IET Renewable Power Generation

Research Article

Energy management strategy for solid-state ISSN 1752-1416

Received on 3rd April 2020

transformer-based solar charging station for

Revised 19th November 2020
Accepted on 23rd November 2020
E-First on 16th February 2021
electric vehicles in smart grids doi: 10.1049/iet-rpg.2020.0399
www.ietdl.org

Mohammad Zand1, Morteza Azimi Nasab1, Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar2, Pandav Kiran Maroti2 , Jens
Bo Holm-Nielsen2
1Young Researcher and Elite Club, Borujerd Branch, Islamic Azad University, Borujerd, Iran
2Center for Bioenergy and Green Engineering, Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Esbjerg 6700, Denmark
E-mail: kiranpandav88@yahoo.co.in

Abstract: This study introduces a type of solid-state transformer (SST) for solar power station design and an energy
management strategy (EMS) for the SST. The purpose of this study is to design a real efficient EMS for the photovoltaic-
assisted charging station in smart grid ancillary services and apply the optimal decision method. Also, the energy bound
calculation (EBC) model is proposed to find the upper and lower bounds of flexible sources. Also, taking into account the EBC
results and the power order from the aggregator, a charge power allocation algorithm is designed to distribute the power of
flexible electric vehicles (EVs). With the help of a case study and laboratory analysis, the proposed EMS strategy is effective in
real-time energy management and is suitable for practical applications. The obtained results show the stable performance in the
calculation of the energy range and real-time power allocation which improves the efficiency of the photovoltaic-based charging
station. Also, the SST improves the operation of charge stations for supplying the sustaining power.

Nomenclature NEVr number of rigid EVs in time slot

I(t) electric car charging current Npvf number of flexible EVs in time slot
Q allowable capacity of electric car battery Ppv PV output in time slot
S(t0) value of the charge state at time t0 i
Pchg charging power of the ith EV in a time slot
C(t) electric car charge rate sb input power of SST under condition of ESIb
Pac
i
Pchg n electric car charging power in time interval n − dc
ub
Pac input power of SST under condition of ESIb
i
Echg n electric vehicle energy demand in time interval n − dc
max
Pac maximum input power of SST
Ui(n) battery voltage of the car is electric − dc

Qt rated capacity of ith EV battery in Ah

Qi unspecified ampere-hour capacity of electric self-
contained battery s battery state of charge in a time slot
charge rate of an electric car in the time interval is n Sobj target value of state of charging
Ci(n)
Δt interval Smin minimum battery state of charge in discharging mode
to departure time of an EV
Ut voltage of the ith EV battery 1 Introduction
i
λadj degree of adjustment of ith EV With the advancement of rechargeable electric vehicles (EVs)
C charging rate of EVs technology, it is expected that a large number of EV will soon be
ci charging rate of the ith EV in a time slot connected to the power grid for charging. The energy required to
E rated energy of EV battery in kWh charge these vehicles can be modelled as the energy required to
i
Echg energy supplemented of the ith EV in a time slot power an additional load set for the power grid. Understanding the
technical effects of the extra load imposed by these vehicles on the
EEVi energy demand of the ith EV in a time slot
performance of the power grid is very important for network
i
Emin minimum energy demand of the ith EV in a time slot operators. Because with the help of these studies, power network
i
Emax maximum energy demand of the ith EV in a time slot operators will be able to plan the future strengthening and
Es total energy demand of charging station in a time slot development of the network in such a way that, firstly, the network
will be able to power EVs and secondly, the network performance
Esmin minimum total energy demand of charging station in a
when connecting these vehicles optimally or close to be done
time slot
optimally.
Esmax maximum total energy demand of charging station in a
One of the most important challenges of EVs, especially the
time slot
hybrid type, is energy management, which practically puts the
Esub upper bound of energy in a time slot
utilisation of the components of the hybrid system in the maximum
Eslb lower bound of energy in a time slot area. The issue of energy management is one of the topics of
Epv PV energy in a time slot interest to researchers and attempts have been made to introduce
Epsc power scheduling command and evaluate several control strategies. In this regard, including
Erg energy demand of rigid EVs in time slot strategies based on empirical rules, static optimisation, intelligent
f
Edis discharging energy of flexible EVs in time slot methods, and dynamic control. Different strategies mainly solve
max maximum current of bi-directional DC/DC the energy management problem in two stages, first determine the
Idc − dc controller structure and then look for the appropriate and optimal
NEV number of charging EVs in time slot choice for the controller system parameters so that the components

