CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
Ever increasing effects of green house gases from the conventional IC engines lead to
environmental concerns. This paved to the booming of pollution free electric vehicles (EVs)
in the automobile industry. However, EV battery charging from the utility grid increases the
load demand on the grid and eventually increases the electricity bills to the EV owners which
necessitate the use of alternate energy sources.

Due to inexhaustible and pollution free nature of renewable energy sources (RESs), it
can be used to charge the EV battery. Thus, RES driven EV can be termed as ‘green
transportation’. Solar is one of the promising RESs which can be easily tapped to utilise its
energy to charge EV battery. Hence, PV array power is used to charge the EV battery in the
proposed system with the help of power converter topologies. Lithium ion batteries are
widely used in the EV due to its high power density, high efficiency, light weight and
compact size. Also, these batteries have the capacity of fast charging and long lifecycle with
low self-discharge rate.

They also have low risk of explosion if it is over charged or short circuited. During
charging, these batteries require precise voltage control. Hence, various power electronic
converters with voltage controller are used for charging EV battery. Due to the intermittent
nature of the PV array, there is a need for power converters to charge the EV battery. Among
different converters, multiport converters (MPCs) are preferred in the onboard chargers of
hybrid EVs due to its capability of interfacing power sources and energy storage elements
like PV array, ultracapacitors, super capacitors, fuel cells and batteries with the loads in EV
like motor, lights, power windows and doors, radios, amplifiers and mobile phone charger.
The MPCs have the drawback of increase in weight, cost and maintenance of the EV as all
the sources are placed in the EV itself.

Also, the complexity of controller implementation increases in these converter-based

EV battery charging system. Hence, an off-board charger is proposed in this paper in which
the EV battery is located inside the vehicle unit and PV array and backup battery bank are
located in the charging station or parking station. Various converter topologies for off-board
charging system are presented in the literature. Among different converter topology, the sepic
converter is preferred due to its capability of working in both boost and buck modes.

1
 It also has the advantage of the same input and output voltage polarity, low input
current ripple and low EMI. However, during low solar irradiation and non-sunshine hours,
there is a need for an additional storage battery bank to charge the EV battery. This backup
battery bank has to be charged in the forward direction and discharged in a reverse direction
depending on the solar irradiation. Hence, a bidirectional converter with power flow in either
direction is required.

The bidirectional converters are classified into non-isolated and isolated converters.
Transformer in the isolated converters provides isolation which increases the price, weight
and size of the converter. The main concerns of EV are weight and size and hence, non-
isolated bidirectional converters are best suited for this application. Among various non-
isolated bidirectional converter topologies, bidirectional interleaved DC–DC converter
(BIDC) is preferred due to its advantages like improved efficiency in discontinuous
conduction mode and minimal inductance value, reduced ripple current due to multiphase
interleaving technique. Snubber capacitor across the switches reduces the turnoff losses and
the inductor current parasitic ringing effect is also reduced by employing zero voltage
resonant soft switching technique.

These are the added advantages of this bidirectional converter. The system in is an
off-board EV battery charging system which charges the EV battery from PV array power
through bidirectional DC–DC converter in stand-still condition and EV battery gets
discharged to drive the dc load in the EV during the running condition. It has the drawback of
charging EV battery only during sunshine hours. To overcome this disadvantage and to
charge the EV battery without any interruption, the proposed charger is developed using PV
array integrated with sepic converter, bidirectional DC–DC converter and backup battery
bank for charging the battery of an EV.

2
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 “Dual input dual output power converter with one-step-ahead control
for hybrid electric vehicle applications”

High voltage conversion dc/dc converters have perceived in various power electronics
applications in recent times. In particular, the multi-port converter structures are the key
solution in DC microgrid and electric vehicle applications. This paper focuses on a modified
structure of non-isolated four-port (two input and two output ports) power electronic
interfaces that can be utilized in electric vehicle (EV) applications.

The main feature of this converter is its ability to accommodate energy resources with
different voltage and current characteristics. The suggested topology can provide a buck and
boost output simultaneously during its course of operation. The proposed four-port converter
(FPC) is realized with reduced component count and simplified control strategy which makes
the converter more reliable and cost-effective. Besides, this converter exhibits bidirectional
power flow functionality making it suitable for charging the battery during regenerative
braking of an electric vehicle. The steady-state and dynamic behavior of the converter are
analyzed and a control scheme is presented to regulate the power flow between the
diversified energy supplies. A small-signal model is extracted to design the proposed
converter. The validity of the converter design and its performance behavior is verified using
MATLAB simulation and experimental results under various operating states.

A single-stage four-port (FPC) buck-boost converter for hybridizing diversified

energy resources for EV has been proposed in this paper. Compared to the existing buck-
boost converter topologies in the literature, this converter has the advantages of :

a) producing buck, boost, buck-boost output even without the use of an additional
transformer b) having bidirectional power flow capability with reduced component count

Handling multiple resources of different voltage and current capacity. Mathematical

analysis has been carried out to illustrate the functionalities of the proposed converter. A
simple control algorithm has been adopted to budget the power flow between the input
sources.

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2.2 “Voltage-dependent modelling of fast charging electric vehicle load considering
battery characteristics”

Electric vehicle (EV) integration into the power grids is increasing rapidly. To analyse
the effect of charging of EVs on the distribution system, most of the literature considered EV
load as constant power load (CPL) which do not represent the exact behaviour of these
uncertain loads. An accurate EV load modelling is developed by determining the relationship
between power consumption by EV, grid voltage and state of charges of fast charging EV
load. The derived relationship is validated by simulating a realistic fast charging system to
obtain a battery charging behavior characteristics and is curve fitted on standard exponential
load model.

Further the impact of stochastic 24-h load profile of fast charging EVs considering
the exponential load model is investigated on IEEE 123 bus distribution system and is
compared with the constant impedance-constant current constant power (ZIP) load model and
CPL model. The stochastic 24-h load is developed using queuing analysis-based method. The
results show that the exponential load model is the better representation of fast charging EV
load and 10.19% of the reduction in annual energy demand and 11.19% of the reduction in
annual energy loss is observed for exponential load model compared to the existing CPL
model.

2.3 ‘Highly reliable inverter topology with a novel soft computing technique to eliminate
leakage current in grid-connected transformer less photovoltaic systems”

Grid-connected transformer less photovoltaic inverters are widely accepted in the

renewable energy market, owing to their high power density, low cost, and high efficiency.
However, the leakage current is the main issue in these inverters, which is to be investigated
carefully. In this study, leakage current analysis of both transformer and transformer less
bridge inverter topologies are widely investigated. Based on that, a new topology and
modulation technique is proposed to eliminate the leakage current in the system. The
mechanism of a creating high-impedance path between the photovoltaic module and the
system, by properly isolating them in the freewheeling state and maintaining a constant
common mode voltage in all the switching states, is elaborately discussed in this paper. The
experimental results are finally presented to validate the proposed topology with respect to
other conventional topologies.

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2.4 “Power flow management of a grid tied PV-battery system for electric vehicles
charging”

The prospective spread of Electric vehicles (EV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
arises the need for fast charging rates. High required charging rates lead to high power
demands, which may not be supported by the grid. In this paper, an optimal power flow
technique of a PV-battery powered fast EV charging station is presented to continuously
minimize the operation cost. The objective is to help the penetration of PV-battery systems
into the grid and to support the growing need of fast EV charging.

An optimization problem is formulated along with the required constraints and the
operating cost function is chosen as a combination of electricity grid prices and the battery
degradation cost. In the first stage of the proposed optimization procedure, an offline particle
swarm optimization (PSO) is performed as a prediction layer. In the second stage, dynamic
programming (DP) is performed as an online reactive management layer. Forecasted system
data is utilized in both stages to find the optimal power management solution. In the reactive
management layer, the outputs of the PSO are used to limit the available state trajectories
used in the DP and, accordingly, improve the system computation time and efficiency. Online
error compensation is implemented into the DP and fed back to the prediction layer for
necessary prediction adjustments. Simulation and a 1 kW prototype experimental results are
successfully implemented to validate the system effectiveness and to demonstrate the benefits
of using a hybrid grid tied system of PV-battery for fast EVs charging stations.

2.5 ‘Energy management system with PV power forecast to optimally charge EVs at the
workplace’

This paper presents the design of an energy management system (EMS) capable of
forecasting photovoltaic (PV) power production and optimizing power flows between PV
system, grid and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) at the workplace. The aim is to minimize
charging cost while reducing energy demand from the grid by increasing PV self-
consumption and consequently increasing sustainability of the BEV fleet.

The developed EMS consists of two components: an autoregressive integrated moving

average (ARIMA) model to predict PV power production and a mixed-integer linear
programming (MILP) framework that optimally allocates power to minimize charging cost.
The results show that the developed EMS is able to reduce charging cost significantly, while
increasing PV self-consumption and reducing energy consumption from the grid.

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 Furthermore, during a case study analogous to one repeatedly considered in literature
i.e., dynamic purchase tariff and dynamic feed-in tariff (FIT), the EMS reduces charging cost
by 118.44% and 427.45% in case of one and two charging points, respectively, when
compared to an uncontrolled charging policy.

We proposed a forecasting enabled energy management system (EMS) in a mixed-

integer linear programming (MILP) framework, which allows it to plan power allocation in
fifteen minute periods while taking dynamic tariffs into account. The aim was to minimize
total cost while reducing stress on the grid and increasing photovoltaic (PV) self-
consumption, and consequently increasing sustainability of the vehicle fleet.

