercharger station in Mountain View, California. The ABB dc fast charging station in Euroa, Victoria,
Australia [169].

7.1.2. XFC stations with DC connected system

One central front-end AC/DC converter is utilized to generate a dc bus for dc-connected system, offering a more energy-efficient
method of connecting dc energy storage and renewable energy sources. A low-frequency transformer is found at the middle front end,
followed by an SST or an LV (250 V–480 V) rectifier stage that performs isolation, voltage step-down, and rectification in a single unit.
The dc bus voltage is typically less than 1000 V to fit the current battery voltage range, which is about 400 V. The design of XFC stations
with a dc bus should adhere to the same criteria as XFC stations with an ac bus at this voltage level. Instead of using separate AC/DC
converters, each charger is interfaced with the dc bus using a DC/DC converter [170].
Typically, the dc bus voltage is less than 1000 V to meet the 400 V battery voltage range. XFC stations with a dc bus at this voltage
level should adhere to the same design criteria as XFC stations with an ac bus. In replacement of different AC/DC converters, each
charger is connected to the dc bus via a DC/DC converter. Compared to ac-connected systems, systems with fewer conversion stages are
more efficient. The “dc distribution” strategy may benefit from a central front end with a singular connection to the utility. Utilize the
load diversity created by varying EV battery capacities and charge acceptance as a function of state of charge (SOC) to considerably
reduce the cost of the AC/DC converter and the grid connection nameplate. It will reduce the system’s overall installation costs. The
absence of reactive power in DC systems, which facilitates control, is an additional benefit of the system. The connectivity of the single
inverter to the main grid facilitates isolating from and connecting to the grid. Using partial power converters as the interface between
the DC bus and the vehicle may be an additional advantage of dc distribution systems [168] The grounding configuration, fault type,
system topology, component specification, size, etc., all play a complicated role in the coordination of protection for dc-connected
systems. If the charges are bidirectional, this issue becomes considerably complex. A dc-connected system is susceptible to distur­
bances since it has low inertia and might become unstable if a fault is not quickly cleared. Consequently, a system’s ability to be
restored depends on how quickly faults can be found and isolated. Studies on current dc power distribution systems, including LV dc
microgrids, guide the protective coordination of dc-connected charging stations. Considering the cooperation between various

Table 18
Market statistics for electric vehicles in 2022 [164,165].
Model Battery capacity (KWh) Range (KM) Average Charging Power (KW) Actual Maximum Charging Power (KW)

Nissan Leaf 39 235 40 46

Renault Kango E-Tech Electric 44 215 50 80
Audi Q4 e-tron 35 52 285 40 118
Hundai Kona Electric 65 400 70 100
BMW ix3 74 385 104 155
Volkswagen ID.4 GTX 77 400 115 175
Ford Mustang Mach- E GT 91 425 86 107
Tesla Model S Plaid 95 550 140 250
Volvo EX90 Twin Motor 107 455 150 250

Note* - Required Averaging charge power to recharge the EV’s battery from 10% SOC to 80% SOC in 15 min.

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M.C. Annamalai and N. Amutha prabha Heliyon 9 (2023) e18808

Fig. 27. AC connected system.

Table 19
Comparison of AC and DC connected system [168].
AC DC

Conversion stages More less

Front end de-rating Lower Higher
Control Complex Simple
Metering Standardized Complex
Protection Straightforward Complex
Efficiency Lower Higher

Fig. 28. Single line diagram of Tesla super charger station.

protective devices, a protection approach for an LV dc microgrid is provided. Dc systems with a loop-type bus are addressed. The
suggested system can locate and isolate the fault and provide power uninterruptedly [171]. In order to monitor energy generation and
utilization of RES, battery energy storage, and EV stations in a dc-connected system, dc meters must be installed. This data is necessary
for users of EV charging stations to get appropriate invoicing, and it may also be used to plan future station locations. Although dc
meters are sold commercially, no recognized accuracy, calibration, or testing standards permit these devices to be utilized for
metering. Developing such standard and certified dc meters for dc-connected systems is essential [172].