IET Renew. Power Gener., 2020, Vol. 14 Iss. 18, pp. 3843-3852 3843
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2020
of the hybrid system are in their maximum efficiency area. They
are intended for EVs [1–3]. Solar charging stations in commercial
buildings, residential complexes, etc. are established [4–8].
This study presents an intelligent method for detecting and
classifying power transformer faults based on the Informative
Analysis Gas Analysis Method [9] Integrating solar charging
stations with solid-state transformer (SST) is appropriate because
they have multiple AC and DC and power conversion. Also, the
flexible SST controller enhances solar charging stations in the
smart grid because the EV battery and photovoltaic array energy
can be synchronised. Considerable efforts have been made to
evaluate the energy management strategy (EMS) of solar charging
stations. Charging strategies for plug-in hybrid EVs (PHEV) are
outlined in [10–17]. An instantaneous energy management
algorithm has been implemented for a grid-connected charging
park in industrial/commercial locations [18–21]. If a significant
number of grid-connected hybrid EVs are connected to the grid
under the management and control of a gathering entity such as
electric car parks, they can operate as a small virtual power plant
with a very high start-up cost and no start-up cost. To behave in
[22–24].
In [25–27], an innovative exploitation strategy for commercial
building micro-networks including photovoltaic array systems and
EVs is proposed. Decision-making principles and strategies to
improve photovoltaic power consumption and reduce the adverse
impact on the power grid have been defined. Reference is
presented in the EVs classification scheme photovoltaic-assisted
charging station (PVCS) which reduces power supply and energy
cost. To achieve micro-grid capabilities, such as increasing
reliability, improving power quality, reducing energy supply costs,
and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, providing an energy
management system (EMS) considering the optimum performance
of each of the micro-grid production resources for management
purposes. Better demand for load under different conditions is
important. Different structures have been proposed for EMS using
different optimisation algorithms and different configurations for
micro-networks, to optimise the performance of each of the
resources in the micro-network system to minimise system
operating costs. In [28–30], the EMSs have been proposed, the
concepts of economic discussion have been explored and
developed strategies to maximise profit [31–34]. Due to the
limitations of the use of renewable energy sources, various
methods have been proposed to restore energy balance in micro-
grids [5, 33, 35, 36]. To eliminate the problems caused by energy
imbalances, renewable systems are combined with energy storage
[37–39]. In addition to recent advances in smart grid technology,
demand response planning has been made possible by using
software that optimises demand-side resources. In [11, 40, 41],
with the integration of photovoltaic array system and bi-directional
DC/DC chargers, solar charging stations are more flexible than
conventional charging stations. SST-based solar station structure
consisting of SST controller, bi-directional DC/AC converter
module, isolated bi-directional DC/DC converter module,
unidirectional DC/DC module for photovoltaic array panels, and
bi-directional DC/DC chargers for EVs. Solar charging stations
(PVCs) are a controllable unit that acts as an active charge. The
medium frequency transformer is used to transmit power and will
make the PVCS volume much smaller. Two-way DC/DC charger
controllers make it easier to control the power of EVs. With the use
of SSTs, the devices are integrated and therefore the cost of the
integrated system is reduced [42–44]. SST was first introduced in
1970 and is one of the emerging technologies. The transformer is
an essential element for changing the voltage level. The SST is a
high-frequency electronic-based transformer and has a smaller size
and lighter weight than a conventional line frequency transformer.
In addition to the advantage of reducing the size and weight of the