The model was developed considering a modular converter topology, which allowed
us to connect multiple BEVs to a single charging point while one BEV could be charged
during a certain time period. In this way, capital expenditure could be reduced when
compared to the case when each BEV would require its own charging point. We showed that
for these case studies the EMS significantly reduced total cost while reducing energy
exchange with the grid and increasing self-consumption, while satisfying energy demand and
consequently maintaining consumer comfort. More specifically, in case of one charging
point, total cost was reduced by 118.44%, whereas profit was increased by 427.45% when
two charging points were considered.

Furthermore, due to participating in demand side management (DSM),

selfconsumption was increased. Additional case studies showed that if the EMS would be
implemented with flat tariffs, it would reduce cost between 10.49% - 171.46%, while high
feed-in tariffs (FITs) conceal the effectiveness of the EMS. A preliminary case study of our
future research with 10 charging points showed similar results, meaning that the EMS can
indeed be scaled up. Additionally, its predictive capability enabled the EMS to anticipate on
future PV generation, which proved to be vital for its effectiveness. In terms of forecast
accuracy the EMS performed satisfactory, achieving an R2 , of 0.986 and RMSE of 0.395
kW.

2.6 “Ancillary services provided by photovoltaic inverters: single and three phase
control strategies”

Photovoltaic (PV) inverters are power electronic based converters with fast response
in the range of milliseconds. Besides, due to solar irradiance variation, these converters have
excess capacity that can be used to provide ancillary services to the main grid.

6
 Traditionally, ancillary services such as reactive power injection and frequency
support are provided by hydro and thermal generation. This work is focused on the analysis
of how PV inverters can perform ancillary services and support the grid. Control strategies
for reactive power injection and harmonic current compensation are explored. Furthermore,
the inverter current saturation plays an important role, once high currents can damage the
inverter or reduce its lifetime. Case studies for single and three-phase PV inverters are
presented. It is observed that the ancillary service priority must be defined in order to
guarantee PV inverter operation under nominal conditions.

Ancillary services can be provided by single and three-phase PV systems, such as

reactive power injection and harmonic current compensation. Thus, it is improved the
inverter excess capacity, which is not used over the PV system daily operation. A generic
topology of the grid-connected PV system is presented, as well as several control structures
based on different reference coordinates. The PV inverter control strategy has several
functions and must ensure that the inverter operates below its rated current. Thus, strategies
for inverter current limitation during the performance of auxiliary services are explored. Two
case studies are conducted to analyse the impact of ancillary service support on the PV
system behaviour.

The results demonstrated that the PV inverter with reactive power support and
harmonic current compensation capability can improve the power system quality, when there
is current margin for this purpose. The results indicate that is possible to apply the control
strategies addressed to perform ancillary services using both single-phase and three-phase
systems. Table 5 summarizes the main characteristics of single and three-phase approaches.
Regarding the modulation strategies, single-phase inverters present a better performance in
terms of dc-link voltage utilization and harmonic distortion. Threephase inverters present a
larger number of components even when the dc/dc stage is considered in single-phase
approach. Furthermore, the larger number of measurements of three-phase inverters increase
the complexity of the current control, harmonic detection and current dynamic saturation.

2.7 “‘RES based EV battery charging system: a review”

Electric Vehicles (EV) are emerging due to ever increasing concerns on the energy
issues and greenhouse gas effects. Also, due to the depletion of fossil fuels, electricity
generated from Renewable Energy Sources (RES) like Photovoltaic (PV) arrays and Wind

7
Turbine Generators (WTG) are used for charging the EV batteries which reduces the utility
grid overload.

A review on different power converter topologies which can be used in PV-EV and
WTG-EV battery chargers are presented in this paper. Also, this paper reviews the various
power converters which can be employed for interfacing RES-EV battery charger with the
utility grid. This paper enlightens the researchers in the selection of appropriate power
converters suitable for the stand-alone and grid-connected RES-EV battery charging systems.

This paper comprehensively reviews the current status and different methods for the
deployment of EV and also the latest technologies for the integration of EV with the PV array
and Wind generator. In this paper, different power electronic converter topologies
implemented in the PV-EV charging system and WTG-EV charging system are discussed
which includes, AC/DC power factor correction converters, DC/ DC converters, isolated and
non-isolated bidirectional converters and bidirectional inverters. The concept of RES-EV
charging system integrated with the utility grid is also summarized in this paper. Thus, this
paper enables the individual to choose and design appropriate converters for the different
electric vehicle charging system to meet the desired requirements.

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 CHAPTER 3

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

3.1Introduction:
The demand for renewable energy has increased significantly over the years because
of shortage of fossil fuels and greenhouse effect. Among various types of renewable energy
sources, solar energy and wind energy have become very popular and demanding due to
advancement in power electronics techniques. Photovoltaic sources are used today in many
applications as they have the advantages of being maintenance and pollution free. Solar-
electric-energy demand has grown consistently by 20%–25% per annum over the past 20
years, which is mainly due to the decreasing costs and prices.

This decline has been driven by the following factors:

1) An increasing efficiency of solar cells
2) Manufacturing technology improvements and
3) Economies of scale.
PV inverter, which is the heart of a PV system, is used to convert dc power obtained
from PV modules into ac power to be fed into the grid. Improving the output waveform of the
inverter reduces its respective harmonic content and hence, the size of the filter used and the
level of electromagnetic interference generated by switching operation of the inverter.
The increasing energy demand, increasing costs and exhaustible nature of fossil fuels
and global environment pollution have generated huge interest in renewable energy
resources. Other than hydroelectric power, wind and solar are the most useful energy sources
to satisfy our power requirements. Wind energy is capable of producing huge amounts of
power, but its availability can’t be predicted. Solar power is available during the whole day
but the solar irradiance levels change because of the changes in the sun’s intensity and
shadows caused by many reasons.
Generally solar and wind power are complementary in nature. Therefore the hybrid
photovoltaic and wind energy system has higher dependability to give steady power than
each of them operating individually. Other benefit of the hybrid system is that the amount of

9
the battery storage can be decreased as hybrid system is more reliable compared to their
independent operation.

3.2Types of Renewable Energy Sources:

1. Hydro Power
The power of water is abundant. Water power accounts for 73 percent of all
renewable energy according to the Energy Information Administration. Water power is
generated using the mechanical energy of flowing water by forcing it through pipes, which
then turns a generator in order to produce electricity. Water power also consists of tidal and
wave energy, both in the infant stage of research, as scientists try to discover how to harness
energy produced by the ocean's movement.
2. Solar Power
Solar cells made of silicon absorb the sun's radiation, also called photovoltaic cells.
The photovoltaic process involves the movement and displacement of electrons to absorb the
sun's radiation and create electricity. But there are also solar systems that use large scale
mirrors to heat water, or produce high temperatures and generate steam, which is used to turn
a generator.
3. Wind Power
Wind power is a very simple process. A wind turbine converts the movement energy
of wind into mechanical energy that is used to generate electricity. The energy is fed through
a generator, converted again into electrical energy and then transmitted to a power station.
Wind power is abundant in some states, with the largest wind farms located in Texas.
Wind is unique because it carries incentives for farmers to give parcels of land for
building wind turbines and has the most potential as far as widespread adoption due to the
large areas of land with consistent wind available to harness.
4. Geothermal Power
The process involves trapping heat underground and then building energy that rises
near the surface in the form of heat. When this heat naturally creates hot water or steam, it is
harnessed and then used to turn a steam turbine to generate electricity. Geothermal energy
was first used for commercial purposes in the early 1900s.
3.3 Photo Voltaic Systems:
Photovoltaic systems are composed of interconnected components designed to
accomplish specific goals ranging from powering a small device to feeding electricity into the

10
main distribution grid. Photovoltaic systems are classified as shown in Figure 3.1. The two
main general classifications as depicted in the figure are the stand-alone and the grid-
connected systems. The main distinguishing factor between these two systems is that in
stand-alone systems the solar energy output is matched with the load demand.
To cater for different load patterns, storage elements are generally used and most
systems currently use batteries for storage.
If the PV system is used in conjunction with another power source like a wind or
diesel generator then it falls under the class of hybrid systems. The balances of system
components are a major contribution to the life cycle costs of a photovoltaic system. They
include all the power conditioning units, storage elements and mechanical structures that are
needed. They especially have a huge impact on the operating costs of the PV system.

Figure 3.1: Classification of PV systems

3.3.1 PV Cell:
PV Cells generate electric power when illuminated by sunlight or artificial light. To
illustrate the operation of a PV Cell, the p-n homo junction cell is used. PV cells contain a
junction between two different materials across which there is a built in electric field. The
absorption of photons of energy greater than the band gap energy of the semiconductor
promotes electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, creating electron-hole pairs
throughout the illuminated part of the semiconductor. These electron-hole pairs will flow in

11
opposite directions across the junction thereby creating DC power. The balances of system
components are a major contribution to the life cycle costs of a photovoltaic system.

Figure 3.2: Structure of a PV cell

The cross-section of a PV cell is shown in Figure 3.2. The most common material
used in PV cell manufacture is mono-crystalline or poly-crystalline silicon. Each cell is

typically made of square or rectangular wafers of dimensions measuring about 10cm x10cm
x0.3mm. In the dark the PV cell's behaviour is similar to that of a diode and the well known
Shockley-Read equation can be used to model its behavior i.e.
3.3.2 PV Module
For the majority of applications multiple solar cells need to be connected in series or
in parallel to produce enough voltage and power. Individual cells are usually connected into a
series string of cells i.e., typically 36 or 72 to achieve the desired output voltage. The
complete assembly is usually referred to as a module and manufacturers basically sell
modules to customers. The modules serve another function of protecting individual cells from
water, dust etc. as the solar cells are placed into an encapsulation of single or double glasses.