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Fig. 29. DC connected system.

8. Charging technology for heavy duty electric vehicle in European Union

Currently, a diverse array of chemistries and designs are readily accessible and appropriate for electric vehicles (EVs).

8.1. Legal framework for charging infrastructure in the EU

Directive 2014/94/EU, also known as the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Directive (AFID), introduced the incorporation of
technical requirements and legal regulations on charging infrastructure for electric vehicles. As per the AFID (Automotive Fuel In­
dustry Association), a projection was made by 2020. There would exist a ratio of one publicly accessible charging point for every ten
registered electric vehicles. The AFID (Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Directive) was officially repealed in 2021 and replaced by a new
regulatory framework known as the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Regulation (AFIR). The objectives of the Alternative Fuel Infra­
structure Regulation (AFIR) are legally binding for European Union (EU) Member States. The initiative aims to ensure the estab­
lishment of a fair and equitable alternative fuel infrastructure across the European Union. The AFIR (Automotive Future Impact
Report) suggests that as the electric car fleet grows, there will also be an increase in the capacity of public charging infrastructure. The
Alternative Fuel Infrastructure Regulation (AFIR) sets forth specific and stringent requirements for alternative fuel infrastructure.
The policy establishes a specific timeframe for achieving infrastructure objectives, outlines the minimum distances that must be
maintained between charging points, and outlines the necessary power and capacity requirements for charging points. According to
the AFIR assumptions, it is advisable to position charging stations for light vehicles on the TEN-T network at a minimum distance of 60
km from each other. By 2025, it is anticipated that each station will have a combined capacity of 300 kW. It is also necessary to ensure
that every station is equipped with at least one charging point with a minimum capacity of 150 kW. According to projections, the total
power output of the stations is expected to double by the end of 2030, reaching a capacity of 600 kW.
Furthermore, there will be a doubling in the number of points that can deliver a minimum power output of 150 kW. The charging
stations for heavy vehicles will be strategically located at regular intervals of 60 km. By the year 2025, it is anticipated that all stations
will have a combined capacity of 1400 kW [173,174].
Additionally, each station must incorporate a minimum capacity of 350 kW in at least one charging point. The anticipated power
capacity goal for the station by the end of 2030 is established at 3500 kW. Furthermore, ensuring that the station includes at least two
points with a power capacity of 350 kW is necessary. The requirements for the comprehensive Trans-European Transport Network
(TEN-T) have been synchronized with those of the base network, although with extended timelines for implementation. The imple­
mentation of the comprehensive network is anticipated to reach full completion by the conclusion of 2030, whereas the base network is
forecasted to be finalized by 2035. The AFIR system outlines the specifications for hydrogen refueling stations on the TEN-T core
network. As per the specified objective, it is anticipated that by the year 2030, hydrogen refueling stations will be conveniently
available at regular intervals not exceeding 200 km. As specified in the reference, the stations will have dispensers with a minimum
pressure capacity of 700 bar. Under the stipulations detailed in Fit for 55, Member States must submit a project to the European
Commission by 1 January 2024. This project aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the necessary infrastructure and framework
required to facilitate the development of the domestic alternative fuels market in the transportation sector. Directive (EU) 2018/844
provides a comprehensive overview of the technical guidelines and legal regulations regarding charging stations for electric vehicles in
the European Union. By the directive mentioned above, the member states of the European Union (EU) must meet the following
obligations: Enable the creation of easily accessible infrastructure that will efficiently reduce the costs associated with installing
charging points for individual vehicle owners. They are granting electric vehicle users the requisite access to charging points. When
integrating electromobility requirements into national legislation, it is crucial to consider several factors. These factors include the
ownership of buildings and adjacent car parks, the participation of private entities in the management of public car parks, and the
varied functions of different facilities, both residential and non-residential [175].

