Building Construction Principles and Practices Walton 1995

M SERIES
Macmillan Texts for Industrial Vocational

and Technical Education
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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
PRINCIPLES AND
PRACTICES
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D. Walton
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THE
- SERIES -
Macmillan Texts for Industrial Vocational and Technical Education
Building Construction:
Principles and Practices
Denis Walton
&
MACMILLAN
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Macmillan Education
Between Towns Road, Oxford 0X4 3PP
A division of Macmillan Publishers Limited
Companies and representatives throughout the world
www.macmillan-africa.com
ISBN 978-0-333-60522-6
Text © Denis Walton 1995

Design and illustration © Macmillan Publishers Limited 1995
First published 1995
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission
of the Publishers.
Illustrated by 1-11 Line Art

Photographs courtesy of Househam Henderson Moteane, Architects
Cover illustrations courtesy of Images Colour Library
Printed and bound in Malaysia
2008
14 13
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ontent
Introduction viii Check your understanding 21

Revision exercises and questions 21
1 Health and safety 1
6 Setting out the building 23
Introduction 1
Working safely 1 Introduction 23
Check your understanding 4 Setting out the building outline 23
Revision exercises and questions 4 Fixing the corners in place 25
Setting up a site datum for vertical levels 27
2 The building team 5 Check your understanding 29
Introduction 5
The client 5
The design team 5
7 Excavations 30
The construction team 6 Introduction 30
Working together 7 Removing the topsoil 31
Check your understanding 8 Digging a trench for strip foundations 31
Revision exercises and questions 8 Supporting the sides of an excavation 34
Excavation plant 37
3 The site investigations 9 Working safely in excavations 37
Introduction 9 Check your understanding 38
Considering the suitability of a site 9 Revision exercises and questions 38
Surveying the site 10
Drawing up the site survey 10 8 Foundations 39
Check your understanding 12 Introduction 39
Revision exercises and questions 12 Foundation loads 39
Types of foundation 41
4 The construction documents 13 Designing strip foundations 46
Introduction 13 Designing pad foundations 47
The working drawings 13 Check your understanding 47
The specification 14 Revision exercises and questions 47
The bill of quantities 16
Check your understanding 17 9 Walls 48
Introduction 48
Types of wall 48
5 Preparing the site 18
Characteristics of walls 49
Introduction 18 Building materials for external walls 49
Setting up the site 18 Technical words used in bricklaying 52
Clearing the site 21 Bonding 53
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Contents
Openings in brick walls 58 Scaffolding 115

Lintels 59
Introduction 115
Arches 61
Technical words for parts of a scaffold 115
Technical words for parts of arches 62
Types of scaffolding 116
Cavity walls 65
Regulations and recommendations
Stone walls 65
for scaffolding 116
Block walls 68
Check your understanding 118
Non-load-bearing external walls 70
10
Non-load-bearing internal walls
Check your understanding
Revision exercises and questions
Fireplaces and flues

Sf
70
76
Stairs
Introduction
Technical words for parts of staircases
119
119
119
Staircase materials 119
Introduction 76
Staircase layout 121
Technical words for parts of fireplaces
Assembling a timber staircase 122
and flues 76
Making a concrete staircase 124
The dimensions of brick fireplaces and flues 77
Building a fireplace and flue 78
Revision exercises and questions
79 15 129
11 Floors 80 Introduction 129
Technical words for parts of a door 129
Introduction 80
Door construction 130
The oversite concrete slab 81
Flush doors 133
Concrete ground-floor slabs 81
Panelled doors 133
Laying an oversite concrete slab 83
Ironmongery 135
The raft foundation slab 83
Door dimensions 135
Curing the concrete 84
Door frames and linings 137
Building a suspended timber floor 84
Timber flooring 85
Upper floor construction 85
Reinforced concrete first-floor construction
88 16 Windows 138
Making a hollow pot reinforced concrete
floor 90 Introduction 138
Check your understanding 91 Technical words for parts of a window
Revision exercises and questions 91 and frame 139
Building regulations for windows 139
12 Roofs 92 Types of window 139
Window height 139
Introduction 92
Glazing 141
Technical words for parts of a roof 93
Excluding water from timber windows 143
Pitched roofs 95
Using metal windows 143
The structure of a timber pitched roof 95
Making window cills 143
Connecting the trusses 98
Fixing windows to openings 144
Using tiles as roof coverings 101
Keeping out intruders and insects 145
Using roof sheets as roof coverings 105
Flat roofs 106
Building a reinforced concrete roof 107
Waterproof roof finishes
109 17 Drainage 147
Insulating a flat roof 113
Wind effects on flat roofs 113 Introduction 147
Check your understanding 113 Technical words for parts of a drainage
Revision exercises and questions 114 system 147
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Contents VII
Principles of soil drainage 147 Check your understanding 196

Types of drainpipe 149 Revision exercises and questions 196
Excavating the drain layout 150
Testing drains 151 21 Concrete technology 197
Building a manhole 153
Introduction 197
Septic tanks 153
Discharging the effluent 156 Materials used to make concrete 197
Concrete mixes 198
Making concrete by volume 199
Above-ground drainage 157
Adjusting the water content of damp sand 201
A single-stack plumbing system l6l
Grading coarse aggregates 201
The sanitary fittings l6l
Testing concrete and its materials 203
Check your understanding l6l
Reinforcement in concrete 204
Rainwater disposal 162
Concrete mixers 204
18 Water supply 168
22 Soil technology 207
Introduction 168
The cold water supply 168 Introduction 207
Hot water installations 171 Load-bearing capacity 207
Pipes and fittings 174 Check your understanding 209
Check your understanding 176 Revision exercises and questions 209
23 Timber technology 210
19 Electrical installations 177 Introduction 210
Introduction 177 Softwood and hardwood trees 210
Simple electrical theory 177 Making timber from trees 213
Electrical wiring 179 Timber sizes 214
Check your understanding 181 Joining timber 2l6
Revision exercises and questions 182 Check your understanding 216
183
24 Structural loads 217
Introduction 183
Plastering 183 Introduction 217
External render 187 Compression loading 217
Painting 187 Reactions and moments 220
Floor finishes 189 Check your understanding 221
Finishes on concrete subfloors 190 Revision exercises and questions 221
Wood finishes on concrete subfloors 192
Laying tiles on concrete subfloors 193 Answers to revision exercises and questions 222
Finishes on timber floors 195 Key words and definitions 229
Wall tiling 195 Index 233
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The purpose of this book on Building Construc¬ As a technical student you should understand
tion: Principles and Practices is to help students the basic performance expected of a building. For
who are studying this subject as part of their example, a building must not collapse because of
technical education. The content of the book incorrect design or construction of the foundations.
matches a typical syllabus in a senior secondary The materials used in a building must be durable
school or college where technical and vocational and resistant to climatic extremes. A building must
studies are part of the curriculum. be well lit and ventilated. It should be cool in hot
In this book you will find information about the weather and warm in cold weather. If the building
materials used in construction and how to build has bathrooms and toilets, then they should be
the different parts of a small building such hygienic.
as a house. The focus of the book is always on
the safe construction of a healthy and durable
building.
The aim is to give you practical information on A building must be stable, durable, sanitary
techniques and the performance of building ma¬ and fire-resistant. You can see a building with
terials. With further training, this information could these features in Figure 0.1. These are the
lead to employment in the building industry. basic aspects of good building construction.
The emphasis is on practical applications, which In this book, you will learn how to apply the
use the equipment and materials commonly found principles and practices to produce these re¬
on small building sites. This book, used with class¬ sults in a safe and healthy working environ¬
room and workshop instruction, as well as site ment on site.
visits, will give you a comprehensive outline of the
procedures to build a house from the initial idea to
choosing the finishes.
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VIII
Introduction IX
Figure 0.1 The elements of a sound building.

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*
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Heal
Introduction ways wear a hard hat to protect your head in case

anything is dropped from above or if you hit your
A building site can be a dangerous environment. head on a sharp edge on the site (Figure 1.1).
Powerful machinery, hazardous materials, scaffold¬
ing and trenches create risks for the building work¬ Working in excavations
ers and other people in the construction area. This
chapter describes some of the safe working prac¬ A site may have many excavations or holes. If
tices that can prevent accidents happening from shallow excavations are not protected, then they
carelessness or inexperience on building sites. should be surrounded by excavated material. Deep
excavations must be surrounded by barriers. -
When you are working in a deep excavation
you may not be seen by other people working at
Working safely ground level. To work safely, you should always:
1. wear a hard hat to protect your head in case
Accidents will happen on building sites, but the
something is accidentally thrown or dropped
number can be reduced by developing the skills
into the hole;
that you need to do your work safely. By keeping
2. put supports against the sides of the excavation
your eyes open and thinking about the work on so that the soil cannot fall in on you.
site, you may be able to work out in advance the
safest methods for carrying out different jobs. This Depending on the weather and the type of soil,
helps you to avoid methods that might endanger excavations can be wet or dusty. If it is wet, then
yourself and others. you will need rubber boots to protect your work
shoes. In dry, dusty conditions you should wear a
mask to cover your mouth and nose.
Remember - you will improve your
safety record if you use the correct
Excavations should be inspected daily
tools and equipment properly. before anyone is allowed to work in
them. This is very important after heavy rain.
If excavations are blasted out of rock, then
all the building workers should leave the site
Wearing protective clothing
before the charge is fired. Only very experi¬
You should keep your working clothes in a safe enced people should carry out blasting.
place on site so that you can change in and out of Heavy loads and machinery should not be
them each day. A locker is useful so that you can too close to the edge of any excavation. Too
store your personal effects securely while you are much weight can cause unsupported ground
working. The best working clothes are overalls and to collapse and the heavy load to fall into the
strong boots. If you are working in wet weather hole.
you will also need rubber boots. You should al¬
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2 Building construction
to the equipment and lighting may get rough treat¬

ment. For this reason, it is extremely important to
inspect and check the condition of the wiring at
regular intervals.
Ideally, the electricity to power tools and lights
should be 110 volts and connected to transformers
instead of 240 volt supplies. The reduced voltage
means that an electric shock is less likely to be fatal.
If a person suffers an electric shock on

site, then follow these steps:
Turn off the electric current.
Make the person comfortable with as little
movement as possible.
Figure 7.7 Protective clothing. Cover the person with extra clothing or a
blanket for warmth.
• Check the strength of the person’s pulse.
Working with dangerous materials • Use artificial respiration.
Contact an ambulance.
A building site may have many dangerous ma¬
terials such as:
# explosives and detonators; Working on scaffolding
• petrol;
# cellulose thinners; Working on scaffolding is one of the most danger¬
• caustic cleaners; ous building activities. Building workers can acci¬
6 paraffin. dentally fall off a platform, or parts of the scaffold¬
ing can drop and injure someone underneath.
Careless use of these materials can cause consider¬ If building workers instinctively move around
able harm to the building workers. Some simple the platforms and ladders without looking down,
precautions can prevent accidents or theft. then they could fall if the position of the scaffold¬
Explosives and detonators must be cleared from ing is changed. Workers on scaffolding must al¬
a site when they are not in use. When they are ways stay alert and check that they can place their
kept on site, they must be locked in a safe place, feet and hands safely.
and the site should have a record book which lists: Scaffolding, like the building it is attached to,
1. the amount of explosive received; carries staictural loads and stresses. To prevent
2. the amount of explosive used; accidents, experts must erect scaffolding to the
3. the amount that remains. highest safety standards. Its position should not be
changed unless the proper supports, platforms and
The petrol that fuels the machinery must be kept barriers are provided in the correct locations.
in a locked compound. If a considerable amount of The technical requirements for the safe erection
petrol is needed, then it should be stored in a brick of scaffolding are described in Chapter 13.
enclosure. Diesel is a better choice than petrol
because it does not catch fire so easily, but it
Working with formwork
should also be locked away.
Cellulose thinners, caustic cleaners and paraffin
Timber props and platforms support suspended
should be stored in locked areas so that their use
floors made from reinforced concrete. This support
can be controlled.
framework is called the formwork. Erecting
the formwork requires skill and experience be¬
Working with electricity cause the combined weighs of the wet concrete,
the building workers and the machinery is consid¬
You can power machinery and temporary lighting erable. Any weakness in the design or construc¬
with electricity. Because building sites are often tion of the formwork could have dangerous
wet places, electric shocks are possible. The wiring consequences.
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Health and safety 3
Working with cement zinc are not meant to support a person’s weight
between the timber frame. Moving about this type
Cement is a safety risk for a number of reasons. It
of roof requires extra care because you need to
can:
walk along the lines of screws fixed to the timbers.
1. burn bare hands while it is drying out;
2. cause skin diseases such as dermatitis;
First aid
3. be dangerous if it is inhaled as dust.
You should wear gloves when you handle A building site should have a first aid box (Figure
cement. If cement dust is present, then you should 1.2) which as a minimum contains:
wear a breathing mask. @ plasters;
▲
bandages;
ointment;
You should be careful when you push disinfectant.
wheelbarrows that contain wet cement
because the weight of the load can cause Someone on site should be in charge of the box
muscle strains and back injuries. and know how to deal with broken bones, burns
and electric shocks.
Working with bricks and blocks
Working with bricks is not usually unsafe, but you

need to be careful of your fingers and thumbs if
you cut bricks with the sharp edge of a trowel.
Concrete blocks are rough and heavy. The edges
can injure your hands unless you wear gloves
when you lift and carry them. If you do cut your
Bandage Disinfectant
hands, then you must clean the cut so that it does
not become infected.
Ointment Plasters
Working inside a building
It can be quite dark inside a building under con¬

struction. If there is no source of artificial light,
then you need to be aware of the possible dangers.
Holes for staircases and lifts must have secure
barriers around them on upper floors to prevent Figure 1.2 A simple first aid box.
anyone falling into them. Openings in external
walls above ground level also need barriers to
Health^and hygiene
prevent people, equipment or materials falling
through them. Health and hygiene are as important as safety on
building sites. This means that the workers should
have access to an area for cooking and the facilities
Working on roofs for basic hygiene as well as a schedule that allows
rest breaks and meal times.
Safety measures for working on roofs include:
Healthy workers need:
1. erecting scaffolding up to the lower level of the
® shade for rest breaks;
roof to save anyone who slips down a roof
$ dry areas to prepare food and drink on rainy
slope;
days;
2. placing crawl boards to spread the load of the
# facilities for washing hands;
building worker’s weight when moving up and
® WCs;
down the roof slope.
# areas to hang up wet clothes;
Roofs built of materials such as fibre cement and # a room to change in and out of working clothes.
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Safety notices Explosive materials should be recorded on a

register.
Notices about wearing hard hats, avoiding acciden¬ • The site should employ someone who is ex¬
tal fires or other careless activities can promote perienced at first aid.
safe working practices. The site could have a no¬ • A healthy building site will have adequate rest
tice board to remind everyone how many days or breaks and sanitation facilities.
months it has been free from accidents.
REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1 What are three pieces of essential protective
A building site can be dangerous if you do not clothing on a building site?
observe the health and safety regulations carefully. 2 Why should excavations be inspected after
• You should always wear appropriate protective heavy rain?
clothing when you are on site. 3 What steps should you take if someone re¬
A hard hat is essential when you work in ex¬ ceives a serious electric shock?
cavations or on scaffolding. 4 What are three dangerous materials that can
Excavations should be inspected after heavy be found on a building site?
rain. 5 Explain what facilities make a healthy site.
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Introduction
Buildings are the result of the need to provide an

enclosed, secure space for people’s activities. In
the short term a building can be constructed out of
grass or mud on a timber frame. In the longer term,
there is a need to use more expensive and durable
materials. If more money is invested in the con¬
struction of buildings, then people will expect
them to last a long time.
The building industry has developed separate
but related disciplines that employ people trained
in building constaiction and technology. This chap¬
ter looks at the work of these people, who include:
• the client;
• the design team;
Figure 2.1 Inside an architect's drawing office.
• the contractor’s team;
#5 the building material suppliers;
• the regulators. may lead a design team, which consists of other
architects and technicians. Figure 2.1 shows you
the inside of an architect’s drawing office. Together
The client the design team will produce:
design drawings;
A client with access to money and land is one of ® working drawings;
the most important people in a building project. perspectives.
When a client, who may be a private individual or
During the building project the design team will
a commercial organisation, decides to build, the
also carry out administrative jobs and visit the site
process begins even before the first soil is turned.
to observe progress and deal with problems that
In many countries, the government is the main
arise from the design or building work.
client for building projects that meet the basic
needs of the people. Hospitals, schools and other
public buildings are typical projects of this type. The structural engineer
The design team includes a structural engineer,

The design team who makes sure that buildings are structurally
stable. You employ a structural engineer if the
The design team is responsible for the overall stresses and loads are greater than those in a
layout and appearance of a building. An architect simple house.
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The engineer calculates the weight of the con¬ and specification. If there is a bill of quantities, the
struction materials, the weight of the people and estimator fills in the rates and produces the total
equipment who will occupy the building and the cost for the job. This becomes the tender docu¬
maximum wind pressure on the building. These ment which is offered to the client.
calculations enable the engineer to design: The surveyor lays out the shape of the building
on the ground before construction starts. The sur¬
• foundations; veyor also checks the ground levels.
• columns and beams; The contract supervisor deals with the paper¬
£ roof trusses; work that may be required for large building
• suspended floors;
projects.
• other structural elements of the building.
The site agent is the contractor’s representative
When the structural drawings and calculations on site for large contracts. The site agent’s job is to
are produced, they are approved by the building manage the site on a day-to-day basis.
inspector and used by the contractor on site. A general foreman is always employed on
small contracts. The foreman should have exten¬
sive knowledge of all aspects of building construc¬
The quantity surveyor tion. This includes knowing how to organise the
The quantity surveyor prepares a bill of quantities workers, materials and schedules.
for building projects so that contractors can accu¬ Trades foremen are experienced at specific
rately price the work. The quantity surveyor works trades such as brickwork, carpentry or plumbing.
out the size of the areas and the volume of re¬ They organise and control the workers in their
quired materials from the design team’s drawings own trade. The trades foremen report to the general
and specifications. foreman.
Tradespeople form the bulk of the construction
team. They have spent years learning a trade,
The clerk of works probably beginning as an apprentice to a skilled
person, and obtaining the necessary qualifications
The clerk of works, who is usually employed by
to become recognised as an expert in their particu¬
the client, is an expert in how buildings should
lar skill, e.g, bricklaying, carpentry, electrical work,
be constructed. The clerk of works uses this
plastering, plumbing.
knowledge to make sure that the contractor
Apprentices are building workers who are learn¬
builds the building correctly and safely.
ing the basic skills of a trade. Normally apprentices
work with experienced people until they are cap¬
able of working alone. An apprentice may attend
classes and work for a certificate while training for
a specific trade.
The construction team Labourers carry out the jobs on a building site
that do not need special skills. These are usually
The construction team is the term we use to de¬ physical tasks such as digging trenches and general
scribe the builders who put up the building. This cariying of materials around the site. Some trades
team consists of these people: also require labourers. Bricklayers use labourers to
£ main contractor; £ general foreman; mix and carry mortar and to bring bricks and
£ subcontractors; trades foremen; blocks to the place where they are working.
£ estimator; £ tradespeople;
£ surveyor; £ apprentices;
£ contract supervisor; £ labourers. The subcontractors
£ site agent; Subcontractors, who are employed by the main
contractor, do specific parts of the building project.
The main contractor enters into a contract They provide additional skills for the main con¬
with the client to build the building according to tractor, who may not have q workforce that is
the design team’s drawings, specifications and bill competent in all the building trades. Subcontrac¬
of quantities. tors run their own businesses and have the same
The estimator works out the cost of construct¬ responsibilities for the standard of work and safety
ing the proposed building shown on the drawing issues as the main contractor.
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The building team 7
Working together merchants buy the materials such as paint, cement,

sanitary fittings and ironmongery from the manu¬
The design and building teams are involved in a facturers and sell them to the building contractors.
construction project on and off the building site. Contractors usually buy timber from merchants
Their work is to: who specialise in different types and sizes of tim¬
ber. They buy sand and aggregates from quarries.
1. complete details on drawings;
Bricks and blocks are usually made locally at
2. make changes on site when required;
brickworks or block manufacturers. They may also
3. price the changes;
be made on site by a contractor.
4. inspect the building work;
5. complete paperwork;
6. organise the right number and type of building The building industry regulators
workers;
7\ order equipment; The regulators of the building industry protect the
8. order the building materials. public and the building workers from dangerous
and poor quality construction methods. The
methods used to control building projects are a
The technicians combination of inspections, legal requirements,
Technicians work for design or building teams. good practice guidelines and the applications of
Depending on their experience and knowledge, research.
they should be able to: Many countries have:
1. help to prepare working drawings; building regulations;

2. interpret the drawings prepared by architects building codes of practice;
and engineers; research organisations who promote improved
3. understand building construction techniques; building methods and materials.
4. work on site efficiently; In other parts of this book, we will refer to the
5. understand building regulations; building inspector. The building inspector plays
6. apply health and safety rules to their work; an important role in the control of building projects.
7. know how to operate equipment safely; Normally, the building inspector, who works for
8. organise other building workers; a local authority, approves the working drawings
9- carry out work to a high standard. for a proposed building. When the drawings are
approved, the inspector issues a permit to build,
You can train to be a technician by:
which confirms that the design, layout and con¬
1. attending a technical school or college to learn struction methods are acceptable.
about building technology, construction
methods and drawing;
2. working on building sites to see how to carry The planners
out building methods;
The planners also control building projects be¬
3. learning practical skills such as bricklaying,
cause they approve the overall design and position
plumbing and carpentry in workshops.
of a building. They are not usually concerned with
A good technician will also be aware of local the detail of a building design, but they want to
climatic conditions and appropriate materials. This make sure that the building will fit into the area.
information promotes the comfort and health of This means that the planners consider:
the people who will occupy the building when it is
• the type of proposed building;
finished.
• the height of the building;
the materials that will be used to construct the
The building material suppliers building;
• access to the building.
Constructing a building takes people, materials and
equipment. The building materials supply industry Buildings are permanent features of the land¬
consists of the manufacturers and the builders’ scape in all countries. The planners want to control
merchants. The manufacturers make all the materi¬ the way an area develops to make sure that it does
als needed to construct the building. The builders’ not result in a confused mix of uses.
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Builders’ merchants usually supply the building

The planners will normally reject a proposal materials.
to build a factory in a residential area or to • Building inspectors are part of the control and
build a block of flats in an industrial area. regulation side of the building industry. They con¬
Building types are usually divided into cat¬ trol the construction, stability and health and safety
egories and approved only for areas that methods.
share the same characteristics. Planners control the overall design and siting of
Common categories are: building projects.
domestic - houses, flats, hostels and hotels
commercial - offices, shops, showrooms,
markets REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
industrial - factories, workshops, quarries
public - cinemas, theatres, hospitals, 1 What two things does the client need before
churches, schools, colleges, universities issuing an instruction to an architect to design
agricultural - farms, ranches, small¬ a building?
holdings. 2 How does the structural engineer help the
architect on the design team?
3 What is the relationship between the main
contractor and subcontractor?
4 What is the difference between planning con¬
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING trols and building regulations?
5 Where does the contractor buy:
The client decides that a building is needed and i) paint
employs the building and design teams. ii) sand
The architect, who is a key member of the iii) timber?
design team, designs the building for the client. 6 How many different categories of building use
The other members of the design team are: the can you find in your own town or village?
structural engineer; the quantity surveyor; the clerk 7 Find information about the climate in your
of works. area.
The building team works for the client, but i) Where does the wind usually blow from?
follows the design team’s instructions. ii) Which are the wet and dry seasons?
The main contractor constructs the building iii) What are the maximum and minimum day
with assistance from subcontractors. and night temperatures?
The subcontractors are employed by the main iv) What is the altitude of your home?
contractor. v) What is the approximate latitude and longi¬
Skilled technicians assist all parts of the building tude of your home? (Find this answer in an
process. atlas.)
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Introduction The client also considers the total costs of devel¬
oping a particular site before deciding if it is suit¬
One of the essentials for a construction project is able for a building project. A sloping site is more
the land that becomes the building site. Before expensive to build on than a level site. Land that
the design work begins, you need to learn as much floods regularly or has poor soil conditions also
about the proposed building site as you can. You costs more to develop.
do this by:
1. considering the suitability of the site for its in¬
tended purpose;
2. investigating the site in person;
Investigating the site
3. surveying the site;
4. digging trial holes. When the client identifies a site, then the building
When this work is completed the information is surveyor investigates it to find out the:
used to prepare a survey drawing of the site. In this 1. strength of the soil, because this affects the
chapter we shall look at the typical steps that you design of the foundations;
take to complete the site investigations. With the 2. type of soil which will be excavated;
exception of simple building projects, some or all 3. amount of water in the ground because this
of this work is usually carried out by a surveyor. affects the design of the foundations and work¬
ing procedures;
4. amount of clean or contaminated ground;
3. amount that the ground slopes;
6. access to services such as mains water, electri¬
Considering the city and drainage;
suitability of a site 7. best position for the building in terms of the
local climate;
Two factors affect a client’s decision to start a 8. position of natural features such as trees, rocks
building project on a specific site: and streams;
9. position of other buildings near the site;
1. its suitability for the purpose of the intended 10. location of site boundaries and access roads.
project;
2. the likely cost of developing the site.
For example, sites used for housing or industrial
activities need good access to transport facilities
and other services. The plan for a town or a district A surveyor will dig trial holes to find out the
may determine which types of building can be condition of the soil and the amount of water
built in an area where the client has access to land. present. Soil samples are removed and
This means that the suitability of a site should be analysed.
investigated before the design work begins.
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Surveying the site
Part of the site investigation is the site survey for

the design and working drawings. You can see in
Figure 3-1 that a building surveyor uses survey
instruments to do the survey. The surveyor finds
out the horizontal and vertical levels to determine
how flat the site is.
Site levels are fixed in relation to a mark or level
nearby such as:
1. a datum level mark, which is noted on survey
maps (Figure 3.2) of an area as the height above
standard sea level in metres;
2. a manhole cover in a nearby road, which is a
permanent marker for ground level;
3. a mark made on a rock face or tree, which
can be measured and used to establish levels
Drawing up the site survey
when the building work begins on site;
4. spot levels, which are points marked out on the When the survey is completed the information is
ground for taking levels. used to prepare a drawing to a suitable scale to
show the physical characteristics of the site and the
area around it (Figure 3-3).
mm
Figure 3.1 Surveying a building site with instruments.
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The site investigations 11
Figure 3.3 A site survey drawing with contours.

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The drawing includes: • A site survey uses measuring equipment to es¬

tablish the horizontal dimensions and the vertical
1. the shape and size of the site in relation to the
differences in levels on the site.
area around it;
• The datum is a level that is marked on maps to
2. the building line. This line is usually the dis¬
provide a common fixed measurement such as the
tance that must be maintained between the
height above sea level.
proposed building and the site boundary. The
$ Spot levels are the series of points on the ground
building inspector can confirm whether the build¬
where the surveyor takes the levels.
ing line is correct.
• Contours are lines that join points of equal height
3. the datum level that served as the baseline for
above or below the datum level. They show the
the survey levels;
direction and height of a slope.
4. the location of any spot levels on the site;
• A survey drawing is a scale drawing that shows
5. the contours, or lines that show the amount
the physical features, dimensions and levels of
and direction of any slope on the site;
a site as well as any known conditions below
6. road access to the site;
the ground level of the site and adjacent proper¬
7. the location of any manholes and the direction
ties.
of the drainage runs. This should be confirmed
with the local authority, who may also give you
information about the direction of flow and
invert levels. REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
8. the location of any sendees such as water and
electricity in relation to the site; 1 Which factors are likely to increase building
9. the position of trees or other natural features costs?
which might influence the building design or 2 Which three services are useful for site develop¬
construction work. ment?
3 What feature indicates the presence of drains
below ground?
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 4 Draw the outline of the building you are sitting
in now.
Site investigations require examination, meas¬ i) Show north and the other points of the
urement and recording of the physical features of compass on the drawing.
the proposed site and adjoining sites and proper¬ ii) Show the location of any manholes beside
ties. your building.
Trial holes are used to investigate the condition 5 Find the approximate location of your building
of the soil below ground level. on a survey map.
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Introduction plans, sections and elevations of a building. The
working drawings are drawn to a suitable scale
The production of the construction documents is and indicate the location and shape of the building
as important as the organisation of people and and its structure.
materials in a building project. This chapter de¬ The working drawings are the basic documents
scribes the functions of the main construction docu¬ that are used by the main contractor and sub¬
ments, such as the: contractors on site to construct the building. They
may also be used for other purposes such as:
• working drawings;
# specification; 1. obtaining planning and building control approval
9 bill of quantities. from the local authority;
2. preparing the specification of work;
3. preparing a bill of quantities;
4. preparing a tender estimate for the project.
The working drawings
The plans, sections and elevations
After the building is designed, the working draw¬
ings are produced. Prepared by the architect or the The working drawings consist of plans, sections
architectural technician, they show the detailed and elevations.
^ Manhole
\
Figure 4.1 An example of a ground-floor plan for a house.
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V
1 JF V
■It
u L 1
Figure 4.2 The elevation of a house.
The site plan shows the relationship of the

building to the site boundaries and adjoining roads
and buildings.
The floor plans show the position of the walls,
partitions, doors and windows, as you can see in
Figure 4.1.
The roof plan shows how to place the timbers
to form the roof.
The four elevations are the external views of
the building; they show the general appearance
and where to put the doors and windows. Figure
4.2 shows an example of an elevation.
The sections show the depth of the foundations
and the levels of the floors and roofs. The sections
may include other construction details (Figure
4.3).
The foundation plans show how the building
should be set out on site and the dimensions of
the strip foundations for the load-bearing walls.
Figure 4.4 is an example. Additional drawings may
be prepared to show specific details to a larger
scale.
With practice in reading drawings, you will
become familiar with the symbols.
Symbols on working drawings
Working drawings use symbols to show the differ¬

ent materials specified in the construction of a
building. These symbols are common to all draw¬ The specification
ings so that everyone on the building team can
interpret them correctly. The most familiar symbols The specification is a document that describes the
are listed in Figure 4.5. standards of workmanship and materials required
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The construction documents 15
Raft foundation for the

verandah
f *1
15
Pad foundation T
for the piers r I Foundation for the fireplace
i i
i—i
&
k—^-•
10
Strip foundations for load-bearing walls

rT_. J L
I
Figure 4.4 A foundation plan.
K /I
0/ ii
ii
y ii
y ii
i
Brickwork sections Cavity wall Blockwork sections Stone sections
section
■:o. y
Mass concrete Reinforced concrete Cement and sand
screed
Figure 4.5 Symbols on working drawings.

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for a building project. The design team writes the

specification, which also describes the sizes and Sample specification
shapes of the different parts of the building struc¬ This is an example of a specification for a
ture such as the windows and doors. building’s foundation.
1. Supply and lay the hardcore bed in layers
150 mm thick, well consolidated to the
thickness shown on the drawings or as
required to make up any additional exca¬
The bill of quantities vation.
2. Supply and lay minimum 50 mm of sand
The bill of quantities allows the contractor to price blinding to the top of the hardcore to
the work accurately for a large job. The quantity provide a firm and level surface for the
surveyor reads the working drawings and specifi¬ dpm and the oversite concrete slab.
cation to determine the volumes, areas and linear 3. Supply and lay over the whole area of the
amounts of work required. When these are written ground floor on the blinding provided,
up as the bill of quantities, the contractor decides 1200 gauge polythene dpm. Provide 150
how much to charge for each part of the job and mm laps at joints and overlap the dpc in
adds this up to determine the total price of the the walls. Ensure that there are no tears in
building work. The contractor then adds an amount the sheeting and that the dpm and the dpc
for overheads and profit to the price for the together provide a complete damp-proof
materials. barrier.
If contractors compete for a building project, the 4. Mix, transport, spread, consolidate and level
use of a bill of quantities ensures that they all price the 100 mm oversite concrete, mix 1:2:4,
for the same amounts of materials. Figure 4.6 shows carefully over the polythene dpm. Finish
what a sample portion of a bill of quantities looks with a tamped finish to receive the floor
like. screed and cure for at least seven days.
BILL No. 3/ FOUNDATIONS

Unit Qty. Rate Amount (J)
65/A. Hardcore well watered, rolled and M3 9 t 4-1.00 t 37Z- OO

compacted in layers not exceeding 150 mm
65/B. 50 mm thick sand blinding M2 60 112.-OO t 72o. OO
65/C. 1200 gauge polythene damp-proof M2 60 \ l% oo t I0$0. OO

membrane, with 150 lap joints & incl. 150
overlap to dpc at perimeter
65/D. 100 mm thick 1:2:4 concrete class B25 M2 60 1130.00 t ?xoo. oo

laid flat and including tamped finish to
receive floor screed (measured elsewhere)
To collection
874/TECHNICAL COLLEGE Page 65 FOUNDATIONS I W8\ OO
Figure 4.6 A sample page from a bill of quantities.

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The construction documents 17

• Working drawings are produced by the archi¬ 1 What is the purpose of a site plan?
tect’s office. 2 What documents are needed for approval for
• Working drawings show the plans, elevations building construction?
and sections of a building. 3 What is a plan, section and elevation?
$ The plans show the view of the building’s shape 4 What is the difference between a specification
and position on the site as well as the details of the and a bill of quantities?
construction of parts of the building like the roof 5 Can you draw a plan of a rectangular building
and floor. which is 12.5 m x 7.8 m to a scale of 1:100?
© The sections are the drawings that show the 6 A contractor prices the following items in the
details for the internal parts of the building like the example of a bill of quantities in Figure 4.6:
foundations and the floors.
Item Rate
Q The elevations are the views of the outside of
i) hardcore * 50/m3
the building, which show the position of doors and
ii) blinding * 120/m2
windows.
iii) polythene * 73/m2
$ The working drawings provide the contractor
iv) concrete *215/m2
with information about the dimensions, levels and
general layout of the building and services. Can you work out how much each quantity
9 Working drawings are needed for permission costs and add up the total cost for each item?
from the local authority to proceed with the pro¬ (* represents your own currency)
posed building.
9 The specification describes how to do the build¬
ing work.
9 The bill of quantities describes the amount of
materials needed to construct the building.
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Introduction
The contractor’s site preparation begins after the:

1. building has been designed;
2. construction documents have been approved;
3. main contractor has been appointed by the
client to construct the building.
When deciding how to prepare for the building
work, the contractor will frequently refer to the
working drawings and specification. This chapter
describes the site preparation in detail from the
contractor’s viewpoint.
The contractor’s responsibilities Figure 5.2 Access gates with vision panels.
The contractor is expected to carry out the
building work:
using appropriate knowledge, experience
and skill;
$ efficiently and without delay;
employing skilled technicians and building
workers in the different trades;
@ using the most appropriate materials;
® ensuring that health and safety regulations
are observed;
giving the necessary information to the
local authority when required.
Setting up the site
One of the contractor’s first jobs is to lay out the

site boundaries as they are marked on drawings
such as shown in Figure 5.1.
If a security fence is put up around the site Ideally, the boundary fence should have a single
boundaries, the contractor can control the move¬ access point so that someone can check people in
ment of people and materials (Figures 5.2-3). and out. This ensures that only authorised people
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18
Preparing the site 19
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are on site and that personal effects can be left 7. A contractor’s name board, which is useful for
safely. publicity and to identify the site for deliveries.
A temporary access road should be constructed
so that vehicles can enter the site in all weather.
You can see an example of a temporary access
road in Figure 5.4. This access road can become The temporary site buildings and facili¬
part of the permanent site services in the final ties should not be too close to the
design. building that is being constructed. Clear space
must be left around the building for dumping
excavated earth and moving machinery and
Site requirements
materials.
A well-managed site should have these facilities The concrete mixer should be left in a
and services: permanent location during the building work.
Deliveries of aggregates will need clear access
1. A site office with secure storage and workshops. to the concrete mixer.
2. A toilet. It may be chemical or connected to
mains drainage.
3. A supply of fresh water for drinking, washing
and the building work. If water is not available
from the mains supply, then a storage tank Tools and equipment
should be filled from time to time.
A variety of tools and equipment is needed to do
4. An electrical supply for power tools. Electricity
the digging, lifting, fixing and measuring jobs that
can be supplied from the mains or a petrol
are part of the work on a building site. A basic list
generator.
should include these items:
5. A telephone, which is secured so that it is only
used for authorised calls. 1. a tool for slashing through scrub;
6. Space for storing materials and machinery. 2. a tool for hand excavation;
Cement should be kept in a dry, locked store. 3. a pick for breaking up hard ground;
Figure 5.4 An urban building site.