high-frequency transformer, the SST utilises additional power
equipment such as reactive power supply, high power quality, fault
current limiting, storage management, and power generation.
Additionally, it will also have a DC bus for the end-user. The
selection of the topology for the solid-state transducer is very
important. In [45–48], this is addressed by comparing some
topologies that enable bi-directional power. In [45, 49, 50], several
3844
SST topologies are selected for comparison to select the
appropriate topology and the AC/AC power converter, in general,
is examined. A special view is presented to classify and select the
appropriate structure of the SST topology according to the need in
[51–54]. In this classification are shown the following four
structures that cover all possible topologies:
i. step single-link DC,
ii. step low-voltage DC (LVDC) low-voltage DC link,
iii. step high-voltage DC (HVDC) link,
iv. step with both LVDC, HVDC links.
The HVDC two-step topology is not suitable for integration
because the DC voltage level is high and there is no network
isolation. Therefore, this topology is not feasible for SST
implementation, and if we want to use distributed energy sources
(DESs) in this structure, we will have problems with high DC
voltage levels and will need additional insulation which will
increase the cost. If we want to connect distributed generation
sources to the system, it is best to use other structures that have
LVDC links. Six well-known topologies are introduced in [51–55]:
i. Single-stage SST topology including AC/AC full-bridge
converter module.
ii. One-step SST topology including AC-AC backflow converter
module.
iii. Step SST topology including DC/AC isolated module and two-
phase inverter pulse-width modulation (PWM).
iv. Step two-phase SST including two-port active bridge converter
(DAB) and two-phase inverter with PWM.
v. Step three-phase SST topology including multi-level multi-
bridge rectifier and module (DAB).
vi. Three-phase SST topology including multi-level clamp diode
rectifier with DC–DC full-bridge converter and two-phase
PWM inverter.
This study proposes a virtual flux predictor controller to improve
the safety of this structure against voltage harmonics [56]. General
control with DC fault handles capability [57]. This paper
demonstrates how an SST can be used to design an efficient and
reliable 800 V DC charging infrastructure for EVs [58]. This paper
presents a data-driven coordinated control strategy for an SST
topology based on a multi-stage active bridge converter, which can
ensure improved energy quality of the distribution grid [59].
The hypotheses made in the paper are
(i) Charging of EVs is done through charging stations with SST.
(ii) The specifications of the batteries of the studied EVs are
selected based on the available commercial samples.
(iii) Each power network consumer can charge a maximum of one
EV through the power socket.
(iv) The effect of different numbers of EVs is investigated based on
their penetration coefficients and for different penetration
coefficients, the distribution of vehicles in the distribution network
is considered uniform.
One of these aims is to study and understand the commercial
technologies used in electric cars. Familiarity with these
technologies can be used for future research and application of
state-of-the-art technologies in the electricity and transportation
industries of the country. The charging of EVs during each
charging period is accompanied by great uncertainty. The other
goal of this paper is to investigate the solar charging stations used
by distribution transformers. In recent years, the cost of power
electronics has decreased and parts with higher reliability, lower
losses, higher power, and higher frequency have been produced.
Price reductions and the fact that SST can replace some network
equipment such as conventional transformers have increased the
potential acceptance of the use of SST economically. Scattered
energy sources such as photovoltaic arrays have provided various
sources of electrical energy. These sources often have variable
voltages or frequencies, and sometimes their output maybe DC.
IET Renew. Power Gener., 2020, Vol. 14 Iss. 18, pp. 3843-3852
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2020