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8.2. Battery development

Currently, a diverse array of chemistries and designs are readily accessible and well-suited for electric vehicles (EVs). Continuous
progress is being achieved in developing diverse chemistries for Li-ion batteries for buses and trucks. The specific application of the
vehicle should determine the selection of battery technology, as it directly influences the decision-making process for the charging
solution. Use cases that demand fast charging necessitate the utilization of batteries and management systems specifically engineered
for this purpose. Nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) batteries are widely recognized as highly suitable for opportunity charging appli­
cations. There is ongoing development and testing of NMC modular battery technology for articulated electric buses. This battery
technology has a capacity of 640 kWh. The batteries are expected to commence series production in the first half of 2021. Lithium iron
phosphate (LFP) is a viable alternative technology currently available. It has been specifically engineered to cater to the needs of
larger-capacity battery packs. It is essential to highlight that Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) batteries provide enhanced safety features
compared to Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) batteries. The development efforts are aimed at increasing the capacity and improving
the life cycle of batteries and incorporating scalable, modular, and lightweight designs.
In recent years, there has been a substantial reduction in the yearly expenses associated with traction batteries, coupled with
noteworthy improvements in their overall performance. The abovementioned factors have significantly contributed to the heightened
market acceptance of these products and commodities. There is currently ongoing development of multiple battery chemistries for the
next generation. The options encompass semi- or fully-solid-state batteries that use advanced composite or Li-metal anodes and other
ionic systems. The technologies mentioned below currently have a lower Technology Readiness Level (TRL). However, they promise to
improve the competitiveness of battery-powered electric trucks and buses in the medium to long term. Original equipment manu­
facturers (OEMs) articulated buses with a maximum battery capacity of 400 kWh. The buses have been specifically engineered to
accommodate depot and fast charging capabilities during their routes. Based on the operational characteristics of low-speed travel over
short distances, the existing battery capacity is anticipated to adequately fulfil the articulated buses’ requirements in the foreseeable
future [176].

8.3. Charging power

The terms “fast-charging” and “high-power charging” can be ambiguous when referring to HD-EVs, which have different traction
battery capacities and voltages than LD-EVs.
Table 20 presents the proposed classification for HDV charging and offers a comprehensive overview of the terminology employed
to describe charging power and capacity values. The battery C-rate is a metric used to quantify the rate at which a battery charge. It is
closely tied to the battery capacity C, typically denoted in Amperes (A) or, more commonly, in Ampere-hours (Ah). The C-rate is
commonly denoted as 1/h and serves as a measure to indicate the rate at which a battery is charged. The C-rate can also be defined as
the ratio between the charging power and the battery capacity, commonly called the CP-rate. Various enabling factors support the
development of fast charging. The study investigated a range of infrastructural and economic factors that require increased consid­
eration when implementing charging stations with a capacity of 400 kW and above. The critical factors of utmost significance
encompassed standardization, coordination, security, grid resources, power demand peaks, and costs [173,177].

9. Conclusion

This review focuses on power electronic converters for electric vehicle drivetrains and provides detailed information and study.
This article discusses the architecture aspects, operation core characteristics, advantages, and drawbacks of different advanced and
topologies of possible dc-dc converters for use in electric vehicle drivetrains’ converters provide a wide range of voltage gains in non-
isolated converters, but their cascaded structures limit their power conversion efficiency. While the switched capacitor bidirectional
converter enhances conversion performance, it is limited by its high ripple current. Although the coupled inductor bidirectional
converter is compact and has a low output current, it suffers from leakage inductance. Although the quazi z source bidirectional
converter often has high gain in voltage, it puts a lot of strain on the capacitance. Thanks to its ability to achieve low ripple current and
voltage, high reliability, durability, and high-power handling capability, the multidevice interleaved bidirectional converter has
become the favored choice for electric vehicle applications.
In case of Isolated converters, the fly back converter has ability to control multiple output voltages; it also has a higher EMI and
ripple current rating. While the resonant converter offers superior operation and performance, it requires a complex transformer
design and has a restricted capacity for magnetizing current. Despite its low switching loss and EMI, the zero-voltage switching