Figure3.3: Structure of a PV module with 36 cells connected in series

12
 Within a module the different cells are connected electrically in series or in parallel
although most modules have a series connection. Figure 3.3 shows a typical connection of
how 36 cells are connected in series.
In a series connection the same current flows through all the cells and the voltage at
the module terminals is the sum of the individual voltages of each cell. It is therefore, very
critical for the cells to be well matched in the series string so that all cells operate at the
maximum power points. When modules are connected in parallel the current will be the sum
of the individual cell currents and the output voltage will equal that of a single cell.
3.3.3 PV Array:
An array is a structure that consists of a number of PV modules, mounted on the same
plane with electrical connections to provide enough electrical power for a given application.
Arrays range in power capacity from a few hundred watts to hundreds of kilowatts. The
connection of modules in an array is similar to the connection of cells in a single module. To
increase the voltage, modules are connected in series and to increase the current they are
connected in parallel. Matching is again very important for the overall performance of the
array.
The voltages for n modules in series are given as:
n

Vseries = ∑ V j = V1 + V2 + ………. + Vn for I > 0 (3.1)

j=1

Vseriesoc= ∑ V j = Voc1 + Voc2 + ………. + Vocn for I = 0 (3.2)

j=1

The current and voltage for m modules in parallel is given by,

n

Iparallel = ∑ I j = I1 + I2 + ………. + In
j=1

Vparallel = V1 = V2 = ………………= Vn (3.3)

For an array to perform well, all the modules must not be shaded otherwise it will act
as a load resulting in heat that may cause damage. Bypass diodes are usually used to avoid
damage although they result in further increase in cost. Integration of bypass diodes in some
large modules during manufacturing is not uncommon and reduces the extra wiring required.
It must be pointed out though that it becomes very difficult to replace the diode if it fails.

13
 Figure 3.4: Structure of a PV array

3.3.4 PV Hybrid Systems:

In cases where it is not feasible economically or practically to supply the requisite
energy from PV modules other means are used. In most cases the PV system is used in
conjunction with a Diesel generator. Such a hybrid system ensures that energy demands are
met while fully utilizing the PV supply. A typical hybrid system is shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5: Hybrid stand-alone PV system

3.3.5 PV Cell Model:
The equivalent circuit of a PV Cell is shown in Figure 3.6. It includes a current source, a
diode, a series resistance and a shunt resistance.

Figure 3.6: PV Cell equivalent circuit

In view of that, the current to the load can be given as:

14
 (3.4)
In this equation, Iphis the photocurrent, Is is the reverse saturation current of the diode,
q is the electron charge, V is the voltage across the diode, K is the Boltzmann's constant, T is
the junction temperature, N is the ideality factor of the diode, Rsand Rshare the series and
shunt resistors of the cell respectively. As a result, the complete physical behavior of the PV
cell is in relation with Iph, Is, Rsand Rsh from one hand and with two environmental parameters
as the temperature and the solar radiation from the other hand.

CHAPTER-4

ELECTRIC STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES

A number of electric storage technologies have been developed which serve various
electric applications, including:
 Pumped Hydropower
 Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
 Batteries
 Flywheels
 Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
 Super capacitors
 Hydrogen Storage
4.1 Pumped Hydropower: Pumped hydro has been around as an electric storage
technology since 1929, making it the oldest used technology.
Operation: Conventional pumped hydro facilities consist of two reservoirs, each of which
is built at two different levels. A body of water at the higher elevation represents potential
or “stored” energy. Electrical energy is produced when water is released from this reservoir
to the lower reservoir while causing the water to flow through hydraulic turbines which
generate electric power as high as 1000 MW. Within last ten years the advanced pumped
storage (APS) technology has been introduced to increase efficiency, speed and reliability.

15
Example: A seawater pumped hydro plant was first built in Japan in 1999 (Yanbaru, 30
MW). There is over 90 GW of pumped storage in operation world wide, which is about 3 %
of global generation capacity.
4.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES): CAES is an attractive energy storage
technology for large, bulk storage. Operation: CAES systems store energy by compressing
air within an air reservoir using a compressor powered by low cost electric energy. During
charging the plant’s generator operates in reverse – as a motor – to send compressed air
into the reservoir.
When the plant discharges, it uses the compressed air to operate the combustion
turbine generator. This method is more efficient because natural gas is burned in this
process as compared to a conventional turbine plant as the CAES plant uses all of its
mechanical energy to generate electricity.
An important performance parameter for a CAES system is the charging ratio,
which is defined as the ratio of the electrical energy required to charge the system versus
the electrical energy generated during discharge (the number of kilowatt hour (kWh) input
in charging to produce 1 kWh output).
Example: In 1991, the first U.S. CAES facility was built in McIntosh, Alabama, by the
Alabama Electric Cooperative and EPRI, and has a capacity of 110 MW.

4.3 Flywheels: Operation: A flywheel storage device consists of a flywheel that spins at a
very high velocity and an integrated electrical apparatus that can operate either as a motor
to turn the flywheel and store energy or as a generator to produce electrical power on
demand using the energy stored in the flywheel. The use of magnetic bearings and a
vacuum chamber helps reduce energy losses. Flywheels have been proposed to improve the
range, performance and energy efficiency of electric vehicles. Development of flywheels
for utilities has been focused on power quality applications.
Example: While high-power flywheels are developed and deployed for aerospace and UPS
applications, there is an effort, pioneered by Beacon Power, to optimize low cost
commercial flywheel designs for long duration operation (up to several hours). 2kW /
6kWh systems are in telecom service today.

4.4 Advanced Electrochemical Capacitors:

Operation: An electrochemical capacitor has components related to both a battery and a
capacitor. Consequently, cell voltage is limited to a few volts. Specifically, the charge is

16
stored by ions as in a battery. But, as in a conventional capacitor, no chemical reaction
takes place in energy delivery. An electrochemical capacitor consists of two oppositely
charged electrodes, a separator, electrolyte and current collectors.
Example: Presently, very small super capacitors in the range of seven to ten watts are
widely available commercially for consumer power quality applications and are commonly
found in household electrical devices. Development of larger-scale capacitors has been
focused on electric vehicles. Currently, small-scale power quality is considered to be the
most promising utility use for advanced capacitors.

Having discussed all the different types of energy storage, we compare the different
technologies in the table below:

4.5 BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS

In recent years much of the focus on the development of electric storage technology
has been on batter storage which is the main emphasis of this paper. There is a wide variety
of battery types serving various purposes which would be examined in this paper. In a
chemical battery, charging causes reactions in electrochemical compounds to store energy
from a generator in a chemical form.

17
 Upon demand, reverse chemical reactions cause electricity to flow out of the battery
and back to the grid. The first commercially available battery was the flooded lead-acid
battery which was used for fixed, centralized applications. The valve-regulated lead-acid
(VRLA) battery is the latest commercially available option. The VRLA battery is low-
maintenance, spill- and leak-proof, and relatively compact. Zinc/bromine is a newer battery
storage technology that has not yet reached the commercial market. Other lithium-based
batteries are under development. Batteries are manufactured in a wide variety of capacities
ranging from less than 100 watts to modular configurations of several megawatts.
As a result, batteries can be used for various utility applications in the areas of
generation, T&D, and customer service. Batteries currently have the widest range of
applications as compared to other energy storage technologies. The type and the number of
battery storage applications are constantly expanding mainly in the areas of electric and
electric hybrid vehicles, electric utility energy storage, portable electronics, and storage of
electric energy produced by renewable resources such as wind and solar generators. They
are also used for a variety of applications such as: power quality assurance, transmission
and distribution (T&D) facility deferral, voltage regulation, spinning reserve, load leveling,
peak shaving, and integration with renewable energy generation plants.
Battery systems appear to offer the most benefits for utilities when providing power
management support and when responding to instant voltage spikes or sags and outages.
Operation Electric batteries are devices that store electric energy in electrochemical form
and deliver direct (dc) electricity. Electrode plates, typically consisting of chemically
reactive materials, are placed in an electrolyte which facilitates transfer of ions within the
battery. The negative electrode, or anode, “gives up” electrons during discharge via the
oxidation part of the oxidation-reduction electrochemical process.
Those electrons flow through the electric load connected to the battery, giving up energy.
Electrons are then transported to the positive electrode, or cathode, for electrochemical
reduction. The process is reversed during charging. Battery systems consist of cells, which
have a characteristic operating voltage and maximum current capability, configured in
various series/parallel arrays to create the desired voltage and current.
Typically a BESS consists of a power conditioning system (PCS) that processes
electricity from the battery and makes it suitable for alternating current (ac) loads. This
includes (a) adjusting current and voltage to maximize power output, (b) converting DC
power to AC power, (c) matching the converted AC electricity to a utility’s AC electrical
network, and (d) halting current flow from the system into the grid during utility outages to

18
safeguard utility personnel. The conversion from DC to AC power in the PCS is achieved
by an inverter, which is a set of electronic switches that change DC voltage from battery to
AC voltage in order to serve an AC load.
Available Types of Battery Storage Until recently, the only battery technology
that was economically feasible is the lead acid battery. Improved valve regulated lead-acid
(VRLA) batteries are now emerging in utility systems. Advanced batteries (such as lithium
ion and zinc/bromide) are being developed and are at different levels of size and readiness
for utility operation.
Following are the different kinds of battery available in the market today: A. Lead-
Acid Battery Lead acid batteries are marginally economic but they have substantial space
and maintenance requirements. They also have a shorter life, which decreases rapidly if
battery is discharged below 30%. This results in the reduction of energy density amounting
to increased capital costs. They are commonly installed in uninterruptible power supply
(UPS) systems as well as in renewable and distributed power systems. The largest one
installed is a 40 MWh system in Chino, California.
They have several key limitations: (a) they require relatively frequent maintenance
to replace water lost in operation, (b) they are relatively expensive compared to
conventional options with limited reduction in cost expected, and (c) because of their use of
lead, they are heavy, reducing their portability and increasing construction costs. The
strengths of flooded lead-acid batteries center around their relatively long life span,
durability, and the commercial availability of the technology. B. Valve Regulated Lead
Acid Battery (VRLA) VRLAs use the same basic electrochemical technology as flooded
lead-acid batteries, but these batteries are closed with a pressure regulating valve, so that
they are essentially sealed. In addition, the acid electrolyte is immobilized.
This eliminates the need to add water to the cells to keep the electrolyte functioning
properly, or to mix the electrolyte to prevent stratification. The oxygen recombination and
the valves of VRLAs prevent the venting of hydrogen and oxygen gases and the ingress of
air into the cells. The battery subsystem may need to be replaced more frequently than with
the flooded lead-acid battery, increasing the levelized cost of the system. The major
advantages of VRLAs over flooded lead-acid cells are: a) the dramatic reduction in the
maintenance that is necessary to keep the battery in operation, and b) the battery cells can
be packaged more tightly because of the sealed construction and immobilized electrolyte,
reducing the footprint and weight of the battery.