Fig. 1 Instant EMS algorithm
Fig. 2 SST-based photovoltaic charging station information exchange
Currently, SST is flexible enough to provide the conditions for
connecting these resources to existing power networks by applying
mathematical and numerical modelling of solid-state distribution
transformers.
Operating conditions considering the connection of EVs to the
distribution network and determining and evaluating the effect of
different penetration coefficients and different EV charging
intervals is one of the objectives of this research which is to present
the final model leads. Finally, determining the optimal time
intervals to manage EV charging is desirable in the paper, which is
used for the optimal and efficient operation of the distribution
network.
The goals of the EMS have been mainly about economic or
environmental costs as well as the quality of EV services.
However, as an important flexible source of the demand-side, EVs
can have more productive effects by participating in smart grid
ancillary services. Meanwhile, the SST can be considered as a
controllable communication link to achieve the goals efficiently.
According to recent research, so far no new type of smart grid
collector for energy management around solar charging stations
integrated with transformers, SST has been reported. For this
purpose, in this study, we have paid attention to the EMS of smart
IET Renew. Power Gener., 2020, Vol. 14 Iss. 18, pp. 3843-3852
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2020
solar charging stations based on SST. The indicative implications
of this paper are as follows:
(i) The SST is introduced for the design of solar charging stations.
Through the integration of photovoltaic systems and DC–DC two-
way chargers, solar charging stations can participate in instant
ancillary services with more flexibility and efficiency than
conventional charging stations.
(ii) Optimal decision management energy system, designed for
SST to control two-way power flow to support instantaneous
ancillary services. Both quality of ancillary services and charging
services can be guaranteed at the same time.
(iii) Determining the optimal time intervals to manage EV charging
for the optimal and efficient operation of the distribution network is
used.
(iv) The energy bound calculation model is proposed to find the
upper and lower bounds of flexible sources.
Considering the salient features of the SST and the resource
constraints of embedded systems, an EMS can be designed to make
the right decision.
During the charging process, charging behaviours vary for EV
users. The charging behaviour of an EV is determined by the start
time, departure time, and initial SOC and charge/discharge mode.
According to different charging behaviours, EVs are divided into
two categories [35]:
i. Inflexible EVs.
ii. Flexible EVs.
EVs that must be charged at a maximum charge to achieve the
SOC target are classified as inflexible and rigid EVs. EVs that can
be used at a flexible charge rate to meet the target are classified as
flexible EVs. If the supplied energy is not enough, flexible EVs can
work in the discharge mode by supplying power to inflexible and
rigid EVs. Over time, the flexible EV may become an inflexible
and rigid EV due to a change in the charging mode (i.e. charge/
discharge) According to the studies and results obtained, to connect
power generation sources, loads and energy storage sources to the
MG and also to connect the MG to the network, distribution
transformers are used. SST is introduced with an integrated
photovoltaic charging station (PVC). SST enable control of the
passage of electrical power and a flexible connection of distributed
generation sources to the network. Power distribution, which is
important in the safe and stable operation of the network, is also
controlled by this part of the EMS. The EMS designed for a PVC
based on an SST uses ECCM (discussed in the next section) for
optimal management of energy service at charging stations. With
this feature, it can dynamically participate in the additional service
of the micro-grid network and guarantee the quality of charging
services for EV users. Finally, by finding the optimal solution and
allocating energy to EVs by the smart charging station, as well as
detecting the charging and discharging modes, its performance has
been evaluated.
The EMS process implementation algorithm is shown in Fig. 1.
The main steps are as follows: (Fig. 2)
(i) Obtain and calculate the required parameters such as the
minimum and maximum charge current energies, charge and
discharge capabilities, the time to reach the target SOC and the
SOC rate of each EV.
(ii) Classification of EVs and EBC models.
(iii) Send energy range information to the collector.
(iv) Receive the power planning command from the collector.
(v) Implementation of the CPAA model for EVs based on power
planning command and results of EV classification which consists
of the following steps in order:
i. The charger controller collects information about the settings
of EV users, e.g. target energy, exit time and control license,
and information of the energy management module and
informs the energy management module.
3845
ii. The charger controller collects the sample values of the NEV(n) is the number of vehicles charged in time n. The charging
batteries from the battery management system (BMS), i.e. power and energy supplied by the EV in period n can be explained
voltage, current, charge status (SOC), etc., and sends the values by (8) and (9), respectively,
to the power management module.
iii. The photovoltaic controller collects the PV output power and i
Pchg n = U i n ⋅ Qi ⋅ C i n (8)
sends the value to the energy management department.
iv. The energy management department uses the information i
Echg n = U i n ⋅ Qi ⋅ Ci n ⋅ Δt (9)
obtained from EVs and the PV controller to calculate the high
and low energy range of the PVS.
The minimum and maximum energy requirements of the EV in
v. The energy management section provides the collector with the
position n are defined by (10) and (11), respectively,
high and low energy range of the PVS as the main information
for power planning in ancillary services. i
Emin n = U i n ⋅ Qi ⋅ Cmin
i
n ⋅Δ (10)
vi. Based on the information collected from all PVSs, the collector
determines the optimal energy program decision and sends
instructions to each PVS.
i
Emax n = U i n ⋅ Qi ⋅ Cmax
i
n ⋅ Δt (11)
vii The energy management section calculates the amount of
. charge or power discharge for each EV and applies the control and the minimum and maximum energies required by the charging
commands to the main controller and all charging controllers. station in the time interval n:
NEV n
To coordinate the charging service, two actions are necessary
ES min n = ∑ i
Emin n (12)
i=1
i. Calculating the energy range according to real-time
information on EVs and photovoltaic system. NEV n
ii. Effectively charge or discharge electricity distribution. ES max n = ∑ i
Emax n (13)
i=1
In fact, in SST-based solar charging stations, a two-way AC/DC
converter and a two-way DC/DC charge converter are all control Assume that NEV f
n represents the number of flexible EVs, NEV r
n
components, and fast memory sharing or internal buses can be used
to exchange information over time. Real used. represents the number of inflexible EVs, and EPV(n) represents the
photovoltaic energy at time interval n. The upper limit indicates the
maximum energy that the PVS can respond to the grid at timing n.
2 Energy bound calculation (EBC) model That includes collecting photovoltaic energy, the total maximum
During the charge/discharge process, the relationship between SOC energy discharge of all flexible EVs by reducing the total charge
and the charge rate can be as follows: energy of non-flexible EVs. This can be achieved based on (14). If
Esub(n)<0, indicates that the PVS needs power from the mains
C t = I t /Q
(1) f
NEV n r
S t = S t0 + C t ⋅ t − t0 NEV n
Esub n = EPV n + ∑ i
Emax n − ∑ i
Emax n (14)
The minimum charge time Tmin is determined by the maximum i=1 i=1

