Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Power Sources

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jpowsour

Review article

Hybrid battery/supercapacitor energy storage system for the electric T

vehicles
Lia Kouchachvili∗, Wahiba Yaïci, Evgueniy Entchev
Natural Resources Canada, CanmetENERGY Research Centre, 1 Haanel Drive, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 1M1, Canada

H I G H L I G H T S

• The impact of the HESS system on overall efficiency of the EVs is discussed.
• The importance of the design and configuration of the HESS is reviewed in detail.
• The effect of ambient temperature on system performance is discussed.
• The significance of the EMS on system performance is discussed.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Electric vehicles (EVs) have recently attracted considerable attention and so did the development of the battery
Hybrid energy storage system technologies. Although the battery technology has been significantly advanced, the available batteries do not
Battery entirely meet the energy demands of the EV power consumption. One of the key issues is non-monotonic con-
Supercapacitor sumption of energy accompanied by frequent changes during the battery discharging process. This is very
Electric vehicles
harmful to the electrochemical process of the battery. A practical solution is to couple the battery with a su-
Regenerative braking
percapacitor, which is basically an electrochemical cell with a similar architecture, but with a higher rate
capability and better cyclability. In this design, the supercapacitor can provide the excess energy required while
the battery fails to do so. In addition to the battery and supercapacitor as the individual units, designing the
architecture of the corresponding hybrid system from an electrical engineering point of view is of utmost im-
portance. The present manuscript reviews the recent works devoted to the application of various battery/su-
percapacitor hybrid systems in EVs.

1. Introduction
The use of electric vehicles (EVs) was first prompted by the
California Air Resources Board (CARB), as a strong signal was sent out
to reduce pollution from automobile users. The preliminary works
suggested that the obstacles against the wide adaption of the EVs can be
overcome and the fuel economy requirements can be met if the battery
designers are directly worked with the development team of the vehicle
electrical system to improve the power and energy density, as well as
cycle life of the batteries [1,2]. The batteries lose their performances
over time for several reasons associated with the properties of the
electroactive materials, conductivity and chemical stability of the cur-
rent collectors, selection of the electrolytes compatible with the mor-
phology of the electrodes, redox activities of the additives in electrodes
or in electrolytes, as well as overcharging, internal and external en-
vironment and the application specifications.
Although significant advancements have been made during the past
decades to improve the battery performance, the main problem comes
from the peak usage. Even in small electronic devices such as mobile
phones and laptops, the battery damage occurs upon sudden usage of
the battery's energy. This situation is constant in EVs, as different fac-
tors such as driving style, road, etc., cause rapid changes in the power
consumption. A battery performs well when it is discharged mono-
tonically because the corresponding electrochemical reaction can pro-
ceed monotonically. However, when EV requires the sudden power
consumption during its acceleration, the battery pack cannot be dis-
charged quickly enough to satisfy this requirement. The same applies to
a high current storage into the batteries that generated during the
braking of the EV. These fluctuating flows of a high electric current into
and from the battery could have a detrimental effect on the electrolytes.
When this acceleration/braking is repetitive (city driving for example),
this can shorten the life of the batteries.

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lia.kouchachvili@canada.ca (L. Kouchachvili).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.11.040
Received 22 June 2017; Received in revised form 20 October 2017; Accepted 10 November 2017
0378-7753/ © 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V.
L. Kouchachvili et al. Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248

Nomenclature Li-ion Lithium-Ion

LiFePO4 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP)
ADVISOR Advanced Vehicle Simulator LV Low Voltage
BMS Battery Management System MCS Mobile Charging Stations
BE Braking Energy NEDC New European Driving Cycle
BPR Buffer-Power Ratio Ni-MH Nickel-Metal Hydride
BD-DC/DC-C Bidirectional DC/DC converter OCV Open Circuit Voltage
CBDC China Bus Driving Cycle OPM Optimal Power Management
CP Constant Power PbA Lead Acid
DC Duty Cycle PSAT Powertrain System Analysis Toolkit
DP Dynamic Programming PU Power Unit
DM Dynamic model RB Regenerative Breaking
ECE-15 Economic Commission for Europe-urban driving cycle RBE Regenerative Breaking Energy
EDLC Electric (or Electrochemical) Double-Layer Capacitor RE Regenerative Energy
EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy SC Supercapacitor
EMS Energy Management System SOC State of Charge
EP Each Pulse SOD State of Discharge
ESS Energy Storage Systems SOH State of Health
EUDC Extra-Urban Driving Cycle UDC Urban Driving Cycle or ECE-15
EV Electric Vehicle UDDS Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule
Ch/Dch Charge/discharge VRLA Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid
GPS Global Positioning System VTB Virtual Test Bed
HESS Hybrid Energy Storage System V2G Vehicle-to-grid
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle ZEBRA Zero Emission Battery Research Activity
HV High Voltage ZVS Zero-Voltage Switching
LEV Law Emission Vehicle CARB - California Air Resources ZVT Zero-Voltage Transition
Board

Various types of batteries have been utilised in EVs [3–6], but the [9–14] that SC's can effectively operate longer than any other energy
most promising one is the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery, which is now the storage systems (ESS).
most common type of energy storage in portable electronic devices such The combination of the battery-SC is known as a hybrid energy
as mobile phones and laptops. Scaling up the Li-ion batteries for EVs is storage system (HESS), which complements advantageous properties of
not straightforward due to the different pathway of energy consump- each modules. In this arrangement, the detrimental effect of the current
tion in the EVs as compared with the small electronic devices. There- fluctuation on the battery is reduced and its operational time is pro-
fore, novel Li-ion batteries should be designed for the EV applications. longed. This is an essential aspect for the HESS use. Fig. 1 illustrates
In modern Li-ion batteries, there is a demand for sacrificing the clas- new opportunities provided by the HESS.
sically high cell voltage in favour of improving other factors such as rate The use of the HESS has not limited only for the shielding the dis-
capability or cyclability [7], and the electrode materials should be tractive current spikes to the batteries but in addition, the HESS is an
chosen for specific applications. For example, as will be reviewed later, efficient storage system in the EVs. The HESS could increase the effi-
most of the Li-ion batteries employed for the EV applications are de- ciency of the EVs by storing the energy from brakes during the
signed for a sudden power consumption based on LiFePO4, which is not
the dominant cathode material in the small Li-ion batteries, but has
huge potentials for high rate capabilities and excellent cyclability in the
EV performance [8].