19
 The disadvantages of VRLAs are that they are less robust than flooded lead-acid
batteries, and they are more costly and shorter-lived. VRLAs are perceived as being
maintenance free and safe and have become popular for standby power supplies in
telecommunications applications and for uninterruptible power supplies in situations where
special rooms cannot be set aside for the batteries. 3.2 Use in UPS Systems Battery
applications are predominantly used for reserve power in uninterruptible power supply
systems (UPS). Generally flooded cell batteries, sealed-cell batteries and flywheels are the
number one choice for UPS today.
Flywheels are useful for certain space-critical requirements but they cost much
more than other batteries and are subject to bearing reliability and environmental issues due
to high spin issues. Flooded cell batteries are the most reliable choice as they exhibit better
mean time between failure (MTBF) levels as compared to either flywheels or valve
regulated lead acid (VRLA) batteries. But flooded cell batteries are the most expensive
kind either as first cost or on installed cost basis.
According to one paper, more than 90% of installed UPS systems with
power levels ranging up to 500 kVA or more rely on VRLA batteries. In contrast to other
types of UPS energy storage, VRLA battery systems are relied upon primarily due to (a)
the dramatic reduction in the maintenance that is necessary to keep the battery in operation,
(b) the battery cells can be packaged more tightly because of the sealed construction and
immobilized electrolyte, reducing the footprint and the weight of the battery. Heat is
perhaps the worst enemy of stationary lead-acid batteries.
Depending on manufacturer and product, expected life of all lead-acid batteries will
be cut in half for every 10º to 15ºF rise in temperature over recommended usage, which is
usually 77ºF. This is because excessive heat in VRLAs leads to dry-out and open circuit
failure. Next on the list of factors are cycling or battery discharge events. Most UPS
systems cycle batteries not just during outages, but also for changes in load levels, as well
as large dips in input voltage. In fact, many battery companies now limit warranties based
upon the number and duration of these discharge cycles. Charge voltage, current and
duration also affects VRLA reliability.
Most sealed VRLA batteries currently being manufactured and bid for UPS
applications in the United States have a five-year design or target life. It could be longer
with ambient reduction, cycling and depending on the manufacturer, or it could be
shortened by the factors already discussed. Good UPS maintenance will include battery
voltage, resistance or impedance testing, some of which is built right in to modern UPS

20
charging and monitoring circuits, as well as visual inspection, cleaning and later on,
retorquing or infrared scanning connections. Overall UPS system reliability is more
dependent upon the DC component of the system than any other element. VRLA batteries
will remain the DC component of choice for most UPS systems for many years to come. By
integrating good system and service design, high levels of VRLA battery reliability can be
achieved.
A Lithium ion Battery (Li-Ion) The main advantages of Li-ion batteries, compared
to other advanced batteries, are: (a) High energy density (300 - 400 kWh/m3, 130 kWh/ton)
(b) High efficiency (near 100%) (c)Long cycle life (3,000 cycles @ 80% depth of
discharge). The cathode in these batteries is a lithiated metal oxide (LiCoO2,
LiMO2, etc.) and the anode is made of graphitic carbon with a layer structure. The
electrolyte is made up of lithium salts (such as LiPF6) dissolved in organic carbonates.
When the battery is being charged, the Lithium atoms in the cathode become ions and
migrate through the electrolyte toward the carbon anode where the combine with external
electrons and are deposited between carbon layers as lithium atoms. This process is
reversed during discharge. While Liion batteries took over 50% of small portable market in
a few years, there are some challenges for making large-scale Li-ion batteries.
The main hurdle is the high cost (above $600/kWh) due to special packaging and
internal overcharge protection circuits. Several companies are working to reduce the
manufacturing cost of Li-ion batteries to capture large energy markets. B. Vanadium Redox
Flow Battery (VRB) VRB stores energy by employing vanadium redox couples (V2+/V3+
in the negative and V4+/V5+ in the positive half cells). These are stored in mild sulfuric
acid solutions (electrolytes).
During the charge/ discharge cycles, H+ ions are exchanged between the two
electrolyte tanks through the hydrogen-ion permeable polymer membrane. The cell voltage
is 1.4-1.6 volts. The net efficiency of this battery can be as high as 85%. Like other flow
batteries, the power and energy ratings of VRB are independent of each other. VRB was
pioneered in the Australian University of New South Wales (UNSW) in early 1980's. VRB
storages up to 500kW, 10 hrs (5MWh) have been installed in Japan by SEI. VRBs have
also been applied for power quality applications (3MW, 1.5 sec., SEI). C. Zinc Bromine
Flow Battery (ZnBr) In each cell of a ZnBr battery, two different electrolytes flow past
carbon-plastic composite electrodes in two compartments separated by a micro porous
polyolefin membrane.

21
 During discharge, Zn and Br combine into zinc bromide, generating 1.8 volts across
each cell. This will increase the Zn2+ and Brion density in both electrolyte tanks. During
charge, metallic zinc will be deposited (plated) as a thin film on one side of the carbon-
plastic composite electrode. Meanwhile, bromine evolves as a dilute solution on the other
side of the membrane, reacting with other agents (organic amines) to make thick bromine
oil that sinks down to the bottom of the electrolytic tank. It is allowed to mix with the rest
of the electrolyte during discharge.
The net efficiency of this battery is about 75%. The ZnBr battery was developed by
Exxon in the early 1970's. Over the years, many multi-kWh ZnBr batteries have been built
and tested. Meidisha demonstrated 1MW/4MWh ZnBr battery in 1991at Kyushu
Company. Sodium Sulfur Battery (NaS) A NaS battery consists of liquid (molten)
sulfur at the positive electrode and liquid (molten) sodium at the negative electrode as
active materials separated by a solid beta alumina ceramic electrolyte. The electrolyte
allows only the positive sodium ions to go through it and combine with the sulfur to form
sodium polysulfides.
During discharge, as positive Na+ ions flow through the electrolyte and electrons
flow in the external circuit of the battery producing about 2 volts. This process is reversible
as charging causes sodium polysulfides to release the positive sodium ions back through the
electrolyte to recombine as elemental sodium. The battery is kept at about 300 degrees C to
allow this process. NaS battery cells are efficient (about 89%) and have a pulse power
capability over six times their continuous rating (for 30 seconds).
This attribute enables the NaS battery to be economically used in combined
power quality and peak shaving applications. NaS battery technology has been
demonstrated at over 30 sites in Japan totaling more than 20 MW with stored energy
suitable for 8 hours daily peak shaving. The largest NaS installation is a 6MW, 8h unit for
Tokyo Electric Power company. E. Metal-Air Battery Metal-air batteries are the most
compact and, potentially, the least expensive batteries available. They are also
environmentally benign. The main disadvantage, however, is that electrical recharging of
these batteries is very difficult and inefficient. Although many manufacturers offer
refuelable units where the consumed metal is mechanically replaced and processed
separately, not many developers offer an electrically rechargeable battery.
Rechargeable metal air batteries that are under development have a life of only a
few hundred cycles and efficiency about 50%. The anodes in these batteries are commonly
available metals with high energy density like aluminum or zinc that release electrons when

22
oxidized. The cathodes or air electrodes are often made of a porous carbon structure or a
metal mesh covered with proper catalysts. The electrolytes are often a good OH- ion
conductor such as KOH. The electrolyte may be in liquid form or a solid polymer
membrane saturated with KOH.
While the high energy density and low cost of metal-air batteries may make them
ideal for many primary battery applications, the electrical rechargeability feature of these
batteries needs to be developed further before they can compete with other rechargeable
battery technologies. F. Polysulfide Bromide Flow Battery (PSB) Polysulfide Bromide
battery (PSB) is a regenerative fuel cell technology that provides a reversible
electrochemical reaction between two salt solution electrolytes (sodium bromide and
sodium polysulfide).
PSB electrolytes are brought close together in the battery cells where they are
separated by a polymer membrane that only allows positive sodium ions to go through,
producing about 1.5 volts across the membrane.
Cells are electrically connected in series and parallel to obtain the desired voltage
and current levels. The net efficiency of this battery is about 75%. This battery works at
room temperature. It has been verified in the laboratory and demonstrated at multi-kW
scale in the UK. Regenesys Technologies is building a 120 MWh, 15 MW energy storage
plant at Innogy's Little Barford Power Station in the UK. Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA) is also planning to build a 12 MW, 120 MWh unit in Mississippi (USA) to be
operational in late 2004.