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Preparing the site 21
4. an axe for chopping down trees;

5. a spade for shifting sand and aggregates; The ground around a termite nest is
6. a sledgehammer for breaking up rock; usually treated with toxic chemicals.
7. a wheelbarrow for carrying materials around For this reason, you must take great care
the site; when you handle the chemicals. It is advis¬
8. wooden pegs for marking out and fixing lines; able to wear gloves and goggles to prevent
9. hammers and nails for fixing timber; the inhalation of fumes. The chemicals and
10. a 3 metre tape measure for measuring short powders should be mixed in the open air.
distances;
11. a 30 metre tape measure for setting out
boundaries;
Trial holes
12. line for stretching between pegs;
13- levelling instruments and pegs for setting out A contractor will dig trial holes as part of the
vertical levels; preliminary site works. These holes provide infor¬
14. a builder’s level for checking horizontal and mation about the best methods of excavation. For
vertical levels; example, if water appears in the trial holes, then
15. a plumb-bob for checking vertical levels only; the contractor may use pumps to keep them dry
16. a crowbar for levering heavy materials; while the building workers are digging. If the soil
17. a builders’ square for making right-angled is veiy loose, then the contractor will want to put
corners. in timber supports to strengthen the sides of the
excavation.

Clearing the site
Work should begin after official permission has
The preliminary site works for a construction project been given by the local authority.
usually begin after the site facilities are set up. The working drawings and specification should
Clearing the site is essential. First, all vegetation contain all the information that the contractor needs
such as bushes and scrub should be removed. The to complete the building.
roots of trees and bushes must be dug out and The contractor must have the right experience to
cleared away. do the job.
The site needs to be clear of rocks and boulders The site should be prepared before the work
in the area where the building will be set out. If starts.
they are too large, then the boulders or rocks must Temporary buildings should be put up for the
be broken into smaller pieces and taken away. building workers to use.
Site clearance is done by a combination of manual A complete inventory of the tools needed for
and mechanical methods. These methods are de¬ building work is useful.
scribed more fully in Chapter 7. The concrete mixer and aggregates should be
carefully sited.
@ Termite nests on the site must be destroyed.
The soil condition should be checked before
excavations begin.
Clearing termites
The building site and surrounding areas should be

inspected for termites as part of the process of
clearing the site. Termites present a danger be¬ REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
cause they eat the cellulose in the timber in build¬
ings where they cannot be seen. Destruction is 1 What is the purpose of the working drawings
often well advanced before it is obvious on the and specifications?
surface. To remove this danger, the termite nests 2 What are three responsibilities of the main
must be dug out and the contents destroyed. contractor?
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3 How can a contractor ensure vehicular access 6 Figure 5.1 shows a building site and the loca¬
to the site during the rainy season? tion of the proposed building. Draw this to a
4 Why should termite nests be destroyed on a 1:100 scale and show suitable locations for
building site? the contractor’s huts, equipment and materials.
5 Why should the contractor dig trial holes be¬
fore work begins?
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uilding
Introduction fixed lines and profiles. This chapter describes

how to set out the outlines on the ground for
After the site is cleared of obstructions the outline square, rectangular and circular buildings,
of the building can be set out on the ground with
Setting out the

building outline
Table 6.1 describes how to set out the corners of

Table 6.7 How to set out a building
a square or rectangular building. Figure 6.1 will
Step Action give you more information about setting out a
1 Assemble the equipment for setting out: building.
the working drawings;
sharp pegs which measure 75 x 75 x 300 mm;
a mallet to drive the pegs into the ground; Making right angles
a hammer and nails;
a ball of string to create the outline; The walls of a square or rectangular building must
a builder's square; form right angles of 90°. The traditional method for
a 30 metre steel tape measure.
making right angles is to use a 3-4-5 triangle.
2 Find out the distance from the site boundary Table 6.2 describes how to make and use a 3-4-5
to the building line on the working drawings.
triangle.
Use the tape measure to measure the same
distance from the site boundary to the
location of the building line on the ground. Table 6.2 Using a 3-4-5 triangle to make right
Select a corner on the ground to be angles
corner A.
Step Action
3 Place a peg in the ground at corner A and
1 Nail three pieces of timber together which
hammer a nail into the top of the peg.
you cut to these lengths to make a frame
4 Repeat these steps to place a peg in the
750 mm
ground for corner B.
1000 mm
5 Tie the string between pegs A and B. 1250 mm
Measure the distance between A and B.
A frame with a right-angled corner Is called a
Check that the distance on the ground is the
square.
same measurement as the distance on the
drawing. 2 Place the right angle of the square against the
lines between the corners.
6 Repeat these steps for corners C and D.
If the corners are not at right angles then
7 Measure the diagonals A-D and B-C move the corner pegs until they make right
(the two diagonals should be equal). angles.
8 Use the builder's square to check that the 3 Measure the diagonals to check that they are
corners are at right angles. the same length.
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Figure 6.1 Setting out the corners of a building.
Another method of making right angles

You can also make right angles with string
and three pegs. You can see what this looks
like in Figure 6.2. Follow these simple steps
for making this type of right angle:
Cut a piece of string that measures
3600 mm exactly after a loop is tied in each
end.
Attach both loops over a nail in the first
peg-
Stretch out the string ^nd place a second
peg 900 mm from the first peg.
Place the third peg 1200 mm from the first
Figure 6.2 Making a 3-4-5 triangle with pegs and peg and pass the string around it.
string.
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Setting out the building 25
Fixing the corners in place Table 6.3 Making and using profiles
Step Action
The position of the corners must stay fixed in place 1 Attach a horizontal board to two timber posts
after the ground is excavated. You will need to and sharpen the posts at one end to stick in
build special boards called profiles to attach the the ground.
lines that define the outline of the building. The 2 Mark the top of the board with nails to show
profiles replace the corner pegs. the width of the walls and foundations at the
A profile consists of two timber posts with a corners.
horizontal board across the top. The posts are 3 Place a pair of profiles in the ground beside
sharpened like stakes so that they will stay in the the pegs used for setting out and check that
ground. You should use two profiles at each cor¬ the angles are still 90°.
ner. This means that you must make eight profiles 4 Stretch lines between the profiles at the
for a simple rectangular building. Figure 6.3 shows corners of the building. Use nails to locate the
you what the profiles look like and how to place position of the walls and foundations.
Figure 6.3 Locating the profiles.
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them. Table 6.3, on page 25, describes in more the centre of the column or pier at right angles to
detail how to make and use profiles to fix the each other as you see in Figure 6.4.
building lines. You should follow these steps to set out col¬
When the profiles are fixed, then you have umns and piers:
completed setting out the horizontal levels of a
1. Locate the positions of the columns or piers on
building with right angles. The profiles should
the working drawings.
remain fixed in place until the building work is
2. Measure the positions on the ground and place
finished.
pegs to mark the centre of the columns or piers.
3. Check that the lines are at right angles to the
proposed wall positions.
Setting out columns and piers 4. Run lines from the centre of the pegs in both
directions to the opposite wall positions or
Columns and piers, which are upright supports, profiles.
should be set out on two lines that pass through 5. Remove the pegs as the building work progresses.
Figure 6.4 Setting out columns.
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Setting out circular buildings

After you measure the radius and position the
Circular buildings need profiles that move. stake, then you can place a 12 x 150 mm
Table 6.4 describes how to set up a moving profile. board over the reinforcing bar. This method
can be used instead of setting out with rope.
The board is called a trammel. Figure 6.5 has
Table 6.4 Setting up a moving profile for a a drawing of a trammel.
circular building You should measure the width of the foun¬
Step Action dation and masonry walls and mark the top of
the board for further use.
1 Find out the radius of the building from the
working drawings.
2 Mark out this measurement on the ground.
3 Place a stake securely in the ground at the
end of the radius in the centre of the building. Setting up a site datum
4 Drill a 12 mm hole in the stake.
for vertical levels
5 Place a 12 mm reinforcing bar in the hole in
the Stake.
Before work begins the contractor needs to find a
6 Check that the top of the bar is level. fixed point to measure the different levels of the
7 Cement the stake in position. building. This fixed point, which can be a wooden
8 Loop a piece of rope which is the length
peg, is called the site datum.
of the radius of the building over the Typical levels that need to be measured as you
reinforcing bar. can see in Figure 6.6 are:
Measure the distances to the inner and outer
sides of the foundation from the working 1. the depth of the foundation trenches;
drawings. 2. the height of the concrete strip foundations;
Use the rope to measure the same distances 3. the depth of the excavation under the hardcore
on the ground. bed;
Mark the distances around the outline of
4. the height of the hardcore bed;
the building.
5. the height of the oversite concrete slab.
Trammel board
Outline of wall
Figure 6.6 Detail of a datum in relation to the

Figure 6.5 Setting out a circular building. foundations.
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When these levels are established, then you can Table 6.5 Setting up and using a site datum
measure other levels (see Figure 6.7) such as: Step Action
6. the bearing for ground-floor timber joists; 1 Select a position for a wooden peg where it
will not be disturbed by building work and
7. the bearing for first-floor timber or concrete
place it so that the top is about level with the
floor construction; top of the oversite concrete slab or other
8. the bearings for roof trusses, rafters and wall fixed level.
plates; Set up the survey levelling instrument so that
2
9. the heights of window cills and lintels. you can see a measuring staff on the
concrete slab and the site datum mark.
Table 6.5 describes how to set up and use a site
datum for the building levels. 3 Level the site datum mark and concrete it in
position (Figure 6.8).
Floor level
Bearing for joist hanger
Head of door
Floor level
Joist bearing level
Datum
Site datum peg
Figure 6.7 Establishing levels above and below the site datum.
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A 3-^-5 triangle is a check that the lines are

square.
The diagonals must be the same length,
f Fixed profiles for right-angled buildings should
be placed where they will not be disturbed by the
building work.
• A moving profile or trammel can be used to set
out curved walls.
• Centre lines are used to position columns or
piers.
A site datum can be used to fix vertical levels.
1 If the shortest side of a 3^-5 triangle is 750

mm then how long are the other two sides?
Figure 6.8 Detail of a site datum. 2 What should you do if the diagonals are not
equal when you check the setting out?
3 Make a right angle using three pegs and a
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING length of string.
4 Using bricks, set out the inner and outer walls
# The site must be cleared before construction of a circular building which has an internal
begins. diameter of 5 metres and a wall thickness of
$ The position for a corner of a building must be 215 mm.
set out first. 5 Describe how you would set up a site datum
# A right-angled base line must be established for mark.
the positions.
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Introduction 1. removing the top soil;
2. reducing levels to make an even working
The site must be excavated to build the founda¬ surface;
tions below ground. Excavation is normally done 3. digging trenches for strip foundations;
by hand or with mechanical diggers. 4. digging pits for pier and column bases;
At this stage, the contractor already has two 5. digging holes for piles;
important sources of information about excava¬ 6. digging into sloping sites;
tions: 7. digging stepped foundations;
8. digging out basements.
1. the trial holes, which revealed the type of soil
under ground; The contractor must solve two problems that
2. the working drawings which indicated the depth affect the safety of the workers digging an ex¬
required for foundations. cavation:
Workers on small building sites usually carry out 1. supporting the sides;
these types of excavations: 2. removing water.
Figure 7.1 A site after the topsoil is removed.
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Excavations 31
It is very important to take special precautions

when workers are digging below ground.
Removing the topsoil
Topsoil should be removed because:
1. it contains vegetation, which can damage

foundations;
2. it is not firm enough to support a building.
You should remove at least 300 mm of topsoil.

If you have to remove the roots of bushes and Figure 7.2 Reduced levels after removal of the
trees that are growing within the boundary of the topsoil.
building, then you may have to excavate more
than 300 mm.
out of the way for later disposal. You can reduce
levels with a mechanical shovel and load the exca¬
Do not use soil to backfill holes that are vated material directly onto a tipper truck for re¬
created by excavating roots in the topsoil. The moval. Figure 7.2 shows you how the reduced
soil may settle to a different level in the holes levels should look when the topsoil is removed.
and create cracks in the oversite concrete.
You should pack hardcore tightly in the holes
or use a weak concrete mixture for a filler.
Digging a trench for
strip foundations
If you do not use the topsoil to landscape other
parts of the site, then it should be cleared away. You may need to dig even deeper into the subsoil
Figure 7.1 shows you an example of a site after to excavate trenches for strip foundations. (See
the topsoil is removed. Figure 7.3 as an example.) The depth of excavation
for the trenches will be on the working drawings.
Excavating the subsoil Excavation by hand, using spades and shovels, is
a good method for excavating trenches for the
When you remove the topsoil, then you should foundations for small buildings. If you want to
have a firm subsoil that is strong enough to sup¬ achieve more speed then you can use a backacter.
port the oversite concrete. This is a particularly good piece of machinery to
use if the trenches are quite deep.
1. Use the working drawings to see how deep the
hardcore bed should be.
2. Dig down past the topsoil to the recommended
You can use two methods to check that the
level in the subsoil.
excavation is deep enough.
3. Inspect the ground to check that the subsoil is
Use a levelling instrument to check the
firm.
depths of the trench against the site datum.
4. Dig out any soft patches of ground and fill with
(Figure 7.4.)
tightly packed hardcore.
Use a boning rod to measure the depth of
This work can be done manually with: digging. Table 7.1 describes how to do this
correctly.
@ spades;.
® shovels;
® pick-axes;
The deeper the excavation the more it costs to
# wheelbarrows.
dig and to fill with concrete. Although the concrete
Mechanical equipment makes the job much will smooth out any differences in depth, it is more
easier. A bulldozer can quickly push the topsoil economic to be accurate.
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Figure 7.3 Excavating a trench for a strip foundation.
Figure 7.4 Using a survey instrument to check the depths of a trench.

Table 7.1 Using a boning rod
Excavated soil should be removed from the Step Action
trench. You can use some of the excavated soil to 1 Calculate the depth from the top of the profiles
fill in around the foundation brickwork, but the to the desired level of the excavation.
rest should be removed from the site. After the Use the working drawings and measurements
excavation is completed the building inspector may on site.
want to check that the subsoil in the bottom of the 2 Make a measuring staff called a boning rod
trench will support the building load. which is the same length as the distance
between the top of the profiles and the
bottom of the trench (Eigure 7.5).
Excavating pits for columns or piers 3 Place the boning rod in the trench.
4 Dig down until the top of the 'T' on the
The excavation for the base of a column or pier is
boning rod lines up with the top of the profiles.
called a pit Pits are usually square. You mark a
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Excavations 33
position and dig around the central point of the hole reaches the depth required to support a build¬
column or pier. ing load.
You can dig pits by hand or use a backacter. Augers can be turned by hand or by machine.
Any water should be removed, and the sides of the Manual augers are usually suitable for small jobs.
pit should be supported if there is any doubt about Bigger and deeper piles require mechanical
their stability. augers, which are mounted on machines.
Digging holes for piles

If you need to put in piles, then the ground
You will usually use a short-bored pile for small should be soft enough to drill into with an
buildings. They are circular concrete columns auger.
formed in holes in the ground.
. You use an auger, which is a spiral-shaped
hand tool, to drill a hole in the ground. As it Digging into sloping sites
rotates, it drills down into the soil. When you pull
out the auger, it brings out the soil with it, creating Most building sites are not perfectly level. The
a circular hole. You repeat the process until the design for a sloping site may have different floor
Sight line between profiles

r $>
All profiles are set at
Depth of Boning rod the same height
excavation
above the datum
below profiles Site datum
Reduced level V w n
m —
Depth of excavation
below the datum
Profiles
Figure 7.5 Establishing the depth of an excavation using a boning rod.
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levels or a basement to cope with the changes in Excavating foundations in rock

levels.
You normally do not need to build foundations in
You use the cut and fill method of excavation
rock because a rock base is strong enough to
if you want to keep a level ground floor in spite of
a slope. In this method the soil from the upper part support small buildings.
If the rock does not provide a level base for the
of the slope is cut out and deposited on the lower
walls, then you may need to make a concrete
part of the slope. This creates a level base for the
construction of the floor. The base must be well levelling strip in the rock. For rock that is 300 to
400 mm below the surface this requires:
packed so that the building is stable.
1. the removal of the topsoil:
2. the excavation of a strip foundation trench.
Digging a basement on a sloping site
You may want to make a basement in a house If the rock is at ground level, then you need to
on a sloping site or build retaining walls to pour the concrete into timber formwork above the
support the sides of the remaining slope near ground.
the building. To successfully dig a basement
on a sloping site, you will need to: You must drill holes into rock foundations
• reduce the pressure from the ground on and insert reinforcing bars to make sure that
the vertical wall at the back of the house. the concrete levelling strip does not move.
Normally you would ask the advice of a
structural engineer and then build a retain¬
ing wall;
# provide a damp-proof membrane (dpm)
between the soil and the adjacent wall. The Supporting the sides of
dpm should be asphalt. an excavation
Figure 7.6 illustrates the excavation for a foun¬
dation for a basement. The contractor needs to assess how long an exca¬
vation can safely remain open without support for
Figure 7.6 Excavation for a basement on a sloping site.

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Excavations 35
Wedge
Working space
between the struts Trench support for
non-cohesive soil
■ N
Concrete strip
foundation
Concrete strip
& foundation
Figure 7.7 Supporting the sides of an excavation.
the sides. If the weather is very dry then the lack the soil. In sand or gravel, they should be placed
of moisture may cause the soil to shrink, crack and close enough together to form a continuous
fall in. timber wall. Depending on the soil type and
If the weather is very hot then the sides of the working conditions, they may be placed about
excavation may be unstable. In both these cases, it 900 mm apart. The purpose of the polings is to
is better to provide timber supports for the side keep the soil on the sides of the excavation from
walls. Figure 7.7 illustrates how to do this. falling in;
2. walings, which are horizontal timber strips sup¬
porting the polings;
As a rule the looser the soil the more it needs 3. struts, which are timbers that span across the
to be supported. trench between the walings. The struts hold the
Example: excavations in sand and gravel soil opposite walls of the excavation in place;
should always be supported. 4. wedges, which are pieces of timber used to
maintain the pressure of the polings against the
soil. If the soil expands or shrinks while the
Excavations on a confined site may also need work is carried out, then you may need to adjust
support in case heavy loads are placed or driven the wedges again.
too close to the edges of a trench or pit. The lives
of the workers digging in the excavations are at
risk unless the contractor takes proper precautions. Finding water in excavations
Timber struts which are wedged between planks
A trial hole may show that water is normally present
support the sides of the excavations. These sup¬
in the ground on site. The level of water in the
ports consist of: hole is called the water table. It varies according
1. polings, which are vertical planks supporting to the seasons and the amount of rainfall.
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(f)
Figure 7.8 Mechanical plant used in excavations (a) bulldozer; (b) mechanical shovel; (c) backacter;
(d) dump truck; (e) mechanical auger; (f) pneumatic drill; (g) tipper truck.
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Excavations 37
Water also enters excavations when it rains. If Digging pile holes

the rainwater does not drain away naturally, then A mechanical auger digs pile holes. This piece of
you should pump it out so that work can continue equipment is a large drill mounted on a platform.
in the excavation. The auger drills a hole in the ground and lifts out
You can pump water out of excavations with a column of soil.
electric or petrol pumps.
Drilling rock
A hand-held pneumatic drill will drill into solid
rock. The drill is connected by a hose to a com¬
If you use a pump, then the end of the hose pressor that provides the power.
line should be below the bottom of the ex¬
Removing soil
cavation in a small depression (called a sump).
Two types of truck are used to remove soil from an
The hose should have a filter to prevent dirt
excavation. They are the:
from coming up into the pump.
If you remove the water by hand, then you 1. dump truck, which is used for many jobs on a
must dig a sump that is large enough for a building site, including the movement of soil
bucket. When the water is removed it should over short distances. The body of the dump
be drained away so that it does not run back truck tips forward and deposits the soil in the
into the excavation. required position;
2. tipper truck, which is a road vehicle used to
remove large amounts of excavated material to
locations away from the site. The body of the
tipper truck tips up and empties the soil at the
Excavation plant back of the vehicle.
Mechanical excavation plant can be used for most

excavation tasks. Some machinery can do more
than one task.
This section describes the different types of Working safely in excavations
mechanical plant used for typical excavation work.
They are illustrated in Figure 7.8. Chapter 1 describes in detail the safety measures
that you should follow when working in excava¬
Removing the top soil and reducing the tions. This section reminds you about the basic
levels rules.
This work is done by:
1. bulldozers, which push the soil layer by layer
to one side and pile it up nearby. A bulldozer
▲ The most important rule is to make
sure that the sides of the excavation are
does not dig out or lift out the soil;
always supported. The collapse of the sides of
2. mechanical shovels, which take off layers of
a trench or hole can cause injury or death.
soil in buckets. A mechanical shovel can be
raised, lowered or tilted to deposit the earth into
a tipper or dump truck and removed elsewhere
You should always look at these factors when
on site.
you are working in or close to excavations:
Excavating trenches 1. Is the soil firm or loose?

You can use a backacter for this type of excava¬ 2. How long will the excavation be left open?
tion. A backacter digs down with a bucket on a 3. Is the rainfall excessive?
jointed boom and scoops the soil towards itself. 4. Are the temperatures very high? High tempera¬
Since the bucket is narrow it is useful for forming tures can dry out the soil.
trenches. The backacter can also deposit soil on 5. How deep is the excavation? A deep trench
trucks or dumpers. A trench that is dug out by a needs more support for the sides.
backacter will usually need to be finished off by 6. Are there heavy loads or vehicles near the edges?
hand. 7. Is there any vibration from nearby equipment?
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Workers should wear:

strong boots with reinforced toecaps;
protective helmets; 1 Draw and label the timber supports for a trench.
gloves; 2 What are the advantages of these excavation
waterproof boots in wet conditions; methods on a sloping site:
goggles when working in rock. i) cut and fill
ii) stepped foundations?
3 Why should foundations be built below ground
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING level?
4 Why should you remove topsoil before digging
Excavation is used to remove soil to lay a foun¬ the foundations?
dation or to reduce the levels below an oversite 5 Which type of mechanical equipment do you
slab. use for:
Excavation can be done with machines or by i) clearing a site
hand. ii) digging narrow trenches for foundations
The amount of support required in an excava¬ iii) removing soil from an excavation and de¬
tion depends on the strength of the soil. positing it nearby?
Timbers are used to provide temporary support 6 Describe how you would use boning rods to
to the walls of an excavation. establish the correct levels of foundations.
Water can fill excavated holes and trenches,
which is dangerous.
Safety is very important in excavation work.
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Introduction An artificial foundation carries the building loads
which you see in the example in Figure 8.1:
The foundation is the part of the construction
1. dead loads These are the weights of all the
where the base of the building meets the ground.
fixed parts of the building such as the walls,
Foundations are usually placed below ground
floors, roofs, ceilings and services such as sani¬
level because the surrounding ground provides:
tary fittings and plumbing;
1. stability; 2. superimposed or live loads These are the
2. protection against impact; weights of the people, furniture and machines
3. protection from the extremes of weather such as that will occupy the building after completion;
excessive rain or drought. 3. wind loads These are the pressures on the
walls and roof from the wind. The pressure from
Although the depth will vary according to the
wind loads on foundations is more important in
conditions on site, the best load-bearing ground is
tall buildings.
normally 900 mm below the surface.
Foundations are divided into two types: These building loads place the most pressure at
the bottom of the building, where the artificial
1. the natural foundation This is the ground
foundation is located. For this reason, you need to
underneath the base of the building after the
choose the type of artificial foundation that suits
excavations are completed;
the local ground conditions.
2. the artificial foundation. This is the structure
that lies between the building and the natural
foundation.
Conditions that affect foundations
This chapter looks at different types of founda¬
tion and the principles behind their design. You should consider the following conditions when
you choose the correct type of foundation:
1. the load-bearing capability of the ground;
2. the depth where you will find suitable load-
Foundation loads bearing soil;
3. the distance from trees which can affect the
An artificial foundation transfers the loads from the
stability of the soil;
building to the ground. This prevents settlement or
4. the level of the water table;
building movement, which might cause instability
5. the normal variation in the water table;
and endanger the occupants.
6. the total weight of the building. If the building is
heavier than the soil that was removed, then
there will be some settlement as the soil adjusts
The strength of the natural foundation must to the new load.
be greater than the pressure from the building
loads on the artificial foundation. Figure 8.2 shows you some examples of these
conditions.
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Roof construction:
dead load
Wind direction Wind load
Water tank: dead

load
Person: live load
Furniture: live load
Floor construction:
dead load
Wind pressure
-► Wall: dead load
Artificial foundation:
dead load
Figure 8.1 Loads on natural and artificial foundations.
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Foundations 41
Choosing the correct type of foundation
The choice of foundation depends on:
1. the strength of the natural foundation;

2. the weight of the building and its loads.
The natural foundation must be able to carry
these loads with a minimum of movement. This
capacity depends on the type of soil and the
amount of water in the soil. See Chapter 22 for
more information on tests for soil load-bearing
capacity.
The artificial foundation lies between the natural
foundation and the building. Its purpose is to:
1. transfer the building loads to the soil;
2. spread the load evenly across soil that can sup¬
port the load.
Although concrete is the preferred material for
the construction of the artificial foundations, the
form will depend on the specific conditions of the
building and environment.
Simple checks for the correct foundations
You can use these simple checks to choose the

correct type of foundation for small buildings. The
alternative is to carry out soil testing and to calcu¬
late the specific building loads.
Check that:
1. The foundations do not rest on made-up (previ¬
ously used) ground (Figure 8.2).
2. The subsoil is a consistent texture. Hard or weak
spots will cause uneven settlement of the build¬
ing, which can create cracks in the walls.
3. Walls are centred on the strip foundations.
4. The foundations are wide enough.
3. The concrete thickness is at least 130 mm.
6. A higher foundation projects over and meets a
lower foundation for a minimum distance of Made-up ground
300 mm on sloping ground.
Types of foundation
Many small buildings are constructed with load-

bearing walls on strip foundations. You may find
that the soil condition requires an alternative type
of foundation.
These are the different types of foundation that
you can use:
® concrete strip foundation;
® deep strip foundation; Figure 8.2 Ground conditions.
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raft foundation; used most frequently. They consist of continuous

piled foundation; mass concrete strips poured in the bottom of
pad foundation; trenches. These foundations will support load-
stepped strip foundation. bearing walls which are centred on the concrete
strips to spread the pressure from the walls, roofs
and other floor loads evenly. The concrete strip is
Table 8.1 The minimum concrete mix for usually a uniform width and depth.
foundations The foundation must be wide and deep enough
Parts of the mixture Weight to avoid soil movement that could cause instability.
Depending on soil conditions, the maximum depth
1 bag of cement 50 kg
may be 900 mm. Building regulations may suggest
0.1 m3 sand 160 kg dry sand
the suitable minimum width for strip foundations.
0.2 m3 aggregate 288 kg The concrete must be at least as thick as its projec¬
tion from the base of the wall. This ensures that the
pressures of the building loads are distributed in
Concrete strip foundations the concrete at an angle of 45°.
The concrete strip foundations in Figure 8.3 are
Width of the
foundation related to
the type of soil
Figure 8.3 A concrete strip foundation for a load-bearing wall.
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Foundations 43
Deep strip foundations
The deep strip foundation in Figure 8.4 is a varia¬

tion of strip foundations. Deep strip foundations
are usually dug out with a mechanical excavator,
which cuts a narrow trench that is backfilled with
concrete up to ground level. These foundations
use more concrete, but reduce the cost of masonry
walls and may remove the need for timber support
for the trenches.
Raft foundations
Raft foundations are a good solution if the soil has

a poor bearing capacity or if the building loads are
quite small, because the cost of digging separate
foundations is eliminated. The oversite concrete
slab that forms the ground floor of the building
becomes the raft foundation (Figure 8.5).
The slab can be thickened at the edges with an
edge beam and thickened underneath internal
load-bearing walls. Mesh reinforcement increases
the strength of the raft foundation and distributes
the pressures of the building loads evenly. See
Chapter 11 for more information about the con¬
Figure 8.4 Deep strip foundation. struction of raft foundations.
Loads are distributed

by the slab
A larger area of ground supports the loads
Figure 8.5 Raft foundation.
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Pad foundations
Pad foundations are isolated foundations that sup¬

port concrete columns or free-standing brick piers.
A square concrete pad foundation distributes the
load evenly over the ground.
If the pad is constructed of mass concrete, then
the thickness must equal the projection from the
side of the column. You can see this in Figure 8.6.
The size of the pad foundation depends on the
total building loads and the load-bearing capacity
of the soil. Chapter 22 has more information about
the construction of pad foundations.
Stepped foundations
Stepped foundations are built on sloping sites

(Figure 8.7). This reduces the expense of con¬
structing a foundation that is the same level around
the perimeter of the building. A foundation at the
higher end of the slope would be extremely deep.
To overcome this, you can step the foundations
at different levels. The higher-level foundation
should extend over and meet with the lower one
for a distance not less than its thickness. This
should never be less than 300 mm.
i The change in level should not be more than
l
the thickness of the strip foundation. It should be
measured in multiples of 75 mm, which is the
Figure 8.6 Pad foundation. height of a brick course.
Figure 8.7 Stepped foundation.
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Foundations 45
Piled foundations the moisture content. These soil types include clay
and black cotton.
If soil conditions are poor near the surface, then You can construct the type of foundation shown
you should use piled foundations. Trial holes will in Figure 8.8 quite quickly and avoid the need to
usually indicate the depth of suitable load-bearing dig deep trenches. Short-bored piles are more ef¬
soil. Since this may be as deep as 2 or 3 metres fective and cheaper than conventional foundations
below ground, it would be quite expensive to if the soil responds easily to the changes in the
construct conventional foundations. atmosphere.
You can use two types of piled foundation to These foundations are not suitable for use on
strengthen the soil and overcome this problem: rock, flint or sites with many tree roots because the
1. bored or replacement piles, which are con¬ holes must be straight and consistent in diameter.
crete cores poured into holes in the ground at You dig the holes by hand with an auger and
■ measured intervals; then pour concrete in them to form a column in
2. driven or displacement piles, which are tree the ground when it hardens. The concrete columns
trunks that are hammered into soft ground at in the holes in the ground are the piles.
spaced intervals. Typically, piles would be about 1200 mm apart
so that they spread the load evenly. They should
be placed on the centre line of the walls that need
Short-bored piled foundations support.
The piles can support the walls because you
Short-bored piled foundations are used for small
then form lightweight beams at ground level, re¬
houses and lightweight framed buildings constructed
inforced with two bars. Where a beam crosses a
on soils that expand and contract with changes in
pile, the reinforcement should extend to each side
of the pile for a quarter of the distance between
adjacent piles. This takes the pressure from the
building loads.
The measurements in Table 8.2 are typical
dimensions for short-bored piles.
Load-bearing wall
Table 8.2 Measurements for short-bored piles
Components Measurements (mm)
Reinforced concrete
raft Depth of the hole for the piles 2500-3000
Pile diameter 250-360
Pile spacing 1200
Beam width for 225 mm wall 300
Beam depth for 225 mm wall 150-200
Reinforcement diameter 15 mm with 6 mm stirrups
Timber displacement piles
You use suitable lengths of straight tree trunks to

make timber displacement piles for lightweight
buildings as you see in Figure 8.9- They should be
treated with preservative and sharpened at the
ends to drive them into the ground. It is better to
use an auger to remove some soil before you start
the pile-driving process.
You should leave the piles sticking out above
ground so they can support timber beams for
Figure 8.8 Short-bored pile foundation. timber flooring.
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Table 8.3 Calculating the size of strip

foundations
Step Action
1 Find the area of the foundation:

. Load (in kN)
Area (in m2) = -—:-—, ...
Bearing capacity (in kN/m2)
For one metre length:

.., ,,, Load
Width = —-:-:—
Bearing capacity
Example:
Width =
= 0.347
= 347 mm (say 350)
2 Find the width of the foundation projections:
Foundation width (mm) - wall thickness (mm)
2
Example:
350 - 215 ___
-= 67.5 mm
2
3 Find depth of foundation:
Depth = projection, but depth must be
driven piles at least 150 mm
Example:
Projection = 67.5 mm
Depth must be 150 mm
Figure 8.9 Timber displacement piles. 4 Result:
Foundation size = 350 x 150 mm
Designing strip foundations
The calculations for a strip foundation depend on

the load-bearing capacity of the soil and the pres¬
Table 8.4 Calculating the size of pad
sure of the load to be supported. The formula for
foundations
this is:
Step Action
Area of foundation = Load/bearing capacity. 1 Find the area of the foundation:
The thickness of the foundation must be at least Area of the foundation = load/bearing capacity
150 mm.
Example:
Area - 11.52/65
In the example in Table 8.3 for a single-storey house = 0.177 m2
Bearing capacity of ground = 72 kN/m2 2 Find the size of the foundation:

Wall thickness =215 mm For a square foundation the length of each side
is the square root of the area.
Load on foundations = 25 kN/m
Example:
Trn = 0.42 - 420 mm
3 Find the depth of the foundation:
Depth = projection
1 kg is equivalent to 9-81 newtons Minimum depth must be at least 150 mm.
V
1 kilonewton = 1000 newtons
Example:
For rough calculations, you can assume that 420- 215 = 205 mm
1 kg is equivalent to 10 newtons 205/2 = 102.5 mm
Minimum depth = 150 mm
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Foundations 47
Designing pad foundations 3 Describe the purpose of a raft foundation.

4 What factors control the width and thickness of
You will need some data to design pad founda¬ a strip foundation?
tions for piers or columns. Table 8.4 describes how 5 Draw a section of an outer wall of a two-storey
to calculate the size of pad foundations using building on a strip foundation and show the
information about the loading pressure of various different building loads.
parts of the building. 6 Compare the costs of forming a strip founda¬
In the example in Table 8.4 for a pad foundation tion with a deep strip foundation as shown in
the calculations use the following sample loading the drawings in Figure 8.10.
pressures: Costs should be in your own currency where *
is shown.
Roof 6 kN Concrete = *650 per metre run at 250 mm
Brick pier 3.36 kN thick
Concrete base 2.16 kN Brickwork = *1000 per metre run in the foun¬
Total building load = 11.52 kN dation
Backfill = *200 per metre run of trench.
Bearing capacity = 65 kN
Pier size = 215 x 215 mm
The natural foundation is the ground under¬

neath the artificial foundation.
• Artificial foundations ensure the stability of the
building.
Load-bearing walls require strip or deep strip 600
foundations. Concrete strip
Columns and piers require pad foundations. foundation
Light loads or poor soil conditions require raft
foundations.
• Very poor soil conditions such as clay and sand
require piled foundations.
• The size of a foundation is determined by the
pressure of the load and the strength of the soil.
• Stepped foundations are used on sloping sites
to reduce costs.
• Piles can be: replacement piles that are con¬
crete-filled holes; displacement piles that are tim¬
bers driven into the ground.
1 Convert 1250 kg to kilonewtons.