Supercapacitors (SCs) are similar electrochemical systems for the
energy storage, but the main difference is that they have high rate
capability for fast charging/discharging. They cannot be used as the
power source of EVs since they have low energy density as compared
with the batteries. Nevertheless, they are good options to compensate
the high peak of usage during short periods of time when the battery
power is not sufficient. In this scenario, the responsibility of the coupled
SC is similar to that on the classic capacitors in electronic devices to
supply electricity instantaneously.
The electrical response of SCs is an analogous to that of the classic
capacitors, but as the prefix suggests, the specific capacitance is much
higher. The term “supercapacitor” was commercially utilised to de-
scribe the first generation of double-layer capacitors, but in the scien-
tific context, it was referred to the electrochemical systems working
based on capacitive or pseudo capacitive behaviours. The performance
of the so-called pseudo capacitors is based on the electrochemical redox Fig. 1. Specific power density-specific energy density plot of typical commercialized
system rather than double layer charging. This provides an opportunity batteries (grey region), an asymmetric capacitor system with an aqueous electrolyte (blue
region), an asymmetric capacitor system with an organic electrolyte (green region), and
for delivering a significantly higher specific capacitance, though, the
the BatCap system (red region) using various electrode materials. Reproduced with per-
cyclability is much worse. However, many of the available SCs utilize
mission from Ref. [15]. Copyright 2014, Elsevier. (For interpretation of the references to
both mechanisms. It has been highlighted in many published literature colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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L. Kouchachvili et al. Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248

deceleration of the EVs.

When the HESS is incorporated into the design of the EVs, the
braking energy (BE) is stored in both the SCs and the batteries. From the
SCs it can be used back to accelerate a vehicle and the energy stored in
the batteries can then be used for the other applications, for example
heating a cabin, air conditioning or some electronics in the car.
Therefore, a well-designed HESS with high energy density, long cycle
life [16] with a considerable lightweight than the battery bank alone
with the high power density, can have a major impact on the EVs'
overall performances and thus help their penetration in the market. The
use of the HESS is most economically prevalent for the regenerative
braking energy (RBE) recovery in municipal transportation vehicles
such as city transit buses [17,18].
SCs in EVs was first introduced in the late 1990s when the SC unit
consisting of 40 × 2 SCs (Panasonic, 2.3 V, 1800 F) had been installed
in the Mazda Bongo Friendee to investigate the performance for ac-
cepting rapid RE throughout braking and downhill while providing
sudden energy for acceleration [19]. In the same time, the hybridiza-
tion of the SCs with the EV batteries [20,21], such as valve-regulated
lead-acid (VRLA) [19,21–23], nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH), lithium-
ion (Li-Ion) [19] and PbA batteries [22] was proposed. Shukla et al.
[23] stated that since energy density is less important than power
density for the acceleration of a car, SC would appear to be a preferred
alternative to any of the present storage battery options. However, the
final use of the HESS for this application would depend on the devel-
opment of this system as well as on consumer demand. It was also noted
that a successful HESS must achieve some combination of (i) increased
vehicle performance by supplying more power, (ii) longer operating life
of the ESS, (iii) stable performance at sub-zero temperatures, (iv)
Fig. 2. HESS (a): Passive configuration; (b) Semi-passive configuration; (c) HESS-fully-
lighter system with smaller dimensions. active configuration. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [32] Copyright 2014.
The requirement of achieving a high efficient ESS for the EV ap-
plication has been emphasized more and more lately and therefore,
rechargeable batteries and SCs hybridization has been extensively ex- second controls SC;
plored. Motivated by the amplification of the EV battery-SC/HESS re- (iv) In parallel connection of two BD-DC/DC-C;
search, and applications, the main objectives of this paper are to pro- (v)Multiple-input zero-voltage switching (ZVS) BD-DC/DC-C.
vide an overview of recent advances in the battery-SC/HESS design,
performance, modelling and simulation, and energy management Three types of HESS can be categorised based on the systems re-
system (EMS) for EV application. The configurations, design, and per- ported in the literature: passive, semi-active, and fully active. In the
formance of the HESS are discussed in Section 2. Sections 3 and 4 first design the battery and SC packs are connected in parallel and di-
present an overview of energy management and the thermal effects on rectly coupled to the DC bus [22,25–31] (Fig. 2a) This design is more
HESS performance, respectively. The effect of driving cycle on the HESS affordable but the SCs performance in its full potential cannot be used.
performance is discussed in Section 5. The modelling and simulation of It also, does not involve any control algorithm. The best control can be
these hybrid systems for EVs is provided in Section 6. Their applications implemented in a fully active HESS (Fig. 2c) that involves two BD-DC/
are briefly given in Section 7. Finally, the conclusions are given in DC-C and an additional control circuit [18,23,32–34]. However, in this
Section 8. design the size of the components of the HESS, their cost and efficiency
are compromised. In addition, the design is not as simple as a passive
2. Configurations, design, and performance of HESS design. The semi-active HESS involves only one BD-DC/DC-C (Fig. 2b)
and presents a good compromise between the performance and the
Configuration of the HESS has a significant impact on its perfor- system cost. Given these advantages, semi-active HESS is favoured to be
mance. To increase an efficiency of the HESS, each component in its the most intensively used topology [16,27,33,35,36].
design should be combined in a way that the strength of each compo- There are some comparative studies examining the performances of
nent will be exploited and the weakness will be avoided. For this, high- different configurations [28,34,37]. For example, Pay et al. [34] in-
energy storage capability of the batteries and high power densities of vestigated smoothing the repeat power variations in and out of the
the SCs should be considered. For both devices, the state of charge battery in two cases: when the SC bank is connected directly in shunt
(SOC) defines the usable power capability of the devices, the voltage with the battery or through a DC/DC-C. The performances of the HESS
range, and the charge/discharge (Ch/Dch) current limit. The duration in both cases were studied through the computer simulation during
of the pulse should be identified as well. Tie et al. [24] summarized the vehicle acceleration and deceleration. In both cases, the SCs unit
HESS configurations presented in the literature in detail and identified benefited overall energy storage, but when the power controller was
the following five different configurations: involved, the full potential of the SC bank was used. Karden et al. [37]
investigated the integration of a DC/DC-C that shifts energy between
(i) There is no converter in the design; the two energy storage devices (and voltage levels). Holland et al. [28]
(ii) One bidirectional DC/DC converter (BD-DC/DC-C) in series, which proposed the benefit of controlling the efficiency of the HESS. The
can be placed after the battery or SC; when it is placed after the SC authors investigated a hybridization of the Li-ion batteries with the SCs
it is called fixed DC link arrangement; in this case, the size of the and their ability to meet the power demands of pulsed loads. These two
SC is minimised; devices were connected in parallel and each delivered a share of the
(iii) In series connection of two BD-DC/DC-C; first controls battery, power to the load during the active pulse. After the battery recharged

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L. Kouchachvili et al.
the capacitor during the pulse “off” time. The study showed that SCs in
the hybrid system only marginally increased the capacity and the cur-
rent but showed no benefit because the hybrid system produced only
one-third of the available specific energy and power compared to the
battery alone. The authors suggested the possible improvement of the
hybrid system by adding power electronics that could use a big part of
the energy stored in the capacitor on each pulse.