23
 Thus having talked about different battery storage technologies here we compare
them. From the above graph shown, we come to the following conclusions: For energy
storage involving greater capacity systems, generally pumped storage and CAES storage
systems are used whereas for lower storage applications, High Energy Fly Wheels, Super
capacitors and batteries are used. For mid capacity applications generally flow batteries,
lead-acid batteries and NaS batteries are used. CAES and Pumped Hydro are more costly as
compared to other technologies but they also served larger load applications.

CHAPTER-5
ELECTRIC VEHICLE
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
Electric Vehicle (EV) is an emerging technology in the modern world because of the
fact that it mitigates environmental pollutions and at the same time increases fuel efficiency
of the vehicles. Multilevel inverter controls electric drive of EV of high power and enhances
its performance which is the reflection of the fact that it can generate sinusoidal voltages with
only fundamental switching frequency and have almost no electromagnetic interference. This
paper describes precisely various topology of EVs and presents transformer less multilevel
converter for high voltage and high current EV. The cascaded inverter is IGBT based and it is
fired in a sequence.
It is natural fit for EV as it uses separate level of dc sources which are in form of
batteries or fuel cells. Compared to conventional vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles (EVs) are
more fuel efficient due to the optimization of the engine operation and recovery of kinetic
energy during braking. With the plug-in option (PEV), the vehicle can be operated on
electric-only modes for a driving range of up to 30–60 km. The HEVs are charged overnight
from the electric power grid where energy can be generated from renewable sources such as
wind and solar energy and from nuclear energy.
Fuel cell vehicles (FCV) use hydrogen as fuel to produce electricity, therefore they
are basically emission free. When connected to electric power grid (V2G), the FCV can
provide electricity for emergency power backup during a power outage. Due to hydrogen
production, storage, and the technical limitations of fuel cells at the present time, FCVs are

24
not available to the general public yet. EVs are likely to dominate the advanced propulsion in
coming years. Hybrid technologies can be used for almost all kinds of fuels and engines.
Therefore, it is not a transition technology. In EVs and FCVs, there are more electrical
components used, such as electric machines, power electronic converters, batteries, ultra
capacitors, sensors, and microcontrollers. In addition to these electrification components or
subsystems, conventional internal combustion engines (ICE), and mechanical and hydraulic
systems may still be present. The challenge presented by these advanced propulsion systems
include advanced powertrain components design, such as power electronic converters,
electric machines and energy storage; power management; modeling and simulation of the
powertrain system; hybrid control theory and optimization of vehicle control.
                   In recent years, research in electric vehicle (EV) development has been focused
on various aspect of design, such as component architecture, engine efficiency, reduced fuel
emissions, material for lighter components, power electronics, efficient motors and high
power density batteries. To meet some of the aspect of EV cascaded multilevel inverter is
used so as to meet high power demands. The multilevel voltage source inverters with unique
structure allow them to reach high voltages with low harmonics without the use of
transformers or series-connected synchronized switching devices.
The general function of the multilevel inverter is to synthesize a desired voltage from
several levels of dc voltages. For this reason, multilevel inverters can easily provide the high
power required of a large electric drive. As the number of levels increases, the synthesized
output waveform has more steps, which produces a staircase wave that approaches a desired
waveform. Also, as more steps are added to the waveform, the harmonic distortion of the
output wave decreases, approaching zero as the number of levels increases. As the number of
levels increases, the voltage that can be spanned by summing multiple voltage levels also
increases.
 The structure of the multilevel inverter is such that no voltage sharing problems are
encountered by the active devices. HEV Configurations

5.2 Why EV’S, HV’S?

                                                     

25
                                                      Fig.5.1. HEV Configurations

Vehicles equipped with conventional internal combustion engines (ICE) have been in
existence for over 100 years. With the increase of the world population, the demand for
vehicles for personal transportation has increased dramatically in the past decade.
This trend of increase will only intensify with the catching up of developing countries,
such as China, India, and Mexico. The demand for oil has increased significantly. Another
problem associated with the ever-increasing use of personal vehicles is the emissions. The
greenhouse effect, also known as global warming, is a serious issue that we have to face.
There have been increased tensions in part of the world due to the energy crisis. Government
agencies and organizations have developed more stringent standards for the fuel consumption
and emissions.
Nevertheless, with the ICE technology being matured over the past 100 years,
although it will continue to improve with the aid of automotive electronic technology, it will
mainly rely on alternative evolution approaches to significantly improve the fuel economy
and reduce emissions. Battery-powered electric vehicles were one of the solutions proposed
to tackle the energy crisis and global warming. However, the high initial cost, short driving
range, long charging (refueling) time, and reduced passenger and cargo space have proved
the limitation of battery-powered EVs.
The HEV was developed to overcome the disadvantages of both ICE vehicles and the
pure battery-powered electric vehicle. The HEV uses the onboard ICE to convert energy from
the onboard gasoline or diesel to mechanical energy, which is used to drive the onboard
electric motor, in the case of a series HEV, or to drive the wheels together with an electric
motor, in the case of parallel or complex HEV. The onboard electric motor(s) serves as a

26
device to optimize the efficiency of the ICE, as well as recover the kinetic energy during
braking or coasting of the vehicle. The ICE can be stopped if the vehicle is at a stop, or if
vehicle speed is lower than a preset threshold, and the electric motor is used to drive the
vehicle along. The ICE operation is optimized by adjusting the speed and torque of the
engine.
The electric motor uses the excess power of the engine to charge battery if the engine
generates more power than the driver demands or to provide additional power to assist the
driving if the engine cannot provide the power required by the driver. Due to the optimized
operation of the ICE, the maintenance of the vehicle can be significantly reduced, such as oil
changes, exhaust repairs, and brake replacement. In addition, the onboard electric motor
provides more flexibility and controllability to the vehicle control, such as antilock braking
(ABS) and vehicle stability control (VSC).

5.3 HEV Configurations:
Although a number of configurations are used for HEV powertrains, the main
architectures are the series, parallel and series-parallel ones.
They are analyzed in this Section
i) by disregarding the losses in the electric and mechanical devices, the power consumption
of the auxiliary electric loads, and the presence of gearboxes and clutches, and 
ii) By considering the static converters used for the interface of the electric devices as a
whole with the devices themselves.  Moreover, the analysis is carried out by assuming that 
iii) The powers are positive quantities when the associated energy flows in the direction of
the arrows reported in the schemes of the architectures, and
iv) The driving requirements for a vehicle are the speed and the torque at the wheels, where
the product of the two variables gives the required propulsion power.
5.3.1 Series Architecture:
The Powertrain of a Series HEV (SHEV) has the architecture of Fig.5.2. It comprises
a genset (i.e. a generation set) and a drivetrain of electric type, which are connected together
through a common power Bus (B). To B is also connected an energy Storage system (S). In
the genset, ICE is fed by the Fuel tank (F) and delivers the mechanical power pe to the
electric Generator (G). The latter one converts pe into electric form and supplies B. The

27
energy associated to pe can be either stored in S (in this case the power ps of Fig.5.2 is
negative) or drawn by the electric drivetrain or both.
During the engine start-up, G behaves as a crank motor energized from S. The electric
drivetrain is constituted by one (or more) electric Motor (M) that draws the propulsion power
pw from B and delivers it to the Wheels (W). Note that in this architecture the wide speed-
torque regulation allowed by M may make superfluous the insertion of a variable-ratio
gearbox between M and W. During the regenerative braking, M operates as a generator to
recover the kinetic energy of the vehicle into S. The mechanical separation between genset
and electric drivetrain, and the energy buffering action of S give the series architecture the
maximum flexibility in terms of power management.
As a matter of fact, SHEV may be considered as a purely electric vehicle equipped
with a genset that recharges S autonomously instead of at a recharge station. Sometimes, the
genset is undersized with respect to the average propulsion power absorbed during a typical
travel mission. In this case, the genset is used to extend the operating range allowed by S, and
SHEV is referred to as "range extender".
Pros and cons of the series architecture may be summarized as follows. Pros: i) ICE
and G are conveniently sized for the average propulsion power or even less; ii) genset and
electrical drivetrain are mechanically separated thus permitting to maximize the ICE
efficiency with a consequential substantial reduction of emissions. Cons: 
i) Two electric machines (i.e. G and M) are required; 
ii) M must be sized to provide the peak propulsion power;
iii) the power generated by ICE is transferred to W by means of at least two energy
conversions (from mechanical to electrical to possibly chemical inside S, and vice-versa),
with a lower efficiency than a direct mechanical connection.
The series architecture is reputed to be more suited for vehicles mainly used in urban
area, with rapidly varying requirements of speed (and power); it is also used in large vehicles,
where the lower efficiency of both ICE and the mechanical transmission make more
convenient the electric propulsion.