2 Calculate the size of a pad foundation for a
point load of 31 250 kg on a soil bearing
capacity of 52 kN/m1 2. Figure 8.10 Question 6. Dimensions for two types
of strip foundation.
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Walls
Introduction Load-bearing external walls (Figure 9.1)

These walls are normally used for domestic build¬
Walls separate the spaces inside and outside a ings or other small structures that are one or two
building. This chapter describes different types of storeys high. The weight of the roof and any upper
wall and their construction, which is called ma¬ floors is supported by load-bearing masonry of
sonry in this book. brick, block or stone construction.
Because brick and blockwork walls are so im¬
portant, the basic techniques for building these Non-load-bearing external walls (Figure 9 2)
types of wall are also described. These walls are often built from corrugated sheet
cladding that is attached to a framework of timber
or steel rails and columns. The cladding sheets do
not support the structure of the building. Support
is provided by the framework. The cladding sheets
Types of wall must be wind-resistant.
This section describes the different types of wall Load-bearing internal walls (Figure 9 3)
commonly found in small buildings. Internal walls are load-bearing if additional sup¬
Walls can be divided into the following types. port is needed for the roof or floors. These walls
A roof truss
Figure 9.1 Load-bearing external walls. Figure 9.2 Non-load-bearing external walls.
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48
Walls 49
will need to be strong and stable. They usually 8. good construction and use of materials.
stand on a concrete foundation.
Internal walls should have these characteris¬
tics:
Non-load-bearing internal walls (Figure 9 3)
These walls divide the internal space in buildings 1. positions that provide separation between rooms;
and stand independently of the main structure. The 2. sound insulation that provides a reasonable level
majority of internal walls are in this category. of noise control between adjoining rooms;
3. stability to resist normal impact and to support
fixtures and fittings;
4. fire-resistance to prevent the rapid spread of fire
Characteristics of walls to adjoining rooms.
This section describes the main characteristics of

external and internal walls.
External walls should have these characteris¬
Building materials for
tics: external walls
1. strength to resist being crushed by the loads Some construction methods use locally available
from floors and roofs; materials and techniques that are economical and
2. stability to resist other forces such as wind pres¬ ecologically sound. Many different types of ma¬
sure and roof loads; terial are available, but the two main requirements
3. weather resistance to keep out wind and rain; for building materials are stability and durability.
4. thermal properties to keep the interior cool in The three most common materials for external
hot weather and retain warmth in cool weather;
walls are:
5. durability;
6. fire-resistance to provide security and stability in • natural stone;
the event of fire; • bricks;
7. openings for daylight and ventilation; • cement-based blocks.
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Natural stone masonry uses stone that is re¬ standard brick is 215 x 102.5 x 65 mm, but the
moved from the ground and broken and shaped bricklaying unit is 225 x 112.5 x 75 mm.
into suitable-sized pieces for building. You can use The dimensions of standard blocks are related to
most stones, but you need to check for durability. a brick face which measures 215 x 65 mm. This
This is an economic building material since the means that a block length is equal to two bricks
stone is often freely available. The cost is in the plus a 10 mm joint: 440 mm. The height of a block
manual work to quarry and shape it. equals three bricks plus two joints of 10 mm, or
Bricks are made from clay that is found in the 215 mm.
ground. You dig out the clay and mix it with water
to make a pliable material that you can mould into
a specific shape. Using moulds ensures that the
bricks are a consistent size.
Table 9.7 Masonry dimensions
When the moulded bricks dry out they are fired
in a kiln. This process transforms the clay into a Masonry Minimum Maximum
material size (mm) size (mm)
hard, strong material. The main costs of brick
production are the manual work required to mould Natural stone 75 x 100 x 300 300 x 200 x 200
the bricks and the fuel to fire them. Bricks 65 x 102.5x 215 70 x 115 x 240
Cement-based blocks are manufactured from a Concrete blocks 50 x215 x440 215 x 215 x 440
mixture of ingredients. The cement binds the ag¬
Sandcrete blocks 150 x 230 x 460 Variable
gregate that forms the bulk of the block into a firm
Landcrete blocks 140x220 x 290 Variable
building material. The strength and durability of
the block depends on the type of aggregate used
with the cement.
Blocks consist of natural materials that are
moulded and cured such as:
Mortar
1. sand (sandcrete). You mix sand with cement in
1:4 or 1:6 proportions; Masonry walls also need mortar. Mortar is the
2. stone (concrete). The strongest blocks are made mixture of cement, lime and sand that is used to
from a mixture of cement, sand and crushed join the individual units of the building material
stone. into a uniform mass.
The purpose of mortar is to provide:
A third type of block, called landcrete, is made
with earth. This type of block is usually not suit¬ • a level bed for the brick, block or stone to sit on
able for external construction. to maintain horizontal and vertical stability;
You can make blocks that are solid or have • a water-resistant filler between the units to pre¬
holes in them. Those with holes, called hollow vent the penetration of water into the interior
blocks, weigh less and are weaker than solid blocks. of the building.
They are most suitable for non-load-bearing inter¬
nal walls. The composition of cement-based blocks
is described more fully in Chapter 21. Mortar mixes of cement, lime and sand are
combined in a range of mixes, depending on
the application. Cement and sand mixed in
proportions of 1:3 give greater strength. Flow-
Dimensions ever, the addition of lime:
makes it easier to spread the mortar;
Masonry materials need to be a convenient size reduces shrinkage;
and weight for a person to handle since external lengthens the time that the mortar is still
walls are built by hand. The three main types of pliable.
building materials have fairly standard dimensions, The mortar should be weaker than the ma¬
although they may vary slightly from country to sonry so that any movement will crack the
country. You can see examples in Figure 9.4. mortar instead of the wall. It is easier to re¬
The standard dimensions for bricks include an pair cracked joints than to repair cracked
allowance for a 10 mm joint on each edge, which masonry.
adds 10 mm to measurements. For example, a
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(a)
Figure 9.4 Examples of the standard dimensions of masonry materials: (a) standard block dimensions;
(b) standard brick dimensions.
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Forming joints with masonry
The mortar joint affects the appearance of the

finished wall. You can see from Figure 9.5 that you
can form four types of joint for different results.
The flush joint is a joint where the mortar joint
is level with the masonry. This gives a flat appear¬
ance.
The weather-struck joint is a joint where the
mortar is levelled off with a trowel at an angle that
slopes down and out. This enables rain to run off
an external wall more easily.
The half-round joint is a semicircular concave
joint that is formed with a steel rod drawn along
the joint. This is an easier joint to make than the
weather-struck joint and performs the same func¬
tion.
The recessed joint is a vertical joint that is set
back 4 to 5 mm. This joint is formed with a square
rod.
You should finish the work on the joints by
brushing off dry, surplus mortar with a wire brush.
When the joints are completed, then you should
leave the masonry for a couple of days before you
do any more work on the external walls.
Technical words used in

bricklaying
It takes time to acquire bricklaying skills and fa¬

miliarity with the tools and techniques. There are
also many specialist words that are used in brick¬
laying. This list defines the main words that you
will need to know:
Arris the edge of a brick.

Bat a brick that is cut across its width.
Bed the bottom of the brick when it is laid in a
course.
Bed joint the horizontal mortar joint.
Brick gauge a wooden batten with the courses
marked on it (usually four courses for a height
of 300 mm). Figure 9.5 Examples of mortar joints.
Closer a brick cut in half along its length.
Course a complete layer of bricks including the
mortar.
Face a header or stretcher surface that is exposed
in the work. joints. It should be straight.
Lap the horizontal distance that one brick over¬ Racking back the stepping back of the brick¬
laps the one below it. work so that a wall does not rise more than
Quoin a corner or external angle. 900 mm above the adjoining work. This avoids
Perpend a vertical continuation of the vertical uneven settlement.
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rrrm
If the bricks have If the bricks overlap
straight vertical to avoid continuous
joints, then they vertical joints, then
are not bonded they are bonded
Figure 9.6 A comparison between bonded and non-bonded brickwork.
two separate skins of brickwork beside each other.

Bonding You use wall ties to tie them together.
Bonding is the method used in masonry work to Header bond

avoid continuous vertical joints, which can make a You make this bond on a 215 mm wall by laying
wall unstable when loads are uneven. A complex the bricks lengthwise across the wall. This results
bond produces a stiffer wall. Bonding also spreads in a simple pattern with the brick ends (or headers)
the loads from joist ends and roof trusses through visible.
the wall.
English bond
Bonding in brickwork You combine the header and stretcher bonds in
the method shown in Figure 9-7. Lay the first
A brick should be twice as long as it is wide. This course with two rows of stretcher bonds without
allows for different methods for bonding the bricks, using wall ties. The next course consists of all
which can produce variations in appearance and headers that you lay across the stretchers. One
strength. Figure 9-6 shows you a comparison be¬ header should lie over the centre of each stretcher
tween bonded and non-bonded brickwork. This and over each joint between the headers. This
section describes some of the common types of produces a more interesting pattern and very well-
bond used in small building works. bonded construction.
Stretcher bond
You can use this bond if an internal load-bearing Notes on English bond (Figure 9 7)
wall or the external skin of a cavity wall is the Place alternate headers and stretchers in
width of a single brick (about 102.5 mm). One the same course.
brick course overlaps another by half its length to Join the closer brick with the corner header.
make a regular, simple pattern. Place each header centrally over a stretcher.
If you prefer the appearance of stretcher bond • Line up perpends vertically.
for walls that are 215 mm thick, then you can bond
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Flemish bond cut the bricks in half along their length and build
You use both headers and stretchers in brickwork them into the wall a half-brick length from the
courses in this order: corner or quoin. This cut brick is called a closer
(Figure 9.8). You can use closers in English and
# a header;
Flemish bonds.
• two stretchers side by side;
a header, and so on.
Bonding in stonework
This order is repeated in each course of brick¬
work so that the header is located above the centre Bonding in stone is more random because the
of the stretchers below. Figure 9-8 shows you how blocks may not have a regular shape or size. To
the pattern should look. increase stability and to spread loads, you should
avoid continuous vertical joints and take some of
the blocks right through the wall.
Openings and corners

Bonding in blockwork
If you have to stop the brickwork at door and
window openings or to change direction at cor¬ Concrete and cement blocks are the cheapest form
ners, then you must ensure that the bond remains of blocks for walls and they are rarely chosen for
strong and that the appearance is good. You can their appearance. The only type of bond that you
Opening for the

door or window Brick pier bonded
into the wall
Closer
Brick quoin
Figure 9.7 Wall construction in English bond.
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Alternate headers and

stretchers in each course
Brick pier
bonded
into the
wall
Brick quoin Closer
Figure 9.8 Wall construction in Flemish bond.
can use is the stretcher bond. This means that Bricklaying uses these materials:
you should place each block centrally over the
cement in bags;
joint of the one below so that you avoid con¬
a supply of sand;
tinuous vertical joints.
hydrated lime in bags;
water.
In addition, you may need to use scaffolding as
Bricklaying tools and equipment
the work rises up the building.
You will need these bricklaying tools and equip¬
ment for your work:
shovel for mixing mortar; How to build a brick wall
pointing trowel;
bricklayer’s trowel; Building a successful brick wall is one of the most
mortar board; important skills needed on a building site. Table
spirit level; 9.2 describes the procedure step by step. Figures
metal pegs and line; 9.9 and 9-10 describe how to mark the positions
mixing board; to align the bricks correctly using a builder’s level
• handbrush and a bowl of water. or a plumb-line.
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Table 9.2 Building a brick wall Using a damp-proof course with brickwork
Step Action below ground
1 Use the profile lines to locate an external Construction below ground is vulnerable to damp¬
corner on the strip foundations.
ness from the water that soaks into the ground. A
2 Use a builder's level held vertically or a plumb- damp-proof course (dpc) prevents the dampness
line to mark the position of the external corner
from rising into the interior of the building. It is a
with wet mortar.
Repeat steps 1 and 2 for all four corners. waterproof barrier that separates the brickwork
below ground from the brickwork above.
3 Stretch a line between the corners to provide
a position for the first course of bricks.
The dpc is a bitumen-based felt material wide
Secure the line by wrapping it around a brick enough to cover the width of a wall. It is rolled out
and putting another brick on top. on a brick wall that is 150 mm above the ground
Remove the line after the first course of bricks and laid in a mortar bed. If joints occur, then they
is laid.
should be lapped at least 150 mm. The height
4 Lay the bricks in a row. above the ground prevents heavy rain water splash¬
Adjust their position by tapping the bricks with
ing the wall and bypassing the dpc.
a trowel.
Check that they are level horizontally and
A concrete floor slab will have a damp-proof
vertically with the builder's level. membrane (dpm), which is a layer of moisture-
proof material laid under a concrete slab and screed
5 Build up the corners by racking the bricks back
for 8 or 10 courses. to prevent rising damp in floors. If the dpm meets
Check your accuracy with the builder's level. the dpc, then they should be lapped to provide
Use a gauge rod to control the height. continuity of the resisting barrier (Figure 9.11).
6 Insert metal pegs in the mortar joints on the
corners for each completed course of
brickwork.
Stretch a line between the pegs so that
it is flush with the surface of the brickwork Pier construction
to provide a guide for the next course of
brickwork. A pier is a column of brickwork that may be free¬
Continue checking horizontal and vertical
standing or attached to a wall to provide extra
7
levels. strength or stability. You can use either English or
Flemish bonds in pier construction. The choice
8 Form the joints while the mortar is soft.
depends on the size of the pier.
Figure 9.9 Setting out a corner of a brick wall using a plumb-line.
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Figure 9.10 Laying the first bricks in a brick wall.
Figure 9.11 Detail of the overlap between a dpc and a dpm.
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A roof truss
supported by a pier
Lintel
A pier strengthens
and stiffens a jamb
Figure 9.72 Piers attached to a wall.
A pier attached to a wall as in Figure 9.12 can Column construction

stiffen it, which makes it stronger and more resist¬
ant to forces such as wind pressure. You can also Reinforced concrete columns are not usually put
build a pier in a wall where a point load from a in small buildings. If they are used, then the rein¬
roof truss creates an extra load-bearing pressure. forcement in the column must be tied into the
Piers strengthen the openings in the walls and help reinforcement of the beam or slab. Setting out
to support the loads from the lintels or arches that columns is described in more detail in Chapter 6.
span openings. The sides of the formwork can be timber planks
Free-standing piers usually support point loads fixed to timber members called yokes at 300 mm
from beams, lintels and trusses. For stability, there centres. You bolt the yokes together and tension
is a specific ratio called the ‘slenderness’ ratio them with wedges to make sure that no loss of
between the pier’s height and width. An 8:1 ratio is liquid occurs when the column is poured. You
the standard limit for height and width. If a pier is should use a plumb-line to check that the column
too narrow then it will buckle. is vertical. After the concrete is poured, you can
usually remove the formwork two days later.
The height of the column is determined from the
If a brick pier is 215 x 215 mm wide, then it drawings.
must not be taller than:
8 x 215 mm = 1720 mm
If a pier is 3000 mm high, then its width must Openings in brick walls
be at least:
Doors and windows are the main openings in
brick walls. Their location is shown on the work¬
Since the closest brick dimension is 440 mm, ing drawings together with the cill and head heights.
then a square pier would be: These heights should relate to the datum or oversite
slab level. If this is not the case, then you must
3000 x 440 x 440 mm
recalculate the heights and decide which brick
courses will take the openings.
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Finish off the brickwork neatly on each side of Table 9.3 Standard dimensions for lintels
the opening with a stop-end. The method is simi¬ Span Depth Reinforcement bar diameter
lar to finishing off at a quoin. Insert a closer before
900 mm 150 mm 10 mm
the last header in alternate courses in English and
Flemish bond. 1200 mm 150 mm 12 mm
The cill does not need special treatment, but at 1500 mm 215 mm 12 mm
the head there are alternative methods to carry the 1800 mm 215 mm 16 mm
brickwork across the opening:
® lintels; The design of the lintel should use these addi¬
# arches. tional measurements:
1. one reinforcement bar for each 112 mm width
of lintel;
2. the width must be at least l/20th of the span;
Lintels 3. the bearing of the lintel must be more than
150 mm;
4. at least 25 mm of concrete must cover the
A lintel (Figure 9-13) is a beam that spans across a
bottom of the reinforcement bar;
horizontal opening and supports the load just above
5. at least 50 mm of concrete must cover the ends
the opening. Lintels can be timber or concrete.
of the bar.
Timber is fine for short spans, but is not durable.
For this reason, most lintels are built from rein¬
forced concrete.
The lintel can be covered with a skin of decora¬
The ends of the reinforcement bars should
tive brickwork, which needs support. This is done
have L-shaped hooks to spread the load cor¬
by:
rectly when they tie into a slab.
1. bolting a galvanised steel angle to the concrete
lintel;
2. building the decorative brickwork on the edge
of the angle;
Casting a concrete lintel
3. tying the brick joints to the lintel with metal ties.
After designing the lintel, it should be cast (or
made). Lintels can be cast in situ or precast.
Constructing concrete lintels The span will determine the height of the lintel,
which should correspond to the height of full
Structural engineers design lintels for larger build¬ brick courses.
ings, but you can follow these basic guidelines to
construct a lintel for domestic-scale construction. Example
Tables 9.3 and 9.4 define the standard measure¬ 2 bricks + 1 joint = 140 mm lintel
ments for smaller lintels. Figure 9-13 illustrates the 3 bricks + 2 joints = 215 mm lintel
different parts of lintel construction. 4 bricks + 3 joints = 290 mm lintel
Table 9.4 Weights of typical concrete lintels (concrete density 2400 kg/m3)
Length = span + 2 x bearing Volume = length x width x depth Weight
(mm) (m3) (volume x density)
900 + 300 = 1200 1.2 x 0.215 x 0.150 = 0.0387 0.0387 x 2400 = 93 kg
1500 + 300 = 1800 1.8 x 0.112 x 0.215 = 0.0433 0.0433 x 2400 = 104 kg
1800 + 360 = 2160 2.16 x 0.19 x 0.215 = 0.0882 0.0882 x 2400 = 212 kg
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(a)
:=-
r//IIII
(c)
Figure 9.13 Forming a concrete lintel: (a) a lintel spanning an opening; (b) a lintel in situ;
(c) making the steel reinforcement for the lintel; (d) precasting a reinforced concrete lintel;
(e) using concrete spacers to raise the steelwork.
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Precasting is the process of making the lintel 2. Place the reinforcement.

separately from a building. It can be done on or off 3. Pour in the concrete.
site. The advantage is that the lintel can be placed
After the concrete hardens, you remove the
in position as soon as the brickwork is ready. If the
formwork. This method increases the labour ele¬
lintel is heavy, then you will need to lift it into
ment of the job and may slow down the brick¬
position with mechanical equipment.
laying.
You can cut the facing bricks in half to widen
the lintel and increase its strength. You can also
Table 9.5 Making a precast lintel cast a lintel so that the bricks are supported by a
Step Action ‘toe’. This means that a strip of concrete is visible
at the head of the window.
1 Make a timber box with an open top, which is
the same size as the external dimensions of
the finished lintel.
Table 9.6 Making an in situ concrete lintel
2 Paint the inside of the box with a releasing oil.
Step Action
This stops the concrete sticking to the timber.
1 Erect the timber formwork across the opening
3 Bend the ends of the reinforcement bars to
and support it from the floor below.
right angles (90°).
Use wedges to level the supports and
If the lintel contains more than one bar, then
formwork.
make short cross bars and wire the cross bars
to the long bars. 2 Seal all the joints with building paper or mastic
between the timber formwork and the
4 Insert spacers that hold the bars 25 mm from
brickwork to stop the cement and water
the bottom of the formwork.
leaking out.
Spacers are small cement blocks embedded
with tie wires that you use to attach them to 3 Paint the inside of the formwork with
the bars. releasing oil.
5 Place the reinforcement bars in the formwork 4 Place the reinforcement in the formwork
and check that the bars are 50 mm from each using the same method described in Table 9.5.
end of the box and supported by spacers. 5 Pour the concrete as described in Table 9.5
6 Mix the required amount of concrete. and cover it with wet sacking and leave for
seven days.
7 Pour the concrete into the timber box and
make sure that it flows down around and
under the rods, then pack it down to remove
any trapped air.
Beams
8 Make a smooth finish on the top of the
concrete with a wood float and write the If an opening is very large, then the walls may not
word Top on the wet concrete. give enough support to a floor or roof. In these
9 Cover the box with wet sacking and leave to cases, you would normally put in a steel or rein¬
set for seven days. forced concrete beam as part of a reinforced con¬
crete floor slab.
You might also use a tie beam at the top of an
external wall that encloses the four sides of a
building. This improves the stability at the top of
the wall where the roof is tied down to the brick or
Precast lintels are often better quality, but you
blockwork.
must remember to mark the top of the lintel
A beam has anchors to secure the wall plate as
very clearly to make sure that it is put in the
you can see in Figure 9-14.
right way up.
Arches
Casting in situ is the process of pouring the
concrete into the formwork across the opening to You can make arches from bricks or stones to span
make the lintel. When the brickwork is ready: openings and support the structure above them
1. Put the timber formwork across the opening. (Figure 9.15). An arch depends upon the tension in
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Anchors cast in the

ring beam
Wallplate
Ring beam
Figure 9.14 A beam secured to a wall plate by steel anchors.
the structure for its stability. The downward pres¬

sure forces the units of the arch together and in¬
creases their resistance as long as the load does not
exceed the strength of the arch building material.
The advantages of segmental and semicircular
arches are:
1. They avoid the need for concrete and steel.
2. They use local stone or bricks.
3. Their appearance is pleasing in many stone or
brick buildings.
The disadvantages of these arches are:
1. Doors and windows will need timber frames to
fit the curve snugly.
2. The timber centrepieces or turning pieces must
be made accurately.
3. Arches must be formed in situ.
Technical words for parts

of arches
Arches have many technical words to describe the

parts of their structures. Figure 9.15 A semicircular arch in sandstone.
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Abutment the point where the ends of the arch should show the rise of a segmental arch on the
rest on the wall and support the weight of the working drawings. The span of the opening deter¬
structure above them. mines the rise of the semicircular arch. Figure 9.16
Centre the centre of the circle that defines the shows you what the different types of arch look
segmental arch. like. The stages of construction of an arch are
Crown the highest point of the extrados. shown in Figure 9.17.
Depth the distance between the intrados and
extrados.
Extrados the upper surface of an arch.
Centring an arch
Haunch the lower part of the arch between the An arch must curve upwards to be self-supporting.
crown and the skewback. To achieve this you need to make a timber shape
Intrados the undersurface or soffit of the arch. with the same curvature as the completed arch.
Keystone the central stone or brick at the top of This timber shape is called the centring or turn¬
the arch, which may be wedge-shaped. It holds ing piece. It can be made from a single piece of
the arch together. timber that is shaped to the curve or two timber
Radius the measurement used to define the cen¬ ribs spanned by battens to maintain the width of
tre of the arch and the curve of the intrados. the arch. A semicircular arch needs additional struts
Rise the vertical distance between the springing and braces to support the ribs
line and the highest point of the intrados. The centring must be strong enough to support
Skewback the splayed surface of the abutment the weight on the masonry until the cement mortar
which receives the arch springer. is hard. It is supported on vertical props. Wedges
Span the horizontal distance between the spring¬ inserted between the top of the props and the
ing points. centring allow you to adjust the level and width
Springer the first stone or brick laid on the of the arch.
skewback. Timber framework should support the centring
Springing line the line that joins the springing in the exact position where you plan to form the
points. arch. Place the bricks or stones for the arch one at
Springing point the point where the intrados a time and cement them together. You may want
meets the skewback. to move the centre slightly while the mortar is soft
so that the bricks can settle against one another in
Making a brick arch a firm wedge. The arch or its joints may crack if
there is no movement before the mortar sets. When
Semicircular and segmental arches are the easiest the cement is hard, then you can completely re¬
to build with normal square bricks. The designer move the centring.
Figure 9.76 Different types of arch.
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(d)
Figure 9.17 The stages of building an arch: (a) constructing the centring; (b) spanning the arch;
(c) placing the centring in position; (d) building the arch out of bricks-on-edge; (e) placing the key brick.
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An alternative is to position a door or window

frame in the opening. Using a curved member on
the top of the door or window frame, you can
make an arch on top of the frame.
Cavity walls
The normal 215 mm solid wall does not keep out
moisture if there is considerable rainfall or cold
weather. The solution is to build cavity walls,
which are walls built in two separate layers with a
space of 50 mm between them (Figure 9.18). The
outer layer can be wet while the inner layer re¬ The reinforced
mains dry. concrete floor is
The 50 mm space is a cavity that acts as a supported on the
'°y
moisture barrier and improves the insulation of the inner leaf
inner wall. In cold weather, the heat does not Inner leaf
Outer leaf
escape so easily so the interior of the building is
drier and warmer. In hot weather this is reversed Cavity —
Stepped flashing
and the interior stays cool longer.
Wall ties attach the internal and external layers,
called skins, of the walls together. This ensures ••‘it
that cavity walls have the same strength and stabil¬

ity as solid walls. The wall ties are galvanised metal
m
or plastic. They are placed in staggered patterns
450 mm apart vertically and 900 mm apart horizon¬
tally.
A vertical damp-proof course at the jambs of
openings and lintels prevents dampness in the
inner layer (Figure 9-19).
If mortar falls down the cavity and lodges on the
wall ties it can form a bridge from the external to
internal skins. The result is damp patches on the
internal wall. To prevent this, you can suspend a Dpc under the ]C
cill
batten in the cavity to collect falling mortar. From
time to time during construction you should take 50 mm
out the batten and clear away the debris.
Moisture that collects in the cavity must escape.
You can help this process by leaving out some
vertical mortar joints at ground level in the external Dpc
skin. Since insects can enter the cavity through
these open joints you should cover them with
mesh.
The cavity is filled
below ground to
resist pressure
Stone walls
Stone is the hard material that forms the earth’s
crust as well as the mountains in the landscape.
You can break up and use three types of stone for
building: Figure 9.18 Cavity wall construction.
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Figure 9.19 Details that prevent the entry of moisture into a cavity wall.
# igneous rock; The stonemason needs to be skilled to select

# sedimentary rock; and dress each stone for a wall. If the stones are
# metamorphic rock. irregular, you can fill the spaces in the middle with
smaller pieces to save mortar.
Igneous rock is the oldest type of rock. Formed
Some stones must be long enough to bond the
from molten material in the earth, these rocks are
front and back of a wall properly. These stones are
usually very hard. Granite is a typical example.
the header or bonding stones. Bonding at the
Sedimentary rock consists of particles of igne¬
corners is important. You can use large stones to
ous rock that are carried by water and hardened
overlap each other in alternate courses to avoid
under pressure to form new rocks. Limestone and
producing straight vertical joints.
sandstone are common sedimentary rocks.
A third type of rock is metamorphic rock.
Changes in igneous and sedimentary rocks under
Types of stone wall
heat and pressure create this rock. Marble is a
metamorphic rock that is formed by changes in There are four types of stone wall.
limestone.
Rock should be quarried and broken down into Uncoursed random rubble walls (Figure 9.20)
stone pieces that can be worked into suitable consist of rough stones used in an almost natural
shapes for building work. Shaping the stones is state. You may do a little dressing to remove
called dressing. The use of the stone depends on awkward projections. The pieces are not a consis¬
the amount of dressing done to it. tent size, so it is up to the experienced mason to
build a wall that is stable and pleasing to look at.
The basic rules of wall construction are the same:
Building a stone wall
1. avoid continuous vertical joints;
You need many of the same tools for stone ma¬ 2. use enough stones to reach from surface to
sonry as for bricklaying. Stone masonry does use surface to provide a crosswise bond. Each square
some special tools as well, for dressing and shap¬ metre of wall should have two or three header
ing irregular stones: stones.
1. the mason’s hammer which is flat at one end Coursed random rubble walls (Figure 9.21)
and sharp at the other. You use it to break or are made of stones that are squared off with a
chip stones; hammer to make them more regular. You lay
2. the chisel or punch that you use with a hammer coursed rubble randomly, but form a level vertical
to dress the face of the stones; course about every 300 mm.
3. the pitcher that you use to cut stones to a fair Squared rubble walls built to courses (Fig¬
surface. It has a wider cutting edge than a chisel. ure 9-22) consist of stones that are dressed with a
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Walls 67
Figure 9.20 An uncoursed random rubble stone wall.
Level
course
Figure 9.21 A coursed random rubble stone wall.
Figure 9.22 A squared rubble wall built to

Figure 9.23 A regular coursed rubble stone wall.
courses.
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cold chisel and hammer to produce accurate shapes.

You lay squared rubble in courses, although a
large header stone may interrupt the line. The
courses may be short.
Regular coursed rubble walls (Figure 9-23) are
stones of the same height laid in continuous courses.
You need skill, experience and the right tools to
dress these stones correctly. The height of the
stones in one course may differ from the height of
the stones in the next.
Checklist for building with stone

Rocks have a natural bed on the horizontal
surface. You should lay rocks so that the
bed remains horizontal.
Overlap the stones to avoid continuous
vertical joints through the courses.
Include header stones that go through from
the external to internal surface.
Use small pieces of stone to prop up larger
stones when you build in random rubble.
Use small pieces of stone to pack spaces
between larger stones to save mortar.
Use large stones to form the corners and
the jambs of openings.
Figure 9.25 Examples of masonry blocks.
V
Block walls
Blocks can be used for:
internal and external walls;
load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls;
solid and cavity walls.
Blocks are laid in level courses in stretcher bond

formation. You need to cut the blocks to make
closures at the junctions, openings and corners to
maintain true stretcher bonding (Figure 9.24). The
joints can be raked out to provide an additional
hold for plaster or render.
Concrete lintels should span the openings in
block walls, since it is not easy to form arches
Figure 9.24 The insertion of a closer in bonded using concrete blocks unless they are made for
blockwork. the purpose.
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Walls 69
Many statutory authorities issue quality stand¬ Table 9.7 Block weights
ards for manufactured blocks. The factory-produced Type of 100 mm block Weight (kg)
blocks can be made in controlled conditions and 21
Solid blocks with natural aggregates
tested for strength and density. Where standardised
Hollow blocks with natural aggregates 13
blockmaking doesn’t exist, you will need to follow
the general principles of block manufacture. Solid blocks with natural aggregates 11.5
Hollow blocks with natural aggregates 9.5
1. Blocks should be a uniform shape and size.
They should relate to the standard brick sizes
for convenient bonding.
2. The minimum crushing strength of the weakest
block must not be less than 2.8 N/mm2.
3. Blocks should be available in a range of Making concrete blocks on site
. strengths to suit a variety of purposes.
Blocks made on site will be cement with laterite
4. The source of the aggregates used in the pro¬
soil or sand as the usual aggregate. The strength of
duction of the blocks should be known and it
the block depends on the strength of the aggre¬
should be covered by quality standards.
gate. The cement is the binding agent. The in¬
3. The type of blocks in Figure 9-25 should be
gredients should be combined in a concrete mixer
available:
to ensure an even mix and to produce enough
A) solid blocks with no formed holes or cavi¬ material.
ties; If sand is the aggregate, then the blocks should
B) hollow blocks with one or more holes or consist of 1 part cement to 6 parts sand. You
cavities. should add just enough water to dampen or
6. Blocks should consist of a mixture of some of hydrate the cement. When you succeed in adding
these materials: the right amount of water you should write down
the specific proportions of cement, sand and
A) cement; water. These blocks are strong enough for load-
B) sand; bearing walls in two-storey buildings.
C) lime;
D) natural aggregates;
E) laterite soils;
F) pulverised fuel ash from power stations; You should not be able to press out any water
G) blast furnace clinker from steel works; when you squeeze a handful of concrete mix.
H) wood chips and shavings from sawmills.
Choosing the right type of block If you use laterite soil as the aggregate, then the
landcrete blocks will be suitable for non-load¬
The type of block you use depends on: bearing walls. External walls made with landcrete
1. the purpose; . should be rendered to keep out the moisture.
2. the amount of exposure to the weather; The ratio of cement to laterite is about 1:8.
3. whether or not external treatments such as render Again, the water should be added carefully so that
will be applied; the mixture is not runny or dripping wet.
4. the load on the blockwork from internal struc¬ Making blocks on site has these disadvantages:
tures such as floors and roofs; 1. you need to supervise the process closely to
5. the weight of the finished partition; ensure quality;
6. the degree of sound or thermal insulation 2. the process takes about 28 days to produce
required. usable blocks;
3. the process requires considerable space for
production and storage.
Block weights
Like other cement-based products, the blocks
Different types of block have fairly standard weights. must be cured by keeping them covered with wet
These weights are shown in Table 9-7. sacks for about seven days.
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sheet or timber cladding is classified as non-load¬

bearing.
Iron sheets must be supported on a framework
with columns that transfer the building loads and
wind pressure from the structure to the foundation.
The columns transfer point loads to the founda¬
tion, unlike the evenly distributed loads transferred
by the load-bearing wall to strip foundations. Chap¬
ter 24 has more information about building loads.
Corrugated iron sheets have disadvantages as a
building material for external walls for housing:
1. very poor thermal insulation;

2. very poor sound insulation;
3. they are difficult to decorate internally because
they require an internal lining to attach fixtures
and fittings;
Figure 9.26 Building a timber mould for 4. the general appearance does not look as homely
blockmaking. as conventional materials.
Timber cladding is the other material used for
non-load-bearing external walls. The structural
framework consists of a timber roof supported by
Using timber moulds for block making timber columns on a raft foundation. Lightweight
prefabricated timber wall frames are secured to the
The mould that you can see in Figure 9.26 consists
timber columns.
of:
Windows and doors are built into the timber
1. four pieces of timber that form the shape of the framework as it is made. When all the timber
block; frames are in the correct position, then they are
2. wedges to hold the mould together. clad with lapped timber boarding. Internally, plas¬
ter board is hung on the framework.
Hollow block moulds have a removable tapered
frame with a handle that sits in the middle to
prevent the space filling with mortar.
The newly made blocks are kept under cover on
platforms to prevent them drying out too quickly Non-load-bearing
in the heat or spoiling in the rain. They should not internal walls
be moved until they are set.
When the blocks harden, then the moulds can The partitions that divide the internal spaces of a
be removed and prepared for reuse. They should building are usually non-load-bearing. When the
be cleaned and treated with a mould oil so that external walls, roof and floors are in position, then
the wet mixture does not stick to the sides. the partitions are constructed by:
1. building them off the floors;
2. pinning them to the ceiling;
3. joining them to the external walls.
Non-load-bearing partitions that are built off

solid ground- or first-floor slabs are built quickly
Non-load-bearing and easily. If the subfloor is timber you may need
external walls additional support depending on the direction of
the span of the floor joists.
The two main types of non-load-bearing internal
The external wall of a building provides weather
walls are:
resistance and must be durable and fire resistant
even if it is not built from load-bearing materials 1. concrete block partitions (Figure 9.27);
such as brick, block and stone. Corrugated iron 2. timber partitions (Figure 9.28).
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Walls 71
Head of blockwork
Noggin to secure the
between the ceiling joists
head of the partition
3E between the ceiling

joists
Timber lintel
Door opening
Blockwork built off

the sole plate
Finished floor levels
Blockwork built
off concrete Sole plate
§ \ZmZ2ZZZSZL
Timber floor
Concrete floor
* - o' :y ”T
Double joists below the partition
Figure 9.27 Non-load-bearing concrete block partition walls.
partition
Figure 9.28 Non-load-bearing timber partition walls.
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Concrete block partitions Partitions that are built off concrete subfloors
can be set out and constructed like any masonry
Lightweight concrete blocks reduce the dead weight wall. If the subfloor is timber, then you need to
on suspended floors. Their use makes the building consider the direction of the joists.
work quick, easy and relatively low cost. One of
your main priorities in the construction of internal
A partition requires two joists beneath it if the
walls is to make them stable. Figure 9-29 shows
floor joists run parallel to the partition to
you how to place the partitions for maximum
provide adequate support.
stability. This can be done by:
If the partition is at right angles to the joists,
1. placing partitions so that they meet at right then a timber plate (50 mm x the thickness of
angles; the partition) is laid across the timber board¬
2. making offsets or recesses for the length of a ing underneath the blockwork. This spreads
partition; the weight over the joists and prevents over¬
3. attaching the top of the partition to the main loading the floor boards.
structure. This can be done by forcing dry-
mixed mortar into joints between the blockwork
and a concrete slab.
4. nailing noggins, which are short timber pieces, Tying the partitions into the external walls
to joists and the head of the partition;
Partitions need to be tied into external walls. This
3. placing the partitions so that they run the same
can be done in two different ways; block bonding
direction as the joists;
the partition blocks, or attaching the partition with
6. if the partitions run at right angles to the joists,
then building up the gap between the angles. metal ties to the external wall.
Block bonding (Figure 9.30) is the method of
making recesses in the external wall to take the
ends of the alternate courses of blockwork from
the internal partition. The ends of the blocks are
cemented into the recesses. This is a very solid
way to fix partitions, but it requires early prepara¬
tion of the external wall so that the recesses are in
the right place or you must cut into the blocks after
they are built. This can damage the stability of the
external walls.
Attaching metal ties to the joints of the exter¬
nal wall is the second method. The ties are at¬
tached to the external wall after it is built and tied
into the partition blockwork while it goes up. This
is the easiest method if the external wall is
blockwork.
Creating wall openings
The door frame or lining is supported in its correct

position before the blockwork is built. As the
internal partition goes up, you fix metal fastenings
to the back of the lining or frame and build it into
the courses of blockwork. You need at least two
fastenings on each side. If you fix the lining after
the blockwork is finished, then you attach it to
plugs, which are pieces of wood or plastic in¬
serted into walls to take nails or screws, in the
blockwork.
Figure 9.29 Placing partitions for maximum You can take the linings up to the soffit of the
stability. ceiling and install a glazed panel over the door to
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Walls 73
Recess left for let in more light and cross-ventilation. If you put
more blockwork over the door, then you need a
simple timber lintel to support the small amount of
weight. The timber surface should be covered with
expanded metal to form a base for plaster and to
reinforce the joint between the blocks and the
timber. This prevents cracking. The alternative is to
use a concrete lintel.
Timber partitions
Timber partitions are also called stud partitions.