A necessity of a high efficient interface circuit in the hybrid system
for its efficient use was also proposed by Farzanehfard et al. [38]. This
interface needs to control the low SC's voltage (LV) and the batteries
high voltage (HV), which will be matched in the hybrid system. A
proper topology for power flow from LV to HV is a boost type converter
while power flow from HV to LV requires a buck type converter. To
attain bidirectional capability, the buck and boost converter are com-
bined. The authors presented a zero voltage transition (ZVT) buck-and-
boost converter with the soft switches for SCs' interface. The switching
losses are reduced and the efficiency of the converter is high. This was
achieved by introducing the snubber capacitor across the switch. The
switch cell is designed and it is incorporated into the combined buck
and boost converter. For the schematics for the buck-and-boost circuits
as well as important waveforms and corresponding equivalent circuits
for each operating intervals, the reader is referred to Ref. [38]. Later in
the work of Mirzaei et al. [39], the control circuit interface was sim-
plified, and the BD-DC/DC-C became more efficient and had a fast
dynamic response. In this design, the ZVT acts as a buck to charge SC or
battery and acts as a ZVT boost to discharge SC or battery. The con-
verter was simulated using PSIM Software.
The efficiency of the HESS also depends on the battery modules.
Ferg et al. [40], for example, investigated HESS with two different
configurations. In one scenario 2F SC is connected with the Li-ion
battery and in another with the VRLA (both with 1Ah capacity). In both
cases they were connected in parallel. This study showed that the HESS
can have a very different characteristics and capacity performances at
various SOC (Fig. 2). Depending on the battery chemistry, the SC
connected with this battery can accept a different energy. Fig. 3a shows
the discharge performance of a Li-ion and hybrid SC/Li-ion system,
while Fig. 3b VRLA batteries and SC/VRLA hybrid system. It can be
seen that the coupling of the VRLA battery with the SC has a con-
siderable advantage at the 40% and 60% SOC during discharging.
However, the benefit of the SC in the hybrid SC/Li-ion system
during its discharge was not really shown. While the charge acceptance
Fig. 3. The discharge comparisons between (a) the Li-ion and (b) VRLA batteries with and without the SCs at different SOCs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [40]. Copyright 2013,
Elsevier.
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Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248
of the hybrid SC/Li-ion system was much higher due to the lower
Warburg impedance value for this system with regards of the im-
pedance of the VRLA systems. The authors also highlighted the im-
portance of the battery management system (BMS) in this study. BMS is
important when the energy storage in the hybrid system is required
from regenerative braking (RB) or for current levelling.
In 2014, Song et al. [33] proposed a novel semi-active HESS that
uses a converter with the lowest rating among the semi-active HESS.
The main objectives were to minimize the dimensions of the battery-SC
system to reduce its cost and to minimize a capacity loss of the batteries
due to its thermal degradation. The effectiveness of this HESS design
was evaluated based on its performance in the typical China City Bus
Driving Cycle (CBDC). The authors compared the results with the HESS
and battery-only configuration for the CBDC by utilising a modified
semi-active HESS model adapted from the work of the Cao et al. [41]. In
the original work, the presented design uses a small DC/DC-C for
monitoring energy flow into the battery that it will ensure that the SC's
voltage is higher than the batteries for the city driving conditions. In
this case the battery will only deliver power directly when the SC
voltage falls below the battery voltage. Consequently, a comparatively
constant load profile is created for the battery. In addition, the battery
is not used to directly harvest energy from the RB; therefore, the battery
is not affected by the current spikes and the life of the battery is ex-
tended. The simulation results proved the effectiveness of the proposed
HESS configured with the LiFePO4 battery and SC. This HESS had a
higher voltage, exceptionally higher capacity and longer cycle life in
comparison with NiMe-H, nickel-Cd, and PbA; but did not perform
better at low temperatures. Two modes of driving and braking were
considered in which the possibilities were divided to USC > UBat or
USC ≤ UBat. If the SC is not fully charged all RE will be stored in the SC,
and when it is fully charged, then all RE will be stored in the battery. In
the case of USC > UBat the energy is fully provided by the SC to the
electric motor (prevented from the battery energy flow by diode), while
in the case of USC ≤ UBat, the battery and SC become directly parallel
through the diode included in the circle and therefore both supply the
energy to the electric motor. Later, the dynamic programming (DP)
approach was introduced in this configuration [36]. The results from
this study is in favour of increased numbers of the SCs in the HESS. The
authors proposed the optimisation of the battery size and the config-
uration of the SC pack in the HESS based on the requirements regarding
the city bus minimal mileage.
L. Kouchachvili et al.
A high efficient novel multimode HESS with the energy manage-
ment strategy for EVs was proposed by Wang et al. [42]. In this design
(Fig. 4), the HESS has multiple operating modes controlling the P-
mosfet, the N-mosfet, and the DC/DC-C. For the energy management
strategy, two control strategies: the rule-based and the power-balancing
strategies were developed. In case of the hybrid system use, the energy
from the batteries to the SCs was monitored by DC/DC-C and the bat-
teries were protected from the direct recharging from the RB. The au-
thors simulated the proposed multimode HESS and validated its per-
formance experimentally. The higher efficiency of this design with
regards of the conventional HESS design has been approved.
The overall system efficiency has been improved for the Urban
Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) and the New European Driving
Cycle (NEDC) by 0.28% and 1.85%, respectively.