charge rate Cmax and the difference between the target SOC and the
current SOC, which is as follows:
ub
Pac − dc n = ESub n /Δt (15)

T min t = Sobj − S t /Cmax (2) If pac − dc > Pac − dc n . The power demand is greater than the
max ub

maximum input power of the SST. To maintain safety, the upper

max
Cmax t ⋅ Q ≤ Idc − dc (3) limit of Esub(n) must be calculated as follows:

The maximum charge time is determined by the current time t and max
Pac − dc ⋅ Δt ⋅ ESub n ≥ 0
the output time td: ESub n =
max
(16)
−Pac − dc ⋅ Δt ⋅ ESub n < 0

T max t = td − t (4)
The lower limit indicates the maximum energy that the PVS
receives from the grid in the time zone n. This is achieved by
Therefore, the minimum charge can be calculated
subtracting the maximum charge energy of all-EVs from
photovoltaic energy based on (17). If Esib Esub(n)>0, photovoltaic
Cmin t = Sobj − S t /T max t (5)
energy is sufficient to meet the energy demand of all-EVs in the
time zone n.
The energy demand of an EV during the charging process varies
with the charging time, which can be calculated by the following NEV n
equation: (17)
ESlb n = EPV n − ∑ ECi max n
i=1
i
EEV n = Sobj − S n ⋅ E
(6)
E =U⋅Q
lb
Pac − dc n = ESlb n /Δt (18)

Therefore, the total energy demanded by the charging station is If pac

max lb
− dc > Pac − dc n the power demand is greater than the
equal to: maximum input power of the SST. The lower range of Esib(n)
NEV n
should be calculated as follows:
ES n = ∑ i
EEV n (7) max
i=1 Pac − dc ⋅ Δt ⋅ ESlb n ≥ 0
ESlb n =
max
(19)
−Pac − dc ⋅ Δt ⋅ ESlb n < 0