                                       

28
                                                           Fig.5.2 Series architecture
5.3.2 Parallel Architecture
The Powertrain of a Parallel HEV (PHEV) has the architecture of Fig.5.3. It
comprises two independent drivetrains, namely one of mechanical type and the other one of
electric type, whose powers are "added" by a 3-way mechanical devices -the Adder (A)- to
provide the propulsion power As shown in Fig.5.2, the mechanical drivetrain generates the
part pe of the propulsion power, whilst the electric drivetrain delivers the remaining part pm.
The propulsion power pw is then equal to

                p =p +p
w e m             

                  
                                                       Fig.5.3   Parallel architecture
Differently from SHEV, M acts here as generator not only during the regenerative
braking but also during the normal driving, whenever S must be recharged; in the latter 
circumstance, M draws energy from ICE through A. As a matter of fact, PHEV may be
considered as a conventional vehicle supplemented with an additional drivetrain of electric
type that overtakes the role of the traditional generator-battery set by contributing to the
propulsion. Sometimes, S is chosen to have small storable energy but high power capability,
and M is sized with a wide overload margin.
In this case the electric drivetrain is used as a power boost to supplement ICE during
fast changes of the propulsion power, thus permitting ICE to adapt slowly to the driving
conditions. The modifications required to convert a conventional vehicle into PHEV may be
somewhat moderate, and this makes easier the manufacturing of PHEVs using the existing
production processes. A vehicle built up accordingly is termed “minimal” or “mild” HEV
depending on the extent of the modifications introduced in the original Powertrain. Pros and
cons of the parallel architecture may be summarized as follows. Pros:
i. only one electric machine is needed;
ii. the peak power requirement for M is lower than in SHEV since both M and ICE provide
the propulsion power;

29
  iii.The power generated by ICE is transferred to W directly, which is more efficient than
through a double energy conversion. Cons: i) an additional 3-way mechanical device is
required to couple together ICE, M and W; ii) such coupling imposes a tighter constraint on
the power flow compared to SHEV, possibly turning into worse operation of ICE. The
parallel architecture is reputed to be more suited for small- and mid-size vehicles mainly
traveling along extra urban routes, where the range for the required propulsion power is not
too wide.
5.3.3 Series-Parallel Architecture:
The Powertrain of a Series-Parallel HEV (SPHEV) has the architecture of Fig.5.4. It
may be viewed as a mix of the SEHV and PHEV architectures, obtained by employing a
Power split apparatus (P) with 2 mechanical ports and 1 electric port. The 3 ports are
connected to ICE, A and B, respectively. P divides the power generated by ICE into two
parts, i.e. the part pd, which is delivered directly in mechanical form to W via A, similarly to
PHEV, and the part pb, which is delivered in electric form to B, similarly to SHEV. The task
of the power split apparatus is then twofold; besides dividing the power generated by ICE, it
must convert mechanical energy into an electric form.

The series-parallel architecture has two main features: the propulsion requirements are
decoupled from the ICE operation and the overall losses are lower since a fraction of the
power generated by ICE is delivered to W without any intermediate energy conversion. The
former feature makes the management of the power flow very flexible, enabling in principle
to optimize the ICE operation in a wide range of driving conditions.

                                    
                                                  Fig.5.4  Series-parallel architecture

Compared to conventional vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are more fuel efficient
due to the optimization of the engine operation and recovery of kinetic energy during
braking. With the plug-in option (PHEV), the vehicle can be operated on electric-only modes
for a driving range of up to 30–60 km. The PHEVs are charged overnight from the electric
power grid where energy can be generated from renewable sources such as wind and solar

30
energy and from nuclear energy. Fuel cell vehicles (FCV) use hydrogen as fuel to produce
electricity, therefore they are basically emission free.
When connected to electric power grid (V2G), the FCV can provide Electricity for
emergency power backup during a power outage. Due to hydrogen production, storage, and
the technical limitations of fuel cells at the present time, FCVs are not available to the general
public yet. HEVs are likely to dominate the advanced propulsion in coming years. Hybrid
technologies can be used for almost all kinds of fuels and engines.
Therefore, it is not a transition technology. In HEVs and FCVs, there are more
electrical components used, such as electric machines, power electronic converters, batteries,
ultra capacitors, sensors, and microcontrollers. In addition to these electrification components
or subsystems, conventional internal combustion engines (ICE), and mechanical and
hydraulic systems may still be present. The challenge presented by these advanced propulsion
systems include advanced powertrain components design, such as power electronic
converters, electric machines and energy storage; power management; modeling and
simulation of the powertrain system; hybrid control theory and optimization of vehicle
control. 
This project provides an overview of the state of the art of electric vehicles (EVs),
HEVs and FCVs, with a focus on HEVs.
Section IV highlights the engineering philosophy of EVs, HEVs, and FCVs. Section V
presents the architectures of HEVs and FCVs. Section VI provides an overview of the current
status of HEVs and FCVs. Section VII discusses the key technologies, including electric
motor technology, power converter technology, control and power management technology,
and energy storage devices. 
Table 3: Characteristics of BEVs, HEVs, and FCVs

31
5.4 History of HEV: 
In 1898, the German Dr. Ferdinand Porsche built his first car, the Lohner Electric
Chaise. It was the world’s first front-wheel-drive car. Porsche’s second car was a hybrid,
using an ICE to spin a generator that provided power to electric motors located in the wheel
hubs. On battery alone, the car could travel nearly 40 miles. By 1900, American car
companies had made 1681 steam, 1575 electric, and 936 gasoline cars. In a poll conducted at
the first National Automobile Show in New York City, patrons favored electric as their first
choice, followed closely by steam.

In the first few years of the 20th century, thousands of electric and hybrid cars were
produced. This car, made in 1903 by the Krieger Company, used a gasoline engine to
supplement battery. Also in 1900, a Belgian carmaker, Pieper, introduced a 3-1/2
horsepower Bvoiturette [in which the small gasoline engine was mated to an electric motor
under the seat. When the car was bruising, [its electric motor was in effect a generator,
recharging the batteries. But when the car was climbing a grade, the electric motor, mounted
coaxially with the gas engine, gave it a boost.

32
 The Pieper Table 1 Characteristics of BEVs, HEVs, and FCVs Chan: The State of the
Art of Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles 706 Proceedings patents were used by a
Belgium firm, Auto-Mixite, to build commercial vehicles from 1906 to 1912. In 1904, Henry
Ford overcame the challenges posed by gasoline-powered cars Vnoise, vibration, and od orV
and began assembly-line production of low-priced, lightweight, gas-powered vehicles. Henry
Ford’s assembly line and the advent of the self-starting gas engine signaled a rapid decline in
hybrid cars by 1920. Within a few years, the electric vehicle company failed. In 1905, an
American engineer named H. Piper filed a patent for a petrol-electric hybrid vehicle. His idea
was to use an electric motor to assist an ICE, enabling it to achieve 25 mph. Two prominent
electric vehicle makers, Baker of Cleveland and Woods of Chicago, offered hybrid cars.
Woods claimed that their hybrid reached a top speed of 35 mph and achieved fuel efficiency
of 48 mpg. The Woods Dual Power was more expensive and less powerful than its gasoline
competition and therefore sold poorly. 
Hybrid and electric vehicles faded away until the 1970s with the Arab oil embargo.
The price of gasoline soared, creating new interest in electric vehicles. The U.S. Department
of Energy ran tests on many electric and hybrid vehicles produced by various manufacturers.
The world started down a new road in 1997 when the first modern hybrid electric car, the
Toyota Prius, was sold in Japan. Two years later, the U.S. saw its first sale of a hybrid, the
Honda Insight. These two vehicles, followed by the Honda Civic Hybrid, marked a radical
change in the type of car being offered to the public: vehicles that bring some of the benefits
of battery electric vehicles into the conventional gasoline powered cars and trucks we have
been using for more than 100 years. Along the line, over 20 models of passenger hybrids
have been introduced to the auto market. 
5.5 Architecture of HEVs AND FCVs:
HEVs are propelled by an ICE and an electric motor/ generator (EM) in series or
parallel configurations. The ICE provides the vehicle an extended driving range, while the
EM increases efficiency and fuel economy by regenerating energy.
Design and control of such powertrains involve modeling and simulation of
intelligent control algorithms and power management strategies, which aim to optimize the
operating parameters to any given driving condition. Traditionally, there are two basic
categories of HEV, namely series hybrids and parallel hybrids. In series HEV, the ICE
mechanical output is first converted to electricity using a generator. The converted electricity
either charges the battery or bypasses the battery to propel the wheels via an electric motor.

33
 This electric motor is also used to capture the energy during braking. A parallel HEV,
on the other hand, has both the ICE and an electric motor coupled to the final drive shaft of
the wheels via clutches.. The electric motor is also used for regenerative braking and for
capturing the excess energy of the ICE during coasting. Recently, series– parallel and
complex HEVs have been developed to improve the power performance and fuel economy. 
1. Series HEV:
In series HEVs, the ICE mechanical output is first converted into electricity using a
generator. The converted electricity either charges the battery or can bypass the battery to
propel the wheels via the same electric motor and mechanical transmission. Conceptually, it
is an ICE-assisted EV that aims to extend the driving range comparable with that of
conventional vehicle. Due to the decoupling between the engine and the driving wheels, it has
the definite advantage of flexibility for locating the ICE generator set. Although it has an
added advantage of simplicity of its drivetrain, it needs three propulsion devices, the ICE, the
generator, and the electric motor.
Therefore, the efficiency of series HEV is generally lower. Another disadvantage is
that all these propulsion devices need to be sized for the maximum sustained power if the
series HEV is designed to climb a long grade, making series HEV expensive. On the other
hand, when it is only needed to serve such short trips as commuting to work and shopping,
the corresponding ICE generator set can adopt a lower rating. 
There are six possible different operation modes in a series HEV:
1) Battery alone mode: engine is off, vehicle is powered by the battery only;
2) Engine alone mode: power from ICE/G;
3) Combined mode: both ICE/G set and battery provides power to the traction motor;
4) Power split mode: ICE/G power split to drive the vehicle and charge the battery;
5) Stationary charging mode;
6) Regenerative braking mode.

34
 Fig. 5.5 Four common architectures of HEV.

5.5.1 Parallel HEV
Differing from the series hybrid, the parallel HEV allows both the ICE and electric
motor to deliver power in parallel to drive the wheels. Since both the ICE and electric motor
are generally coupled to the drive shaft of the wheels via two clutches, the propulsion power
may be supplied by the ICE alone, by the electric motor, or by both. Conceptually, it is
inherently an electric-assisted ICEV for achieving both lower emissions and fuel
consumption. The electric motor can be used as a generator to charge the battery by
regenerative braking or by absorbing power from the ICE when its output is greater than that
required to drive the wheels.