The optimised design of the HESS for the HEV was investigated by
Wei et al. [43]. Their research was based on the desired performance of
the vehicle that could be achieved by reducing the original battery pack
in the HESS. The HESS was operated at a high voltage, and it was
connected to the inverter without DC/DC converter to eliminate the
energy loss. SCs were modelled as an ideal capacitor with a series in-
ternal resistance and the batteries as an ideal open circuit voltage
(OCV) supply with the series of the internal resistance as well. The
battery current, as well as SC current, are a quadratic function of the
internal resistance, OCV and power request. The main challenge in this
work was to find a balance between technically feasible and financially
attractive solutions and that the energy storage unit must be able to
satisfy the anticipated power requests of the vehicle while operating the
devices within the capacity. The authors presented the Pareto optimal
solutions to the designer who can then evaluate which trade-offs are
acceptable. Their results showed that the batteries are discharged less
rapidly because, with the presence of the SCs, the batteries can be used
to provide a steady base power while the SCs can be used to provide
high peaking currents when necessary. The authors noted that during
the implementation of this system, a more sophisticated energy man-
agement control scheme is necessary. Furthermore, it was shown that
the Li-ion batteries are a better candidate for an HEV energy storage
system. The ZEBRA (Zero Emission Battery Research Activity) batteries
performances were also investigated in the HESS by Capasso and Veneri
[35,44].
3. Energy management system (EMS) of HESS
To maximise the benefits of the HESS in the EVs/HEVs, it is very
important to properly manage the energy derived from and into the
system. The significance of the EMS and its design has been described in
the literature [5,6,33,42,45–54]. The design, most of the times, con-
siders the following inputs: batteries SOC and outputs, vehicle's speed
and acceleration, the current demand, the load voltage, state of health
(SOH) of the battery [46], SOC of the SCs [35,49], the battery de-
gradation under sub-zero temperatures [50,55,56]. In some studies, the
power and energy controlled flow into the HESS [46] and the batteries
Ch/Dch rates have also been investigated [47].
Armenta et al. [49], proposed a rule-based EMS that allows a high
consumption of the RB energy and a high acceleration at any time. They
proposed three flowcharts for controlling the power supply based on
different modes (Fig. 5). Based on the analysis, when the EMS im-
plemented, it could increase the efficiency of the EV in the range of
8%–25% by using an RE. The proposed EMS controls the SC based
discharge in a way that the minimal power is delivered to the load due
to the possibilities to obtain an enough and necessary space to absorb
the energy from RB. In this case, the acceleration for a new cycle is
supported. A simulation test protocol was developed to demonstrate the
benefits of the proposed EMS algorithm, considering an EV of 1550 kg.
The energy delivered from the SC bank to the DC bus is performed,
utilising BD-DC/DC-C while the battery bank is directly connected to
the same bus. The EMS with the novel multimode HESS presented in the
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Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248
previous section [42] also employs the rule-based control strategy for
the model selection while for the power distribution between the bat-
teries and SCs utilises the power-balancing strategy. The proposed
configuration of the novel multimode HESS and its energy management
were validated.
Jung et al. [46] proposed a control design method and constructed
an experimental system to validate their method. According to the
proposed method, instead of choosing the battery current and the SC
current for the HESS design, they chose the battery current and the load
voltage. Here, they relied on the SC's ability to supply or absorb almost
any current as needed. The authors addressed some control design
problems for a power system driven by battery-SC HESS devices. The
currents in the battery and the SC were actively controlled by two bi-
directional buck-boost converters. Two control objectives were ad-
dressed in their work: (a) the first one was to have a good record on two
reference variables, the battery current, and the load voltage; (b) the
second one was to achieve a smooth transition of these variables during
load switch. Based on the state-space averaged model, the control de-
sign problems were converted into numerically efficient optimisation
problems with linear matrix inequality constraints. The value of the
control design methods was first verified by simulation and then vali-
dated experimentally.
4. Thermal effects on HESS performance
Song et al. [51] studied the thermal analysis of the HESS and its
performance in the EVs at sub-zero temperatures. In sub-zero tem-
perature situations, EVs suffer a deep driving range loss due to the
energy and power capacity drop of batteries. They investigated the
performance of a LiFePO4 battery, which was subject to severe de-
gradation due to Li plating. A new degradation model of the LiFePO4
batteries, which can precisely evaluate the battery fade in a wide
temperature range was suggested. An optimised EMS of the HESS for
on-line usage was developed with the implemented degradation model
using DP approach. The semi-active HESS design, which was previously
presented by the same group [33], was evaluated. This system consisted
of the SC linked to the bidirectional DC/DC converter to the Battery/DC
bus, and their voltages are equal as they are directly connected. In the
system, the resistor for the heat generation and the fan for the heat
transfer were included. The SC was presented by Rint-Capacitor model
and the battery by the Rint model. The voltage of the SC was controlled
to keep it above half of its maximal voltage.
The authors adapted the dynamic battery degradation model from
Forgez et al. [50]. They verified it for the wide range of batteries
Fig. 4. Circuit structure of the proposed multimode HESS. Reproduced with permission
from Ref. [42]. Copyright 2015, Elsevier.
L. Kouchachvili et al.
Fig. 5. Flowcharts for (a) energy management systems, (b) acceleration strategy, (c) constant speed strategy, and (d) breaking strategy. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [49].
Copyright 2015, Elsevier.
temperatures (from −20 to 10 °C) and the discharge rate (from 0.5 to
3). The operation cost over a typical CBDC counting the electricity and
the battery fade costs was reduced by the DP technique. For this a
convective heating method, with about 75% heating efficiency is used.
The heating load of the hybrid energy system at sub-zero ambient air
temperatures as a function of CBDC including the operation cost of the
storage systems were examined. The driving range, battery price,
heating efficiency, and ambient air temperature are the most influential
parameters that have a significant impact on the heating load. Simu-
lation outcomes disclosed that the heating mode becomes gradually
more essential with increased three above-mentioned parameters and
decreased ambient air temperature. Generally, for short-range driving
scenarios the total cost will rise when the battery heating power (Pheat)
is above zero. A large Pheat is favourable to decrease the operation ex-
pense for medium-range driving scenarios, and the total expense can be
constantly and considerably decreased by increasing Pheat for long-
range driving scenarios. This is because the Pheat is drawn from the
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Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248
battery and the benefits gotten by the battery heating mode cannot be
created in short period of driving time. Consequently, the pre-heating
method is not endorsed when the bus runs simply for a short time at
sub-zero temperatures.
The thermal stability of the SCs in the HESS was also investigated by
the Korea Automotive Technology Institute. The HESS utilised
NESSCAP 2.7V/3500F SCs and 36/20Ah VRLA batteries in their 42-V
automotive electrical system [57]. Fig. 6 presents the surface tem-
perature distribution of the corresponding cell. To guarantee the safety
and durability of this system the thermal stability of the SCs were in-
vestigated during the Ch/Dch. To model the thermal performance of the
SC under the harshest environments, the whole electrical load was
presumed to be supported by the SC bank. This approach replaced the
option for the load distribution between SC bank and the battery during
power cycling according to the balancing algorithm of the electrical
EMS of the vehicle. A three-dimensional modelling method has been
employed to investigate the effects of the operating and ambient
Fig. 6. (a) Surface temperature distribution and (b) isothermal sur-
faces distribution of cell after 50 cycles. Reproduced with permission
from Ref. [57]. Copyright 2008, Elsevier.