Timber partitions are built up in stages. Figure 9.31
illustrates a detail of a stud partition where it ties
into a door frame. The first stage is the construc¬
tion of the timber framework which consists of:
1. the sole plate. This is the bottom horizontal
timber that is fixed to the floor and indicates the
position of the partition;
2. the studs. These are the vertical timbers spaced
at 400 or 600 mm intervals that are nailed to the
sole plate and the head;
3. the head. This is the horizontal timber at the top
of the framework that is nailed to the structure
above it. The studs fit tightly between the sole
plate and the head;
Figure 9.30 Block bonding a partition to an 4. the noggins. These are short, horizontal timbers
external brick wall. that are secured in position by nailing through
Door
Stop
Lining
Stud
Architrave
Skirting
Sole plate Screed
Concrete floor
Figure 9.31 A detail of a stud partition tied into a door frame.
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the studs. The noggins stiffen the studs and it is helpful to apply a 3 mm skim coat of plaster
provide extra support. first to conceal the joints.
Timber cladding usually consists of plywood,
chipboard or hardboard panels. They are nailed or
Wiring for telephones and electricity should screwed to the framework so that the heads of the
be installed inside the timber framework be¬ nails or screws are below the surface of the board.
fore the boards are fixed. You can feed the The holes should be filled so that the surface of the
wires through the timbers by notching or board is even. Since the vertical joints are not filled
drilling holes in them. Water pipes should you can cover them in two ways:
always be accessible. For this reason, you
1. applying cover strips over the joints and secur¬
should not enclose them within the partitions.
ing them to the boards or frame;
2. leaving 3 to 10 mm gaps between the boards to
form recessed joints.
When the timber framework is erected, then you
can cover it with boards (Figure 9-32). Well-placed
studs will reduce cutting and waste when you
Stud partitions have advantages and dis¬
fasten the boards to the framework. When vertical
advantages compared to block partitions:
joints appear, the joint should be filled or dis¬
The advantages are that:
guised.
The erection of the partitions is a dry pro¬
Two types of board are good for cladding
cess.
timber framework:
The partitions are adaptable and can be
1. plasterboards; fitted into awkward places.
2. timber. The materials are very portable and need
less storage space than block work.
Plasterboards are usually 2400 x 1200 x
The stud partitions weigh less.
12 mm. They are fixed to the framing with galva¬
The stud partitions are usually cheaper.
nised nails. The joints between the boards are:
The disadvantages are that:
1. reinforced with paper tape or scrim; Stud partitions do not insulate sound as
2. filled level with the surface; well as block partitions.
3. rubbed down. Fire-resistance is only about half an hour.
You can decorate plasterboard immediately, but
Head
Walls can be load-bearing or non-load-bearing.

Masonry walls should be bonded to provide
strength and stability.
Masonry consists of natural and manufactured
materials.
Mortar aligns and binds the masonry into a solid
mass.
Walls must be built perfectly vertical.
The horizontal beds for walls must be level.
The opening in a wall must have a lintel or arch
to support the masonry above.
A lintel can be made from concrete or timber.
An arch depends on compression forces for its
strength.
A concrete lintel can be cast in situ or precast.
Brickwork above and below ground must be
Figure 9.32 Parts of a timber stud partition. separated by a damp-proof course.
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Walls 75
Timber frame walls can be used internally and 3 What are the materials and mixes that you can
externally. use to make two different types of cement-
based block?
4 What is the function of a damp-proof course?
REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 5 What is the purpose of a closer in a brick wall?
6 Draw a semicircular brick arch and label the
1 What are the main functions of: parts.
i) load-bearing walls 7 How do you position the first bricks correctly
ii) non-load-bearing walls? on a strip foundation?
2 Draw a diagram to show how you make a 8 What are the advantages of cavity wall con¬
concrete block using a timber mould. struction?
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Introduction
The fireplace provides a safe fireproof location to

burn fuel for heat or cooking. It is connected to the
flue, which conducts the products of combustion
200 mm x 200 mm flue
outside in a safe manner.
You can see Figure 10.1 for an illustration of the
principles of a fireplace. This chapter tells you
about the main parts of a fireplace and flue, as well
as how to build them safely.
The flue lining
prevents hot gases
and flames entering
Technical words for parts of the building
fireplaces and flues

This list defines some of the technical words that
you need to know for parts of fireplaces and flues.
Figure 10.2 illustrates some of the main parts. The throat increases
the speed of the
Back a vertical brickwork surface that provides heated air and
the opening for the construction of the fireplace. combustion gases
Breast the brickwork that forms the part of the Hot combustion
fireplace and flue structure that projects into the gases rise by
room. convection
Chimney the brickwork structure that carries Air is drawn into
the flue above the roof. prevent smoke
Fireback a heat-resistant material that lines the flowing into the room
brick opening for the fireplace.
The flame is caused
Flue by the conversion of
i) the opening inside the chimney that takes oxygen to C02
hot air, smoke or flames outside;
ii) a flue can also be a separate pipe that links Combustion fuel
to the chimney in self-contained appliances such Air flows to the base
as boilers. of the fire
Gathering the opening in the fireplace where
the hearth narrows to the size of the flue.
Head the top of the fireplace opening, which is
formed by a concrete or stone lintel or a brick arch. Figure 10.1 How a fireplace works.
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76
Fireplaces and flues 77
Hearth the fireproof horizontal base of the fire¬

place. Any combustible material such as timber
joists must be separated from the hearth by a
50 mm air gap.
Chimney Jambs usually projecting brickwork at each side
of the fireplace opening that can provide adequate
depth for the fireplace construction. They should
be at least 215 mm of incombustible material.
Rendering the cement and sand flue lining that
seals the brickwork from leaking flue gases. Ren¬
dering is also called pargetting.
Throat a restrictor at the head of the fireplace
that increases the velocity of the hot gases in the
Flue fire and the air flow to the burning fuel.
Rendering
The dimensions of brick

fireplaces and flues
A brick fireplace and flue should have the mini¬

mum dimensions shown in Table 10.1 for stability
and efficiency.
Breast
Gathering
Table 10.1 Minimum dimensions for fireplaces
and flues
Part of the structure Minimum dimensions (mm)
Throat Opening for the flue 215x215

Flue surround 102.5 brickwork around it
Jamb 425 x 425
Brick chimney
Fireback Chimney stack projection into

the room on external wall 317.5
(Allow the width of the wall (215 + 102.5)
plus a half skin of brick)
Fireplace opening
(Wood burning) 900
Jambs 215 (each side of the opening)

Hearth 500 projection
150 each side of opening
For a typical fireplace the dimensions (in mm)

Concrete hearth
are:
Brick breast 317.5 x 1325
Fireplace opening 900 x 600
Fireplace foundation 467.5 x 1625
First-floor flue and
chimney 425 x 425
Hearth 1250 x 500
Figure 10.2 Parts of a fireplace. (in front of jambs)
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Precast concrete
These dimensions are important when the chim¬
coping ney emerges from the roof:
1. The top of the chimney should be at least
1 metre above the roof to keep heat away from
the roof covering.
2. Windows should not open closer than l metre
below the top of the chimney to prevent fumes
entering rooms.
The flue should be straight, but this is not always
convenient. If you have to offset the flue, then the
slope should be less than 30 per cent from the
vertical to ensure a good flow of the flue gases
(Figure 10.3). At the top of the flue, a concrete cover
raised above the opening will keep out the rain.
Building a fireplace and flue
First you need to construct the foundations and

build up the brickwork to ground-floor level. Chap¬
ter 8 has more information on how to do this.
Table 10.2 describes how to continue building up
from the floor level.
Stepped flashing
Figure 10.3 The structure of an offset flue. Figure 10.4 Detail of a watertight roof junction.
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Fireplaces and flues 79
Table 10.2 How to build a fireplace and flue slopes inward to meet the throat. It protects the
Step Action brickwork and increases the heat from the fire.
1 If the floor is timber:
When the construction is completed, you should
support the hearth with walls and hardcore fill install metal baskets to hold the fuel. They raise
standing on the foundations; the fuel off the hearth and improve combustion.
trim the floor where it meets the hearth so
that the timber is more than 50 mm away;
continue with step 3.
2 If the floor is concrete: CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
build the jambs;
fix a lintel across the opening to carry the
brickwork. A fireplace is a safe place to make a fire.
3 Form the throat behind the lintel or shape the A flue is a pipe that safely conducts hot air,
lintel to form the front edge of the throat. gases and smoke outside the building.
4 Build the brickwork so that it gradually narrows The throat narrows the flue entrance. This in¬
to the size of the flue. creases the flow of gases, which improves the
5 Build up the chimney breast with the flue efficiency of the fireplace.
opening in it. The flue rendering prevents the entry of gases
and flames into a room through the brickwork.
6 Render the flue with cement and sand.
The hearth projects into the room to protect the
7 If the chimney goes through a suspended
floor finish from hot ashes.
timber floor at the first floor level, then trim
the timber so that it is more than 50 mm Timber must be trimmed around a flue, not built
away. into it.
8 Trim any timbers in the roof space.
• Flashings protect the chimney from rain and
protect the roof covering from the heat of the
9 Render the external surface of the chimney in
chimney.
the roof space.
10 Make the junction of the chimney and the roof

watertight (Figure 10.4):
insert a gutter at the back of the chimney;
insert stepped metal flashings and soakers REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
between the chimney and the roof covering at
the side;
insert a metal flashing over the roof covering
1 Set out a fireplace with a 900 mm opening and
at the front. a concrete hearth.
2 What is the purpose of the:
i) throat
Finishing off the fireplace ii) gathering?
3 How much should you trim a timber floor
You can line the fireplace with a special angled around a hearth?
fireback that lines the two sides and back and 4 Draw an example of a stepped flashing.
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Introduction 3. to provide a level surface for any floor finishes
that are applied.
The main functions of floors are: Floors are normally classified as:
1. to support the loads from the finishes, people, ® ground floors;
machines, furniture and fixtures;
9 upper floors.
2. to provide a level surface for normal uses in a
building;
li u u lT -*— Floor boarding

Timber joist
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80
Floors 81
Ground floors are either concrete slabs laid di¬ The difficulty with suspended timber floors on
rectly on the ground on hardcore beds or sus¬ concrete oversite slabs is that you need to take
pended timber structures supported on honey¬ extra care to achieve the three conditions. The
comb sleeper walls that stand on concrete slabs. space under timber floors at ground level must be
Upper floors are either reinforced concrete slabs well-ventilated and the timber treated with pre¬
or suspended timber structures that are supported servative to ensure that it stays dry and is resistant
on load-bearing walls. to insects such as termites. Because access is awk¬
This chapter describes these different types of ward it is difficult to observe and control potential
floor and their construction in detail. problems.
The oversite concrete slab Concrete ground-floor slabs

At ground-floor level, the concrete slab that rests You can build three different types of concrete
on the ground must: ground floor:
1. provide a total barrier to dampness in the ground 1. an oversite concrete floor below a suspended
by the use of a damp-proof membrane; timber floor (Figure 11.1);
2. prevent termites from entering the building; 2. the ground-floor slab in a brick or masonry
3. prevent the growth of vegetation. building;
Concrete oversite slabs are used for both sus¬ 3. a raft foundation in a timber frame building
pended timber floors and concrete floors. (Figure 11.2).
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The construction is similar for each type. You The blinding

need to provide:
The finished hardcore has a rough, open-textured
a hardcore bed; surface that you must make smooth before laying
• a blinding; the damp-proof membrane. You do this by laying
a damp-proof membrane. about 50 mm of sand, ashes or a weak, dry con¬
Raft foundations also need steel reinforcement. crete slurry called blinding over the surface of the
hardcore. You should carefully level the surface and
inspect it to see that there are no sharp projections.
The hardcore bed
The purpose of the hardcore bed is to:

1. provide a free-draining bed that will keep the The damp-proof membrane (dpm)
concrete slab warm and dry;
The membrane’s purpose is to prevent dampness
2. resist the growth of vegetation;
entering the building through the concrete slab. It
3. provide a level base for the oversite concrete.
is usually a heavy-duty polythene sheet that is
The hardcore bed consists of material that resists tough enough to be handled on a building site
crushing, such as broken brick, stone or rock. without tearing or puncturing. The material should
The pieces should be large enough to ensure stay intact even when workers walk over it while
plenty of space so that moisture isn’t trapped within they fix reinforcement in the floors and lay
the hardcore. You put down layers that are about concrete.
150-200 mm thick and flatten them by hand with You should lay the dpm so that the edges over¬
a tool called a rammer to consolidate them. You lap the joints. The edges of the dpm must also
can also use a machine called a plate vibrator for overlap the edges of the dpc in the walls as shown
large areas of hardcore. in Figure 11.3.
Figure 11.3 Damp protection for an exposed wall.
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Floors 83
Laying an oversite The raft foundation slab

concrete slab
Ground-floor slabs that are also raft foundations
A typical oversite concrete floor slab that is laid may have steel mesh reinforcement in the slab and
directly on the ground is made from concrete the edge beams. You begin by excavating the
mixed in these proportions: shape of the edge beams, which stiffen the raft in
the formation level.
1 part cement;
Table 11.1 gives the dimensions of a raft founda¬
3 parts sand;
tion that, could support a simple one-storey
6 parts water.
building.
Since concrete shrinks as it dries you should lay
it in areas that are no larger than 3 metres by
3 metres or 10 square metres. Table 7 7.7 Dimensions of a raft foundation
Part of foundation Dimension (mm)
Foundation thickness 100
Example
Divide an oversite slab that measures 12 x Edge beams 250 x 350
6 m into eight areas that each measure 3 x Reinforcement bars Two or three at 10 mm
3 m (Figure 11.4).
Divide the floor area into sections with
timber boards that are the depth of the floor
slab. The boards should be fastened with You follow these steps to make a simple raft
small mounds of concrete so that they do not foundation slab:
damage the dpm. 1. Spread hardcore and blinding in the measured
area.
If you concrete more than one section at a time, 2. Lay the dpm over the blinding.
then you must ensure that you do not concrete 3. Build vertical formwork on struts along the out¬
adjacent bays at the same time. You should pour side position of the edge beams to contain the
the concrete in a chequerboard pattern so that you concrete.
can fill in the spaces left after shrinkage as each 4. Lay the reinforcement, the mesh for the slab and
section dries. the bars in the edge beams in position.
Figure 11.4 Laying the oversite concrete into bays.
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5. Support the reinforcement 25 mm above the To build a timber floor you will need:
dpm by fixing cement spacers underneath the
honeycomb sleeper walls;
bars so that the concrete can flow all around
air bricks;
them.
a damp-proof course;
6. Divide the area into 3 metre by 3 metre bays
wall plates;
(Figure 11.4).
floor joists;
7. Fix boards over the reinforcement to prevent the
floor boarding.
concrete leaking out.
8. Pour the concrete so that it fills all the spaces on These elements of a timber floor are described
the slab (you can use a mechanical vibrator to in the following sections (Figure 11.1).
do this properly).
Honeycomb sleeper walls
Honeycomb sleeper walls are brick or block walls
built over the oversite concrete so that air can
Curing the concrete circulate freely in the gap to all parts of the under¬
floor. You construct them by omitting bricks across
When you complete the construction of the oversite
the width of the external walls. These steps de¬
concrete slab or the raft foundation, you then leave
scribe the process:
it to cure for seven days. Curing is a controlled
process for keeping the newly laid concrete just 1. Set out a row of stretcher bricks embedded in
moist enough to dry out without shrinking or mortar on the oversite concrete.
cracking. 2. Leave a header space between each stretcher.
If the concrete slab is laid early in a contract, 3. Lay the next course so that each brick is centred
then it may be exposed to the rapid drying effect over the space below.
of the sun and wind unless you use these methods 4. Continue these steps for three or four courses.
to keep it moist: 5. Bond the ends of the courses into the external
walls.
1. Lay polythene sheets over the concrete and
keep them in place with bricks around the edges
Airbricks
and along joints.
Airbricks are special bricks with holes in them that
2. Inspect the slab every morning and spray it with
allow air to flow through. Build the bricks, which
water if necessary.
are the height of two normal bricks, into the exter¬
3. Use hessian mats as an alternative. They need to
nal walls at opposite sides of the building. Fix
be sprayed with water every day to keep them
them at 2.5 metre intervals. Mesh fly screens will
damp enough.
keep out insects.
Normally you can remove the covering after seven
days. This timing does depend on local conditions. Damp-proof course (dpc)
A cured slab is ready for the next stage. The A dpc is usually bituminous felt laid on the sleeper
alternatives are: walls in widths of 102.5 mm to prevent dampness
1. no further treatment if the slab is the finished entering the wall plate.
floor for a garage or storeroom;
2. laying a screed if the slab is to have a separate Wall plates
floor finish; Wall plates are timber pieces about 75 x 100 mm
3. building a base for honeycomb sleeper walls to that are used as bases for fixing floor joists. They
support a timber floor. are laid carefully on the dpc along the length of
the sleeper walls.
Floor joists
Building a suspended The floor joists are the pieces of timber that span
timber floor between the wall plates and support the floor
boards. The size of the joists depends on the
You make the solid concrete oversite slab first. If spacing of the sleeper walls. Table 11.2 is a guide
the space between the timber floor and the oversite to the appropriate lengths for joists that are spaced
slab is well-ventilated you can omit the dpm. 400 mm apart. Judging the length of the joists
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Floors 85
correctly will reduce waste and time spent cutting You need to judge how much the boards are
the timber. likely to shrink after they are laid. To force the
boards closely together you should fix a temporary
batten across the joists. Then drive a pair of folding
Table 11.2 Joist dimensions wedges along the edges of the boards. This pushes
Span (mm) Joist size (mm) Joist length (mm) the boards tight against their neighbours so that
1200 38 x 75 3800 they can be nailed in position.
You can also use tongue and groove boards.
1800 38 x 100 3100 or 4800
These boards have a projecting tongue about
2000 50 x 100 4100 10 mm wide on one length. The other length has
a groove about 12 mm wide. You can fit a tongued
edge into a grooved edge as you lay the boards.
You attach the joists to the wallplates by nailing They should also be wedged to push them tightly
through the sides down into the wallplate. If the together.
joist is not long enough to span the external walls, You can nail tongue and groove boards through
then two pieces should be lined up and fastened at the top or use secret nailing. In this method you
the wallplate. You should try not to fix too many nail the side of the board above the tongue. The
joists to the same wallplate, but stagger them over next board then covers the nails in the first board
the slab. when it is laid beside it.
Joists are not built into the external walls be¬
cause the ends would be exposed to moisture and Other types of timber boards
could rot. The preferred fixings for external walls
are: You can use three other types of timber board for
floors:
wallplates attached inside the external wall;
galvanised joist hangers; plywood;
brick or block piers. blockboard;
chipboard.
Most boards are manufactured in a standard size of
2400 x 1200 mm. You should always check that the
Timber flooring
board thickness is adequate for the spacing of the
joists.
The type of timber flooring that you use depends
on availability and preference. Standard choices
are:
softwood boards; Upper floor construction
plywood;
blockboard;
Upper floors should not span more than 5 metres
chipboard. in simple buildings. The two most common types
The following sections describe these types of of construction for upper floors are:
floor in more detail. 1. timber floors (Figure 11.5);
2. reinforced concrete floors (Figure 11.6).
Softwood boards Both types of floor may need additional support
Softwood boards should be at least 25 mm thick for larger spans.
and less than 100 mm wide. This reduces the
shrinkage gaps between boards and the possibility Timber floor construction
of distortion.
The boards are usually joined at their plain A first-floor span of 5 metres is the limit for simple
edges and nailed to the joists using oval wire nails timber floor construction in a small building. Your
that are 2.5 times longer than the thickness of the local authority’s building regulations may have
board. You use a hammer and punch to drive the guidelines for the size of timber joists, but Table
nails below the surface of each joist. 11.3 shows the maximum practical limit.
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Figure 11.5 The structure of a timber suspended floor.
Figure 11.6 The structure of a reinforced concrete floor.
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Floors 87
Table 11.3 Structural limits for timber floors Trimming a staircase opening
Structural part Structural limit
A staircase will go through the first floor. Since you
Joist 225 x 75 mm
must form an opening, you will need to cut into
Span 4.8 metres at joist intervals the joists. The joists around the opening are called:
of 400 mm
Load 0.5 - 1.0 kN/m2 trimmed joists (they are shortened by the
opening);
trimmer joists (they support the trimmed joists);
The size of joists depends on: trimming joists (they support the ends of the
trimmer joist).
1. the span from support to support;
2. the spacing between joists (which is usually This type of work is expensive and must be
400 mm from centre to centre); done very carefully to minimise damage to the
3- the quality of the timber; joists. The main principle is to join the end of the
4. the total floor load, which is about 1.0 kN/m2 in trimmer joist very firmly to the trimming joist
domestic buildings. because the load is greatest at that point. You can
use a metal hanger or a housed joint in the upper
The joists are placed on the external wall at the half of the joist to avoid cutting into the trimming
correct height. A wall built from 215 mm bricks joist.
gives the joists a 100 mm bearing with a half brick You can see the layout around an opening in
thickness covering on the end. If the joist is 50 mm, Figure 11.7.
then it needs a brick and a half to fill the space
between adjacent joists. The ends of the joists
should be treated with creosote or other preserva¬ Making struts
tive before they are built into the wall. An alterna¬
The joists may bend under the load if the span is
tive method is to support joists on galvanised steel
between 3 and 5 metres. A twisting joist can weaken
joist hangers. They have shoes to fit around the
the floor. You can use struts to stiffen the entire
ends of the joists. The shoes hang from straps
floor structure.
placed over steel hooks in the brick or blockwork.
There are two methods for making struts:
Joist hangers are a fast way to suspend joists and
use less timber. 1. herringbone, which consists of two lengths of
Figure 11.7 Trimming joists at an opening.
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50 x 50 mm timbers fixed so that they criss-cross # plywood;

the top and bottom edges of the joists and are © blockboard;
nailed in the middle to make a herringbone © chipboard.
pattern; These floors were described in the section on
2. solid, which consists of a number of pieces of timber ground-floor construction in this chapter.
38 mm timber of similar depth to the joists.
They are cut to fit tightly between adjacent joists
and are skewnailed.
Reinforced concrete
The solid pattern is cheaper, but less effective
than the herringbone pattern.
first-floor construction
Struts are usually fixed in the middle of the span.
Most reinforced concrete suspended floors are cast
You fill the gap between the last joists and the wall
in situ. Two forms of construction are possible:
by inserting wedges along the line of the struts.
1. a solid concrete slab with main reinforcement
that spans the shortest distance with secondary
Floors
reinforcement that spans the longer distance;
The types of timber floor that are suitable for 2. a hollow pot floor with beams that span the
upper floors are the same as for the ground floor: shorter distance only.
(a)
No sag or deflection
(b)
Top half o : the slab compresses compression or
Th e bottom half stretches tension
—y _ ■-W -W~~ -w -W-w-—▼ -

E ^ • 1 :U'Jt-'-r.-
zA
The amount of (e)
deflection
Compression zone
LOAD
Tension zone o
Tension stress is
absorbed by the
steel reinforcement
Neutral axis
Figure 11.8 The principles of deflection in concrete: (a) a concrete slab without loading; (b) loaded
concrete deflecting under the load; (c) putting steel in the bottom of the slab; (d) an unreinforced slab
is impossible to use; (e) a reinforced slab makes suspended concrete construction possible.
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Floors 89
The thickness of the concrete and size and as well as the wet concrete.
distribution of the steel reinforcement bars are You can follow the steps in Table 11.4 to make
complex issues that depend on the distance to be the formwork and position the services and rein¬
spanned. You should use a structural engineer to forcement bars. These steps take you to the point
do the calculations before construction begins. where you are ready to mix and pour the concrete
for the slab at the next stage.
General principles of the design of reinforced

concrete suspended slabs:
Concrete is strong when compressed, but Table 11.4 Preparing the slab
weak under tension. It should be rein¬ Step Action
forced where subjected to tension. 1 Use the working drawings to establish the
Concrete sags or deflects when it spans level of the underside of the floor slab.
between supports. This creates compres¬ This becomes the level of the top of the
sion in the top half of a slab and tension in formwork deck.
the bottom half. 2 Put up the supporting framework of props,
Steel reinforcement bars will resist tension ledgers and joists and nail the formwork
deck to the joists.
if they are built into the bottom of the slab.
If the slab is laid continuously over an 3 Level the entire structure by adjusting the
wedges and nail diagonal braces across the
intermediate support, then the deflection is
props to stiffen them.
reversed. The tension moves to the top of
4 Inspect the deck for open joints and fill the
the slab, which then requires the steel rein¬
gaps with building paper or other material.
forcement.
These principles are shown in Figure 11.8. 5 Treat the deck with an oil, which will make it
easier to remove the formwork when finished.
6 Attach the electrical conduits for the first floor
wiring and ceiling lights for the room below to
Casting a solid reinforced concrete floor the formwork.
This work should be done by an electrician.
First, you need the structural engineer’s drawings 7 Attach any pipes for other services to the
to show the layout of the reinforcement bars, the formwork.
thickness of the concrete and the right concrete 8 Cut and bend the reinforcement bars as
mix. With this information, you follow these steps shown on the drawings.
to cast the floor: Lay them out on the formwork separated at
intervals by concrete spacers and tie the bars
1. Erect the formwork. in position with soft steel wire.
2. Position the services.
3. Position the reinforcement rods.
4. Mix and pour the concrete.
3. Cure the concrete. Working with the reinforcement bars
6. Remove the formwork.
A solid concrete slab will have main reinforcing
Each of these steps will be described in more
bars and distribution bars. The main reinforcing
detail in the next sections.
bars are usually 12 mm at 150 mm centres span¬
ning the shorter direction. The distribution bars
Erecting the formwork will be 6 mm at 450 mm centres which span across
the main reinforcement.
The first step is to erect the formwork. It provides You can use heavier bars over beams and
a level platform to support the wet concrete until it lintels and link them to the main reinforcement
hardens enough to be self-supporting. You make with stirrups. At least 25 mm must be left between
the formwork from timber boards propped up the bars and the bottom of the slab for a thick coat
from the floor below by timber supports. The of concrete to provide fire-resistance and prevent
structure must take account of any beams, lintels the reinforcement rusting.
and openings. It should be strong and stable so If you plan to build a reinforced concrete stair¬
that it can support the weight of people and plant case you need to leave starter bars, which project
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into the staircase opening. These bars let you tie Just like the solid concrete ground floor slab, the
the staircase into the slab as you build. wet concrete must be covered and kept damp for
seven days. This was described in more detail
earlier in this chapter.
Mixing and pouring the concrete The formwork is left in position until the con¬
crete hardens. It is safe to remove it after 14 days.
A typical mix for a reinforced slab is 1:2:4:
1. one part cement;

2. two parts sand;
3. four parts coarse aggregate.
The water/cement ratio should be 0.5. In Chap¬
ter 21 you can read about concrete mixes in
Making a hollow pot
more detail. reinforced concrete floor
You pour the concrete in one operation to avoid
joints in the slab. Before you start to pour, you Hollow pot floors use clay pots to reduce weight
should put some small mounds of concrete on the so that they are lighter than solid floors. The pots
formwork deck and level them off to the thickness are 300 x 300 mm. They vary in thickness depend¬
of the finished floor slab as a depth guideline. ing on the depth of floor required by the design.
You then need to carry the concrete up to the When you look at the section of a hollow pot
first floor level. It should be spread quickly, con¬ floor in Figure 11.9 you can see that the concrete
solidated with a poker vibrator to ensure that the forms a T-shape. The concrete at the top of the
reinforcement is completely covered in concrete floor is under compression while the steel at the
and levelled with a wood float. bottom takes the tension forces.
Hollow pots laid on

Opening for the stairs
decking
Figure 11.9 The structure of a hollow pot concrete floor.
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Floors 91
Your procedure for making a hollow pot floor Concrete slabs at ground level can be:
is to: i) an oversite floor slab
ii) a slab that supports sleeper walls for a
1. erect the formwork;
timber floor
2. position the services;
iii) a raft foundation.
3. put the hollow pots in position;
Curing concrete controls the rate of the loss of
4. place the steel reinforcement;
moisture and resists cracking through shrinkage.
5. mix and pour the concrete;
Suspended timber floors must be well-ventilated
6. cure the concrete;
underneath.
7. remove the formwork.
Joists are used for the construction of timber
Most of these steps are a repeat of the procedure floors.
for making a solid concrete floor. The steps that The size of the joists varies with their spacing
differ are setting the pots and putting in the steel and span.
reinforcement. Concrete is weak under tension.
You should set out the pots in straight rows Steel is used in reinforced concrete because it is
across the deck. Leave a space that measures strong under tension.
100-150 mm between the rows. Then place Hollow pot floors save concrete and reduce the
the steel reinforcement bars in the centre of the dead weight.
spaces between the pots. Use spacers to keep
the bars off the deck so that the concrete can flow
underneath. REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
1 What are three uses for an oversite concrete

slab?
2 What is the purpose of a honeycomb sleeper
wall?
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 3 i) Draw an example of an oversite concrete
slab which measures 16 x 13 m.
Floors can be supported by the ground or sus¬ ii) Show the order that you should pour the
pended off it. concrete to prevent excessive shrinkage.
Suspended floors span between supporting walls. 4 How is a wet concrete slab consolidated and
• Floors can be made from timber, mass concrete cured?
or reinforced concrete. 5 What is the purpose of steel reinforcement in a
• Concrete slabs on a damp-proof membrane pre¬ concrete floor slab?
vent the entry of moisture into the building. 6 How should you trim a timber staircase around
• Timber can be attacked by insects and moisture. a staircase opening?
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Introduction
A roof on the top of a building fulfils important Roofs should meet these basic standards of per¬
functions like: formance:
1. keeping out the rain and wind; 1. allowing rainwater to flow freely away;
2. providing shade from the sun; 2. expanding and contracting without failure;
3. keeping the interior cool; 3. resisting fire adequately;
4. retaining heat in cool weather; 4. providing light and ventilation;
5. ensuring that the structure is properly weighted 5. durability.
down.
Figure 12.1 A tiled roof on a modern African house.
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92
Roofs 93
Figure 12.2 The main parts of the structure of a pitched roof.
The two main types of roof which you will read building. Coverings can be:
about in this chapter are:
O asphalt;
1. pitched roofs; • bituminous felt;
2. flat roofs. • corrugated mineral fibre sheets such as fibre
cement;
Figure 12.1 is a photograph of a typical pitched • corrugated metal sheets such as galvanised iron
roof on a house in Southern Africa. and aluminium;
• thatch;
• plain tiles;
Technical words for parts • interlocking tiles.
of a roof Eaves the bottom end of the roof where it meets
the wall.
The main technical words used in roof construc¬ Fall the slope required on flat roofs for water
tion are defined in this section. Figure 12.2 illus¬ run-off.
trates the main parts of a roof. Fascia a thin timber board that is fixed to the end
of rafters or roof joists to support the gutters.
Covering the external material that is laid over Hip the point where two inclined roof surfaces
the roof structure to protect the inside of the meet over an external angle.
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Jack rafter . a short rafter that spans the hip and Ridge a timber at the apex of the roof that takes
eaves or valley and ridge. the tops of the rafters.
Pitch the angle formed by the slope of the roof. Soffit the horizontal board that can be fixed to
Purlin A purlin can be: finish the roof structure at the eaves.
i) a horizontal timber member that provides sup¬ Span the horizontal distance between the sup¬
port to the rafters; ports of structural members such as the rafters.
ii) a timber member spanning between roof trusses Valley the point where two inclined roof sur¬
that supports roof sheets. faces meet over an internal angle.
Rafter the timber member that spans from the Verge the edge of a roof that meets a gable wall.
eaves to the ridge in a pitched roof. Wall plate the timber member fixed to the top
Ridge tile a tile that caps the top of the roof. of a wall to secure a flat roof joist or rafter.
Figure 12.3 Examples of different common roof types: (a) gable roof; (b) lean-to roof; (c) mono-pitch
roof.
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Roofs 95
Pitched roofs Different methods of pitched roof

construction
A pitched roof is often a popular choice. The main
supporting structure is timber, which is easy to Pitched roofs can be built in different ways de¬
work and transport. A pitched roof is stable in pending on the loads and sizes (Figures 12.4 and
most weather and its slope disposes of rainwater 12.5). This list describes some common types of
quickly. Additionally, the space enclosed by the pitched roof that use different methods of con¬
roof can add some extra living or storage space. struction.
Couple roof
Types of pitched roof A couple roof has two timbers (called rafters) that
are joined at the apex at their top end and rest on
In simple roof construction you will usually find
the walls at their bottom end. A couple roof is used
these types of roof:
for small spans.
1. Gable roof In this type of roof the ends of the
roof enclose the end walls. The triangular wall Closed couple roof
between the roof verges is called the gable end. In a closed couple roof a tie member connects the
2. Hipped roof A hipped roof is formed when bottom ends of the rafters. This design stiffens the
two roof slopes meet at right angles. rafters to resist the loads on a larger span.
3. Lean-to roof This roof has a single pitch that
rests against a higher wall. Collar roof
4. Mono-pitch roof This roof has a pitch in one The collar roof has a tie member to connect the
direction. The ridge does not rest against any¬ rafters higher up the slope. This design allows the
thing. roof eaves to be lower or the ceiling to be higher.
Some of these roof types are illustrated in Figure