35
 Better than the series HEV, the parallel hybrid needs only two propulsion devices
Vthe ICE and the electric motor. Another advantage over the series case is that a smaller ICE
and a smaller electric motor can be used to get the same performance until the battery is
depleted. Even for long-trip operation, only the ICE needs to be rated for the maximum
sustained power while the electric motor may still be about a half. The following are the
possible different operation modes of parallel hybrid:
1) Motor alone mode: engine is off, vehicle is powered by the motor only;
2) Engine alone mode: vehicle is propelled by the engine only;
3) Combined mode: both ICE and motor provides power to the drive the vehicle;
4) Power split mode: ICE power is split to drive the vehicle and charge the battery (motor
becomes generator);
5) Stationary charging mode; 
6) Regenerative braking mode (include hybrid braking mode).
5.5.2 Series–Parallel HEV:
In the series–parallel hybrid, the configuration incorporates the features of both the
series and parallel HEVs, but involving an additional mechanical link compared with the
series hybrid and also an additional generator compared with the parallel hybrid. Although
possessing the advantageous features of both the series and parallel HEVs, the series–parallel
HEV is relatively more complicated and costly. Nevertheless, with the advances in control
and manufacturing technologies, some modern HEVs prefer to adopt this system. 
5.5.3 Complex HEV:
As reflected by its name, this system involves a complex configuration that cannot be
classified into the above three kinds. Electric motor are both electric machinery. However,
the key difference is due to the bidirectional power flow of the electric motor in the complex
hybrid and the unidirectional power flow of the generator in the series–parallel hybrid. This
bidirectional power flow can allow for versatile operating modes, especially the three
propulsion power (due to the ICE and two electric motors) operating mode, which cannot be
offered by the series–parallel hybrid. Similar to the series–parallel HEV, the complex hybrid
suffers from higher complexity and costliness. Nevertheless, some newly introduced HEVs
adopt this system for dual-axle propulsion.
5.5.4 Heavy Hybrids:
Vehicles used typically for delivery are one special kind of vehicle, usually referred to
as heavy vehicles. When hybridized, these vehicles are referred to as heavy hybrids. Heavy
hybrids can be either series or parallel. Heavy hybrids may run on gasoline or diesel.

36
5.5.5 FCV
Fuel cell vehicles can be considered as series-type hybrid vehicles. The onboard fuel
cell produces electricity, which is either used to provide power to the propulsion motor or
stored in the onboard battery for future use.

Fig. 5.6. Architectures of fuel cell HEV.

              To meet some of the aspect of HEV cascaded multilevel inverter is used so as to
meet high power demands. The multilevel voltage source inverters with unique structure
allow them to reach high voltages with low harmonics without the use of transformers or
series-connected synchronized switching devices.
The general function of the multilevel inverter is to synthesize a desired voltage from
several levels of dc voltages. For this reason, multilevel inverters can easily provide the high
power required of a large electric drive. As the number of levels increases, the synthesized
output waveform has more steps, which produces a staircase wave that approaches a desired
waveform. Also, as more steps are added to the waveform, the harmonic distortion of the
output wave decreases, approaching zero as the number of levels increases.
As the number of levels increases, the voltage that can be spanned by summing
multiple voltage levels also increases. The structure of the multilevel inverter is such that no
Voltage sharing problems are encountered by the active devices. 
5.6 HEV Configurations:
HEV elaborates the various configurations of HEVs highlighting its advantages and
disadvantages. IGBT based cascaded multilevel has been developed and it is interface with
20kW 3-phase induction motors suitable for HEVs and simulation result in PSIM as well as
MATLAB are done and results are presented.

37
 Although a number of configurations are used for HEV powertrains, the main
architectures are the series, parallel and series-parallel ones [5-6]. They are analyzed in this
Section
 i) By disregarding the losses in the electric and mechanical devices, the power
consumption of the auxiliary electric loads, and the presence of gearboxes and clutches, and 
ii) By considering the static converters used for the interface of the electric devices as
a whole with the devices themselves. Moreover, the analysis is carried out by assuming that i)
the powers are positive quantities when the associated energy flows in the direction of the
arrows reported in the schemes of the architectures, and ii) the driving requirements for a
vehicle are the speed and the torque at the wheels, where the product of the two variables
gives the required propulsion power.
5.6.1 Series Architecture
The Powertrain of a Series HEV (SHEV) has the architecture of Fig.5.7. It comprises
a genset (i.e. a generation set) and a drivetrain of electric type, which are connected together
through a common power Bus (B). To B is also connected an energy Storage system (S).

Fig.5.7: SHEV Powertrain architecture (electric and mechanical connections are traced
respectively with single & double lines, whereas the fuel path is traced with dashed line).

In the genset, ICE is fed by the Fuel tank (F) and delivers the mechanical power pe to
the electric Generator (G). The latter one converts pe into electric form and supplies B. The
energy associated to pe can be either stored in S (in this case the power ps of Fig.5.7 is
negative) or drawn by the electric drive train or both. During the engine start-up, G behaves
as a crank motor energized from S. The electric drivetrain is constituted by one (or more)
electric Motor (M) that draws the propulsion power pw from B and delivers it to the Wheels
(W). Note that in this architecture the wide speed-torque regulation allowed by M may make
superfluous the insertion of a variable-ratio gearbox between M and W.

38
 During the regenerative braking, Moderates as a generator to recover the kinetic
energy of the vehicle into S. The mechanical separation between genset and electric
drivetrain, and the energy buffering action of S give the series architecture the maximum
flexibility in terms of power management. As a matter of fact, SHEV may be considered as a
purely electric vehicle equipped with a genset that recharges S autonomously instead of at a
recharge station. Sometimes, the genset is undersized with respect to the average propulsion
power absorbed during a typical travel mission. In this case, the genset is used to extend the
operating range allowed by S, and SHEV is referred to as "range extender". Pros and cons of
the series architecture may be summarized as follows. Pros:
 ICE and G are conveniently sized for the average propulsion power or even
less;
 genset and electrical drivetrain are mechanically separated thus permitting to
maximize the ICE efficiency with a consequential substantial reduction of
emissions. Cons: 
i. two electric machines (i.e. G and M) are required; 
ii. M must be sized to provide the peak propulsion power; 
iii. the power generated by ICE is transferred to W by means of at least two energy
conversions (from mechanical to electrical to possibly chemical inside S, and vice-
versa), with a lower efficiency than a direct mechanical connection. The series
architecture is reputed to be more suited for vehicles mainly used in urban area, with
rapidly varying requirements of speed (and power); it is also used in large vehicles,
where the lower efficiency of both ICE and the mechanical transmission make more
convenient the electric propulsion.
5.6.2 Parallel Architecture:
The Powertrain of a Parallel HEV (PHEV) has the architecture of Fig.5.7. It
comprises two independent drivetrains, namely one of mechanical type and the other one of
electric type, whose powers are "added" by a 3-waymechanical devices -the Adder (A)- to
provide the propulsion power As shown in Fig.5.7, the mechanical drivetrain generates the
part pe of the propulsion power, whilst the electric drivetrain delivers the remaining part pm. 

39
 Fig. 5.8: PHEV Powertrain architecture.

The propulsion power pw is then equal to

Pw=Pe+Pm
The power sum may be done by adding either the speeds orthe torques of ICE and M. In the
first case it is

Where cwe and cwm are coefficients that depend on the gear arrangement of A. By (1), the
relationships between the torques are

In the second case it is

Where cwe and cwm are coefficients that depend again on the gear arrangement of A. By (1),
the relationships between the speeds are

The simplest implementation for A is a torque adder with a mechanical shaft that couples ICE
and M to W. With this implementation it is

Differently from SHEV, M acts here as generator not only during the regenerative
braking but also during the normal driving, whenever S must be recharged; in the latter
circumstance, M draws energy from ICE through A.As a matter of fact, PHEV may be
considered as a conventional vehicle supplemented with an additional drivetrain of electric

40
type that overtakes the role of the traditional generator-battery set by contributing to the
propulsion.
Sometimes, S is chosen to have small storable energy but high power capability, and
M is sized with a wide overload margin. In this case the electric drivetrain is used as a power
boost to supplement ICE during fast changes of the propulsion power, thus permitting ICE to
adapt slowly to the driving conditions.
The resultant PHEV is often referred to as “power-assist”; a commercial example of it
is the Honda Insight car [7].The modifications required to convert a conventional vehicle into
PHEV may be somewhat moderate, and this makes easier the manufacturing of PHEVs using
the existing production processes. A vehicle built up accordingly is termed “minimal” or
“mild” HEV depending on the extent of the modifications introduced in the original
Powertrain. Pros and cons of the parallel architecture may be summarized as follows. Pros:
i) only one electric machine is needed;
ii) The peak power requirement for M is lower than in SHEV since both M and ICE provide
the propulsion power;
iii) The power generated by ICE is transferred to W directly, which is more efficient than
through a double energy conversion. Cons:
iv) An additional 3-way mechanical device is required to couple together ICE, M and W;           
v) Such coupling imposes a tighter constraint on the power flow compared to SHEV, possibly
turning into worse operation of ICE. The parallel architecture is reputed to be more suited for
small- and mid-size vehicles mainly traveling along extra urban routes, where the range for
the required propulsion power is not too wide.