L. Kouchachvili et al.
conditions on the thermal performance of the HESS for the selected
automotive electrical system. The heat generation rates of the SC during
Ch/Dch were measured with a calorimeter. For the modelling, test
cycles comprising idle-stop, acceleration, driving, and regenerative
braking were applied. The unsteady temperature distribution of the SC
during 100 test cycles is obtained using the finite element method with
an implicit predictor-multi-corrector algorithm. The results showed that
during the first 50 test cycles the temperature of the SC increases then it
attains a periodic steady-state and that it also rises with rising ambient
temperature. The modelling features in their work may be valuable for
the development of a thermal management strategy for 42-V auto-
motive electrical systems, to maintain the operating temperature and
the temperature uniformity of the SC module inside an appropriate
range.
5. Effect of driving cycle on HESS performance
One of the important criteria to be considered when evaluating the
HESS performance in EV is its driving cycle [18,26,49,57]. Wight et al.
[26] investigated the performance of the HESS at different driving cy-
cles, the wide temperature range (−20 to 20 °C) and accelerated drive
testing. The authors highlighted the important effect of the driving
cycle on the efficiency of the DC/DC controlled SCs incorporated into
EV. The battery peak current was effectively modulated, and the strain
on the batteries was reduced. The SCs allowed greater energy extraction
from the batteries. The significant effect was on the capacitors ability to
rapidly absorb RBE and to increase EVs efficiency. The authors sug-
gested that the use of the SC could be ideal for city bus applications.
Chau et al. [18] presented the operation of the HESS during three
driving modes: normal driving mode, acceleration/hill climbing, and
braking/downhill mode. The authors have selected a control philo-
sophy for the HESS operation in a way that the batteries would always
work at their rated output power level, whereas SCs would deliver and
receive the power difference during acceleration/hill climbing and
braking/downhill driving, respectively. It was noticed that the perfor-
mance of the EMS and the efficient use of the HESS in the HEV/EV
could provide different results when applied under different operating
circumstances. When the vehicle moves slowly, the energy exchange
will be small, so storage elements will be able to absorb almost all the
energy. On the contrary when the vehicle is moving fast, energy ex-
change may be large. Similarly, if the speed variation is large, the en-
ergy exchange will also be very important, so most of the energy will be
dissipated. Therefore, it is important to monitor the SOC of the SCs
since it depends on the speed of the vehicle. For instance, at low speeds
the SOC of the SCs should remain high, empowering energy boosts for
the EV acceleration whereas at higher vehicle speeds the SC should stay
in a SOD, hence, permitting the RE to be stored when the vehicle de-
celerates. Besides, a DC/DC converter is mandatory to accommodate
the fluctuation of the voltage of both the SC and the motor/generator in
order to optimize the power conversion between the motor/generator
and the SC.
Moreover, to guarantee smooth braking, a computer controller is
used to control the motor power during acceleration [55].
Armenta et al. [49] evaluated the effectiveness of the EMS under
different driving cycles and showed that the deviation of the SOC of the
SC was in agreement with the variation of the EV speed, and the SC can
totally absorb the RBE. Their results confirmed that under an “ideal
driving cycle” the EMS was well designed and it operated with sa-
tisfactory performance. The second driving cycle was City II driving
cycle. In these real driving conditions, the acceleration time is rarely
equal to the braking time and therefore there are small time steps when
the SC energy supplying is not perfect. Three cases could occur here: (a)
taccel. > tbraking, time (from 0 to 39 s) when the SC is completely charged
before the braking finishes, which creates that a slight quantity of the
available kinetic energy has to be reverted by mechanical braking; (b)
taccel. = 1/4 tbraking (from 40 to 79 s) are similar to ideal cycle; (c)
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Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248
taccel. < tbraking (from 80 to 120 s) the SC is marginally over discharged
and the RBE is lacking to totally charge the SC.
Song et al. [58] investigated the influence of the driving cycles on
the EMS and the optimal SCs size in the HESS with a novel approach.
They divided the driving cycles into the micro-trips and simulated their
intensity factor (energy draining intensity from the HESS). Two main
characteristics such as energy demand and the maximum discharge
power were used in the simulation. The results showed a direct influ-
ence of the intensity factor on the SCs size and on-line energy man-
agement strategy. The identification of these driving parameters can be
used for optimisation of the HESS.
6. Modelling and simulation of HESS for EVs
EVs are very complex systems containing various subsystems.
Designing and developing parts of the vehicles are based on the de-
signing the prototypes and then physically testing these prototypes to
assess the designs. Prototyping and physical testing are costly and time-
consuming. Computer modelling and simulation is much faster and
flexible. The analysis of the interactions between the EV's subsystems
requires system level simulation. There are many studies in the litera-
ture dedicated to the battery, SC, and HESS modelling and simulation
[56,59–74]. The first simulator known as EVSIM was developed by
Chau et al. [18]. This simulator comprises eight units and the data
input/output and graphical interface. These units are the car and its
performance, the transmission, the motor and its performance, the
controller, the energy source, and the newly proposed driving cycle,
which was a combination of the different countries (USA, Japan, and
European countries) standard driving cycles. The key parameters such
as the acceleration rate, the maximum speed, the fuel economy, driving
range per refuel and heal climbing capability were considered to
evaluate the EVs performance. These parameters were then optimised
to get the optimal driving and the optimal fuel economy. As the si-
mulation showed, the optimisation was influenced by the mass ratio of
the EVs, which is defined as the ratio of the energy source weight and
the EV's gross weight and the hybridization ratio, which is a mass ratio
of the high power source to the energy source device. It should be noted
that the authors in this work studied the FC/battery and battery/battery
hybrid's optimisation not the hybrid of battery-SC. Their simulation
showed that any hybrid system had a better performance in the EVs
than the sole energy source.
Fotouhi et al. [63], for example, provided a comprehensive review
of the EV battery modelling. They have reviewed three families of the
battery modelling approaches: mathematical models, electrochemical
models, and equivalent electrical circuit network models. They com-
mented that first-principle electrochemical models have the possibility
to provide high precision and apprehensiveness, but they are not ap-
propriate for almost time-period embedded use. For battery manage-
ment and range prediction in EVs, there are two types of models that
can be exploited: (i) the simplified ‘reduced-order’ electrochemical
models, which basically estimates of their higher-fidelity relatives.