Purlin roof
12.3. A purlin roof has a horizontal timber that is sup¬
ported by the external walls of the roof structure to
Parts of a pitched roof stiffen the rafters. The purlin may be supported by
struts, which rest on internal load-bearing walls.
Three parts of a pitched roof affect the structural
design: Trussed purlin roof
1. span; Trusses replace struts as support for the purlins
2. pitch; (Figure 12.6). Trusses, which are spaced about
3. roof covering. 1800 mm apart, are braced against external walls
rather than internal load-bearing walls.
Span
The span is the distance between the masonry Trussed rafter roof
structures that support the roof. The structure of A trussed rafter roof combines ceiling joists with
the roof becomes more complex as the span in¬ additional struts and ties for larger spans (Figure
12.7). The trussed rafters, which are prefabricated,
creases.
are braced against the external walls. The use of
trussed rafters eliminates the need for purlins and
Pitch
The pitch is the angle of the slope of the roof other supporting timbers.
measured from the horizontal. A steeper pitch
needs more roof covering material, which increases
the weight to be supported. The surface area af¬
fected by wind is also greater. The roof needs to be
strong enough to allow for these factors.
The structure of a timber
Roof covering pitched roof
The roof covering material varies from lightweight
sheets that weigh about 12 kg/m2 to plain clay A typical timber pitched roof such as the one in
tiles that weigh 65 kg/m2. Figure 12.8 has this structure:
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(c) Ridge
Figure 12.4 Types of pitched roof: (a) couple; (b) closed couple; (c) collar.
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Roofs 97
Gable wall
Figure 12.5 Purlin roof.
1. rafters spanning between the wallplate and ridge The ceiling joists support the ceiling below the
with support from purlins; roof space. When you attach the joists to each end
2. ceiling joists spanning between the wallplates of the rafter at the wallplate, then they become a
with support from special purlins called binders; tie. This creates the classic triangular roof shape
3. roof trusses spaced at 1800 mm intervals; with two rafters and a tie at the bottom.
4. purlins spanning between the trusses. If a ceiling joist spans too great a distance, then
you need to support it with a special purlin called
The rafters span the wall plates and ridge. They
a binder.
form the supporting framework for the roof cover¬ Purlins, which should be less than three metres
ing, so their size must relate to the length of the long, need support from struts that are braced
span and the spacing intervals between them. „ against internal load-bearing walls. Since these walls
are expensive to build, you can use the trussed
purlin roof (see Figure 12.6) as an alternative. The
purlins span between the roof trusses and the
Rafters that measure 50 x 125 mm are the trusses span between the external walls.
most cost-effective. If the roof design requires You can use a prefabricated trussed rafter roof
larger rafters, .then you should use purlins in to avoid the construction of internal load-bearing
the roof construction to support the rafters walls (Figure 12.7). Each rafter forms a truss that
and minimise the size required. spans between the external walls. The ceiling joist
ties the bottom of the truss so that you do not use
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Ridge
Rafter
Purlin
Ceiling joist or tie
Binder
Wall plate
Figure 12.6 Trussed purlin roof.
purlins or binders. A crane lifts this roof into Connecting the trusses
position on top of the walls.
Special methods for connecting trusses have been
developed because simple nailed timber joints are
Notes on trussed rafters not strong enough. The bolted metal connections
• All the trusses are prefabricated, so they shown in Figure 12.9 are better. They ensure that
should conform to the specified size. the timber joints can withstand their loads. This
The trusses are the same thickness, but section describes a variety of connections.
their depth may vary.
$ They do not have any projections so they
Split-ring connectors
can be transported and stored compactly.
These connectors are embedded in timber mem¬
• Trusses can span up to 12 metres in a basic
bers which are side by side. One half of a ring
‘W’ shape.
connector on one member fits into a circular groove
Trusses are an economical use of timber.
cut into the other member. The load on the timber
• They are designed for evenly distributed
joint is carried by the area of the ring surface.
loads. They shouldn’t be cut or changed.
Small trusses will have members 38 or
47 mm thick depending on the span. Gang nail plates (Figure 12.9)
The members will vary between 75 and These plates are galvanised steel plates with pro¬
125 mm in depth. jecting nails. They are placed across the truss
Trussed roof construction is a fast method members to be connected and the nails are forced
of roof construction. in under pressure. You put a plate on each side of
the joint.
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Rafters
Figure 12.7 Trussed rafter roof.
Figure 12.8 Parts of a timber pitched roof.
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A connector and bolt

joining three timber
pieces
Figure 12.9 Truss connections.
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Roofs 101
Plywood gussets (Figure 12.9)

Plywood is strong enough to form the joining plate
for truss construction. The gussets, which are the
pieces of plywood that join the timbers, are cut
and shaped to fit over the trusses. They are then
glued and nailed to fix them securely in position.
Using tiles as roof coverings
Roof tiles are usually made from clay or concrete

that is moulded into suitable shapes. Their function
is mainly to keep the roof watertight. The tiles are
overlapped so that the rainwater flows down the
slope of the roof and the roof structure underneath
remains dry.
Tiles do not fit closely enough to prevent the
wind entering the spaces between them. Since rain
Nibs for placing the
could be driven underneath the tiles you need to
tile on the tiling
insert a layer of polythene or felt over the rafters.
If water finds its way through the tiles, then it will
flow down this layer into the gutter.
The choice of tiles will depend on the design of
the roof. This section describes some of the most
common types, which are plain tiles and interlock¬
ing tiles.
Plain tiles (Figure 12.10)

Plain tiles are the simplest type of manufactured
tile. A simple rectangle about 265 x 165 mm, these
tiles have holes at the top so that they can be
nailed to battens. Small projections underneath the
tiles help to place them correctly on the battens.
Plain tiles will be waterproof under two condi¬
tions:
1. The pitch of the roof must be greater than 35°. Figure 12.10 Plain tile roof construction:
2. The tiles must be double lapped. This creates a (a) example of a plain tile; (b) a plain tile with
weight on the roof of 70-80 kg/m2. nibs.
Interlocking tiles (Figure 12.11)

Interlocking tiles are larger than plain tiles. A typi¬
cal tile measures about 400 x 300 mm. The tiles
have special edges to allow them to fit together or
interlock. These tiles can be laid in a single lap and
remain weatherproof. framework should be covered with a layer of
The completed roof weighs about 40-50 kg/m2. polythene sheets or felt to keep out the wind and
The pitch of a roof constructed with interlocking rain while the tiling work is done. These sheets
tiles can be as shallow as 17°. stay in position to protect the roof space from the
weather.
Your next job is to fix the tiling battens in place.
Laying a tiled roof
You need to calculate how the position of the
When the shell of the roof is completed, then the battens relates to the size of the tiles.
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Fixing the tiling battens

You follow these steps to fix standard-sized bat¬
tens (38 x 19 mm):
1. Treat the battens with preservative to prevent rot
and insect attack.
2. Starting at the eaves nail the battens to the
rafters at the distance calculated for the gauge
(using aluminium or copper nails).
3. Finish at the ridge by nailing additional battens
if required.
4. Fit a tilting fillet to the eaves. You can see how
this looks in Figure 12.12.
Laying plain tiles
You lay plain tiles in regular bond patterns. The

tiles on one course should lie over the joints in the
course below. Lay the eaves course first with a
shorter tile that does not need the overlap at the
bottom. Continue laying courses of tiles until you
reach the ridge, where you may need a smaller tile
to complete the job as you can see in Figure 12.13.
You should nail the tiles to the battens at every
fourth course unless the roof is exposed to very
strong winds. Figure 12.14 illustrates a detail for
plain tiling at the junction of the eaves.
You may need special tiles for the:
ridge;
eaves;
hips;
valleys;
verges on gable walls.
Figure 12.11 Two views of interlocking tiles:

(a) top view; (b) joint between tiles.
Calculating the batten positions

You need to calculate the gauge, which is the
spacing between the tiling battens.
The overlap for plain tiles is about 65 mm.
The calculation is:
Length of a tile - the overlap ,

-5---- = the gauge
Example
265 mm - 65 mm . „„
- = 100 mm
Figure 12.12 A tilting fillet fixed to the eaves.
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Roofs 103
Figure 12.14 Eaves detail.
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Laying interlocking tiles construction. Figure 12.15 is a section to show how

interlocking tiles should be laid. After fixing the
Interlocking tiles are also called single lap tiles. felt or polythene underlay and treating the tiling
They weigh less than other tiles and can be laid on battens with preservative, then you need to calcu¬
roofs with a very shallow pitch. This allows a late the spacing for the battens.
wider roof span and uses less timber in the roof
Figure 12.16 A detail of a half-round ridge tile.
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Roofs 105
Figure 12.17 Sheet roofing on a pitched roof.
5. Fix special tiles if required for:

Calculating the batten positions ridges;
You can subtract the overlap from the length hips;
of the tile to calculate the gauge for the batten valleys;
positions. verges.
Example (for a 400 mm tile with 75 mm lap)
400 mm - 75 mm = 325 mm gauge
Using roof sheets as

The steps for fixing interlocking tiles are similar
to those for fixing plain tiles: roof covering
1. Fix the battens (38 x 25 mm) to the correct An alternative to tiling a roof is to cover it with
gauge position. sheeting materials like:
2. Begin laying tiles at the eaves (no special tiles
are required because there is no overlap). • corrugated fibre cement;
3. Make sure that each tile interlocks with the tile O corrugated galvanised steel.
next to it.
4. Finish laying the tiles at the ridge as shown in Figure 12.17 shows you the construction of sheet
Figure 12.16. roofing on pitched roofs.
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Corrugated fibre cement sheets 1. They have a short lifespan because they rust
when the galvanising is damaged during the
These roof sheets are made from fibres embedded fixing.
in cement to produce a strong, durable material. 2. They are noisy when it rains.
The fibres are firmly bonded in the cement so that 3. They heat up rapidly in hot weather.
they do not produce any health risks during nor¬ 4. They lose heat rapidly in cool weather.
mal cutting, drilling and fixing. 5. Condensation occurs because of the lack of
The usual roof pitch for these sheets is 22°. insulation.
Since fibre cement sheets weigh about 16 kg/m2
they can span up to 2 metres. The thin sheets do not have any special fixing
Roof construction generally for these sheets is requirements. The procedure for fixing galvanised
simple. The roof structure uses purlins as the tim¬ steel sheets is the same as for fibre cement sheets.
bers to support the roof sheeting instead of rafters. You may want to paint the sheets after fixing to
The purlins, placed about 900 mm apart on the reduce the heat absorption and prolong their life.
slope of the roof, are supported by a roof truss that
spans the building.
The dimensions for fibre cement sheets are
3000 x 600 x 6 mm.
Flat roofs
Fixing fibre cement sheets
Fibre cement sheets are very brittle and will not Flat roofs, which can be timber or reinforced con¬
support a person’s weight on a roof. You need to crete, are popular forms of roofing for houses.
use ladders or crawlboards to move around the Their advantages are:
roof or move along the line of purlins. 1. They are very easy to put up.
This is the procedure for fixing fibre cement 2. They can create extra usable space if they are
sheets: accessible.
1. Position the first sheet in a bottom corner of the 3. They are easily maintained.
roof framework. Their main disadvantages are that:
2. Drill through a sheet on top of the corrugations
(the holes should be more than 73 mm from 1. They lose heat.
each end of a sheet). 2. They are not as weatherproof as pitched roofs.
3. Fix it to the purlins with galvanised iron drive 3. The finishes do not last as long as roof tiles.
screws and cupped washers.
4. Lay the next sheet so that it overlaps the first
sheet by one corrugation (about 150 mm). Principles of building a flat timber roof
5. Continue this procedure until you fix the last
sheet. The structure of a flat roof requires:
6. Fix a special ridge member that is in two parts.
a deck or slab;
One part is fixed to each slope and they are
a method for disposing of rainwater;
bolted together.
a watertight covering;
some insulation.
You need to cut off a top corner and bottom
corner on all sheets but the first sheet. This
The procedure for making a flat timber roof is
reduces the thickness of the overlapping sheets
similar to making a timber floor. The joists span
at those points. You join the sheets so that the
between the supporting walls and boarding is
two corners meet in a single thickness.
fixed over the joists to form a deck for the water¬
proof covering (Figure 12.18).
The main difference is that the deck must have
Corrugated galvanised steel sheets enough slope to get rid of rainwater. You can
make the slope by fixing strips of wood called
These sheets are used frequently because they are firrings to the top of the joists. The firrings can be
cheap and quick to put up. They do have dis¬ different depths or be tapered in the direction of
advantages: the fall.
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Roofs 107
Fall
Boarding
Gutter /
L -- Firring
Fascia
Joist
XI Strutting
/
t
3500 mm
Figure 12.18 The structure of a flat timber roof.
0.6 kN, then the dimensions should be 150 x

Calculating dimensions for firring pieces 75 mm with 400 mm centres.
1 If you want a fall of 1:80 over 3.5 metres, If the roof is used as living space, then the joist
then the difference in levels should be size for a similar span could be 175 x 75 mm.
3500/80 = 43.75 mm.
The minimum thickness of a firring piece
is 25 mm.
How to build a flat timber roof
The maximum thickness would be 25 + Table 12.1 describes how to build a simple flat
43.75 mm = 78.75 mm (say 75 mm). timber roof.
If the fall is in the direction of the joists,
then the firring pieces should both be
tapered from 75 mm to 22 mm.
2 If the fall is across the joists, then the Table 12.1 Building a flat timber roof
firrings should be the same depth, but
Step Action
their thickness should vary from 75 to
1 Fix the joists in position by building them into
22 mm. It is not practical to lay firrings so
the external walls and supporting them with
that they span the joists because their joist hangers (provide struts if required).
thin ends will not be strong enough to
2 Fix the firring pieces.
support a load at the lower end of the
3 Lay the timber decking and continue building
slope.
the roof as if you were building a timber floor
(see Chapter 11).
The use of the roof is a key factor in its design.

If people can sit on it, then it must be as strong as
a floor. If it is not used as a living space, then the
joists can be smaller.
The recommendations for suitable joist sizes
Building a reinforced
may be in your building regulations. concrete roof
Example of typical joist sizes A reinforced concrete roof is built exactly like a
If the joists span four metres and support a load of reinforced concrete floor slab. It can be solid or
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hollow pot construction. You should follow these a cement and sand screed that has the correct
steps to build a reinforced concrete roof (they are slope. The falls are calculated in the same way as
described in more detail in Chapter 11): for a flat timber roof. The structural engineer will
calculate the effect of the extra weight of the
1. Erect the formwork. screed in the roof design.
2. Position the services.
3. Fix the reinforcement.
4. Pour the concrete. Finishing off a flat reinforced concrete roof
5. Cure the concrete.
6. Remove the formwork. The edges of a flat reinforced concrete roof can be
finished off by constructing:
A hollow pot roof is constructed in the same
way except that hollow pots are laid on the deck 1. an overhanging roof that takes the edge of the
before the reinforcement is fixed. roof over the surface of the external wall;
The top of the structural slab for a flat reinforced 2. a parapet roof that extends the edge of the
concrete roof is laid level. The falls are provided by external wall higher than the roof.
Gutter
Figure 12.19 Two types of flat roof construction: (a) an overhang; (b) a parapet.
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Roofs 109
Figure 12.20 A detail of a coping on a parapet roof.
Combinations of an overhanging roof or parapet fibrous base soaked in bitumen. Felt is usually
roof are possible on the same building, particularly laid on timber roofs;
if you build a gutter on one side. Figure 12.19 2. mastic asphalt, which is a material containing
illustrates these options. bitumen that is laid as a hot elastic covering. As
it cools it hardens to form a jointless cover that
is usually put on concrete roofs.
Finishing off a parapet roof
Copings, which are short sections of concrete fitted Bituminous felt

together, finish off the top of the exposed external
wall of a parapet roof and shed rain (Figure 12.20). This roofing material is often called built up roof¬
They are bedded in a dpc of bituminous felt to ing because you put it on two or three layers deep
improve their water resistance. They should be as you can see in Figure 12.21. The felt is made
wide enough to overhang the wall by at least from organic fibres like jute or synthetic material
50 mm. The tops of the copings slope in either one like fibreglass treated with bitumen to make it
or two directions to shed rain. waterproof. The resulting flexible sheets are about
Brick-on-edge copings can be bedded in two 1 metre by 12 metres.
courses of tiles as an alternative method for finish¬ Bituminous felt gives you the best results if you
ing a brick wall at roof level. lay it very carefully around and under openings or
projections such as outlets, verges, eaves and
chimneys.
In hot climates you apply a final treatment to the
felt sheets that reflects as much light as possible so
Waterproof roof finishes that the surface temperature is lower. This reduces
the heat in the building and prolongs the life of
You can apply two types of waterproof finish to the felt.
flat roofs: Table 12.2 describes how to lay felt to provide
1. bituminous felt, which is a sheet material with a the most efficient cover.
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First layer of felt

Timber decking to
Layer of bitumen
falls
Second layer of felt
Layer of bitumen
Third layer of
Layer of bitumen
Chippings
Bucket for the hot

bitumen
Roofing nail
Figure 72.27 Laying a bituminous felt roof.
Table 72.2 Laying bituminous felt 1. outlets with raised edges that need to fit se¬
Step Action curely against the roofing felt;
1 Roll out the first sheet of felt over the roof
2. abutments found on parapet walls. If the felt
boarding and nail it with large head roofing has to be laid vertically, then you can fix a
nails. wooden strip into the angle at 45° to avoid a 90°
2 Roll out the next sheet of felt so that it turn. The felt should stand 150 mm above the
overlaps the first by 50 mm and nail it down. level of the roof with a cover flashing to prevent
3 Continue steps 1 and 2 until the entire roof is water entering;
covered in a layer of felt. 3. penetrations where pipes pass through roofs.
4 Apply hot bitumen to the first layer of felt. You can make a metal collar with a flat sheet to
Then roll out another layer, but do not nail it. go under the felt and a cylinder to enclose the
The sheets in this layer should overlap the first pipe. The felt should bond with the collar to
layer by 50 mm. make it watertight;
5 Repeat step 4 with the third layer. 4. verges and eaves which need a drip, made of
6 Spread a layer of white marble or limestone felt over a timber strip that protects the timber
chips set in bitumen over the top layer to underneath.
reflect heat.
Figure 12.22 illustrates the details for junctions
between flat roofs and openings.
Mastic asphalt
Mastic asphalt is usually applied to concrete flat

Working around openings and projections roofs, but it can also be used on timber roofs. It is
on the roof a mixture of graded limestone bonded with asphaltic
cement to form a waterproof material that is plastic
You need to lay the felt very carefully around: when heated.
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Roofs 111
Figure 12.22 Details of the junctions on a flat roof: (a) the upstand; (b) the verge; (c) the soil vent pipe;
(d) the rainwater outlet.
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(a)
with wire mesh
Figure 12.23 Roof ventilation: (a) ventilating a flat timber roof; (b) ventilating a pitched roof.
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Roofs 113
Table 12.3 explains how to apply a mastic as¬ Reflective finishes

phalt roofing finish. The reflective finishes that you read about in an
earlier section are actually meant to protect the
roof finish from the sun’s ultraviolet rays. In addi¬
tion, the light-coloured stones reflect the sun’s
Table 12.3 Applying a mastic asphalt finish infrared rays and reduce the surface temperature.
Step Action This reduces the amount of heat that can be trans¬
mitted into the interior of the building.
1 Melt the solid blocks of asphalt in a boiler.
2 Sweep the roof surface. Low-density materials
3 Lay an underfelt cover over the roof surface Low-density insulation materials have air pockets
that prevents the penetration of the asphalt that keep out the heat. Some of the common
into the roof surface.
materials are:
4 Carry the hot melted asphalt in buckets to
the roof. 1. expanded polystyrene boards made by bub¬
5 Spread a 10 mm thick layer of asphalt by hand
bling gas through polystyrene;
with a wood float. 2. fibreglass mats, which are strands of glass
loosely woven into a blanket to trap the air;
6 Apply the second layer to the same thickness
so that it melts into the first layer and welds 3. insulating fibreboard made from organic ma¬
the edges of the two layers together to a terials, like wood fibre, that are loosely bonded
20 mm thickness. to make a lightweight board.
7 Make a 45° wedge at the junctions with Most insulation materials work best if you put
vertical upstands that increase the thickness
of the asphalt at weak points.
them under a bituminous felt or asphalt roof
Vertical upstands should be at least 150 mm covering. The exception is the fibreglass mats,
above the finished level of the asphalt. which would compress and lose the trapped air.
8 Spread a 12 mm layer of white crushed stone The best method for using fibreglass mats is to
over the surface or paint the surface with cover the timber roof joists loosely before fixing
reflective paint. the boarding.
Wind effects on flat roofs

Insulating a flat roof Wind pressure can strip off tiles, lift overhanging
eaves and verges and blow off corrugated sheets.
Heat enters the interior of a building by a transfer If the roof covering is fixed very securely to the
of radiation when the roof surface is exposed to roof framework, then a strong wind could lift off
the sun’s rays. You will notice this effect most the timbers of the roof structure.
under a corrugated metal roof if there is no ceiling. This can be prevented by using galvanised steel
The transfer of heat can be resisted in three ways: ties every 1800 mm. They should be taken across
1. making the roof from materials with a high the wallplate and down the wall for 600 mm and
thermal resistance. This adds to the cost and embedded in a mortar joint. The ties can also be
weight of the roof; taken around the rafters to secure the roof struc¬
2. putting in a ceiling that creates a roof cavity that ture against the lifting action of wind.
traps heat until the air space in the cavity warms
up. Ventilation slots in the eaves and the top of
the gable ends can produce enough of an air
movement to disperse the heat outside (Figure
12.23); 9 Roofs can be pitched or flat.
3. insulating the roof surface. • Pitched roofs are covered with tiles or sheet
materials.
A flat roof can be insulated by applying: @ Flat roofs are covered with asphalt or bitumi¬
• reflective finishes; nous felt.
• low density materials. • Pitched roofs are constructed from timber.
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# Flat roofs are constructed from timber or rein¬ 2 Can you define these words:
forced concrete. i) pitch
The basic shape in pitched roof construction is ii) hip
the triangle. iii) gang nail plate
Roof trusses simplify the structure of a pitched iv) gauge
roof. v) parapet wall?
# Plain tiles are heavy and need more timber than 3 Why does a flat roof need a slight slope?
interlocking tiles. 4 What are the functions of the structural mem¬
# Flat roofs need a minimum slope to dispose of bers of a pitched roof?
rainwater. 5 What is the difference between a roof truss and
# Flat roof finishes need protection from sunlight. a trussed rafter?
6 Draw the falls for a timber roof that spans
six metres.
REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 7 How do you lay bituminous felt on a flat
timber roof?
1 What are three functions of a roof?
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Introduction Bridles short lengths of tubing that are fitted to
each side of a window opening and clamped to
Scaffolding is a temporary structure made from the transom. They fix the putlog scaffold to the
poles of wood or metal that lets you work on parts surface of the building.
of buildings that you cannot reach from the ground. Guard rails horizontal poles that are fixed above
This chapter describes how to put up two different the working platform to stop workers falling off.
types of safe and secure scaffolding. Ledgers the horizontal poles that connect the
The first use of scaffolding is for the external standards. They are parallel to the building.
walls. When the brickwork is about shoulder high, Putlogs cross pieces that have one end built into
then the bricklayer needs to be raised up to con¬ the wall of the building.
tinue working. Below 2 metres the scaffold boards Reveal pins metal pins which tighten struts
can rest on timber trestles. This is a suitable work wedged vertically in window openings.
surface because the bricklayer can step up and
down to get bricks and mortar.
More than 2 metres from the ground, workers
need ladders up to the platform, which must be
wide enough to hold materials, plant and people.
Platforms should be placed at 2 metre intervals as
the height of the building increases, so that Guard rail
workers can comfortably reach their working area
without hitting their heads as they walk under¬ Platform Toe board
neath. -q r
Bridle
Technical words for parts

Putlog
of a scaffold
Scaffolding uses many technical words such as Ledger

those in this list to describe its parts.
Standard
Base boards timber boards that support the base

plate on soft or uneven ground. Base plate
Base plates square metal plates that fit into the
bottom of scaffold tubes to spread the load.
Braces poles fixed diagonally to stiffen the
scaffold by forming a triangle. Figure 13.1 Parts of a putlog scaffold.
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2. the independent scaffold, which has a hori¬

zontal working platform that rests on vertical
poles at both ends. See Figures 13.2 and 13-3 for
examples of standard methods of construction
for independent metal scaffolds.
Scaffold poles are timber or tubular metal. The
platforms are always made of timber boards which
measure 225 x 2000 mm.
Timber scaffolding has these advantages:
1. Trees are available to supply the poles.

2. It is usually cheaper to buy timber poles than
metal.
3. The scaffold parts can be joined without special
fittings.
4. The timber can be reused when not required for
scaffolding.
5. It is easy to cut and fit.
It also has disadvantages:
1. It takes longer to erect.
2. The pole joints are secured with string and nails
rather than stronger purpose made fittings.
3. The timber may have hidden defects.
4. Timber putlog scaffold poles leave holes in the
walls, to be filled in.
Metal scaffolding has these advantages:
1. It is durable.
2. It is quick and simple to erect.
3. It is more adaptable.
4. The poles are all the same quality and strength.
5. Metal putlog scaffold poles have flattened ends
which do not leave holes in the walls.
The disadvantages of metal scaffolding are:

Standards the vertical poles that carry the weight 1. The initial cost is higher than for timber.
of the scaffolding to the ground. 2. The many joint fittings can easily be lost or
Toe boards the boards along the edges of plat¬ stolen.
forms that prevent materials falling off. 3. The poles must be carefully stored and pro¬
Transoms cross pieces that rest on the ledgers tected when not in use.
and support the platform.
Regulations and
recommendations for
Types of scaffolding
scaffolding
There are two types of safe scaffolding:
Regulations for the erection of scaffolding are very
1. the putlog scaffold, which is supported at one detailed because of the high risk of death or injury
end by the building under construction. One if scaffolding collapses. Safe working practices are
end of the working platform rests on the exter¬ essential.
nal wall and the other end is supported by The regulations for scaffolding materials usually
vertical poles (See Figure 13-1); specify that:
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Scaffolding 117
1. The poles and components must be in a sound 5. Putlog scaffolding must have diagonal braces
condition and suitable for the purpose. between the standards for the length of the
2. Metal poles must be free from rust. scaffold.
3. Timber poles must not be split or contain any 6. Independent scaffolding must have diagonal
rot or insect holes. braces between the standards on alternate bays.
4. Both metal and timber poles must be straight. 7. The span between standards should be less than
5. Poles should not be repaired or joined in ways 2400 mm.
that create weaknesses. 8. Scaffolds should be erected by fully trained
6. Poles must not be painted as this may conceal people only.
defects. 9. Parts of the scaffolding should not be moved
unless you check the changed fittings carefully.
The regulations for the safe erection of scaffold¬
ing normally state these principles:
The working platform
1. The standards must be vertical or slightly in¬
clined towards the building. You should space the putlogs or transoms to suit
2. The base of a standard must not rest directly on the thickness of the scaffold boards as shown in
the ground or it could sink under pressure. The Table 13.1.
structure must have a base plate between the
foot of the standard and the ground to take
Table 13.1 Spacing ratios for putlogs and
the load.
transoms
3. Putlogs and transoms that support the platform
must be fixed securely to the standards or Scaffold board thickness Putlog or transom spacing
(mm) (metres)
ledgers in an approved manner so that they
do not move. 32 1
4. The scaffolding should be tied to the wall of the 38 1.5
building under construction at 10 metre intervals 50 2.5
across the building face.
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The following list gives you some examples of CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
standard regulations for a working platform.
1. The working platform must be at least 625 mm • A scaffold is a temporary timber or metal struc¬
wide for walking. If the platform also holds ture that provides support for working platforms.
materials, then it must be at least 900 mm. • Working platforms are timber boards. They
2. Where horizontal boards overlap, then you should be wide enough to hold workers and ma¬
need to lay bevelled or shaped pieces of terials.
timber over the join to avoid tripping and to • Scaffolding must be strong enough to support
make it easier to wheel barrows. people and materials.
3. A board should not overhang the putlog or • Scaffolding should be attached to the building
transom by more than four times its thickness. under construction at suitable points such as win¬
4. All platforms must have a guardrail that is less dow openings.
than 750 mm above the toe board. Diagonal braces improve the stiffness of the
5. The toe board should be 150 mm high. scaffolding.
• Good discipline is essential to prevent falling
when working on scaffolding.
The regulations about ladders state that • Part of the load is supported by the building in
they: putlog scaffolds. The other part is supported by
# must be in good condition with no missing one row of standards.
rungs; Independent scaffolds have a row of standards
should be inclined at a 4:1 pitch; at each end to support the entire weight of the
# must be at least 900 mm higher than the working platforms.
working platform; • Make sure you know the rules for erecting,
must be tied to a ledger at the top; dismantling and using scaffolding, platforms and
# must stand on a level base at the bottom. ladders.
Inspection and maintenance
As part of your good working practices you should

carry out rigorous inspection and maintenance pro¬
cedures. You should check:
1 What makes a scaffold stable?
1. all parts of the scaffolding at least once a week 2 What are four different types of poles used to
and always after bad weather; build a putlog scaffold?
2. that all the uprights are vertical by sighting along 3 Draw the working platform on a putlog scaf¬
the line of the standards; fold.
3. that all the braces are in place and that the 4 Draw an independent scaffold.
scaffolding is tied to the building; 5 How do diagonal braces stiffen scaffolding?
4. that no important pieces were removed if the 6 What are three advantages and disadvantages
scaffolding has been partly dismantled; of these types of scaffolding:
5. that the guardrails and toe rails are supported i) timber
and in place. ii) metal?
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Stairs
Introduction Handrail an inclined rail that follows the slope

of the stairs, which is either fixed to a wall or
Buildings have stairs so that people can gain ac¬ supported on a balustrade.
cess to the upper floors. Stairs should be designed Landing the level space that breaks up the ver¬
so that they are convenient for the majority of tical incline of a flight of stairs.
people to use. Newel a stout vertical post at one end of the
Because the very young or very old may find it outer string. Its function is to support the inclined
difficult to go up and down stairs safely you should handrail at each end.
put sturdy handrails within reach. The handrails Newel post the main support for the handrail for
should be supported by balustrades on the open a timber staircase.
sides of staircases to prevent accidents. Nosing the part of the tread that projects beyond
This chapter tells you how to design, assemble the face of the riser.
and build simple staircases. Rise the vertical distance between the tops of
adjacent treads.
Riser the vertical surface of a step.
Technical words for String the side support for a flight of timber
steps. The strings are two timber pieces that form
parts of staircases
the sides of a staircase, which measure about 38 x
250 mm. The treads and risers are usually fixed
This section defines the words for the main parts of
into the strings in 12 mm slots, which are tapered
staircases. Figure 14.1 illustrates many of the im¬
to take wedges.
portant parts of timber, concrete and steel staircase
Tread the horizontal surface of a step where you
structures.
place your feet.
Baluster the infill between the handrail and the
The treads in a timber staircase are made from
string. It usually consists of square vertical balus¬
solid timber that is about 25 mm thick. The risers
ters fitted to the string capping and supporting a
are usually solid timber about 19 mm thick or
timber handrail. For safety reasons, the gaps be¬
12 mm plywood. The treads are attached to the
tween the uprights on the balustrade must be less
strings and joined to each other.
than 100 mm apart. It can also be wide rails that
run parallel to the string with a handrail supported
by intermediate balusters. These balusters can be
spaced more widely. Staircase materials
Balustrade the protection erected on the outer
edge of a staircase to prevent anything or anyone You can build staircases out of timber, reinforced
falling off the edge. concrete, steel or stone.
Flight a series of steps between floors or a floor Timber staircases are the most traditional. A
and a landing. timber staircase usually consists of two strings,
Going the horizontal distance between two adja¬ treads and risers, a balustrade and a handrail (Fig¬
cent risers. ure 14.1).
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Handrail
(d)
Steel handrail and
balusters bolted to
Figure 14.1 The construction of timber, concrete and steel staircases: (a) parts of a staircase: an
overview; (b) parts of a timber staircase; (c) parts of a concrete staircase; (d) parts of a steel staircase.
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Stairs 121
Reinforced concrete staircases are increas¬ timber staircases, but could be timber or metal for
ingly popular. They are usually cast in situ on concrete stairs. Metal staircases usually have steel
formwork. The treads and risers are cast in one balustrades.
piece so they do not have strings.
Steel staircases are normally used for fire
escapes or for external access. A typical rnetal Staircase layout
staircase has metal strings with steel treads fixed
to metal brackets. Steel staircases usually do not A straight flight of stairs is the most simple layout.
have risers. (Figure 14.2.) If the flight changes direction be¬
Stone staircases are rare. tween levels, then you need to provide a landing.
The parts of staircases can be made from differ¬ The degree of change in direction determines the
ent materials. Balustrades are usually timber in size of the landing:
Figure 14.2 Standard staircase layouts: (a) straight flight of stairs; (b) 90° turn with a quarter landing;
(c) 180° turn with a half landing; (d) tapered staircase with no landing; (e) dog-leg staircase.
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1. A 90° turn needs a quarter-space landing.