3846 IET Renew. Power Gener., 2020, Vol. 14 Iss. 18, pp. 3843-3852
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Finally, the energy range information [Esib(n), Esub(n)] is sent to flexible EVs charged with the sequence λadji
n from small to large
the collector as the main information in the power planning values based on the relationship (2) until the equilibrium condition
command. (3) or (4) is met
Based on the EV classification and the EBC model, the
algorithm for calculating the upper limit of Eslb(n) and the lower Ci n new
= Ci n old i
+ α ⋅ Cmax (21)
limit of Esub(n) in the time zone n is shown in Fig. 3.
f
NEV n
3 Charging power allocation algorithm (CPAA) ∑ i
Echg n + Erg n ≥ EPV n − EPSC n (22)
i=1
The power scheduling instruction is sent to the PVCs from the
pickup. Based on the SST mechanism, the solar charging station
Ci n new i
= Cmax (23)
can act as an active charge, which is instantaneously dependent on
the power instructions. For this reason, the charging power of EVs
is not constant and must be adjusted smoothly. SST technology is When in these equations the value of α is 0.02.
capable of adjusting the power to achieve stability. The charging If the EPV(n)−EPSC(n)<Erg(n), the power supplied by the
power of EVs is determined by a set of factors at a moment's photovoltaic system or grid is not sufficient, so all flexible EVs
notice. In this section, a real-time power distribution (CPAA) operate in discharge mode. Calculate the number of NEV f
n flexible
algorithm concerning the dual-power tracking of EVs and the EVs (n). Flexible EV discharge rates when S n > Smin is adjusted
i i
degree of completeness of the charging target is introduced. For
real-time EMS implementation, some parameters/data must be by the order λadj I
n from large to small values based on the
computed or obtained beforehand [60–63]. relationship (4) to the relationship conditions (24) or (25) (Table 1).
Required information included NEV(n), NEV f
n , NEV
r
n , Si(n),
Ci n new
= Ci n old i
− α ⋅ Cmax (24)
PPV(n), Ci(n), [Cmin(n), Cmax(n)], Ui(n), Qi(n), tn, tdi Is. Several
scenarios are considered as follows. The total demand for NEV n
f

inflexible EVs is calculated as follows:

∑ i
Edis n + EPV n ≥ Erg n + EPSC n (25)
r
i=1
NEV n
Erg n = ∑ i
Emax n (20)
i=1 Ci n new i
= − Cmax (26)

If the EPSC(n)>0 power scheduling command is, the solar

charging station must act as a power source and return the power to
the grid. If Epsc(n)< = 0, the solar charging station must act as a
load and consume power, but for the solar charging station system,
the internal behaviour of EVs by photovoltaic means EPV (n). The
EPSC (n) scheduling setting and the energy demand of all Erg (n)
non-flexible EVs are determined. If EPV(n)−EPSC(n)>Erg(n). The
power provided by the photovoltaic system or grid is sufficient;
therefore, all flexible EVs will operate in a charged state. The
number of flexible EVs is calculated NEV f
n and the amount of
4 Implementation of the EMS process
The algorithm for implementing the EMS process is shown in
Fig. 1, the main steps of which are [64–67]:
(i) Obtain and calculate the required parameters.
(ii) Perform the classification of EVs and EBC models.
(iii) Send energy range information to the picker.
(iv) Receive power planning command from the picker.
(v) Implementation of the CPAA model for EVs based on power
planning instructions and EV classification results.

5 System study
In this study, the permitted photovoltaic system capacity is 200 
kWh, and solar radiation and temperature data are obtained from
the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Measurement
and Instrument Data Centre (MIDC) [23]. The number of EVs is
60 and the parameters of the electric car are listed in Table 2. Initial
SOC value is between 0 (fully discharged) and 1 (fully charged),
the number of EVs each, the start time of charging, and the exit
time of 60 is shown in Fig. 4. Start time and charge time for EVs
are derived from parking statistics on campus. The uncertainty of
the charging start time, departure time, and initial SOC has been
considered. In the simulation, each time slot is set to 10 min, with
78-time slots starting from 6:00 to 19:00. The minimum SOC
emission, Smin
i
, is 0.6

5.1 Scenario analysis

Fig. 3 Algorithm for calculating the upper and lower limits
Case 1: Consists of the sum of photovoltaic power output + finite
regular calculations + average power considered the energy range is
calculated by EVs connected to the solar charging station. The
upper limit is the sum of the maximum discharge power, while the
lower limit is the sum of the maximum discharge power. All EVs
are charged or discharged without equal power rating.