Acquiring such a model comes at a cost because it involves the con-
ception of a precise high-fidelity model first but can give powerful vi-
sual image into internal variables required to understand and interpret
the SOH; (ii) the equivalent circuit network models, which can offer less
direct understanding into the internal regime, but can be acquired from
the EIS testing or from the application of system identification methods.
These models can differ in complexity and quality from simple voltage-
plus-internal-resistance models to networks with aggregate dynamic
elements. Even if equivalent circuit network models do not characterize
the internal state forthwith, they can be parameterised at different
operating points, and thereby exploited to calculate measures such as
the SOC. Some models have variables which are determinate functions
of state and operating point, either implemented as static lookup tables
or polynomial functions, but there are types of models that are ‘self-
adapting’ and can fine-tune their factors in effect to slow dynamic
L. Kouchachvili et al.
conditions. There are also possible considerations for utilising new
types of batteries such as lithium-sulphur [75] and lithium-selenium
[76] batteries, which provide new opportunities for the EV applica-
tions.
Gao et al. [67] gave a good summary of the different modelling and
simulation tools of EVs and HEVs. They presented different modelling
techniques such as Resistive Companion Form approach and Bond
Graph method with powertrain component and system modelling il-
lustrations. The modelling and simulation capacities of existing soft-
ware's such as ADVISOR (Advanced Vehicle SimulatOR), PSAT (Pow-
ertrain System Analysis Toolkit), PSIM, and VTB (Virtual Test Bed) are
presented through application examples. Depending on the level of
details of how each component is modelled, the vehicle model may be
steady state (ADVISOR), quasi-steady (PSAT), or dynamic model (DM)
(PSIM, VTB). In addition, vehicle models can be categorised as forward-
looking models or backward facing models. In a forward-looking model,
a vehicle speed is controlled to follow a driving cycle during the ana-
lysis of fuel economy, hence assisting controller development.
Pay et al. [34] simulated a HESS and performed a short-duration
analysis of the power (or current) distribution between its modules
during the acceleration and deceleration. They investigated the appli-
cation of an SC bank when used as a power buffer to smooth rapid
power oscillations in and out of the battery of an electric or hybrid
vehicle. They considered the simple case where the SC bank is con-
nected directly in shunt with the battery. In another case, it is con-
nected through a DC/DC converter, which performs in the boost mode
when discharging, and in the buck mode when charging the SC bank
allowing achieving optimal performance. Some simulation results
during the vehicle acceleration and deceleration were validated by the
experimental data on a prototype model. They showed the benefits and
advantages of adding an SC bank to a battery or fuel cell driven vehicle.
Moreover, they observed that a direct parallel connection will reduce
battery stress by supporting with unsteady-state currents during ac-
celeration and deceleration, but will not make full usage of the SC as a
true power buffer. They recommended that optimal use of the SC would
requisite a power controller that needs only two static power switches,
two power diodes, an inductor and filter capacitor. The best control
strategy was not fully established due complex control concerns.
The Spice electrical simulation package was also used by Bentley
et al. [25], for the parallel SC/VRLA cell to investigate their perfor-
mance under typical HEV driving conditions. The parallel combination
was selected because in this arrangement the SC considerably decreases
the current pulse seen by the cell, and therefore drops the cell over-
voltage existing on re-charge. In this proposed model, the SC, as well as
the cell, is simulated as a big ideal capacitance in series with a finite
internal resistance. The values for this capacitor in both cases were
obtained from by discharging SC and the cell, distinctly at the cells
nominal 5-h rate of 1.53 A, after initially being charged to the cells full
SOC open circuit voltage. The discharge was completed in both cases
with a low-voltage limit of 1.7 V, representing 0% SOC for the cell. For
the internal resistance calculation, the cell and the SC have discharged
again individually at 40 °C using a 12 A constant current. The internal
cell resistance was calculated as 4.17 mΩ and for the SC–0.6 mΩ. The
highest error between the simulated and actual terminal voltage hap-
pens during the polarization voltages within the cell. This simple model
was easy to implement within the BMS.
The state space model and the Controlled Port-Hamiltonian form of
the on-board energy system were presented by Lungoci et al. [68]. This
model is designed to obtain the dynamic and physical properties of the
storage system that comprises the battery, SC, the BD-C, and the motor
as a load for the storage/delivery energy in the EVs. For the energy
management, the Passivity Based Control strategy is proposed. The si-
mulation was conducted to prove the viability of this new model of the
on-board energy system. The principle goal of this work was to main-
tain the desired value of the DC bus voltage that the battery would
deliver a constant energy and also the energy losses while breaking will
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Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248
be prevented by storing it into the SCs. The simulation showed that only
34% of the motor power is provided by the SCs and the rest delivered
by the batteries during a peak power demand. The simulation also
showed that the SCs energy uptake from the braking was significant and
therefore the hybridization of the SCs with storage batteries allows an
optimised system design. The presence of the SCs in the system supports
a long lifetime of the batteries and the reducing the size of the entire
system as the batteries volume and weight would be optimised. Simu-
lations showed that the presented architecture is more viable and the
output controllers used were satisfactory. The Passivity Based Control
provides a simple linear control law with few measurements to achieve
the desired aims even with an under actuated nonlinear system (only
the measure of the described goal).
The use of the SC connected in parallel with a PbA battery in 42 V
hybrid power source for automotive applications, was also studied by
Marie-Francoise et al. [69]. The main goal use of the SC in the system
was to improve the performance and the life cycle of the system and to
decrease the size of the battery. The system consists of the SC pack, the
battery with the voltage level of 12 V, DC/DC-C as well as a controller
to control the adaption between the battery voltage and the DC bus
voltage level (42 V). The system under study consisted of a battery and
a pack of SCs and is modelled using the Matlab-Simulink software. Si-
mulation and testing results showed that the SC model with one RC
branch could outline the SC behaviour in power applications. A PI
(Proportional Integral) microcontroller was used for the control and the
energy management of the system, which could be replaced by an NT
(Neural Network) controller.
Bin et al. [70] presented the global optimisation algorithm for the
HESS. The system was configured with 200 series connection SC bank,
45 series connection battery pack and DC/DC converter. The battery
pack connected directly to the DC bus and the SC bank connected via
the DC/DC converter. In this arrangement, they should suffer different
power loss and efficiency issues while the power transmits among them.