2. A 180° turn needs a half-space landing. Formula for calculating stair dimensions
The going plus the height of two risers must
You can put the landing in any position on the be:
flight of stairs. A landing at the top of the flight maximum of 700 mm;
leaves enough room for an understair cupboard Q minimum of 550 mm.
below. To ensure that stairs are not steeper than
Tapering the steps is another method of chang¬ 42° the relationship between the riser and the
ing direction. Tapered steps do not need a landing going must be based on the measurements in
and use less space, but are more dangerous to use Table 14.1.
because the reduction in the inner edge makes
walking difficult.
A staircase that turns through 180° can either
Table 14.1 Riser and going dimensions
have a well or a dog leg. The dog leg uses less
space since the two outer strings sit over one Riser (mm) Going (mm)
another. 155-220 245-260
165-200 220-305
General principles of staircase design
The first principle in staircase design is that a Each riser in a flight of stairs must be the same
person should be able to move comfortably from height. Each tread must be the same length. The
one step to another (Figure 14.3). The design must total number of risers depends on the height of the
conform to the typical step pattern of an average vertical rise of each flight.
person.
As the going increases, then the riser height Designing a straight flight of stairs
decreases. The reverse is also true. Increased riser
height means a decreased tread length. The goal is This section describes how to design a straight
to find the compromise between tread length and flight of stairs using a standard formula.
riser height using a standard formula. The dimensions for the staircase are:
vertical rise = 2760 mm
staircase length = 3000 mm
preferred riser height =190 mm
Using this information Table 14.2 shows you

how to calculate the number of risers and treads to
find out the length of the staircase. This informa¬
tion is also shown graphically in Figure 14.4.
Assembling a timber
staircase
The timber pieces for a staircase can be cut to size

from full-size templates prepared from the dimen¬
sions on the working drawings. You use machines
to make the grooves, mouldings and housings that
join the pieces of the staircase. The entire structure
can be assembled off site and transported to the
building intact.
Table 14.3 describes how to put a timber stair¬
case together from the timber pieces. Figure 14.5 is
Figure 14.3 An example of a comfortable relation¬ a view from below of the assembly of a timber
ship between horizontal and vertical movement. staircase.
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Stairs 123
Figure 74.4 Designing a staircase: calculating the number of treads and risers.
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Table 14.2 Calculating the length of the Table 14.3 Assembling the staircase
staircase Step Action
Step Action 1 Glue the treads and risers.
1 Divide the vertical rise by the riser height to 2 Insert the treads and risers in the grooves in
find the number of risers: the strings.
2760/190 = 14.52 risers Lightly nail them together.
Try 14 risers. Insert and glue two wedges in each tread to
2 Find the exact riser height by dividing the strengthen the joint.
vertical rise by the number of risers: Press the structure together with a cramp iron.
2760/14 = 197.14 If the staircase is more than 1 metre wide,
3
3 Find the going to suit the desired staircase then add a support called a carriage fixed to
length: the floor at each end: this is a piece of timber
3000/13 = 231 with brackets fixed on alternate sides to
support the middle of each tread.
4 Use the formula 1 tread + 2 risers to see if
this design is comfortable: 4 Fix a 75 x 75 mm newel post at the top and
231 + (197.14 x 2) = 625.28 bottom of both strings.
Make a slot in all the newel posts for the
5 Does the design come within the allowable
strings and adjacent treads and risers.
limits?
Make a small slot in the upper newel post to
Check against Table 14.1.
fit the first floor trimmer joist.
6 If YES, use staircase with 14 risers:
5 Glue and screw all the parts of the staircase
231 mm going and 197.14 mm riser
together.
7 If NO, repeat from step 2 with 15 risers. If this
6 Fit the handrail in position about 850 mm
still doesn't fit increase the staircase length
above the slope of the tread nosings and
and repeat from step 3.
insert it into the newel posts.
7 Insert the balusters into the handrail and the
string at less than 100 mm intervals.
Fixing a timber staircase on site 8 Transport it to the site and put the complete
staircase into the building.
You fix the string to the wall with plugs and
screws. It should fit tightly against the staircase
trimmer joist at the top and be cut and shaped to
fit against the skirting beside it. The lower end of A reinforced concrete staircase is a slab that
the staircase rests on the floor. Again, cut and spans between two different floor levels. The mini¬
match to the skirting as required. mum thickness of the slab where the riser and
Insert the outer string in the newel posts at the tread meet must be at least 150 mm. Since the slab
top and bottom. The stairwell trimmer slots into is cast on a smooth inclined deck, the underside
the top newel post and they are screwed or nailed of the finished staircase should be smooth and
together. Fix the lower newel post to the floor with unbroken.
brackets. Finally, fit the handrail and balustrade to
the string and newels to complete the staircase
fixing on site.
Building the formwork (Figure 14.6)
You follow these steps to build the formwork for

the slab:
Making a concrete staircase 1. Cut out an outer string shaped like the treads
and risers from a single piece of timber.
2. Place it in position on site.
A concrete staircase is usually made on site. The
construction procedures are the same as for other 3. Build the deck and support it with joists and
props.
concrete slabs:
4. Fit the outer string to the deck.
1. Erect timber formwork. 5. Fix the structure into a secure position.
2. Position the steel reinforcement. 6. Fix the formwork for the risers in position so
3. Pour and cure the concrete. that they are supported above the deck.
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Stairs 125
Batten
Hangers
Riser
formers
Joists
Figure 14.6 Constructing concrete stairs: (a) placing the formwork for concrete stairs; (b) suspending
the riser formers from hangers; (c) placing reinforcement for a flight of stairs.
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Figure 14.7 Two types of baluster for stair balustrades: (a) vertical balusters; (b) inclined balusters.
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Stairs 127
7. Use hangers suspended from a batten fixed to

the wall on the inner side and fix the riser form
to the cut string on the outer side as you can see
in Figure 14.6.
8. Treat the formwork with oil so that it can be
easily removed when the concrete hardens.
Placing the reinforcement
Your next job is to place the reinforcement in the

formwork. The main reinforcement must run from
top to bottom in the slab. Put the main reinforce¬
ment on the sloping deck of the formwork using
25 mm spacers to keep it off the bottom. Link the
reinforcement bar at the top to the starter bars
that project from the first-floor concrete slab.
(Refer to Chapter 11 on floors for more informa¬
tion.)
Wire cross reinforcement bars across the main
reinforcement bar at each step.
Placing the concrete
Make a stiff 1:2:4 concrete mix. The water to

cement ratio should be as low as possible so that
the mixture is not so wet that it flows downhill on
the slope.
Beginning at the bottom step, pack the concrete
into the formwork. Vibrate it and finish it off
smoothly with a trowel. Repeat these procedures
for each step until you reach the top. You may
need to use a platform to reach the upper steps
until you can work from the first-floor slab. Cure
the concrete and remove the formwork after 14
days.
Handrails and balusters for

concrete staircases 14.8 is a section to show you how a baluster
should be fixed to a handrail and staircase.
Concrete staircases usually have steel balusters.
They are fitted into holes made in the treads and
fixed with mortar or bolted to the sides of the
concrete. The handrail can be metal or timber.
Figure 14.7 shows you balusters with vertical and CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
sloping rails.
The handrail and balusters can be many differ¬ A staircase provides access to different floor
ent designs. You should take note of designs that levels.
you see elsewhere. Whatever design you use, you The staircase should be comfortable for the
must make sure that the handrail is at the correct average person to use.
height and that the space between the handrail and A staircase should have a slope less than
steps is filled in safely to prevent accidents. Figure 42°.
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The length of the treads or the height of the riser REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
can be adjusted to find the best slope.
A formula for a comfortably designed staircase is 1 How steeply can a staircase rise if the tread is
T tread length + 2 risers height = 550-700 mm’ 225 mm?
• All treads must be the same height in a flight of 2 Draw the fixing of a metal baluster to a con¬
stairs. crete stair.
• All risers must be the same height in a flight of 3 Draw a section of a timber staircase to show
stairs. how treads and risers are fastened to a string.
9 Stairs can be made from timber, concrete or 4 Draw a flight of five concrete steps with a
steel. landing. Show the formwork and reinforce¬
• Timber and metal stairs are usually made off ment. '
site. 5 Draw the following layouts for a one metre
9 Concrete stairs are usually made in situ. wide staircase with sixteen treads:
9 A reinforced concrete staircase is a slab that i) a dogleg staircase with two equal flights
spans the floor levels. ii) a staircase that winds around three sides of
9 Balustrades should be spaced less than 100 mm a stairwell with flights of six, four and six
apart. treads
9 Handrails should be about 850 mm above the iii) a staircase with a quarter-space landing
slope of the nosings. and two equal flights.
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Introduction constructed to high specifications and fitted with
high-security locks.
A door is a movable barrier that separates internal
and external spaces. It is usually attached to a Fire-resistance
frame on one side by hinges. A door provides Internal doors that separate spaces are usually
access, protection, security and privacy. This chap¬ made of materials that prevent the rapid spread of
ter describes how doors are made and how to fire. They are also heavy enough to be self-closing.
build them into wall openings.
Ironmongery is an important part of door furni¬ Sound insulation
ture. You can also read about the main types of Heavier doors provide better sound insulation.
ironmongery and how to fix them to doors and
their frames. Privacy
Solid doors are the most private. If some light is
needed while retaining privacy, then obscure glass
should be fitted.
Performance standards
Operation
A door, depending on the type, should meet cer¬
Doors can swing or slide open and closed. Most
tain standards for:
doors swing on hinges fixed to door frames. Spring-
9 weather resistance; loaded latches usually hold doors closed. You
• security; normally open doors with knobs or levers.
fire resistance;
9 sound insulation; Durability
• privacy; Doors are in constant use. Their construction should
9 operation; be strong enough to withstand considerable activ¬
• durability. ity. A door should not fall off the edge fixed to a
frame under its own weight. External doors should
Weather-resistance be able to resist climatic extremes, which can
External doors need a minimum gap of 2 mm for cause the shape to warp.
free movement. This gap should be sealed with
suitable draught and water excluders to make the
doors weather-resistant.
Security
Technical words for
The security of a door depends on the materials parts of a door
used, the quality of the frame and the ironmon¬
gery. Internal doors only need to provide minimal This section defines the main parts of a door. So
security. For example, a bathroom door might be that you can see what they look like, the parts are
fitted with a simple lock. External doors need to be also labelled in Figure 15.1.
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Cill a horizontal member at the base of an exter¬ Stop a thin piece of timber fixed to the head and
nal door that separates the internal and external jambs of the lining to form a rebate.
structure. It should slope so that rainwater flows Threshold the access point in the doorway where
outside rather than inside. you enter or exit. The cill is part of the threshold.
Frame a solid timber or metal structure fixed to Water bar a metal bar fitted into the cill of an
a wall. It is constructed so that it forms a seal when external door to prevent water flowing inside.
the door closes and supports the door’s weight. Weatherboard a horizontal piece fixed to the
Head the horizontal piece at the top of the frame. external bottom edge of a door to push water away
Jamb the vertical part of the frame that is fixed to from the cill.
the wall.
Lining the timber framework inserted into an
opening in an internal wall.
Rebate a recess in the door frame that seals the
edges of a door. Door construction
Stile the outer vertical piece of the door frame.
There are three types of stile:
You can make doors out of these different struc¬
6 hanging stile that the door hangs on;
tural pieces:
closing stile that holds the lock or latch;
meeting stile where a pair of doors meets in the 1. ledges, braces and battens;
middle. 2. frames, ledges, braces and battens.
Frame (Jamb)
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Doors 131
Making a ledged, braced and battened door 2. Glue the tongues and grooves together.
3. Screw or nail the battens to the ledges.
This is a very simple door for internal or external
4. Cut out and fit the braces between the ledges.
use, which is cheap to make. For an illustration 5. Nail the battens to the braces.
look at Figure 15.2. It consists of these pieces:
This type of door does not have any special
tongued, grooved and V-jointed battens measur¬ woodworking joints.
ing about 100 x 10 mm that form the surface of
the door. The joints should be vertical;
Making a framed, braced and battened door
horizontal pieces called ledges measuring about
100 x 25 mm; This door is stronger than the ledged, braced and
diagonal pieces called braces that measure about battened door because the battens are set inside a
100 x 25 mm. Braces should be fixed so that timber frame (Figure 15.3). The framed, braced
they slope up away from the hinges. and battened door consists of these pieces:
You follow these steps to construct this type of battens that form the surface of the door;
door: a frame with a head rail, bottom rail and two
stiles;
1. Assemble the battens so that they are the right a ledge;
size for the door. • braces.
Head
Figure 15.2 An example of a ledged, braced and Figure 15.3 An example of a framed, braced and
battened door. battened door.
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Figure 15.4 The construction of standard flush doors: (a) standard flush door; (b) a frame for a standard
flush door; (c) facing and edging for a flush door; (d) an alternative core using a cardboard lattice.
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Doors 133
The basic steps for constructing this type of door rect type of door is put in the right location. The
are to: plywood facing and the frames for external flush
doors should be fixed with waterproof glue.
1. Cut and assemble the pieces of the frame to fit
the door size.
2. Insert the head and bottom rails into recesses
in the stiles.
3. Fit the braces.
Panelled doors
4. Nail the battens on the braces and stile.
Panelled doors are suitable for internal and exter¬
nal use. They are made from solid timber frames
with solid or glazed panels.
You can construct battened doors using dif¬
This list describes the main parts of a panelled
ferent methods.
door not defined in earlier sections:
• You can omit the braces, but the door may
Intermediate rails are cross pieces that divide the
drop because it is not rigid enough and
door into panels horizontally.
lose its shape.
Muntins are the central vertical pieces.
• You can put the bottom rail of the frame
Bottom rail is the bottom horizontal framing piece.
behind the battens so that the door is only
Panels are the filling between the framing pieces.
framed at the top and sides.
They can be:
• thin, solid timber;
• 6 mm plywood;
Flush doors • clear or obscure glass.
You can see what the parts of the door look like
Flush doors have no projections or recesses on in Figure 15.5.
either surface of the door. These doors are usually
made of large sheets of plywood or hardboard.
Flush doors may have glazed panels to allow in
some light. The construction of flush doors is
shown in Figure 15.4.
This list describes the parts that are specific to a
flush door:
A core is the inner part of the door. The external
boards or sheets of plywood are fixed to it. The
core can be made from:
1. a softwood framework of horizontal and vertical
pieces joined together in recessed joints;
2. a cellular centre of paper or cardboard strips
glued together in a lattice pattern;
3. a solid centre of timber strips glued together.
This type of core makes a very heavy door with
good sound insulation that can be used for
external doors and fire doors.
A flush panel is 3 mm plywood or hardboard
sheets which are fixed onto the core material.
A lipping is a thin wooden strip that protects the
edges of a flush door panel.
A lock block is a piece fitted into the internal
framework of the door to make the recess for the
lock.
Flush doors are usually made in factories. This
ensures a high-quality, durable product if the cor¬
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(a) Counter-sunk hole
P-
Counter-sunk
screw
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Doors 135
The panels are usually fitted into rebates in the the lock is engaged in the recess of the frame you
frames and screwed or nailed into place. This can only open it with a key. The bolt of a lock is
method allows you to remove and replace panels, square and not spring-loaded.
including glass panels, easily when required. Lock and latch combination are often inserted
into one case to put in the recess in a door. A night
latch combines a lock and latch into one unit with
one bolt. The bolt is curved so that you can shut
Ironmongery the door by pushing or pulling it closed. When the
door is closed, then you must have a key to open
Basic door ironmongery consists of hinges, locks it from the outside. You can just turn the handle to
and latches, which are illustrated in Figures 15.6 open it from the inside.
and 15.7.
Doors swing open and shut on their hinges, Methods of fixing locks and latches
which are the points on which doors move. Locks and latches can be rim fixed or morticed. A
Strap hinges are mainly used with ledged, rim lock or latch is fixed on the internal surface of
braced and battened doors. These 150-600 mm a door. The lock mechanism is contained in a steel
hinges are made from wrought iron or pressed or brass box. Night latches are often rim fixed. The
steel. locks and latches fitted to ledged, braced and
Butt hinges are found on most internal and battened doors are also usually rim fixed.
external doors. They come in a variety of materials Morticed locks and latches are set in a recess,
and sizes including: called a mortice, that is cut into the edge of the
door. Most deadlocks and lock and latch sets are
1. steel, which is used for all internal flush doors. morticed. All that you can see is the faceplate of
A steel butt hinge is pressed and bent to form a the lock and latch assembly on the edge of the
knuckle for a pin to pass through; door.
2. brass, which is used on external doors if rust is
likely to be a problem. Brass hinges look like
steel hinges, but brass is more attractive on Other door fittings
polished hardwood doors;
Doors also have handles and bolts. The handles
3. wrought iron, which is usually specially de¬
are knobs or lever handles that operate latches.
signed for external doors.
They are screwed to the surface of the door.
The structure of a butt hinge consists of two Square spindles that pass through the latches fit
separate leaves held together by a pin. The pivotal into sockets in the bases of the handles.
part of each leaf interlocks with the other leaf. As Security bolts are often fitted to the inside of an
the door moves, the two pivoting parts of the external door as an additional safety measure against
leaves press against each other. Butt hinges are intruders. Another type of bolt is fitted on double
fixed to the door or frame with countersunk holes doors to hold them in closed positions.
to take flush fitting screws.
Most butt hinges are about 100 x 25 mm. Each
door has two or three hinges fixed so that the
leaves are flush with the surface of the door and Door dimensions
frame.
Doors for domestic buildings are usually about
2 metres high. Their width varies, as shown in
Locks and latches Table 15.1.
A latch, which is a door catch lifted by a lever, is

fitted to a recess in a door. When you release the
Table 15.1 Door dimensions
handle to close a door, then a spring pushes the
latch bolt out so that it projects from the edge. The Type of door Thickness (mm) Width (mm)
end of the latch bolt, which is curved on the External door 40-50 760-900
surface, rides over a metal plate and springs back Internal doors 40 680-760
into the recess in the door frame. Fire-resistant doors 44 760-900
A door lock secures a room or building. Once
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(a) (b)
(C) (d)
Spindle
hole
Mortice
recess
in the
edge of
the door
Key hole
Figure 15.7 Examples of standard door locks and handles: (a) lever handle; (b) door bolt; (c) pull
handle; (d) recessed mortice lock; (e) rim lock.
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Doors 137
3. Put the frame in position after the wall and lintel

Door frames and linings are built.
4. Level the frame with small timber pieces.
The purpose of door frames and linings is to:
5. Drill holes in the frame or lining for screws to go
1. define openings; into the plugs in the masonry.
2. reduce the gap between a door and a wall; 6. Countersink the screws and fill the holes.
3. provide fixings for the hinges and a recess for
the lock or latch;
4. provide a finish between the door and the wall.
Door frames are usually made from solid timber

with a rebate to house the door. The frame is not
related to the thickness of the wall surrounding it.
A typical timber frame for a 50 mm external door Doors are a means of securing access to rooms
could be 125 x 75 mm with a 12 mm rebate. and buildings.
Door linings are usually fitted to internal doors Doors must resist fire and weather and provide
where the lining is the full width of the internal security.
wall. A timber stop nailed to the lining provides a They swing on hinges on one side and close
rebate for the door to close against. into a frame on the other.
Doors are usually timber.
Door panels may be glazed.
Fixing door frames and linings Flush doors are made of hardboard or plywood.
Doors made from solid timber usually have
You should follow these steps to fix a frame or
panels.
lining into place as the wall is built:
Solid doors can be made from tongue and groove
1. Brace the frame or lining to keep it square. battens on timber frames.
2. Paint the back of the frame to prevent the entry Frames and linings finish off the gap between
of moisture from the masonry. doors and walls.
3. Screw galvanised metal fastenings to the back of Most ironmongery is standard and manufactured
the frame or lining which match the masonry to suit the various requirements for hinges and
courses. locks.
4. Stand the structure in position, level and support
it with struts.
5. Build the fastenings into the masonry joints to REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
secure the frame or lining in position perma¬
nently. 1 Draw the structure of a framed, ledged and
braced door with left-hand hinges.
You should follow these steps to fix a frame or
2 What are two methods for fixing glass into
lining into the wall after the wall is built:
panels?
1. Leave an opening that is about 3-4 mm bigger 3 Draw a standard flush door.
than the frame when the wall is built. 4 What are two methods of fixing locks and
2. Insert wood plugs into some of the masonry latches?
joints that face the opening during construction. 5 Draw a threshold of an external door.
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Introduction but other materials such as plastic or aluminium
are also popular. This chapter describes some of
Windows provide natural light and ventilation to the most common types of window and their
the interior of a building while excluding rain and standard measurements.
insects. The glass in the windows must be strong Since windows provide a point of entry into a
enough to resist wind pressure. This means that the building, they may need locks or burglar bars
thickness of the glass increases as the size of the for security. This chapter also looks at how to
glass pane increases. fix security screens and grilles to standard win¬
Windows are usually made of timber or steel, dows.
Head
Transom
Mullion
Jamb
Top rail
Cill
Stile
The parts of the
fixed frame
The parts of the

moving sash
Bottom rail
Figure 16.1 The parts of a window.
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138
Windows 139
Technical words for parts Types of window

of a window and frame
Standard windows can have four different types of
The technical words that describe the main parts of opening section as you can see in Figure 16.2:
windows and frames are in the following list.
1. Side-hung windows have hinges on one side
Figure 16.1 shows you what some of the main
and the fastening catch and handle on the other.
pieces look like.
2. Top-hung windows have hinges at the top and
a securing stay at the bottom. This window
Bottom rail the bottom member of a sash or
opens out.
light.
3. Bottom-hung windows have hinges at the
Head the top piece of a window, which is fixed
bottom and a securing catch at the top. This
to the underside of the masonry.
window opens in and needs a special stay to
Casement a side-hung opening window.
stop it falling into the room.
Cill the bottom piece of a window, which is
4. Louvres are individual pieces of glass held in
fixed to the bottom of the opening.
clips and opened by a lever arm, which locks
Jamb the vertical sidepiece fixed to the surface
the louvres in position.
of the window opening.
Mullion a fixed vertical piece in the window The top- and bottom-hung windows are useful
framework, which separates the fixed and moving when ventilation is required, but the room must be
parts. secured against rain or intruders. If you want to
Opening light another word for a sash. control the flow of air you need a type of window
Sash the whole moving part of a window includ¬ that increases or decreases the size of the opening.
ing the glass. This can be a:
Stile the side member of a sash. glazed and hinged sash;
Top rail the top member of a sash. solid battened timber sash without glass, which
Transom the fixed horizontal piece that sepa¬ excludes daylight and ventilation when it is shut.
rates the fixed and moving parts of the window.
Ventilator a small sash, which is often top-hung It is normal for part of a window to be fixed.
to provide secure ventilation. This part, which has the glass fixed directly to the
framework of the window, is called a fixed light.
Ironmongery for an opening sash

Building regulations The ironmongery for an opening sash consists of:
for windows
1. hinges, which are screwed to the timber pieces.
The hinges are usually riveted to steel frames;
Windows are usually put together in combinations
2. casement fasteners, which are fitted on the
of opening and fixed lights to comply with the
opposite sides of the hinges on side-hung win¬
regulations for health and hygiene in habitable
dows. They keep the window closed;
rooms. Habitable rooms must have adequate fresh
3. casement stays, which are metal arms with
air and light in rooms used for living, eating and
holes along their length fixed to pivots on the
sleeping. The standard requirements in most build¬
bottom pieces of the sash. They hold the top-
ing regulations are usually:
hung and side-hung lights in the open position.
1. The minimum area of window in a habitable
room should be 10 per cent of the floor area.
2. The minimum opening area of the window in a
habitable room should be 5 per cent of the floor Window height
area.
Sometimes permanent ventilation is required in Windows may be custom made or standard. Cus¬
a room. You can put in a mesh-covered opening in tom made means that the window is designed for
the head of the frame to keep out insects and to a specific building. Standard means that a manu¬
provide air. facturer produces a range of windows to fit typical
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Side-hung casement
Figure 16.2 Different opening lights.
window openings. It is cheaper for a building The actual size of a window is slightly smaller
designer to design openings to fit standard than the dimensions given here, to allow for fixing
windows. and bedding.
Window dimensions are usually related to nor¬
mal brick dimensions. The height should suit a
75 mm brick course. The most practical height Example
ranges from 300 to 1500 mm. To make a taller A window opening that measures 1500 mm
window, you can introduce an extra horizontal vertically will require a window that is
bar to join windows if they are made from steel. 1490 mm to allow for 5 mm bedding on top
Window heights are usually increased in incre¬ and bottom.
ments of 300 mm.
If you build a door into the window design,
then the structure has an overall height of 2100 or
2400 mm. Combination windows
The height is usually determined by the size of
The height of a window with a moving part should
the lintel. Other factors that influence the height
be less than 900 mm or the glass will be too heavy
are:
and subject to distortion from strong winds. Al¬
1. the requirement for security. Small windows are though the total height can be up to 2400 mm, the
more secure; vertical sash should be divided into panels.
2. heat gain. Heat from surrounding surfaces enters A convenient width for a moving part such as a
through a window; casement is 600 mm. Wider units usually have a
3. glare. The intensity of the light entering from mullion fitted. If a 600 mrn^casement is part of a
outside may need to be restricted; window unit with a 600 mm fixed light, then the
4. handling. The practicalities of lifting and trans¬ overall width of the window is 1200 mm.
porting window units may determine the best Table 16.1 shows you typical incremental in¬
size. creases in width for combination windows.
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Windows 141
Table 16.1 Combination window widths Louvres can be fixed in position or slotted into
Window combination Width (mm) pivoting clips on each side of the frame. The clips
One casement 600 are tilted by an operating arm which opens, closes
and locks the louvres.
One casement and one fixed light 1200
Louvred windows usually need burglar bars fit¬
One casement and one 900 mm
ted behind the glass since the louvres can easily be
fixed light 1500
removed for entry into the building.
Two casements and one 600 mm fixed
light 1800
Two casements and one 900 mm fixed
light 2100 Glazing
Two casements and one 1200 fixed light 2400
The glazing is the glass part of the window. Glass
is essential to let in daylight, but to exclude wind
and rain.
The thickness of a pane of glass depends on its
Louvred windows height, width and amount of likely wind pressure.
These types of glass are commonly used in small
A louvred window is a window with rows of
buildings:
sloping blades of timber or glass called louvres
fitted into a frame. You fit this assembly into an 1. clear glass, which is about 3 to 4 mm thick;
opening so that the louvres slope out and down to 2. obscure glass, which is used in private areas
deflect rainwater, but still allow the air to flow in such as toilets and bathrooms. It is usually about
and out freely. Louvred windows may need an 4 mm thick and comes in a variety of patterns;
insect screen to keep insects and leaves from blow¬ 3. special glass, which is used in internal or exter¬
ing in when the louvres are open. nal doors that require stronger safety glass.
Figure 16.3 Two methods for fixing glass in timber frames.
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Mastic pointing
Drip moulding
Capillary grooves
Bottom rail
Capillary grooves
Transom
Mastic pointing
Fixing screw
Capillary
grooves Filler or Plug in wall
wood plug
Figure 16.4 Detailing timber windows.
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Windows 143
There are two main types of special glass: Head and top rail joint
wired glass, which can be clear or obscure. It is Make a groove in the head and the rail to form a
about 6 mm thick and is reinforced with wire; gap to prevent water spreading across the joint.
toughened glass, which is manufactured to a
specific size and cannot be cut. When this glass Bottom rail and transom joint
breaks it shatters into harmless pieces. Car wind¬ Make a groove and put a drip mould in the bottom
screens are made from toughened glass. rail to prevent water spreading across the joint.
The bottom edge of the rail and the top of the
transom should slope to meet each other.
Fixing glass in frames (Figure 16.3)
cm
The method that you use to fix glass in frames
Make a groove in the underside of the cill where it
depends on whether the frame is wood or metal.
projects past the masonry to prevent water running
Follow these steps to fix glass in wood frames: back under the cill.
1. Prime the wood to keep the oil in the linseed
putty. Cm masonry joint
2. Apply putty to the recess in the frame and fit the Fill the joint between the cill and the masonry with
glass. mastic.
3- Put more putty around the outside of the joint
where the glass lies in the frame. Jamb of frame
4. Level off the putty so that it slopes to line up Point this joint with mastic.
with the top of the recess (creating a sight
line). Jamb and stile joint
5. If the glass is fixed to an internal door, then bed Make grooves.
the glazing in timber glazing beads, which are
nailed to the frame on four sides. This prevents Stile and mullion joint
the glass rattling when the door is opened and Make grooves.
closed.
Follow these steps to fix glass in steel frames:
1. Use a special metal glazing putty, which sticks Using metal windows
better than ordinary putty.
2. Put the bottom edge of the glass on two small Metal windows are usually made in factories of
blocks so that it does not rest on the metal. Z-section steel, which forms the frame and moving
3- Continue fixing as for wood frames. parts. They can be ready-made units or custom
built to specific dimensions. Metal has these advan¬
Excluding water from tages over timber windows:
timber windows 1. The metal sections are smaller, which increases
the area of the glazing.
Timber windows need to be designed so that 2. They are not subject to rot or insect attack (but
water does not enter. This section describes what they may rust near the sea).
to do to each part of a timber window to prevent 3. They are easier to make.
this. See Figure 16.4 for the specific detailing re¬
Figure 16.5 shows you how metal windows are
quired.
fixed into concrete cills and lintels.
Head
Point the joint between the head of the frame and
the lintel or arch with a non-setting mastic, which
remains intact even if the frame shrinks a little. Making window cills
Top rail You can make window cills in timber, brick, tile or
Put a drip moulding on the head of the frame to concrete. Each of these materials must achieve the
deflect water from an opening sash. same results:
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. t -o; Concrete lintel

.ao
Fixing screw in a
• * 0
$ .0. . plug in concrete
i
Fixed frame
Transom
Side-hung casement
Precast concrete cill
■' c7O 0
Figure 16.5 Parts of a metal window.
1. The cill must project past the surface of the wall Fixing windows to openings
by 50 mm so that the water running down the
surface of the window clears the wall. A timber window can be fixed in place as an
2. It must be designed so that water runs off and opening is built or afterwards. Generally, it is
not back to the wall along the underside. better practice to fix the windows later to prevent
3. It must have enough slope on its upper surface exposure of the internal parts to the weather. To
to discharge rainwater. do this, you must fix plugs into the recesses in the
4. The bottom window frame must be slotted in so frames and the cill during construction and then
that water cannot enter. screw the windows in place.
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Windows 145
You follow the same procedure to fix windows Insects usually have a daily and seasonal pat¬
in place while the walls are being built as you do tern. Since wire screens to exclude insects reduce
for doors. See Chapter 15. daylight and obscure the view, it is useful to have
Metal windows are usually fixed in place after temporary mesh panels that can be inserted when
the walls are constructed. You should leave holes needed. If the building also has security grilles,
in the frames for screws to fit into the plugs in the then the mesh screens need to be inside the grilles,
walls. After the frame is inserted, you should fill for removal or they must be hinged.
the joint around the frame with a waterproof mas¬
tic cement. Figure 16.6 illustrates the correct detail¬ Fixing grilles and screens
ing for a metal window embedded in a precast Security grilles must have projections on each side
concrete cill. to slot into the side of the window opening. They
also must be small enough so that the plasterer
can work on the opening reveals.
Insect screens can be hinged on frames which
are fixed flush with the inside walls so that they
Keeping out intruders fold back when not in use. Removable screens
and insects need safe storage space so that the mesh is not
damaged.
You will need to consider security and the exclu¬
sion of insects like mosquitoes in the window
specification. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
An open window at ground-floor level is almost
an invitation to someone to enter a building. If the # Windows provide light and ventilation to the
glass can be lifted out easily or broken, then you interior of a building.
may need to fix metal grilles inside the window. 6 Windows have glass to admit light while exclud¬
These grilles, often called burglar bars, are made ing the weather and insects.
from 6 mm steel bars welded together in a strong # Windows may have security grilles and insect
and decorative pattern. The grilles should have screens for added protection when they are open.
access holes large enough for you to put your # The main structure of a window is the fixed
hand in to operate the window fittings. Figure 16.7 frame and movable sash.
shows you an example of a decorative pattern for # Sashes can be hinged to a frame in different
burglar bars. ways.
Internal timber cill
Figure 16.6 Metal window on a precast concrete cill.
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© Windows can be timber, steel, plastic or alu¬

minium.
Building regulations usually specify the mini¬
mum sizes of windows and their opening parts.
© Windows can be custom made or standard.
• Glazing can be clear or obscure.
© Glass can be fixed in the frames with putty or
wooden beads.
© Windows must be carefully designed and con¬
structed to exclude water.
© Louvres are timber or glass strips which are
movable to allow ventilation.
1 What ironmongery do you need for a side-

hung window?
2 What size manufactured window do you need
for an opening that is 1200 x 1500 mm?
3 How do you ensure that water does not enter
timber windows?
4 What is the purpose of a cill?
5 What are three ways that metal windows are
better than timber?
Figure 16.7 A decorative security grille on

opening lights.
•v
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Introduction Technical words for parts of
a drainage system
The design of a building needs to include provi¬
sion for drainage. In a domestic building, facilities This section defines the parts of a drainage system
are required for: in a typical small building.
Drain a pipe laid below ground level that uses

1. personal washing; _
gravity to carry waste water away from the build¬
2. disposal of human waste products;
ing.
3- preparing food and washing kitchen utensils.
Gully the fitting on the drain that takes waste
pipes from baths and basins, but not WCs.
All these activities use water, which must be Invert level the depth to the bottom of a drain
supplied to the building. After its use, the waste pipe measured from the datum.
water must be disposed of so that it does not Manhole the access point to the drainage system
pollute the environment or cause a health risk to for inspection and cleaning. It is also called an
the occupants. Figure 17.1 gives you an overview inspection chamber.
of the route that the waste water for these activities Public sewer the large pipe laid below the roads
takes from a building to a public sewer. or other public land which carries waste from
Water that contains human and domestic waste building plots to the treatment works.
is called effluent or sewage. It should be col¬ Soil drainage the pipework that takes the dis¬
lected from the building and drained into a system charge from the soil and waste fittings such as the
of pipes and sewers that ends at a sewage treat¬ WC, bath and basin.
ment plant or sewage disposal works. When Soil vent pipe installed at the end of the drain¬
the sewage is treated, then it can be returned to the age system for a building to expel gases from the
sea or rivers in a clean condition. sewage system.
If there is no system of public sewers, then you Surface water drainage the water that flows
need to supply an independent system for collect¬ from the roof and paved areas after rain. This
ing and treating sewage, such as a septic tank or water is considered clean and does not have to be
cesspool. The main difference between a cesspool treated at the sewage plant.
and a septic tank is that a cesspool does not break Trap a fitting that retains water in the drainage
down and treat the sewage. The cesspool is a system. The trap prevents sewer gases entering a
holding tank that must be emptied regularly by a building or escaping at ground level.
special tanker.
This chapter looks at the three main types of
drainage: Principles of soil drainage
1. below ground;
2. above ground; Since drains laid below ground are fairly inaccessi¬
3. surface water. ble, their operation must be as trouble-free as
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Figure 17.1 An overview of the discharge of waste water from a house to a public sewer.
possible. To achieve this you need to follow these dation level with concrete.
principles in their construction: 11. Join branch drains to the main drain at an
oblique angle.
1. Ensure that the drains are watertight so that
12. Insert a trap at every inlet to a drain other than
waste does not leak out and contaminate the
a soil pipe.
ground.
2. Clear away obstructions within the pipes such
as surplus mortar at the joints. Pipe sizes and falls
3. Lay drains on even gradients to make sure that
the water carries solid matter away smoothly. A minimum 100 mm drain is usually adequate for
4. Lay drains in straight lines. If a drain changes a domestic plot. About 20 small houses can be
direction, then insert an inspection chamber. connected to a 100 mm drain because only one or
5. Construct a manhole if several pipes come two properties will discharge water at the same
together to join a single drain run. time. If required, then a larger pipe such as one
6. Construct inspection points that are less than with a 150 mm diameter is available.
43 metres apart. Construct manholes at 90 metre The typical gradients for the waste fall are in
intervals on straight runs. Table 17.1. The gradient, which is a downhill
7. Construct a manhole at the boundary of the slope, determines the speed of the effluent dis¬
property before the drain joins the public sewer. charge. When the drains are laid to the correct fall,
8. Use soil drains that are at least 100 mm in then the velocity of the water flow will keep the
diameter. drain free of solids so that" it is self-cleaning. The
9- Surround drains under buildings in at least fall of the drain should follow the natural slope of
150 mm of concrete. the ground to reduce the amount of excavation
10. Backfill trenches for drains near or below foun¬ needed.
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Drainage 149
Table 17.1 Recommendations for gradients Depth of pipes in the ground

Pipe diameter (mm) Gradient
Table 17.2 describes the guidelines for the mini¬
100 1:40
mum depth in different locations.
150 1:60
225 1:90
Table 17.2 Minimum depth for rigid pipes
Pipe size Fields or gardens Driveways and minor roads
A drain run may be steeper when short branches (mm) (mm) (mm)
are connected to manholes. Generally, it is cheaper 100 400 700
to make drain runs as short as possible with a 150 600 1000
minimum of manholes.
Calculating the depth of a drain

You should lay flexible pipes at least 600 mm
It is cheaper to connect the sanitary fittings to the deep in fields and gardens and 900 mm under
main sewer by the shortest possible route. Your roads and driveways.
objective is to find the invert levels for both ends If pipes are closer to the surface than recom¬
of the drain run. You begin by measuring the drain mended, then they must be protected. You should
run from the house to the plot boundary. The surround rigid pipes with concrete 150 mm thick
following example shows you how to complete and provide expansion joints at 5 metre intervals.
the calculations. You should surround flexible pipes with concrete
or protect them by putting them under precast
concrete paving slabs that rest on 75 mm granular
fill material.
Example: How to calculate invert levels