41
 CHAPTER-6

MODELLING OF CASE STUDY

6.1 PROPOSED SYSTEM

The proposed PV-EV battery charger consists of a PV array, a sepic

converter, a half-bridge BIDC, an EV battery, a backup battery bank and a controller as
shown in Fig. 6.1. The controller is used to generate the gate pulses to the sepic converter
for obtaining the constant output voltage at the dc link. The gate pulses to the switches of
BIDC are also generated to operate BIDC in boost mode to charge the backup battery
from PV array and in buck mode to charge EV battery from the backup battery. Also, the
controller generates the gate pulses to the auxiliary switches Sa , Sb and Sc . During high
solar irradiation, all the auxiliary switches are ON to interface dc link with PV array
through the sepic converter, dc link with the backup battery through BIDC and dc link
with EV battery. When solar irradiation is low, switch Sa is turned OFF isolating the PV
array and sepic converter from the dc link. Whereas the switch Sc is turned OFF to
disconnect BIDC and backup battery from the dc link, when the solar power is
insufficient to charge backup battery. The proposed system operates in three modes viz.,
mode 1, mode 2 and mode 3 as explained in this section.

42
 Fig. 6.1  Block diagram of the EV battery charger

DESIGN OF CONTROLLER
Controller of the proposed charger generates gate pulses to the switches present in the
sepic converter, BIDC and also to the three auxiliary switches. The algorithm to turn ON and
turn OFF the auxiliary switches is shown in Fig. 6.2

43
 Fig. 6.2 Flowchart of gate pulses generation for the auxiliary switches

Mode 1

During peak sunshine hours, when the generated PV array power is higher,
all the auxiliary switches are ON to charge both EV battery and backup battery
simultaneously from PV array through sepic converter and BIDC, respectively. In this

44
mode, BIDC operates in forward direction boosting the dc link voltage to charge backup
battery.

Mode 2

During low solar irradiation conditions and non-sunshine hours, PV array

power is insufficient to charge EV battery. Hence, the PV array is disconnected from the
dc link by turning OFF the switch Sa and switches Sb & Sc are ON connecting EV
battery to the backup attery through BIDC. In this mode, BIDC operates in reverse
direction stepping down the backup battery voltage to charge EV battery.

Mode 3
When PV array power generated is sufficient to charge only EV battery, switches Sa and
Sb
are ON and switch Sc is OFF to disconnect the BIDC and backup battery bank from the dc
link.

6.3 DESIGN OF THE CONVERTERS USED IN THE PROPOSED

CHARGER
Sepic converter:

In the proposed charging system, the sepic converter provides the constant
output voltage irrespective of the PV array voltage by adjusting its duty ratio using the PI
controller. The sepic converter consists of one IGBT switch, one diode, two inductors
and two capacitors as shown in Fig. 6.4 The major advantages of the sepic converter are:
(i) it can operate in both boost and buck modes depending on the duty ratio; (ii) it
provides the output voltage with the same polarity as input voltage unlike buck–boost
and cuk converters. The voltage gain of the sepic converter is provided by the following
equation:

where ,

Vdc is the dc link voltage,

45
VPV is the PV array voltage,

D is the duty ratio of the sepic converter.

The values of inductors and capacitors of the sepic converter are chosen:

where VPVmin is the minimum PV array voltage, ΔiPV is the input current ripple, fsw is
the switching frequency, Idc is the dc link

Fig. 6.4 Schematic diagram of sepic converter

current, ΔVC1 is the capacitor, C1 voltage ripple, ΔVdc is the output voltage
ripple, and Dmax is the maximum duty ratio calculated as follows:

where Vd is the diode voltage drop

Bidirectional interleaved DC–DC converter:

Fig. 6.5 shows the schematic diagram of the BIDC employed in the proposed

46
charging system. Backup battery bank is located on the high voltage side while the
dc link is on the low voltage side of the converter. This converter operates in boost
mode in forward direction and in buck mode in reverse direction. In boost mode,
switches SL1 , SL2 and SL3 are the active switches whereas, in buck mode, the
active switches are SU1 , SU2 and SU3 . There is an antiparallel diode and parallel
snubber capacitor to all the switches employed in this converter.

In boost mode, the inductors L1 , L2 and L3 act as boost inductors whereas

they act as a low-pass filter in buck mode. The capacitors, CL and CH are the
smoothing energy buffer elements of this converter. Interleaved inductor currents
minimise the ripples in the current. The modes of operation of the converter are
analysed by considering the operation of a single leg converter. The voltage
conversion ratio of BIDC in boost and buck modes are given by:

where VBackupBatt is the backup battery voltage and DBoost is the duty
ratio of BIDC in boost mode and DBuck is the buck mode duty ratio. The values of
inductors are considered less than the critical inductance values in both boost and
buck modes to operate the converter in discontinuous conduction mode to improve
efficiency.

47
 Fig. 6.5 Schematic diagram of half-bridge BIDC

The critical inductance value is calculated in boost and buck modes using
equations (8) and (9), respectively

where P is the Backup battery power. The values of the capacitors on the low and
high voltage side of BIDC are considered based on the following equations:

48
6.4 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF PROPOSED SYSTEM:

Mathematical model of the proposed system is obtained by combining the state-space

average model of Sepic converter and Bidirectional DC–DC converter. It is derived by
considering the ON and OFF switching period of the converters [26, 27]. The statespace
matrices of the sepic converter, state matrix ‘A’, input matrix ‘B’, output matrix ‘C’, feed
forward matrix ‘D’ are found to be

where Req is equivalent impedance at the dc link and Ds is the duty ratio of Sepic converter.
Similarly, the state-space matrices of the BIDC, state matrix ‘A1 ’, input matrix ‘B1 ’, output
matrix ‘C1 ’, feed forward matrix ‘D1 ’ are found to be

49
where L = (L1/3), Rlp = (RL1/3), Req1 is equivalent impedance across capacitor CH, Rdson
the MOSFET turn on resistance, RL1 is the parasitic resistance of inductor, L1 and DBIDC is
the duty ratio of BIDC.

Transfer functions of the converters are obtained from the above state-space models
and they are combined to produce the overall transfer function of the proposed system.
Frequency response of the proposed system exhibits the positive gain margin and phase
margin which in turn indicates that the proposed system is stable.

6.5 PROPOSED CONTROL ALGORITHM:

In this Controller senses the PV array voltage and current, and computes the PV array
power. If the PV array power is greater than EV battery rated power, PR, then the controller
generates the gate pulses to turn ON all the auxiliary switches to charge both EV battery and
backup battery bank simultaneously from the PV array. If the PV array power is lesser than
EV battery rated power but higher than the minimum required power, PM, the switch, Sc is
turned OFF disconnecting the backup battery from the charging system and switches, Sa and
Sb are turned ON to charge the EV battery alone from the PV array.

If the PV array power is lesser than the minimum required power, PM, then the
switch, Sa is turned OFF to isolate the PV array and sepic converter from the charging
system. The switches, Sb and Sc are turned ON enabling the backup battery to charge EV
battery. The PI controller is used in the proposed charging system to generate gate pulses to
the MOSFET in the sepic converter to maintain a constant voltage at the dc link irrespective
of variations in the PV array voltage. BIDC comprises of three legs with two switches in each
leg. Gate pulses have to be provided to the two switches in the same leg with the phase shift
of 180° from each other.

50
 CHAPTER-7

RESULTS

Fig 7.1 MATLAB/SIMULINK circuit diagram of the proposed charger

51
 Figures 7.2 to 7.6 depicts the simulated dynamic waveforms of PV array, dc link, EV
battery and backup battery for the corresponding irradiation values. In mode 1, the PV array
voltage, VPV of 33.3 V is stepped down to the dc link voltage, Vdc of 28 V by sepic
converter as shown in Figs. 7.2 and 7.3 Increase in state of charge (SOC) of EV battery and
its negative current shown in Fig. 7.4 indicates that the EV battery is charging in this mode.
BIDC operates as boost converter in forward direction in this mode, boosting the dc link
voltage, Vdc of 28 to 60.6 V to charge the backup battery with the increase in SOC as
presented in Fig. 7.5.

In mode 2 (during non-sunshine hours and low irradiation conditions), PV array is

isolated resulting in PV array voltage, VPV raising to its open circuit voltage of 37.25 V and
PV array current, IPV of 0 A, which is represented by the PV array voltage and current
waveforms shown in Fig. 8a. During this period, BIDC operates in buck mode in reverse
direction, stepping down the backup battery voltage to 27.32 V to charge the EV battery as
shown in Fig. 7.4. The positive current and decrease in SOC of backup battery shown in Fig.
7.5 indicates that the backup battery is discharged in this mode. At the end of this mode the
backup battery voltage is reduced to 55.2 V from 60.6 V as depicted in Fig. 7.5.

Whereas in mode 3, PV array voltage, VPV of 31.81 V is step down to a dc link

voltage, Vdc of 27.6 V to charge the EV battery as shown in Figs. 8a and b. In this mode
also, SOC of EV battery is increasing and current is negative, indicating the charging of EV
battery.

In mode 3, as the backup battery is isolated from the charging system, backup battery
voltage is maintained at its previous value of 55.2 V and current is reduced to zero as shown
in Fig. 7.5. Fig. 7.4 shows that the SOC of EV battery is increasing and its current is negative
in all the three modes depicting that EV battery gets charged continuously either from PV
array or from backup battery 3 indicates that the BIDC is disconnected from the charger..

52
Fig 7.2 PV array voltage, VPV & PV array current, IPV

Fig 7.3 DC link voltage, Vdc, & current, Idc

53
 Fig 7.4 EV battery SOC, EV battery current, IBatt & EV battery voltage, VBatt

Fig 7.5 Backup battery SOC, backup battery current, IBackup Batt & backup battery voltage,
VBackup Battery

54
 CONCLUSION
In this paper, PV array battery charger for EV by using sepic converter and bidirectional DC-
DC converter is proposed. This paper discusses the flexibility of the system to charge the EV
battery constantly irrespective of the irradiation conditions. The system is designed and
simulated in Simulink environment of the MATLAB software. The three modes of operation
of the proposed charging system separately and the results are furnished and compared with
the existing results.

55
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