The authors proposed a real-time OPM algorithm. Their innovative
approach was based on the utilization of the look-ahead horizon to
predict a state of the vehicle hybrid electric system. The DP models
were implemented, and the total energy loss was minimised by im-
plementing the DMs. A cost function to minimize the total energy loss is
given, and an optimal power dividing ratio between the battery and the
SC has been achieved. The computer simulation was applied to assess
the effectiveness of the OPM algorithm. The outcomes showed a sig-
nificant decrease in computational time.
Clarke et al. [55] developed simulation software that calculates
power and energy requirements for a vehicle during driving, as well as
the energy savings attained from the RB system when compared di-
rectly with the efficiency of the same vehicle without the system. Their
models have taken into account the details of the energy consumed
throughout the level cruise, acceleration and gradient-climbing modes.
For each step, the vehicle's required energy and power were calculated.
The key parameters from the simulation were obtained after entering
the data collected from each test drive. In this simulation model, the
calculated acceleration and hill climbing modes were given special at-
tention as for the energy valuation, as the principal source of energy
consumption happens during these modes. For the RE estimation, en-
ergy recaptured during deceleration mode and hill descent is stored in
the vehicle's SC. The simulation showed that the biggest decrease was
attained within city driving, where most of the energy is consumed
while accelerating the vehicles up to speed, but can then be recollected
during deceleration. In the country driving mode, energy consumption
was reduced, but to a minor amount. This is due to the vehicle con-
suming greatest energy at a constant speed, which cannot be recollected
by the braking system.
Many researchers to simulate this hybrid system used Matlab-
Simulink software as the most versatile software. For example, Cericola
et al. [29] investigated the parallel link of a battery and an SC without
any intermediate device. For the right design, the voltage of the SC and
L. Kouchachvili et al.
Li-batteries at full charge should match. For this, the SC model and the
battery model were designed themselves to match the desired voltage.
In the battery model, two batteries with the voltage of 4.2 V were
connected in series; and in the SC model, three SC cells were placed in
series each with 2.8 V. The initial voltage of the hybrid device was set to
8.4 V. Various load configurations were used to calculate the power and
the energy of the hybrid system. The applied load configurations varied
from a constant power discharge (CP) to a pulsed discharge. The pulsed
configuration is determined through two measures: (i) the energy under
each pulse (EP) and (ii) the duty cycle (DC). The EP is the quantity of
energy drained during a single pulse. It is described as a portion of the
total energy accessible in the hybrid system. The DC is determined as
the quotient of the pulse duration to the time of one interval. Because of
the power distribution between the two devices, the specific energy and
specific power of the hybrid system are very sensitive to the load pat-
tern (Fig. 7). In continuous power discharge, the performance of the
studied hybrid systems was intermediary to those of the battery and the
capacitor alone, for which motive the hybridization does not provide a
benefit over one of the individual devices. Nevertheless, the accessible
performance is importantly augmented in pulsed load and this was
revealed to be owing to the recharging of the capacitor by the battery in
the relaxation epoch between two successive pulses. Shorter pulses and
lesser duty cycles succeeded in a greater accessible energy, which can
be taken from the hybrid system. This method permitted detecting the
optimal arrangement of capacitors and batteries in accord to the pre-
ferred load configuration.
Fiorenti et al. [71] presented a work on the development and ex-
perimental validation of a DM of a HESS involving a parallel assembly
of a PbA battery and EDLC for automotive applications. The DM of both
the PbA battery and the EDLC has been undertaken through the
equivalent electric circuit based method. Trial tests were planned for
identification purposes. Parameters of the PbA battery model were
identified as a function of the SOC and current direction, while para-
meters of the EDLC model were identified for diverse temperatures. The
HESS model was then incorporated into a vehicle emulator to evaluate
the effects of the battery hybridization on the vehicle fuel economy and
alleviation of the battery stress. They simulated paralleled linked PbA
and SC in HESS's passive design in the vehicle simulator and in-
vestigated their operation in four scenarios: (i) operation of the stand-
alone battery, (ii) HESS, (iii) with start & stop technology, and (iv)
without start & stop technology. A first order equivalent circuit model
for the battery and a second order model for the EDLC was selected as
to be a good conciliation among complexity (from both the identifica-
tion and the simulation viewpoint) and precision over a realistic time
scale. For the battery, the experimental identification of the pulsed Ch/
Dch (100%–65% SOC and 65%–100% SOC) current and the battery
capacity were performed at 25 °C. For the SC testing, the Ch/Dch was
performed at three different temperatures (−18, 25, and 50 °C) char-
ging the SC with a continuous current of 100 A to 2.7 V and discharging
with the same 100 A current to the rated voltage 1.35 V.
The authors also presented a thermal model of the SC that assumed
the temperature was influenced only by self-produced heat, related to
the power losses in the device. The manufacturer provided the thermal
capacitance and the thermal resistance of the SC that was included in
the first order thermal model for the SC. For the HESS the authors made
sure that the voltage through the battery will not exceed the rated
voltage on the SC that the over-voltage would not lead to a serious
damage of the SC. They presented the HESS equation that is the joint
equations of the electrical models of the battery and the SC. Then, the
HESS model was validated experimentally in the vehicle with the start
& stop technology. The models were validated with a good agreement
with the experimental results. The comparative fuel consumption ana-
lysis with and without HESS in the vehicle simulator was also per-
formed, and the study showed that the start & stop technology in the
vehicle with the HESS benefits the smaller size of the battery with a
long life.
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Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248
Wang et al. [42] proposed the arrangement of the novel multimode
HESS, energy management strategy, and its validation. The simulation
was based on ADVISOR selecting the Urban Dynamometer Driving
Schedule (UDDS) and the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). Then
for the further validation, the experimental platform has constructed.
The experimental results showed the efficiency of the multimode HESS
as it could decrease the energy losses of the system and safeguard the
batteries. The global system effectiveness has been enhanced con-
siderably in the UDDS and the NEDC, which were 0.28% and 1.85%
respectively relative to the baseline HESS.
7. Alternative applications
Besides the main use of the HESS for the BE recuperation in HEV/
EVs, it can be used for other applications. For example, it was proposed
to be used in the mobile charging station (MCS) [77]. For this, Lithiu-
m–iron phosphate battery was the greatest fitting battery and the EDLC
the most appropriate SC as of having high power density. In this MCS,
the AC charger was incorporated, so it can charge the energy storage
devices when the MCS is linked to the power network. The MCS also
was equipped with a battery monitoring system to control and display
the consuming of the energy storage. The authors recommended that
the ESS should be installed in a truck type vehicle and use the back
compartment, side panel, and the console; the battery pack, SC, DC/DC
converter, DC/AC inverter, and AC charger should be mounted in the
back section. The AC charger outlet, DC charger exit, AC charger inlet,
and metering and billing display will be attached in the middle of the
side panel. The console will display the entire control and monitoring
system through a general user interface. The authors expressed the hope
that by mounting battery and SC on the MCS unit could enable
smoother transportation system that supports upcoming electricity
distribution system like smart grid and V2G concept.