Find the invert level nearest the house:
If you want 400 mm cover over the pipe Types of drainpipe
and the outside diameter of the drain is
125 mm, then the invert will be 525 mm Drainpipes can be made from a variety of materi¬
below ground. Where the ground level is als. Your choice of drainpipe will depend on avail¬
150 mm below the finished floor level or ability, price and suitability for the purpose. This
datum, add 150 mm. list describes some of the most common materials
Find the invert level at the lower end of the for drainpipes:
drain run:
Drain run = 30 metres 1. vitrified clay, which is clay that was fired at a
Invert level below datum at head of drain = very high temperature to make it waterproof;
675 mm 2. cast iron, which is a very hard metal alloy. This
Fall to drain in mm over 30 metres = material is quite expensive and normally only
30 000/40 = 750 mm used for commercial buildings;
Invert at lower end of drain = 675 + 750 = 3. concrete, which is cast using the methods of
1425 mm below datum production for concrete described in earlier
chapters;
4. pitch fibre, which is made from waste paper or
wood fibres and bitumen or pitch;
5. plastic, which is polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This
is a popular material because it comes in long
The depth of the drain is related to the site lengths, is light and it makes joints easily.
datum level, not ground level. (Refer to Chap¬
ter 6 for more information on site datum
levels.) You must still make sure that the Methods of joining drains
drain has enough ground cover.
The method that you use to join drains depends on
whether you are using:
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rigid pipes with rigid joints; 2. polypropylene sleeves, which are fitted with
rigid pipes with flexible joints; rubber rings to grip the pipes instead of spigot
flexible pipes with flexible joints. and socket joints.
You can use these combinations to make flexible
Rigid pipes with rigid joints
joints for concrete pipes.
Rigid pipes made from clay, concrete or cast iron
need rigid joints with socket ends that are wide
Flexible pipes with flexible joints
enough to insert pipes with straight ends, called
Flexible pipes distort under loads. This distortion
spigots. There should be enough space around
should be limited to 5 per cent of the pipe’s
the spigots to put the jointing material.
diameter to maintain the flow of water. Similarly,
You make a joint for a clay pipe by wrapping
the flexibility of the joint should only take up slight
rope or yarn around the spigot and pushing the
movement so that the pipe maintains the correct
pipe into the socket of the adjoining pipe so that it
falls.
fits tightly. Then fill the socket with a 3:1 cement
You can join pitch fibre pipes with polypropylene
mortar mix and finish it off neatly. Joints for con¬
sleeves with gaskets or by tapering the ends of
crete pipes are made in the same way as clay
the pipe and driving them into collars. PVC pipes
pipes.
are made with socket and spigot ends. They can be
Cast iron joints are formed by wrapping yarn
jointed by using a solvent to weld the pipes to¬
around the spigot and filling the space between
gether so that one pipe sits tightly inside the other
the spigot and socket with molten lead.
or by inserting rubber rings in the grooves of the
sockets and spigots.
Rigid pipes with flexible joints
Recent developments in pipe technology have made
it possible to use rigid pipes with jointing methods
that allow some flexibility. This is useful because
rigid joints may crack with slight movement.
Excavating the drain layout
You can choose from two types of flexible joint:
Table 17.3 shows you the basic procedure for
1. spigot and socket combinations, which are fitted excavating the drain layout. You can see what a
with plastic pieces which have grooves for typical fall for a drain run would look like in Figure
rubber rings; 17.2.
Datum level
30 000
Figure 17.2 A typical fall for a drain run: working out the depth of the drain.
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Drainage 151
Table 17.3 How to excavate the drain positions you need to check and test the support for the
Step Action pipes and the gradient. After your inspection you
1 Mark out the positions of the drain runs on the can pack in more bedding so that it comes about
ground and mark the manhole positions. half way up the pipe. The bedding that covers the
2 Calculate the depth of the inverts at the top of the pipe can contain small stones less than
highest positions. 40 mm in diameter in 100 mm layers until there is
3 Set up sight rails on the first straight drain run at least 300 mm cover over the pipes in the trench.
using a levelling instrument. Figure 17.4 shows you the difference between
The difference between the sight rails divided bedding rigid and flexible drainpipes.
by 80 is the difference in level.
4 Calculate the depth of the excavation and
add 100 mm for bedding if required.
Laying drains near buildings
5 Measure the height of the upper sight rail Drains for domestic buildings are usually above
above the datum.
the level of the foundations, except for raft founda¬
Make a boning rod which stretches from the
sight line to the bottom of the excavation.
tions. If they are lower than strip foundations, then
Example: if the sight line is 1500 mm above you should follow this procedure:
the datum, then the length of the boning rod
will be 1500 + 775 mm (for depth of
1. Backfill the trench around the drain up to the
excavation) = 2275 mm. level of the foundation if the drain excavation is
6
closer than 1 metre to the edge of the concrete
Excavate the trench until you reach the correct
level and line up the boning rod with the line
strip.
between the sight rails (Figure 17.3). 2. Fill the trench with 150 mm of concrete if the
As you move the boning rod you will dig the angle of the drain excavation is less than a 45°
correct level for the slope. angle from a bottom corner of the foun¬
7 Insert some pegs in the bottom of the trench dation.
that project 100 mm off the bottom.
8 Fill the bottom of the trench with 100 mm
granular material (until it covers the pegs).
9 Shorten the boning rod so that it reaches from Testing drains
the highest sight rail to the invert of the drain.
Attach a batten to the bottom of the rod so
Drains that carry sewage must not leak into the
that it can sit on the bottom of the trench.
surrounding ground. To make sure that the joints
10 Lay the drains on the bedding and keep
are secure, drains should be tested before they are
checking the levels with the boning rod.
Joint the pipes so that the socket faces the flow.
covered up. The test is usually set up by the
builder and checked by a building inspector.
11 Test the drains and backfill.
You can use three different methods to test
12 Repeat procedure for the next drain run. drains:
1. the hydraulic test;
2. the ball test;
3. the mirror and torch test.
tedding drainpipes To check that the drains are watertight you

follow these steps for the hydraulic or water test:
The best pipe bedding is a granular material such
1. Plug the lower end of a drain run.
as concrete aggregate. You should lay a 100 mm
2. Insert a temporary joint and 1.5 metre length of
layer of bedding in the bottom of the trench to
pipe at the higher end.
provide firm support for rigid pipes. If you trim
3. Pour water in the drain until the upright pipe is
and level the bottom of the trench carefully, then
full.
the pipes can be laid in the ground without adding
4. Leave it for two hours.
infill material. You should pack and level the bed¬
5. Check the levels.
ding firmly along the entire length of the pipes and
6. Top the water levels up.
scoop out holes to give extra space around the
7. Check the levels again after half an hour.
sockets.
When you lay the pipes in the bedding, then The level should drop less than 6.4 mm per
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Sight line Boning rod
1
1 _
1in Drain run
pH
. ... .
m
t
Granular bed
Figure 17.3 Checking the depth with a boning rod.
(a) (b)
Figure 17.4 Bedding rigid and flexible drainpipes: (a) rigid drainpipe; (b) flexible drainpipe.
metre of 100 mm pipe or 4.5 mm per 150 mm pipe. The mirror and torch test checks that the drain is
If the drop in the water level is greater than this, straight. If a mirror is fixed at one end of the drain
then you must inspect the pipe for leaks and repair and you shine an electric torch from the other end,
or replace it. then you should see the reflection of the torchlight
The ball test checks that the pipe interior is in the mirror.
clear of obstructions that could cause a blockage.
You roll a ball that is slightly smaller than the
diameter of the drain down its length. If the ball Clearing out drains
stops, then the drain is blocked and must be You can usually clear blocked drains with cleaning
cleared out. rods, which are flexible bamboo canes with brass
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Drainage 153
screw connections so that you can make longer

rods if necessary. If you attach tools to the end of Example
the rods, then you can clear, scrape and clean If a manhole opening is 600 x 450 mm and
drains. the walls are 102.5 mm thick, then the overall
size of the manhole should be 805 x 655 mm.
The base size should be 905 x 755 mm.
Building a manhole
A manhole or inspection chamber is located on a Table 17.5 describes the procedure for making a
brick manhole.
drain run at points where several drains meet or
there is a change of direction. You use a manhole
to inspect and clean the underground drainage Table 17.5 Making a brick manhole
system.
Step Action
Figure 17.5, on page 154, shows you the con¬
1 Cast the concrete base.
struction details for a manhole.
The depth of a manhole depends on its position 2 Build up the walls and build in the drains
which pass through them.
on the drain run. The farther it is from a building,
the deeper the manhole because of the fall in the 3 Bed the open channel sections and branch
drain. connections of the drains in the base.
The size of a manhole depends on the depth of 4 Fill in the spaces between the branches with
a drain and the number of connections. If the concrete (this is called haunching).
The haunching in between the branches and
drains are very deep, then a manhole must have
the wall should be smooth and slope to the
working space inside it. However, this is not com¬ channels to keep the bottom of the manhole
mon in domestic drainage systems. clean and dry.
If the drain is straight and there are no connec¬ 5 When the brickwork is completed, render it in
tions, then the manhole must still be a minimum a 1:3 cement and sand mixture to make it
size of about 300 mm. watertight.
Table 17.4 shows you the typical recommenda¬ 6 Make a brick shelf at the top or lay a precast
tions for manhole dimensions. concrete slab over the top of the manhole if
the frame for the cover is smaller than the
base.
Making a brick manhole
You begin by excavating to the recommended

depth in the correct position. The bricklayer will Septic tanks
need enough space to work in. You should also
leave space for a concrete base that is larger than A septic tank is a brick-lined tank set into the
the outer brickwork. ground, which receives the discharges from a build¬
In normal conditions you should add about ing. After treatment by natural processes, the dis¬
100 mm to the size of the manhole cover to find charge leaves the septic tank and filters into the
the correct size for the base. soil (Figure 17.6).
Table 17.4 Manhole dimensions

Depth of manhole Length of manhole Width of manhole Cover size
(metres) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Up to 1.0 450 450 450 x 450
1.0 - 1.5 1200 750 600 x 600
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(a) Excavation
Drains
--D-=t=\ Ln i * t
(b)
(c)
Figure 17.5 Details of typical manhole construction: (a) section of a manhole excavation; (b) branch
drain entering an open channel; (c) brickwork and backfill in a manhole; (d) section of a manhole
showing the branch connections; (e) section of a manhole after construction.
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Drainage 155
Concrete cover
Brick walls with

spaces for liquid to
pass through
Rubble
Concrete base
(c) (d)
Backfill
Ballast
Figure 17.6 Septic tank and soakaways: (a) septic tank; (b) seepage pit; (c) subsoil irrigation system;
(d) subsoil drain and open joints.
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If a house does not have a piped system for Building a septic tank
removing waste, then you can install a septic tank.
Septic tanks can serve one plot or a small commu¬ First you need to calculate the size of a septic tank.
nity, depending on the size. The smallest septic You can see how to do this in the following
tank should have a capacity of at least 3000 litres example.
or 3 m3. A 2 metre deep tank which is 2 x 2 x 1 m Example: Calculating the depth required for a
has an internal volume of 4 m3 or 4000 litres. 3000 litre septic tank
A septic tank works by using anaerobic
bacteria, which do not need oxygen, to break 1. The drain enters the tank at a depth of 600 mm.
down solid sewage into liquid and sludge. Raw The depth of liquid will be 1.5 metres.
sewage enters one end and emerges as a liquid The area of the tank should be 3 m3/1.5 m =
effluent at the other end. A drain takes the liquid to 2 m2.
a soakaway where it filters into the soil as you can 2. The length of the tank should be two or three
see in Figure 17.6. times its width.
Inside the tank, gases cause the solids to liquefy The width is 900 mm.
and break up. After the solid settles as a sludge, The length is 2200 mm.
then anaerobic bacteria break it down until it forms
a scum on the surface, which should be pumped 3. The concrete base is 150 mm. Calculate the
out at six month intervals. The residue in the tank dimensions of the base in the same way as
starts the bacterial action again in a continuous described for manholes. Note that the mini¬
cycle. mum wall thickness is 215 mm.
The daily waste water in an average household 4. The depth of the excavation is 2250 mm (600 +
should take about 24 hours to pass through the 1500 + 150).
tank. If the water flows through too quickly, then
you can put extra chambers in the tank to slow You follow the steps in Table 17.6 to build the
down the flow. tank.
If a person uses 200 litres of waste water per Table 17.6 How to build a septic tank
day, then a household with seven people Step Action
produces about 1500 litres. This volume re¬ 1 Excavate the hole for the tank, observing the
quires a 3000 litre septic tank. safety precautions in Chapter 7.
2 Cast a concrete base.
3 Build up 215 mm walls for the outside surface
Septic tanks should only take sewage. Rainwater
of the tank.
should go into soakaways. Grease from kitchen
4 Build 102.5 mm internal walls.
drains should be collected in a grease trap gully
because it can clog up the septic tank and stop its 5 Cover the top of the tank with 75 mm
effective operation. It is essential to clean gully reinforced concrete panels, which are loosely
set on the top of the walls for ventilation and
traps regularly.
to make it easy to remove scum.
6 Insert entry and exit pipes with T-junctions and
extensions to push the sludge to the bottom.
Septic tank location
The location of a septic tank depends on
these principles:
Access for pumping it out needs to be
convenient.
Discharging the effluent
It should be at least 15 metres from a
building: Effluent is discharged into soil soakaways such as
# It should be downwind. seepage pits or subsoil irrigation systems.
The effluent should not discharge into The efficiency of the disposal of the effluent
water supplies or streams. depends on the ability of the soil to absorb it.
Before you decide where to build a septic tank,
you should carry out a percolation test as follows:
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Drainage 157
1. Dig six holes that are about 600 to 900 mm the joints left open before you cover the pipes with
deep in the area where the effluent will dis¬ 50 mm of ballast. Fill up the trench with soil to
charge. ground level.
2. Fill the holes with water.
3. Twenty four hours later, reduce the water level
to 150 mm. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
4. Insert a measuring stick in each hole and calcu¬
late how long it takes for the water to fall A system of sloping drains provides drainage
25 mm. under the ground.
Waste matter and water are carried away from a
Using this method you can refer to Table 17.7
building by gravity.
to determine the absorption capacity.
The drains may connect to a public sewer which
carries the effluent to the sewage plant for treat¬
Table 77.7 Absorption capacity ment.
Time taken for water
A septic tank can take waste water if there is no
Absorption area per person
level to fall 25 mm (m2) public sewer.
(in minutes) Drains must have the correct falls and comply
2 or less 4 with local building regulations to ensure safe and
efficient operations.
3 5
The pipes used for drains can be made from
4 6 rigid or flexible materials.
5 6.5 The pipes can have rigid or flexible joints.
10 8 Manholes provide access to drains for inspection
and cleaning.
15 9
A septic tank treats sewage on site by using
30 13
bacteria to break it down.
60 17 Drains must be tested for leaks before being
More than 60 minutes Not suitable for effluent covered over.
disposal
Seepage pits
Above-ground drainage
Seepage pits are most successful on steeply slop¬
ing sites or very small plots. When the effluent The purpose of this section is to describe how
enters the pit, then it gradually seeps into the waste water goes from the sanitary fittings to the
surrounding soil. The pits consist of one or more underground drainage connections. You can see
holes dug in the ground and lined with brick or an overview of this process in Figure 17.7.
blocks. The spaces between the material should be You install above-ground drainage after the roof
filled with stones. Put a concrete cover over the pit is put on the building to protect the fittings from
and add at least 300 mm soil on top. the weather. The pipework runs along the surface
of the walls so that it is accessible for cleaning and
clearing.
Subsoil irrigation Above-ground drainage is connected by one of
these two methods:
A subsoil irrigation system consists of lengths of
drains connected to the septic tank. About 5 metres 1. The 100 mm outlets for WCs are connected by
of drainpipe is needed for each person using the branch pipes to vertical pipes, called soil stacks,
tank. You can connect more than one drain run that connect to the drains inside or outside the
to the system. building (Figure 17.8). The underground drains
You construct a subsoil irrigation system by have sockets that fit spigots on the soil pipes.
digging a trench 450 x 450 mm that has a slight The water seal or trap formed in a WC pan
fall. Then lay a 150 mm layer of ballast in the ensures that gases and smells from the drain do
bottom. Put the drainpipes on the ballast with not enter the building.
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Table 17.8 Standard trap sizes

Fitting Minimum waste trap diameter Maximum length of waste pipe Slope
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Basin 32 1700 20
Basin 38 3000 40
Sink 38 3000 18-90 per metre run
Sink 50 4000 18-90 per metre run
Bath 38 3000 18-90 per metre run
Bath 50 4000 18-90 per metre run
WC 100 No limit Trap should be angled 104°
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Drainage 159
2. Other sanitary fittings such as baths, basins, 38 mm

showers and sinks have smaller outlets, which 50 mm
cannot be directly connected to the drains. They 75 mm
are connected to the underground drains by 100 mm
one of these methods:
A) the wastes flow through above-ground pipes You can choose from four types of joint for
and discharge over or flow into trapped uPVC pipes (Figure 17.9):
gullies at the top end of the drains; 1. push fit with rubber ‘O’ rings for pipes with
B) wastes flow from above-ground pipes into larger diameters (75-100 mm);
the soil stack that carries the WC waste. 2. spigot and socket joints;
3. welded joints, which are spigot and socket con¬
The pipework to sanitary fittings
nections that are welded firmly together with a
solvent;
The soil and waste pipes that carry the discharge
from sanitary fittings are usually made from 4. compression joints, which are used for smaller-
unplasticised PVC (uPVC). UPVC pipes come in a diameter pipes like the traps on the waste pipes
range of sizes to suit the plumbing requirements. for baths and basins. A compression joint is a
Typical diameters are: male collar which screws onto a female ring.
This compresses a rubber washer to form a tight
32 mm seal.
Figure 17.8 Details of soil vent pipes placed (a) inside and (b) outside buildings.
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Figure 17.9 Standard joints for uPVC pipes: (a) push fit joint with an 'O' ring; (b) spigot and socket
joint; (c) welded joint; (d) compression joint.
The purpose of traps
All sanitary fittings have traps, which are either a more shallow slope on the waste pipe to
built in or separate. The trap is a water seal be¬ reduce the rate of flow of the water.
tween the drain and the sanitary fitting to keep out 2. Induced syphonage is created by negative pres¬
gases and smells, which are unpleasant and un¬ sure in the soil stack, which breaks the seal. This
healthy. problem is solved by limiting the number of
The traps for sanitary fittings are usually the fittings connected to a stack and following the
standard sizes given in Table 17.8. guidelines in Table 17.8. Again, a reduced rate
It is important to ensure that the trap fittings of flow prevents the breaking of the seal.
connected to the internal pipework maintain a
secure seal. When water is discharged from a
sanitary fitting by flushing a toilet or draining Traps and sanitary fittings
a basin, then some of the water should stay in Traps are usually made from uPVC. They attach to
the trap to maintain the seal. However, it is difficult the waste fittings of sanitary appliances and match
to prevent air gaps for gases and smells to pass the diameter of the pipe joints.
through. Two types of traps are in common use:
Air gaps can be created in two different ways:
1. the bottle trap, which is shaped like a bottle.
1. Self syphonage is created by a steeply sloping The lower part, containing the trap, unscrews
waste pipe so that the water runs away too for easy cleaning;
swiftly, which sucks the water out of the trap. 2. the ‘U’ trap, which is formed by bending a pipe
This can be remedied by a 75 mm deep trap and into a ‘U’ shape.
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Drainage 161
Ventilating the indoor drainage system 1. the pan and seat. The pan is made of vitreous
china and includes a 50 mm trap. The outlet,
An indoor drainage system needs to be ventilated
which is either a ‘P’ or ‘S’ shape, is 100 mm in
to prevent gases from the sewer entering the
diameter. The seat, which can be china, plastic
building. You ventilate the system by extending
or wood, is hinged and bolts to holes in the top
the drain that takes the waste from the WC, called of the pan;
a soil vent pipe, above the level of the roof. The
2. the cistern, which is made from plastic or china.
soil vent pipe may run up an external or internal
It consists of the body, the lid and the internal
wall.
mechanisms. The body has connections for the
The soil vent pipe allows the gases to escape water supply and overflow pipe. The internal
safely into the atmosphere. The top of the pipe mechanism consists of a ball valve, float and a
should have a wire cage to prevent birds entering flushing siphon with an operating handle.
and blocking it.
A bath can be made of cast iron, pressed steel
or plastic. The standard size is 1700 x 700 mm. The
bath has holes for fixing the taps, overflow and
A single-stack plumbing waste outlet.
A basin is made of vitreous china and has an
system overflow built in.
A sink in a kitchen is usually stainless steel so
A single-stack plumbing system for draining the that it will be lightweight and durable. It may come
internal sanitary fittings simplifies the pipework with a draining board, which stands on a timber
while ensuring that the water seals are not affected cupboard to conceal the waste and supply pipes.
by self or induced syphonage. You need to ar¬ A shower may have an independent plastic,
range the fittings so that the lengths of the waste concrete or glazed fireclay base. It can be attached
pipes are not too long and that they are within the to mixer taps on a bath or it can flow directly from
guidelines in Table 17.8. pipes attached to the wall onto the floor. Access to
To make sure that the seal stays intact you the trap can be a problem if the tray is shallow. In
should follow these recommendations when you suspended timber floors the trap can be housed
install a single stack plumbing system: between the joists. In concrete floors, the trap may
1. Changes in direction in a pipe must be above need to be below the ceiling.
the highest connection to the soil pipe.
2. Connections must be more than 200 mm from a
branch of a WC.
3. The bend at the foot of the soil stack must have
a wide angle. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
4. All traps must have a seal which is 75 mm deep
except WCs which are made with 50 mm seals. Above-ground drainage consists of the soil and
waste pipes from the sanitary fittings.
Above-ground drainage is connected to the
underground drainage at floor or ground level.
The sanitary fittings Above-ground drainage should be connected
to a trapped gully.
The main sanitary fittings in a house are the: All fittings discharge water through a trap which
prevents smells and gases from the drains entering
• WC; the building.
• bath;
0 The soil vent pipe allows any pressures from
0 sink; gases in the system to be released above roof level.
0 basin; 0 Syphonage should not occur when waste and
0 shower.
soil pipes are connected.
They should be made of materials that are easy to 0 Sanitary fittings are made of materials that are
clean, durable and waterproof. waterproof, durable and easy to clean.
0 Waste and soil pipes above ground are usually
A WC is usually in two parts: made of uPVC.
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Rainwater disposal the ground in a rainwater pipe. The rainwater can

then drain away underground and discharge into
If rainwater flowed off the roof of a building in an soakaways. Figure 17.10 shows you an overview of
uncontrolled way, then it could flood the areas this process.
around the building and inconvenience the occu¬
pants. Water can also flow off shallow eaves and Soakaways
find its way into a building through the walls and
windows. For these reasons, it is better to collect A soakaway is a rubble-filled pit in the ground
water at the eaves in a gutter and direct it down to which absorbs water quickly. The tests for the right
Figure 17.10 An overview of rainwater disposal.
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Drainage 163
Figure 17.11 Details of bracket gutters and a connection: (a) a gutter bracket connection;
(b) a half-round gutter; (c) a box gutter.
type of ground are described earlier in this chapter at 900 mm intervals. A gutter will have an outlet
in the section Discharging the effluent. which is a spout that points down to connect with
You can calculate the size of the soakaway that a rainwater pipe.
you need by multiplying the size of the area to be In most domestic buildings, one outlet is usually
drained, by the average annual rainfall in metres enough to take the rainwater during normal wet
and dividing by 3- weather. The distribution of water along the length
of the gutter pushes it naturally towards the outlet.
Any residue of water soon evaporates.
Some gutters are not attached to the edge of
Example
roofs such as:
The area to be drained = 200 m2
The average rainfall per hour = 73 mm % gutters formed in the surface of flat roofs beside
200 x 0.075/3 = 5 m3 parapets;
• valley gutters, which are formed at the junction
of two roof slopes.
The soakaway should be at least 3 metres from The most common gutter shapes are the half-
the building. The soakaway capacity is measured round and the box (Figure 17.11).
below the level of the inlet pipe.
Rainwater pipes
Gutters
The rainwater pipes are attached to the gutter
A gutter is a channel fixed to the long edge of a outlets and fixed vertically on the building. The
roof. The bracket fixings on the fascia should be roof overhang requires a rainwater pipe to bend in
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164 Building constmction
more than one direction to reach past the gutter to blockage in a pipe, then the water can leak out
the surface of the building. This bend is called a through the joints and alert you to the problem. If
swan neck junction (Figure 17.12). the pipes are inside a building, then the joints must
You fix the pipes with brackets, plugged and be watertight.
screwed to the wall surface, which hold them off
the surface to allow for painting and cleaning.
Materials
The water runs out of the bottom of the pipe
from a shoe or angled pipe into a gully fitted with Gutters and rainwater pipes are most commonly
a grating. If this gully is connected to a soakaway made from:
by an underground pipe, then it does not need a
trap. If it is connected to the soil drainage, then it ® uPVC;
must have a trap. fibre cement;
The flow should run down against the face of zinc.
the rainwater sockets. The joints do not need to be UPVC is the most popular material because it
sealed except to stiffen the pipes. If there is a does not need decoration, it is lightweight and easy
to fix. UPVC does not rot or corrode. However, this
material is more easily damaged and is unsuitable
for areas where it could be hit by moving vehicles.
UPVC also expands and contracts more than the
other materials as a result of temperature changes.
Fibre cement is a durable and heavier material
than plastic that requires more joints and supports.
It is often used for larger roofs that take big gutters,
like those on industrial buildings. Fibre cement is
not affected by temperature changes and it can be
painted or left in its natural grey colour. You need
to be very careful if you cut it that you do not
inhale toxic dust.
Zinc is not a strong material because it dents
easily and corrodes in some climates. It is popular
since it can be made almost anywhere by folding
and soldering zinc sheets into the desired shapes.
Gutter and rainwater pipe dimensions
The number and positions of the outlets from the

gutter depend on the intensity of the rainfall and
the size of the roof. Table 17.9 indicates suitable
dimensions for gutter outlets and rainwater pipe
sizes in average conditions.
Table 17.9 Gutter and rainwater pipe (outlet)

dimensions
Gutter width (mm) 100 115 125 150
Diameter of outlet (mm) 50 63 75 89
Area of roof to be drained (m2) 20 40 60 90
The length of a gutter from the eaves to an

outlet should be less than 6 metres. If necessary, a
gutter can have outlets at each end or at intervals
Figure 17.12 A swan neck junction. over long distances.
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Drainage 165
Internal gutters and downpipes on enclosed flat If the outlet is inside the parapet wall, then a
roofs are more likely to block up and cause water deeper recess at the end of the gutter called a
damage. It is safer to increase the size of the pipe cesspool collects the water and makes a smooth
for internal gutters and downpipes. flow into the rainwater pipe. A wire ‘balloon’ in a
hole in the bottom of the cesspool will collect
Gutters for flat roofs
leaves and other material. The balloon should be
If a flat roof does not have a parapet, then a gutter cleared from time to time.
can be fixed to a fascia with brackets. If there is a The rainwater pipe passes down inside the
parapet, then a gutter is formed as part of the roof building, bends out through the foundation wall
construction. This is called a parapet gutter (which and runs underground to the soakaway.
you can see in Figure 17.13). It is usually wider and If the outlet passes through the parapet, then
shallower than the gutter fixed to the outside of a you make an opening in the parapet wall at the
building and is lined with the material forming the lower end of the gutter. It can be directly in line
roof covering, such as felt or asphalt. These gutters with the gutter or at right angles. You should dress
must be at least 300 mm across. The fall to the the roof covering material around the opening and
outlet should be about 1:80 to match the slope of insert flashings around the sides to fit the upright
part of the roof covering.
the roof. The outlet can:
You fit a container or rainwater hopper to the
1. be inside the parapet wall; outside of the wall just below the outlet. The
2. pass through the parapet to an external rain¬ bottom of the hopper has an outlet that is attached
water container. to the rainwater pipe.
Gutter
Rainwater
head
Cesspool Rainwater
pipe
Figure 17.13 A parapet gutter on a flat roof.
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Valley gutters • Pitched roofs should have gutters and down-

pipes.
When pitched roofs meet at right angles, then the • Water on flat roofs without parapets should fall
junction is called the valley, as you can see in to eaves’ gutters.
Figure 17.14. You make a gutter in the valley that • Flat roofs with parapets should have a built-in
runs from top to bottom. Since this is almost an gutter with a cesspool if the rainwater pipe is
internal gutter, water could enter the building if it external.
overflowed. These gutters must be a minimum • Rainwater pipes should not be connected to the
300 mm across to avoid blockages and overflows. soil drainage system.
• Rainwater pipes should take the water to
Surface water soakaways at least 6 metres from the house.
• Gutters and rainwater pipes are usually made
Water that falls on the hard surfaces surrounding a out of uPVC, zinc or fibre cement.
building such as paths, terraces and driveways can If pitched roofs form an internal angle, then a
be collected by open channels or gullies. Hard valley gutter is formed.
surfaces should slope away from the walls towards The size of gutters and downpipes should match
these collecting points. If the drains running from the roof area to be drained.
the gullies go to a soakaway, then they do not Hard surfaces should slope to drain off water
have traps, but they should be fitted with remov¬ into gullies and channels.
able silt buckets to make them easier to clean.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1 Why are drains laid so that they are not too
steep or too shallow?
Rainwater that falls on and around a building 2 The invert of a 45 metre long 100 mm drain is
should be collected and piped away. 875 mm below the datum at the higher end.
Figure 17.14 A valley gutter on a pitched roof.
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Drainage 167
What is the depth of the invert at the lower 8 Explain the following:
end? i) the purpose of manholes on a drain run
3 What materials are used for flexible and rigid ii) the reason for venting a drainage system
drain pipes? iii) how branch drains connect to the main
4 What are three methods for testing drains? drain?
5 What are three parts of a manhole? 9 How does the waste from a WC and a sink join
6 How does a septic tank work? the drainage system?
7 How do you use boning rods to excavate a
drain run?
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Introduction below ground level. The pipe passes through the
foundations and rises inside the building in a duct.
Water is essential to a household. You use it for
drinking, cooking and washing. This chapter looks The rising main
at how clean, cold water is supplied to domestic
buildings from the main water pipes. Figure 18.1 The pipe for the water supply inside the building
gives you an overview of this process in a is called the rising main as you can see in Figure
community. 18.2. It goes up through the building and connects
The installation of safe and efficient hot water to the storage tank in the roof space. A branch
systems is also important. As well as looking at hot goes directly from the rising main to the cold tap at
water systems that depend on electricity in this the kitchen sink to provide drinking water.
chapter, you can also find out more about the use
of solar power as a source of energy. The storage tank (Figure 18.3)
You should place the storage tank as high as

possible in a building to provide enough water
pressure to all the fittings. The tank can go in the
The cold water supply roof space under a pitched roof or on top of a flat
roof. Because a full tank of water weighs more
Cold water is supplied under pressure, which car¬ than 500 kg, the roof or ceiling must be strong
ries it up to a storage tank in the roof and pushes enough to take this load.
it out of any taps connected to the mains supply. Domestic tanks, which have a 450 litre capacity,
This pressure can be gravity-fed from storage res¬ are made from galvanised steel, fibreglass or poly¬
ervoirs or pumped from pumping stations. A water thene. The tank supplies all the cold water except
company will limit the pressure to protect pipes to the kitchen sink. The supply from the tank is
and fittings, but normal working pressure should called the down service.
allow water to reach the top of a twenty-storey The main supply enters the storage tank near
building. The amount of water pressure that you the top. The flow is controlled by a ball valve fitted
need for a two-storey house is 10 per cent of the with a float. The float rises up with the rising level
pressure available. of the water as the tank fills until a lever attached
Main water pipes usually run under roads or to the float closes the valve and cuts off the supply.
footpaths so that the supplies can be drawn off to When water is discharged, then the float lowers
individual plots. When a new supply is needed, a with the falling water level and the valve opens to
water company will run a service pipe from the let water into the tank.
mains to a point just inside the plot boundary. The tank has an overflowjpipe, which discharges
They put in a stopcock and possibly a water meter water outside if the ball valve fails. This avoids
to measure the amount consumed. flooding inside the house.
The contractor lays a 12 mm pipe from the The tank has a cover to prevent birds and small
stopcock in a trench, which is at least 600 mm animals falling in and contaminating the water.
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168
Water supply 169
Figure 18.1 An overview of water collection and distribution in a community.