Table 20
Terminology associated with Heavy duty vehicle conductive charging and the corresponding C-rates [173].
Term Slow HD-EV charging Normal HD-EV charging Fast HD-EV charging Ultrafast HD-EV charging

Charging Voltage 400 VDC, 800 VDC 400 VDC, 800 VDC Up to 1.5 KVDC Up to 1.5 KVDC
Charging current 60 A–400 A 200 A–800 A 300 A–1 KA 800 A–3 KA
Charging power 50 KW–150 KW 150 KW–400 KW 200 KW–1 MW 1 MW–4.5 MW
Battery capacity 50 KWh–250 KWh 50 KWh–250 KWh 100 KWh–500 KWh 250 KWh–1 MWh
C-rate of Charging 0.2C–1C 0.5C–2C 0.5C–2C 4C–10C

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M.C. Annamalai and N. Amutha prabha Heliyon 9 (2023) e18808

capacitor has drawbacks in terms of high current ratings and fault resistance. Despite the significant voltage gain of the multiport
interleaved converter, it comes with drawbacks of a higher part count, ripple current, dynamic inspection, and high sensitivity.
This article outlines the converter configuration for rapid charging in electric vehicle application. To eliminate harmonics in the
output current, the Vienna rectifier has a superior responsiveness due to its high power-factor in case of ac-dc converter. Multiple
interleaved buck converter provides suitable option for high efficiency with simple design and control techniques in the event of dc-dc
converter. Despite the fact that due to its high overall harmonic distortion, this design is inefficient. Based on the articles that were
extracted, we have identified that there is a growing tendency toward the utilization of a variety of ways to optimize energy storage
system. At this time, technical advancement is moving at a rapid pace in the direction of hybrid energy storage. The research gap
identified in the existing research that can be filled by additional investigation in the future.
This article critically examined commercially available EV charging methods. Each charge technique uniquely tackles optimum
charging, yet each has perks and downsides. The pulse charging strategy seems best for quick LIB charging concerns. Most signifi­
cantly, this work provides crucial insights for future research to build designed fast charging processes related to the pulse charging
method to address the fundamental disadvantages of current charging procedures. For safe, efficient, and quick charging, battery
temperature control should be prioritized.
This review demonstrates remote/standalone EV charging stations need energy storage. Flywheels and modern flow batteries
dominate lead-acid batteries and PHES. Operating a single storage system grows cheaper, but using it for many purposes is tougher.
Hybrid energy storage systems are replacing single-type storage systems because they fix their flaws. Swappable battery charging
stations are the best way to reduce EV charging time. Manufacturers must standardize energy storage and EV energy management
systems to optimize swappable battery storage system benefits. Batteries are good for long-term storage but have environmental issues.
For XFC stations, two distinct distribution strategies are provided. The dc distribution technique offers reduced cost and improved
efficiency, whereas the ac distribution method is a mature solution with readily accessible components and well-established standards.
The SST-based DC fast charger offers rectification, voltage step down, and isolation function in a single device, in contrast to the
state-of-the-art dc fast chargers that need MV-to LV line-frequency transformers. Compared to the most advanced implementations, the
SST-based XFCs are smaller and more efficient, which can lower installation costs by delivering more power on the same station
footprint and increase operating profit by minimizing power lost during conversion.
The European Union Member States have established a comprehensive strategy and infrastructure plan to expand electric vehicle
charging points gradually. The development of the charging infrastructure within the European Union countries will progress at
varying levels due to their significant economic diversity. It is imperative to prioritize placing fast charging points along the TEN-T
network and highways.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper

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