The incorporation of the HESS into the electric race car was con-
sidered by Frenzel et al. [78]. Fig. 8 displays the load demand of the
electric traction system. The purpose for this was to avoid undesired
overcharge/over discharge and explosion during pulsed Ch/Dch. This
can appear by a mechanical stress and insertion and extraction of the Li-
ion concentration gradients. In their experiments, the authors con-
sidered the SCs addition for load levelling on the Li-ion battery and the
RB. The electric motor of this car was working between 400 and 810 V
and the commercially available module 300 of the SC cells with the
360F were able to store a calculated 298 kJ or 83 Wh of BE. The authors
concluded that the hybrid system with SCs with parallel and series
Fig. 7. Simulated Ragone plots for constant power discharge for the battery and capacitor
units, and the n = 1, 4, and 16 combinations. As comparison the maximum specific
energy and power of the very high power VL4V Saft battery are indicated by the arrows.
Reproduced with permission from Ref. [29]. Copyright 2010, Elsevier.
L. Kouchachvili et al.
Fig. 8. Load demand of the electric traction system based on measured motorcar racing data. (a) Longitudinal acceleration versus time, (b) velocity over time, (c) distribution of specific
power in time, (d) distribution of speed in time. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [78]. Copyright 2011, Elsevier.
arrangement with a 600 V-battery module appeared to be best suitable
for a great quantity of small braking events and deceleration times at
high current. In race cars with restricted envelope, the recovery of BE is
necessary to limit the weight rise by the batteries. The results disclosed
that for this application, the HESS is better compared to a stand-alone
battery system.
Jung et al. [79] developed the SCs modules and investigated their
performances in the simulated 42-V automotive electrical system. In
this test, 6-kW power boosting/regenerative braking was efficiently
handled by the SC modules. Due to the limited production at the time
(when the paper was published in 2003), the authors mentioned that
the SCs price is high and estimated that it would dramatically decrease
in the future and that for the high power 42-V system the SCs would be
excellent storage devices.
The use of the HESS in HEV against the sulfation of the VRLA bat-
teries was investigated by Lam and Louey [22] and Stienecker et al.
[80]. The authors presented the configuration of the HESS and showed
that the hybrid system would increase the battery life. In the hybrid
system the number and size of the current pulses supplied by the bat-
teries are decreased as well as the sulfation in the PbA batteries.
The performance of the HESS in a serial hybrid electric bus was
presented by Elbert et al. [81]. The performance of the HESS in this EV
was compared with the conventional diesel engine powered bus. The
Ni-MH battery cells and the 63F SCs modules in the hybrid system were
designed for 125 V and 41.5 kW power. The power-to-weight ratio was
presented as a good measure of the vehicle performance. Therefore,
only vehicles with equal power-to-weight ratio are compared. The
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Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248
power unit (comprised of an engine and a generator) and the ESS were
scaled according to the buffer power ratio (BPR). The authors empha-
sized on the power capabilities of the storage devices more than the
energy capabilities as the power capability has more impact on fuel
savings of these vehicles, as the recuperation of the BE depends on the
power of the HESS. They claimed that for the given vehicle and mea-
surement data, the use of a serial hybrid powertrain is only reasonable
for BPRs above 20% for urban driving, and 30% for mixed driving,
respectively. For BPRs above 40%, SCs are the preferred choice due to
their poorer internal resistance and weight. Their outcomes showed
that the maximum fuel saving potential compared to a traditional ve-
hicle is about 16% for urban driving and 8% for mixed driving.
8. Summary and outlook
Both the environmental issues and the market demand have caused
the popularity of the EVs, but the electrochemical energy storage sys-
tems are still far behind the expectations to compete with the fuel-based
vehicles. Although recent advancements in the battery technologies
have provided excellent opportunities to produce EVs, which can fairly
compete in the market, the limitations in both the thermodynamics and
kinetics of the electrochemical reactions involved in a battery do not
fully meet the requirements of irregular energy consumption of ve-
hicles. In this direction, employing a SC along with the battery system
can satisfy the need. In this hybrid design, the SC can quickly (for a
short period, few seconds), provide the energy when the battery system
fails to do so. After that, the steady energy flow is supplied by the
L. Kouchachvili et al.
battery pack.
However, the battery/SC system is not as simple as coupling two
electrochemical power sources. In addition to the individual cell ar-
chitectures, the entire electrical system should be subtly matched to
build an integer power source. It is of important to decide when and
how each electrochemical cell should be charged or discharged. This is
accompanied by a complex usage procedure, which is different from
regular testing of the electrochemical cells. Therefore, designing the
future cells should be based on a close collaboration between the re-
searchers working on the electrochemistry part of the power source and
those who are designing the electrical system of the whole power source
in the EV. There is still a huge gap between these two areas of research.
Many of the hybrid systems tested for the EVs are based on commercial
batteries and SCs, which have not been fabricated for this purpose.
Instead, it is vital to design the batteries and SCs based on the re-
quirements for the hybrid energy systems of the EVs. The critical im-
portant of this point lines in the availability of various electrode ma-
terials for both batteries and SCs, which might not be useful for the
popular applications, but they provide new opportunities for the EV
applications. A simple comparison between the size and performance of
a laptop battery and the power source required for an EV reveals that
entirely new types of electrochemical cells are required for the future
EVs. However, most of the common candidates for the EV power
sources are practically based on the scaled-up version of the same old
battery systems.
The present manuscript merely aimed to attract the attention of
researchers working on different sides of this field to specifically focus
on the opportunities for designing native battery/supercapacitor sys-
tems for the EVs. In this direction, the crucial differences between the
performances of these electrochemical cells in a hybrid power source of
EVs with the standard energy storage tests should be taken into ac-
count. Here, we attempted to provide an overview of the possible
performance of the battery/supercapacitors systems in the EVs.
Acknowledgements
Funding for this work was provided by Natural Resources Canada
through the Program of Energy Research and Development. The authors
would like to acknowledge Prof. Ali Eftekhari from the Queen's
University Belfast, United Kingdom for reviewing this review paper.
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