Table 1 Parameters of PV-assisted charging station

Calculated voltage Max. charge–discharge rate Max. charging rate Power, kWh Capacity, Ah SOC objective
360 V 0.2 0.3 36 100 0.85

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© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2020
Table 2 Key indicators of comparison results
Indicators Normal SST-based
charging charging
station station
highest power command 347.24 310.10
lowest power command, kWh −540.241 411.59
target charge request, kWh 1147.62 1175.5
time settings 27 27
EV power demand, kWh 731.73 1084.3
full charge, % 63.79 94.56
highest setting completed, % 75.87 100
lowest adjusted rate completed, 84.53 100
%
discharge time 21 13.89
revenue from restrictions 7.443 15.94
imposed, $

Fig. 6 Charging limit, discharge limit, charging power of EVs and PV

power in case 1

Fig. 4 Initial SOC value and time of charging of 60 EVs

Fig. 7 Initial SOC value, SOC output value and an EV charging time of
about 1

power or even change the discharge mode. Otherwise, if the power

command is negative, it means that the solar charging station must
consume the requested power from the grid. ‘Limited charge’ is the
maximum power charge of all EVs. ‘Border discharge’ refers to the
maximum limit that a solar charging station can supply to the grid.
‘Charging power’ means the full charge of all EVs. ‘PV power’
means the PV output power. ‘Flexible power’ means the power of
flexible EVs. The charging time of the EVs is in the interval [0, 1],
being normalised by dividing the electric car parking period into
the longest parking length.

Simulation results of case 1 in Figs. 5–7, results of case 2 in Fig. 8

Fig. 5 High, low power range and power case in case 1
Case 2: Consisting total of (photovoltaic output power + EBC +  and the ‘charge range’ is ‘low limit’. Since EVs are not
CPAA). According to the classification of EVs and photovoltaic
power, the energy range is calculated using the EBC model, and the
power of each EV is assigned to the CPCC model.
Case 3: Consisting total of (photovoltaic + EBC + CPAA output
power). Model 3 has similar conditions to case 2, except that the
photovoltaic output is zero for worst-case conditions. Before
analysing the results, several terms are defined as follows. ‘Power
command’ means requesting power control from the picker. If the
power order is positive, it means that the solar charging station
must export the requested power to the grid to reduce the charging
and results of case 3 in Figs. 9 and 10 are shown. In Figs. 7 and 8,
using finite-point calculations, the ‘discharge range’ is ‘high limit’
categorised, the charging demand at the time of calculation is not
limited and therefore power allocation takes into account the
charging demand of electric car users; thus, the results of EVs are
shown in Fig. 7. It shows that 35 of the EVs cannot reach the SOC
target, and the demand is 215.5 kWh with 81.22% of full charge. In
Fig. 8a, the upper bound and the lower bound are calculated using
the EBC model and the power instructions are obtained from the
collector. In the 6–8 period, the results show that high and low
values are all equal to photovoltaic power. This is because there are
almost no EVs in the consumer PVCs, but it only supplies power to

3848 IET Renew. Power Gener., 2020, Vol. 14 Iss. 18, pp. 3843-3852
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2020
Fig. 8 Case 2 study with
(a) High, Low Energy Range, and Power Order about 2, (b) Charging limit, discharge limit, flexible charging power and photovoltaic power, (c) SOC changes in five EVs, and (d)
Initial SOC value, SOC output value and electric vehicle charging time

Fig. 9 Case 3 study with

(a) High, Low Energy Range, and Power Order about 3, and (b) Charging limit, Discharge limit, Charging power of EVs and PV power

the grid and is equal to the photovoltaic power. For other periods,
the upper limit of the photovoltaic power and maximum discharge
power of EVs is flexible, while lowering the photovoltaic power
level is lower than the maximum power charge of all EVs. Also, as
IET Renew. Power Gener., 2020, Vol. 14 Iss. 18, pp. 3843-3852
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2020
shown in Fig. 8b, with the limitations of the EBC model and the
classification of the electric car, the results show that the range of
discharge and charging of flexible EVs is also adjusted. It is the
3849
 concluded that the proposed energy management system shows a
stable performance in calculating the required power and power,
which makes the solar charging station performance more efficient
and stable and stable. Fig. 10 shows the initial SOC value, the SOC
output value, and the EV charging time of about 3.

6 Comparison with an existing system

To analyse the contribution of an SST-based charging station to
instantaneous auxiliary services, a comparison between the
proposed charging station and the conventional charging station
presented in [33] under the same power order, identical target SOC,
and identical parameters of EVs, Are executed. The market price
for the adjustment was obtained from the ERCOT website (Texas
Electricity Board). In [33], the EV power allocation strategy
consists of two parts: keeping the battery level mode module level
and adjusting the battery level SOC module. Power is adjusted to
suit the SOC of each car. The comparative results are listed in
Table 2.
In Table 2, the results show that the proposed system performs
better. This is because all up and down tuning activities are
powered by EVs without other energy sources, and therefore the
availability of power capacity is limited. Also, a large amount of
Fig. 10 Initial SOC value, SOC output value and EV charging time in case
capacity will be bound if the charging is considered complete. With
3
this insight we can deduce two remarkable conclusions:

most important thing for a solar charging station to participate in (i) Using the proposed system, the solar charging station is more
ancillary services without reducing the total charge. flexible compared to the conventional charging station.
Fig. 8d shows the initial SOC value, SOC output value, and EV (ii) The photovoltaic power and charging order of EVs are
charging time of about 2. Comparing the ‘power order’ in Fig. 8a appropriately coordinated by the proposed energy management
with the ‘flexible power’ in Fig. 6b these two values show system, which demonstrates efficient performance in the provision
comparative properties. For example, during times 10–12, the of instant auxiliary services and completion of charging demand.
amount of power is positive in some time slots, but flexible EVs
are still in charge. This is because the photovoltaic power is 7 Conclusion
sufficient and the demand for EVs is inflexible and low. In
According to the studies and the results, distribution transformers
contrast, at 14:00 there is also a positive power order, but flexible
are used to connect the power sources, loads, and energy sources to
EVs switch to discharge mode. Also, at 16:00, the power order is
the micro-grid, as well as to connect the micro-grid to the grid. In
negative, but flexible EVs are also discharged. This is mainly due
this research, a new EMS for EV charging station has been
to the demand for highly flexible EVs and low photovoltaic power,
introduced with the incorporation of SST integrated with the PV.
and therefore flexible EVs must work temporarily as a discharge
The SST enables the control of the electrical power transmission
mode. As shown in Fig. 8c, to show SOC variations, the SOC
path and the flexible connection of the distributed generation
value was selected from five EVs out of 60.
sources to the grid. Power transmission, which is important in the
SOC3 represents the amount of third EV SOC (EV3). Since the
safe and sustainable operation of the grid, is also controlled by this
EV3 is a flexible electric car, the charging power cannot be
part of the power management system. The power management
adjusted, so the maximum charge power to the EV3 is allocated by
system designed for the SST-based photovoltaic charging station
the CPAA to move the EV3 as far as possible. The rest of the EVs
can dynamically participate in additional micro-grid network
are flexible, so power can be adjusted, e.g. the EV45 works in
service and guarantee the quality of charging service for EV users.
charge and discharge modes during the period of 15–15:30, when
By studying the case studies of Sections 2–4 and analysing the
charging is completed as shown in Figs. 8c and 9. In addition to the
simulations, it can be concluded that the proposed EMS has stable
20th electric car (SOC output 0.841) and 38th vehicle (SOC output
performance in the calculation of the energy range and real-time
0.847), all flexible EVs are charged with different primary SOCs
power allocation which improves the efficiency of the
and supply the SOC before departure time. In the beginning, the
photovoltaic-based charging station.
28th and 38th are classified as flexible EVs but are very close to
Key indicators of comparison results have been provided in
the inflexible one. As shown in Fig. 7b, during the charging
Table 2. The results show that the proposed system performs better.
process, because of the accuracy of the calculation in a time slot
This is because all up and down tuning activities are powered by
(maximum charge power of 10.8 when the slot time is 10 min,
EVs without other energy sources, and therefore the availability of
permissible power of 36 kWh, equal accuracy 5 = 
power capacity is limited. Also, a large amount of capacity will be
(36/60/10)*10.80. Therefore, the SOC20 value of 0.891), a
bound if the charging is considered complete. Discharge time and
quantitative power setting in a time slot, makes it an inflexible
full charge based on the proposed method are 14 and 93.44%,
electric car with maximum power, but still unable to meet the
respectively. Furthermore, the more EV power demand has been
charge. In Fig. 9a, the upper limit is much lower than in case 2.
addressed in the SST-based charging station (1072.4 kWh) in
Before 12:00, since the photovoltaic output is zero and all EVs
compression with a normal charging station (731.72 kWh).
require charging power, PVCS does not have sufficient power to
power the grid, so the upper limit calculated by the EBC is zero.
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