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The supply pipes exit the tank just above the Controlling the water flow
bottom. This ensures that dirt or grit settles to the
Stopcocks on various points of the supply pipes
bottom, but is not drawn off into the pipes and
allow you to turn off the water for repair or
fittings.
Figure 18.2 An overview of the supply and disposal of water.
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Water supply 171
Cover
Overflow
hot water tank sanitary fittings
replacement of the pipes. You should fit a drain 1. immersion heaters;

outlet at the lowest point of the pipework to drain 2. electric boilers;
off the water in the storage tank and pipework. 3. electric geysers.
Before you drain off a water supply you must tie
An immersion heater is an electric element in
the ball valve in the tank in the closed position and
a storage cylinder, which heats the water to a pre¬
shut off the rising main at a stopcock, which is a
set temperature. When the hot water is used, then
short pipe that can be opened or turned off with a
the immersion heater heats up the new supply of
handle or key.
cold water to the pre-set temperature. The immer¬
sion heater has a thermostat, which senses the
temperature of the water and switches the electric¬
Stopcock locations
ity supply on and off as required.
You can fit a stopcock on the rising main
The hot water is supplied from the top of the
where it enters a building. This lets you shut
cylinder and cold water enters the bottom. This
down the supply to the kitchen sink and
ensures that the hottest water is available for use.
storage tank.
You can also fit a stopcock near the storage
tank. This lets you work on fittings connected
to the down service without draining down Cylinders fitted with insulation jackets retain
the storage tank. heat longer and save energy.
Ball valves control the water flow in indi¬
vidual fittings such as:
the storage tank; An electric boiler is a separate appliance for
@ the WC cistern. heating water in a storage tank. A primary pipe
circuit links the boiler with the storage cylinder.
The boiler heats the water in the primary circuit,
which gets hotter and hotter. While it passes through
Hot water installations a coil in the storage cylinder, the heat transfers to
the cold water in the cylinder. When the water in
Hot water can be produced in various ways, but in the cylinder reaches a pre-set temperature, then a
modern buildings it should be a safe and efficient thermostat switches off the electricity supply to the
part of the normal plumbing installations. This boiler. As hot water is used and the temperature of
section examines the methods for supplying hot the remaining water drops, then the thermostat
water to sinks, baths, basins and showers in do¬ switches on the electricity again and the boiler
mestic environments. heats up more water.
Three types of electric appliances heat water: An electric geyser makes hot water by convert-
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ing cold water to hot as it is needed. When a tap consumption than the solid fuel boiler. They work
is turned on, water flows through a coiled pipe, in the same way as the solid fuel boiler, using a
which is covered by a heating element. Turning primary circuit inside a cylinder to heat water.
the tap switches on the current to the heating
element, which heats the water as it flows past.
The flow of water is fairly slow so this type of Solar power
fitting is best suited to a single location such as a
basin or sink. Solar power heats water by concentrating the sun’s
heat energy in a collector with coils that contain
water (Figure 18.4). The most simple system uses a
Gas, oil and solid fuel boilers passive method to heat water. This involves con¬
necting a cylinder to a collector with water in its
Solid fuel boilers work in a similar way to electric
coils. As the sun heats the water, it rises up into the
boilers. Solid fuel boilers also have an alternative
cylinder for storage. When the water cools, it re¬
system that heats the water without using a pri¬
turns to the collector. This cycle, called thermo¬
mary coil in the storage tank. The fuel used in
syphon, is continuous, but it means that the
these boilers is coal or wood, which must be fed
supply of hot water is erratic. The maximum water
into the boiler. The disadvantages of the solid fuel
temperature depends on:
boiler are that the ash must be regularly removed
and that there is no simple way to control the the initial water temperature;
water temperature. A solid fuel boiler also needs the amount of exposure to the sun;
an external flue. the time of year;
Gas and oil boilers have better control of fuel the amount of cloud cover;
Figure 18.4 Using solar panels to heat water.
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Water supply 173
Solar collector
Primary circuit
Upper hot water

cylinder
Secondary
circuit
Figure 18.5 Two solar water heating systems: (a) passive solar power system; (b) active solar power
system.
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the amount of daylight;

the time of day.
Solar power is more effective if the electric
immersion is the basic water heating appliance. In
the passive method in Figure 18.5, the solar col¬
lector is placed as low as possible to encourage a
thermo-syphon to develop between it and the first
storage cylinder. Water is drawn from a second
cylinder with an electric immersion, which is be¬
low the first cylinder. The water in the first cylin¬
der, which was heated by solar power, flows into
the second cylinder. Because the immersion heater
does not need to use as much electricity to raise
the water temperature, energy is saved.
In the active method in Figure 18.5, you place
the solar collector on the roof in a position that is
exposed to the sun. Since the thermo-syphon prin¬
ciple will not work if the collector is above the
storage cylinder you need to install an electric
pump in the circuit. The pump, which works on a
time clock to regulate water supply during the day,
assists the operation of the electric immersion heater
on the same principle as the passive system. The
differences are the costs of the pump and the
Figure 18.6 Parts of a hot water tank.
electricity to run it. You can also use a solar hot
water system to preheat a water supply to a boiler
or geyser.
The pipe at the top of the cylinder also acts as
an expansion pipe so that any water that is
pushed out of the system as the temperature rises
If the water temperature from the main sup¬
falls back into the cold storage tank. This is a safety
ply is 15°C and the solar collector heats it to
valve for the system. If the thermostat fails on the
60°C, then the immersion heater only needs
immersion heater, and the water boils, then steam
to raise the temperature 5°C to reach a com¬
will escape from the expansion pipe into the cold
fortable 65°C. This saves energy and money.
tank.
The pipework for hot water systems

Pipes and fittings
Cold water enters the hot water cylinder at the
bottom of the tank (Figure 18.6). The source may Half-hard tempered copper tubing is the most popu¬
be: lar material for the pipework. It is lightweight,
1. a direct down service from the cold water stor¬ solders well and can be bent by hand using a
age tank; bending spring. This is essential to avoid crimping
2. a supply from a cylinder on a solar heating the walls of the pipe, which reduces the diameter
of the pipe.
circuit.
The standard sizes are:
The various fittings that use hot water draw it off
15 mm (0.5 in)
from the top of the cylinder in a series of branch
22 mm (0.75 in)
pipes. When you turn on a tap the water comes
28 mm (1 in)
out under pressure which is created by a head of
water between the tap and the level of water in the In metric systems the pipe is measured by its
cold water tank. outside diameter.
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Water supply 175
Figure 18.7 Two types of joint for copper pipes: (a) compression joints; (b) capillary joints.
You can use two different joints to connect The capillary joints in Figure 18.7 are less
copper pipes to fittings: popular because you need to use a blowlamp to
soften the solder that joins the pipes. Capillary
1. compression joints;
joints also need a compression joint at the connec¬
2. capillary joints.
tion to a tap or fitting. You make a capillary joint
The compression joints in Figure 18.7 are the by pushing one end of a pipe into the end of a
easiest connections to make. One end of a fitting is bend or tee with a ring of solder in a groove. You
threaded at the bend or tee. The end of the pipe then move a blowlamp over the pipe to soften the
that fits into the bend or tee has a nut and ferrule. solder. When solder appears at the edge of the
You push the nut of the pipe into the threaded end joint you should allow the completed joint to cool.
of the fitting. This pushes the ferrule into its mouth. You can remake the joint by reheating.
When you tighten the nut then the ferrule is com¬ Iron pipes require a different method to join
pressed. This makes a watertight joint. This method them. You need to cut a thread in the end of
is also good for tap, valve and cylinder connec¬ the iron pipe after it has been cut to the correct
tions. length.
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Bends and tees are usually already grooved to • The cold water storage tank must be higher than
receive threaded pipes. You cover the threaded the hot water cylinder to provide the pressure to
end with a jointing compound and bind it with push the water out of the taps.
hemp or tape wound in the direction of the thread. 9 Boilers use primary circuits to heat water.
To complete it, you tighten the fitting on the • Immersion heaters use an element in the tank to
threaded pipe. heat the water.
• A passive solar system uses thermal syphonage
to heat water.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9 An active solar system needs a pump to circulate
water from the collector to the storage cylinder.
• Water for domestic buildings is mainly used for
drinking, cooking and washing.
• The pressure in the main supply comes from
gravity or pumping.
• Water for drinking and cooking may come di¬ REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
rectly from the main supply.
• Water used for other purposes can be stored in 1 What are three sources of water?
a tank. 2 What does a water treatment plant do?
• Overflow pipes are fitted to storage tanks to 3 What are the purposes of:
avoid damage to the interior of the building. i) stored water
9 You use hot water mainly for washing and ii) mains water?
cleaning. 4 What do the following parts of a plumbing
9 Water can be heated by: system do:
i) electric boilers oj immersion heaters; i) a stop cock
ii) solid fuel boilers; ii) a ball valve?
iii) gas or oil boilers; 5 What are the main differences between active
iv) solar power collectors. solar water heating systems and passive solar
• A hot water installation must have a vent or water heating systems?
expansion pipe to relieve pressure in the pipework 6 What are two methods for joining copper
if the system overheats. water pipes?
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Introduction Consumer units
Electricity is now seen as a basic necessity of life. The supply in a house passes from the meter to a
It is usually generated at power stations by a distribution panel called a consumer unit, which
national company and distributed to individual you can see in Figure 19.1. The supply branches
users on a national grid. The grid consists of the inside the unit to feed several small cables which
overhead cables on steel pylons that run across the form the circuits for lights and electrical equipment.
countryside. When the grid reaches a community, Each wiring circuit in the consumer unit is pro¬
the distribution is carried on underground and tected by a fuse which has a fixed value:
overground cables to individual plots. 5 amp
The electricity supply company usually brings 10 amp
the service cable from the local distribution net¬ 20 amp
work into a building where it installs the main 30 amp
switch fuse and the meters. The rest of the instal¬
lation is the responsibility of the contractor and The fuse value should be matched to the antici¬
qualified electricians. When this work is completed, pated current in the circuit.
then the responsibility for maintaining the installa¬ Examples:
tion transfers to the owner of the building. Cookers are 30 amps.
The electricity company checks that the circuits 0 Water heaters are 15 amps.
are properly installed and earthed before the build¬ Power sockets on a ring main are 20 amps.
ing is officially connected to the main supply. This 0 Lighting circuits are 5 amps.
chapter discusses the main principles of electrical
installations in a new building as well as simple
electrical theory.
Simple electrical theory
This section gives you an outline of simple electri¬

The purpose of earthing is to ensure that
cal theory to help you understand how electricity
excessive loads in the system are carried away.
works in a domestic environment.
This increases the flow of current so that a
You can compare the flow of electricity in a wire
fuse burns out as a safety mechanism.
to a flow of water that is pushed around a pipe by
A copper rod buried in the ground is con¬
a pump. The pressure produced by the pump
nected to the earth wiring which is connected
pushes the water molecules around the loop and
to all the fittings. If a live wire touches a
back into the pump. When you apply voltage to an
fitting, then the current goes down to the
electric wire it has the same effect as the pump
earth wire. A fuse in the live wire burns out
pushing the water.
which disconnects the supply.
The resistance in the pipework is reduced by
increasing the diameter, which allows more water
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Figure 19.1 The main electrical controls in a house: (a) consumer unit for a switch meter; (b) consumer
unit for a hot water heater; (c) cooker control unit.
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Electrical installations 179
to flow through. The same principle applies to cally 33 000 or 11 000, are used to transmit electric¬
electricity. A thicker wire offers less resistance and ity over long distances. In neighbourhoods, trans¬
allows more current to flow through. formers reduce the voltage to a level adequate for
domestic installations.
I-—- The voltage in a domestic system is usually
The relationship between the current flow fixed at 240 volts, which is a safe rating for all
and resistance is represented by this formula: appliances.
1= V/R An appliance designed to operate at a specific
wattage will consume a specific amount of current.
I is the current measured in amperes (amps) The wiring carrying this current must be the right
V is the pressure or voltage (volts) size or it will overload and burn out.
R is the resistance, which is measured in ohms
An electric water heater is rated at 3 kilowatts

The efficiency of an electricity supply also de¬ (3000 watts)
pends on the rate that the work is done (the The current required will be 3000/240 =
amount of power used). If you push water through 12.5 amps
a pipe at a faster rate, then you will need more
pressure. You do this by increasing the rate of the A radio is rated at 600 watts
pump, although this is limited by the size of the The current required to operate it will be
pipe. 600/240 = 2.5 amps
In electrical supplies the size of the wire limits The wiring for the water heater must be five
the amount of power you can use. This is shown times larger than for the radio. The radio will
in the formula work with the larger wire, but the water heater
would burn out if a smaller wire is used.
W= Ex /
W is the power or wattage.

Direct and alternating current
Since mains electricity is supplied at 240 volts,
then you can vary only the current or wattage. A direct electrical current flows in one direction
only. This is the type of current produced by
r------—-
batteries in torches or radios. Mains voltages have
Example using a 5 amp cable: alternating currents because they are easier to pro¬
I^= 240 x 5 = 1200 watts duce and to use than direct current.
If this cable supplies a lighting circuit with Alternating currents move between positive and
100 watt bulbs connected to it, then the maxi¬ negative poles at 50/60 cycles per second.
mum number of bulbs that can be used at one
time is 12 (1200 watts/100 = 12).
Electrical wiring
The components of electrical energy Domestic electrical circuits are wired with cables
that consist of three wires, which have the standard
The electrical system must have these components colours shown in Table 19.1.
in the correct relationship to provide electricity to
the consumer:
1. voltage, which is the electrical pressure;
2. amperage, which is a unit of electrical cur¬ Table 19.1 Wire identification
rent; Wire colour Wire code Symbol
3. wattage, which is a unit of electrical power;
Red or brown L for live +
4. ohm, which is the unit of electrical resistance.
Black or blue N for neutral -
The amperage needs to be small to reduce the Green or yellow/green E for earth None
size of the distribution cables. High voltages, typi¬
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The live wire is always connected to the live side sumer unit to an isolating switch near the water
of any switch, socket or appliance because this heater. This switch usually has a pilot light to show
wire supplies the voltage and oscillation rate. The if it is on or off. The supply passes from the switch
neutral wire is at zero voltage and is passive. to terminals on the immersion heater.
Wiring installations and equipment should be A ring main, which should have at least six
protected by fuses, which are small cartridges con¬ outlets, connects the wiring for wall sockets around
taining 2, 5 or 13 amp wires in their circuits. a house (Figure 19.2). The wiring for a ring main is
Equipment and appliances need fuses which corre¬ protected by a 20 amp fuse at the consumer unit.
spond to their wattage. It runs around the ring, looping in and out of
sockets, and back into the unit. This completes a
Examples:
circuit.
Water heaters need 13 amp fuses.
Some items of household equipment that might
Radios need 5 amp fuses.
use the wall sockets are:
2 amp light fittings;
Wiring domestic appliances 5 amp stereo equipment;
13 amp refrigerator;
This section describes typical wiring installations
5 amp television;
for domestic electric appliances and circuits. An
13 amp 1000 watt heater;
electric cooker usually has a 30 amp fuse. A
13 amp electric kettle.
single cable goes from the consumer unit, which
distributes electricity to the domestic circuits, to a A house may have more than one ring main in
cooker control unit near the cooker. This cable it, depending on the number of appliances and
consists of three PVC insulated wires, which should lights in use at one time.
match the wires described in Table 19-1, inside a The ring main has three wires in the standard
PVC sheath. A loose cable connects the cooker coloured PVC sheaths, which are connected to
control unit to the back of the cooker. terminals in the socket outlets. You use a three-pin
A 3 kW water heater will have a 13 amp fuse plug to connect a piece of electrical equipment to
in the consumer unit. A cable runs from the con¬ the supply through the socket. The plug on the
Figure 19.2 A ring main system with socket outlets.
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Electrical installations 181
Figure 19.3 A typical lighting circuit for a house.
appliance or light contains a fuse, which should

match the required current. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
A lighting circuit has 5 amp fuses, as you can
see in Figure 19.3. It should carry 3 amps and Electrical power is distributed by overhead power
supply up to twelve 100 watt bulbs. The wiring lines and transformed down to levels suitable
should run from the consumer unit through the for domestic use.
floor or roof space to small distribution boxes in The electrical supply enters the house at a con¬
the ceiling light point positions. Cables, which run sumer unit where the meters and main fuses are
from the distribution boxes to the light switches located.
and bulb holders, carry the supply to at least The consumer unit distributes electricity to the
twelve distribution boxes in a circuit. domestic circuits.
The main fuse in the consumer unit protects Q Equipment is rated according to its amperage or
the mains from overload. The total demand for amount of current consumed.
current if all circuits were on would be more than $ Electrical supplies are rated according the rela¬
100 amps. Although this is unlikely, the supply tionship between watts, volts and amps.
company installs a 100 amp main fuse as a # Earthing protects people when they use electri¬
precaution. cal equipment.
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© Wiring has standard colour codes: REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS

i) red or brown;
ii) black or blue; 1 What are the standard colour codes for electric
iii) green or yellow/green. wires?
2 What does earthing do?
3 If an electric heater is rated at 2 kilowatts, then
calculate how much current it uses.
4 Draw two sockets on a 13 amp ring main.
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Introduction Gypsum is calcium sulphate, which is a natu¬
ral rock. It is ground and the water is re¬
This chapter looks at the treatments that you put moved to make a powder. When you add
on internal floors and internal and external walls. water during plastering, it sets and hardens
The treatments, called finishes, include: into a crystalline solid. To prevent the gyp¬
6 plaster; sum plaster setting too rapidly, chemicals are
# render; added to slow down the setting speed. Gyp¬
Q paint. sum is also called plaster of Paris, which is
used for casts for broken limbs.
Finishes serve decorative and practical func¬
tions. They improve the appearance of the struc¬
tures underneath, but also prolong building
lifespans.
Preparing surfaces for plastering
In domestic buildings you might plaster:

• brickwork;
Plastering • blockwork;
• concrete;
The term plastering means the application of a • plasterboards.
smooth coat of material to walls and ceilings. The
Each of these surfaces needs some preparation
purpose of plastering is to provide a jointless,
before you put on the plaster finish.
hygienic, easily decorated smooth finish to walls.
Most bricks provide a good surface for plaster¬
Plaster covers up the unevenness of bricks, blocks
ing because they have enough of a natural key
or concrete.
(a key is a rough surface that plaster will stick to).
Plaster is mixed with water to make a plastic
Before plastering brickwork you need to remove
mixture, which can be spread directly on a surface
any projections and clean the surface with a stiff
in a thin 10 mm layer. The surface absorbs the
brush. When you put wet plaster on the wall, the
water in the mix by a process called suction. The
water from the mix is absorbed by the brickwork.
suction process stiffens the plaster rapidly so that
You need to check that this does not cause the
you can level it while it hardens and sets. When
plaster to dry too rapidly so that it becomes un¬
the plaster dries it leaves a hard, smooth finish for
workable. The process of plastering blockwork is
decoration. very similar to plastering brickwork.
The type of concrete that you might plaster
would be the soffit of a floor slab. The concrete
Plastering materials may be quite smooth from the formwork unless a
Plaster is powdered cement, sand and lime or chemical was applied before the concrete was
gypsum, which is supplied in bags. poured. To prepare concrete, you need to wash off
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all traces of oil and hack the surface to provide Mixes for the finishing coat
enough key for the plaster.
Plasterboards are designed to form a base for You can choose from various mixes for the finish¬
plastering the ceilings under timber floors and ing coat. Ranked in order from the most pliable to
roofs. Plasterboard is a solid core of gypsum plas¬ the hardest, they are:
ter with a heavy paper surface on both sides. The • lime putty. Hydrated lime mixed with water
boards are usually 12 mm thick for fixing to timber stiffens very slowly. This mixture can be left
supports at 400 mm centres. Plasterboards should overnight if you want to continue working the
be fixed to the supports with small, flat head nails next day. You can add sand to reduce shrink¬
which are driven in slightly below the surface and age;
filled over. Plasterboards can also serve as dry lime putty and gypsum plaster in a 1:1 mix. This
lining for walls if battens are fixed at these mix is stronger and is suitable for backgrounds
centres. that do not contain lime. As long as the surface
Before the plaster is applied, you should rein¬ is not worked too much with a trowel, then
force the joints in the boards with a 90 mm jute there is little shrinkage;
fabric bedded in plaster. You then put on a single gypsum plaster with 25 per cent lime putty.
5 mm thick coat (a skim coat) and trowel it to a This mix is harder and sets faster, but works
smooth finish. well;
cement, lime and sand mixes. This mix in a 1:5:3
mixture makes the hardest finish. If you increase
the amount of lime and reduce the amount of
Applying a plaster finish sand, then the hardness is reduced. This also
reduces the amount of small cracks in the
You may apply one, two or three coats of plaster
finish.
to achieve a smooth finish. Generally, you need to
apply two coats unless you are using plasterboards,
which need only one. Three coats are only used if
the surface is extremely uneven. The first coat in a
three-coat finish, called a screed coat, is applied
to level the surface and to ensure that the plaster is Tools for the job
the correct thickness. Plastering requires these tools:
a bucket to carry the plaster mixture;
a mixing board and shovel;
The first coat in a three-coat finish levels out a hawk, which is a small board to hold
the irregularities and the absorption capacity the plaster while you put it on a wall or
ceiling;
of the backing surface. You can use:
i) a mixture of sand and plaster, called brown¬ a wood float to apply plaster and smooth
render coats;
ing;
ii) a plaster mixed with special aggregates a steel float to smooth the final coat;
like perlite or vermiculite. a screed board, which is a straight piece of
These mixes are usually sold ready-made. timber to level the plaster between screeds;
a builder’s level;
trestles and scaffolds to make a platform
for working at the top of walls and on the
ceiling.
You begin by preparing the background. Any de¬
pressions in the surface should be filled with mor¬
tar or neat plaster. You then apply a cement and
sand mixture (1:3 combined with minimal water)
with a trowel. The sand should be well-graded to
reduce cracking from shrinkage after the plaster How to plaster
dries.
Before the first coat fully sets, you should scratch Table 20.1 describes how to plaster a wall step
it to provide a key for the second coat. by step.
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Finishes 185
Table 20.7 How to plaster a wall Plastering ceilings

Step Action
1 The soffit of the reinforced concrete slab that forms
Put mounds of cement and sand mortar across
the wall in columns of three about 1200 mm the ceiling should be level if the formwork was
apart (Figure 20.1). well built. If the surface is very uneven, then you
Check that the mounds are in a straight line. will need to apply three coats of plaster. The first
Smooth the mounds to a thickness of about coat will be a render coat, which creates a level
10 mm.
surface with screeds. It should be about 10 mm
Leave them to set hard.
thick. The second coat called the float coat, should
2 Apply 75 mm vertical strips of plaster (called
be 6 mm thick, and the ceiling should be finished
screeds) over the mounds (Figure 20.2) and
leave them to set.
off with a final 2 mm coat of neat plaster.
3 Mix the plaster by hand or with a small mixer.
4 Apply a rough plaster coat to the wall between
Fixing plasterboards to ceilings
the screeds by putting it on with an upward
sweeping movement. Plasterboards can make good ceilings under sus¬
pended timber floors or a pitched timber roof. The
5 Move the screed board from the bottom to the
top of the wall in a sawing motion to smooth boards are fixed so that their lengths are at right
and level the plaster. angles to the floor joist or ceiling joists at 400 mm
6 Scratch the first coat before it sets to provide
centres. You can see how this looks in Figure 20.3.
a key for the second coat and leave to dry. The boards are quite large and heavy. They are
usually 2400 x 1200 mm and weigh 25 kg. You
7 Apply a finishing coat of 2 mm neat plaster
with a steel float to produce a thick, smooth need to put up props to hold them in position, s
finish. that two people can support them while a third
person nails them into place. The boards are nailed
at 150 mm centres along the lines of the joists. The
Figure 20.1 Applying mortar to make a screed for plastering.
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Vertical screed
Figure 20.2 Fixing the vertical screeds for plastering.
Plasterboard
Joists
Figure 20.3 Fixing plasterboards to a ceiling.
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Finishes 187
joints at the ends of the boards should be under a Defects in rendered surfaces
joist, which may require cutting to fit. You finish by
binding and filling the joints before applying a The main defects in rendered surfaces are:
skim coat of plaster.
cracking;
crazing;
loss of adhesion.
Cracks appear in render because:

External render
1. The mix is too rich in cement which causes
External rendering is the process of applying a shrinkage cracks when the render dries.
cement and sand plaster coat to the outside walls 2. The mix dries out too rapidly. This is difficult to
of a building. You apply external render to: avoid in hot sun, so the application of render
should be done on a dull day or late in the
1. improve the appearance of concrete block walls; day.
2. provide a waterproof finish to porous blocks
3. The background wall moves or settles. This can
such as landcrete and sandcrete blocks;
cause cracks or loss of adhesion.
3. provide a base for a colour finish.
4. The finishing coat is stronger than the back¬
Although gypsum is not suitable for external ground or render coat.
use, you can add lime to a cement and sand mix to
Crazing is fine cracking in the top surface of the
improve its pliability.
render. This is caused by:
Several different finishes and textures are com¬
mon to external rendering. They improve the ap¬ 1. too much trowelling, which brings neat cement
pearance of the cement and sand mix and help to to the surface;
control shrinking and cracking, which affects the 2. too much suction in the backing coat, which
waterproof quality of render. draws water out of the top coat. You should put
water on the backing coat before applying the
Smooth render is cement and lime mixed with top coat;
sand in a 1:2:9 mixture. It is put on as a finishing 3. the render drying too quickly in the sunlight.
coat and trowelled to a smooth finish. If an under¬
coat is needed, then the proportions should be Loss of adhesion is obvious if you hear a hollow
reduced to 1:1:5. This is the least satisfactory finish sound when you tap the surface of the render.
because the trowelling can bring too much cement Adhesion is lost when:
to the surface, which causes cracks. 1. the key is inadequate;
Roughcast render is a top coat of cement, lime 2. the surface is dirty or oily;
and sand in a 1:2:9 mix over a 1:3 cement and sand 3. the background is too porous or is not wetted
backing coat. While the top coat is soft, you throw before rendering;
6-13 mm cement-coated aggregate into it. 4. water penetrates the render through cracks.
Scraped render is a 1:1:6 or 1:2:9 mix of cement, Loss of adhesion is a difficult problem to fix.
lime and sand. You scrape the top 2 mm off with
a saw blade just before it hardens to remove the
smooth skin.
Pebbledash render is a final coat in a 1:1:6 ce¬
ment, lime and sand render with 6-12 mm pebbles Painting
lightly pressed into it so that the aggregate is
exposed. Painting is the application of a pigmented liquid
that stretches thinly across a surface when the
Tyrolean render is produced by a machine that
liquid dries out.
throws a 1:3 cement and sand mixture onto the
Walls, ceilings, woodwork and metalwork are
wall for a deeply textured finish. The cement can
painted to:
be coloured to produce a permanent coloured
finish. The background can be rendered or the 1. provide a decorative appearance;
Tyrolean render can be applied directly to a raw 2. protect the surface from moisture penetration;
wall and built up in layers. 3. protect the surface from rusting.
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Paint materials Primers are applied to seal unpainted metal

Standard paints consist of: and wood surfaces. Typical wood primers are:
thinners; 1. pink primer, which is linseed oil-based white

G pigments; lead with 10 per cent red lead. This is a toxic
# binders. substance;
2. aluminium wood primer, which is a metal-based
The thinner is the liquid part of paint, which
resin. This primer is good for sealing wood
enables it to flow freely from the brush onto a
surfaces that contain resins;
surface. The thinner evaporates when paint dries
3. acrylic primers, which are water-based emul¬
■which may take a few hours or days. The evapo¬
sions with good penetration. They are quick
ration of the thinner causes the characteristic smell
drying and non-toxic.
of paint, which gradually disappears. Paint must be
thoroughly stirred to mix the thinner and the solid Metal primers are:
pigment.
1. calcium plumbate, which is an oil-based primer
The pigment is the solid colour of the paint.
used on galvanised surfaces;
The pigment, which stretches thinly to cover the
2. zinc chromate, which is an oil-based primer that
surface being painted, can be any colour or black
is good for bare metal surfaces.
or white. Pigment comes from organic, inorganic
and synthetic sources.
The binder combines the pigment and other
additives in the paint and determines how well the
paint adheres and penetrates. Water-thinned paints form the bulk of paints
today. They are less durable than gloss paints, but
they are also easier to apply. Because they do not
Types of paint seal surfaces, you can use these paints on new
The main types of paint are: plaster. Water-thinned paints have the primer,
undercoat and finish in the same container. Two
G gloss;
types of water-thinned paints are:
© undercoats for gloss;
0 primers: limewashes;
€ water-thinned. Z emulsions.
Gloss paints are based on resins produced in Limewashes are made from hydrated lime mixed
laboratories which have improved the quality of with water. They are a cheap way to apply a white
gloss paint. There are two main types of gloss finish to plaster and render, but they do not adhere
paint: v/ell and they brush or wash off easily.
Emulsion paints are made from vinyl, acrylics
1. paints thinned with white spirit:
and polyurethane in water. They dry quickly, leav¬
2. paints thinned with water.
ing a matt, eggshell or gloss finish, depending on
your preference. Emulsion paints can also be used
as primer and undercoats on unpainted wood sur¬
White spirit is a substitute for turpentine which faces.
is used to dilute gloss paint and to clean
brushes and paint spills. The gloss paints that
are thinned with water are easier to use and
to clean up after.
How to paint new woodwork with gloss
paint
Undercoats for gloss paints are modified gloss Table 20.2 describes howr to paint new woodwork
paints that dry with flat finishes. This makes it with gloss paint. Gloss paint is more complicated
easier to rub them down and improves the adhe¬ to use than other types of paint. A successful job
sion of the gloss coat. Undercoats also fill in the depends on how well the surface is prepared. The
colour over the primer and consolidate the final background must be dry or else moisture will
colour. cause the paint to blister.
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Finishes 189
Table 20.2 How to paint woodwork with gloss How to paint plastered walls and ceilings
paint
Step Action Follow the steps in Table 20.4 when you paint
1 Rub down the wood in the direction of the
smooth plaster on internal walls and ceilings.
grain with glass paper.
2 Clean all dust and dirt from the surface.
Table 20.4 How to paint smooth plaster on
3 Seal knots to prevent resin leaking through walls and ceilings
with a mixture of shellac and methylated
Step Action
spirits.
4 1 Remove all plaster splashes with a scraper.
Seal the bare wood with a primer.
5 2 Fill in and rub down any holes, scratches or
Fill holes and cracks with a plastic filler paste.
grooves.
6 Rub the surface with glass paper to smooth
3 Remove dust with a soft brush.
the filler.
4 Dilute the emulsion with 10 per cent additional
.7 Brush on the undercoat.
water and paint it on as a priming coat.
8 Rub down with glass paper after the undercoat
5 Leave it about an hour.
dries. It is optional to apply a second coat of
undercoat. 6 Apply the full-strength emulsion.
9 Brush on the gloss coat. 7 Leave it for 2 or 3 hours.
8 Paint on the final coat of emulsion.
How to paint metalwork with gloss paint Floor finishes

Metals such as iron and steel should be painted to
prevent corrosion. Unpainted metals must have a Floor finishes for domestic buildings include a
coat of primer first because the surface does not wide range of alternatives. The factors that may
offer any suction. Because unpainted metals rust influence your choice depend on the use of the
so quickly, they will often receive coats of primer floor space and limits on cost.
in the factory to protect them while they are trans¬ You need to consider a long list of characteris¬
ported. tics when you select a floor finish.
The only preparation is to remove any rust or
Resistance to wear
grease before metal is painted with a primer.
To paint metalwork you follow the steps in Some parts of a building receive more use than
others or are in closer contact with the dust or mud
Table 20.3.
outside. The floor finish should match the type of
wear that is normal in a specific part of a building
so that it lasts many years without replacement.
Resistance to grease and oil

Table 20.3 Painting metalwork with gloss paint The floor should not be damaged by grease and oil
spills and they should be easily wiped up from the
Step Action
surface. Spills are a particular problem in kitchens.
1 Remove any rust with wire wool and clean
with white spirit to remove grease.
Resistance to water spills
2 Paint dry metal with primer (not in damp, cold
The flooring in bathrooms and kitchens needs to
weather). A second coat of primer is optional.
withstand water spills from washing or plumbing
3 Rub down the primer. leaks.
4 Brush on the undercoat.
5 Rub down the undercoat. Ease of cleaning
Surfaces that allow dirt to easily penetrate are
6 Brush on the gloss.
harder to keep clean. If ease of cleaning is a
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priority, then a hard, smooth finish is better than a Wet cement finishes
soft, open texture.
You can lay wet cement finishes to wet or dry
Warmth or coolness subfloors. A wet subfloor is one where the con¬
Hard, smooth surfaces are cool to walk on because crete subfloor has just been laid and is green (not
they conduct heat away. Soft, textured finishes like fully cured) when the cement finish is applied.
carpet give a room a warmer feel, which may be
suitable for cooler climates.
Monolithic screeds
Noise When wet cement is laid on a green subfloor it is
Hard surfaces do not absorb sound so they are called a monolithic screed. Monolithic means that
noisier than soft surfaces. the materials in the subfloor and the finish com¬
bine to become a single unit. This is a very good
Cost way to make a sound floor, but it is difficult to do
The costs vary enormously for the huge range of because of the organisation needed to lay the
finishes. The cheapest finish is a cement screed. concrete subfloor and the wet cement finish within
The most expensive can be carpet, wood block or a short space of time.
special floor tiles.
Cement-based screeds _
Preparing a subfloor If the subfloor dries and hardens before the wet
cement finish is applied, then the bond is only held
The subfloor for a floor finish will be concrete or in place by the weight of the screed. Bonded
timber, depending on the type of floor construc¬ screeds need to be thicker and heavier than mono¬
tion. Most subfloors need to be prepared before lithic screeds.
you apply a finish. However, one alternative is to Cement-based finishes can be laid on monolithic
leave a subfloor as it is. If a concrete subfloor in a or bonded screeds as:
garage or storeroom is the finished floor, then it
can be left rough or trowelled smooth. The timber cement and sand screeds;
boards of a suspended timber floor can also be granolithic screeds.
left exposed and sanded and polished for a floor You lay a cement and sand screed if the
finish. concrete subfloor is not smooth or level enough
One form of preparation is a cement and sand for a floor finish. The screed consists of a layer
floor screed, trowelled to a smooth, hard finish, on of mortar, which provides a good surface when
a subfloor. The screed can be: levelled with a steel trowel. The thickness of the
1. a floor finish; mortar, which does not give any structural support,
2. a levelling screed between rough concrete and varies from 25 to 60 mm in a 1:3 cement and sand
the final floor finish. mix depending on circumstances. As little water
should be used as possible to minimise shrinkage.
A 3 mm hardboard base can be nailed over The screed should be laid in bays (small areas
uneven timber floor boards as another type of less than 9-10 m2). You use battens fixed by small
preparation for a floor finish. mounds of mortar to divide the space and provide
levels for the finish. A timber screed board that
spans the battens can be used to spread and level
the mortar before smoothing it with a steel trowel.
You can see how to do this in Figure 20.4. A screed
Finishes on concrete subfloors needs to be cured for seven days, like other
cement-based structures.
The three main finishes for concrete subfloors are: The bays of the screed should be in the same
place as the bays in the subfloor. This reduces
1. wet cement; cracking if the subfloor moves.
2. cement-based; Granolithic screeds use granite chippings in a
3. terra zzo. cement and sand screed in 1:1:3 mixes to improve
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Finishes 191
the wearing qualities. The granite chips are graded marble was abundant and used as a general build¬
from 5 mm to dust. This screed can be laid on fresh ing material. White cement is the basis for the
concrete so that it forms a 25 mm monolithic bond finish, but there is no sand in the 1:2 cement and
in bays which are less than 10 m2. If you lay the marble mix.
screed after the concrete is dry, then the thickness You make the aggregate by breaking marble
of the screed must be 40-50 mm. into 2-25 mm pieces. The marble chips in a floor
The top of the granolithic screed must be should all be about the same size. A typical floor
levelled and compacted. It becomes firm when it will have marble chips that are 3-6 mm. If you use
sets. In this state you must smooth it with a steel the smaller marble chips, then the cement and
trowel at least three times in a 6 hour period to marble are mixed together and laid as one finish.
produce a hard, dense surface without an accumu¬ The alternative is to mix cement and marble dust
lation of fine particles. The screed must be cured and then place larger pieces of marble one by one
for seven days. into the mixture.
This is a difficult floor finish to produce, but it is The thickness of the terrazzo depends on the
extremely durable if it is done well. The most size of the aggregate. The standard thickness is
serious defect is the loss of contact with the subfloor about 15 mm.
around the edges of the bays. You should make You lay a terrazzo floor by applying a 25 mm
the screed the maximum thickness to hold it firmly cement and sand screed which is followed by the
in position. cement and marble mixture while the screed is still
fresh. Table 20.5 describes how to lay a terrazzo
finish to a dry subfloor, because it is extremely
Terrazzo finishes difficult to lay it as a monolithic bond.
Terrazzo floor finishes came from Italy where
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Table 20.5 Laying a terrazzo finish

Wood finishes on concrete
Step Action
subfloors
1 Pour the terrazzo into bays separated by metal
strips.
The two most common wood floor finishes are:
2 Consolidate and compact the mixture with a
roller. 1. wood mosaic;
3 Smooth the mixture with a steel trowel and 2. wood strip.
leave it to harden.
Wood mosaic is a low-cost type of hardwood
4 Grind the surface with a rough paste to make
floor that uses offcuts of hardwood. The wood is
a smooth finish.
shaped into pieces 150 x 300 x 10 mm and assem¬
5 Wash and buff with a polisher.
bled into 300 x 300 x 10 mm panels. The panels
are laid in groups of five in a basket weave pattern
on a paper backing which holds them together
while they are transported. Figure 20.5 shows you
An important feature of a terrazzo finish is the an example of a wood mosaic floor.
use of metal, ebonite or plastic strips which go You lay each panel separately on a completely
through the screed to the subfloor to divide it into dry cement and sand screed. First, you clean the
bays. The purpose of the strips is to limit the bays screed to remove any dust and loose material. You
to 1 m2. This prevents shrinkage cracks and makes then stick the panels on the screed with adhesive
the floor finish particularly decorative if different so that each panel fits tightly against the next one.
colours of terrazzo are used. There should not be a joint showing between
Figure 20.5 A wood mosaic floor finish.

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Finishes 193
Figure 20.6 Wood strip flooring nailed to joists or battens.
them. You complete this floor finish by removing joint filling is needed. This section looks at laying
the paper backing, sanding the surface to a smooth PVC and quarry tiles.
finish and polishing. PVC tiles have precise measurements (300 x
Wood strip flooring is made from timber strips 300 x 3 mm). They must be laid on a perfectly
in softwood or hardwood fixed to battens on a smooth screed because they are so thin and fixed
concrete subfloor. The battens are secured by: with adhesive. However, they can be fitted so
closely that they do not have a gap in the joints.
1. casting galvanised metal clips into the concrete
See Figure 20.7 to see what a section of floor laid
or screed;
with PVC tiles looks like.
2. casting dovetail battens into the screed so they
PVC tiles are usually:
are anchored as the screed dries.
resistant to grease and oil;
The method for fixing a timber floor finish is
waterproof;
similar to fixing a suspended timber floor. You
durable.
complete the process by sanding and polishing to
a fine finish. Figure 20.6 is a plan of wood strip Although they come in a wide range of colours
flooring. and textures, PVC tiles are one of the cheapest
floor finishes you can buy and lay. They are main¬
tained by applying a surface coating of wax and
then washing with soapy water.
Laying tiles on concrete Quarry tiles are clay tiles with a hard semi-
subfloors glazed finish. They usually measure about 150 x
150 mm or 100 x 100 mm and are 15-20 mm thick.
Tiles are made from a variety of materials and laid Since they are fired in a kiln they are not shaped as
on a subfloor in individual units to form a com¬ precisely as PVC tiles, so they have a 3 mm joint
plete covering. They are laid on an adhesive or between the tiles.
mortar bed, depending on the tile material. Some Quarry tiles are bedded in mortar so a levelling
tiles have wide joints, which have to be filled screed is not usually necessary. The level of the
separately, while others are fitted so tightly that no finished floor is determined by battens, which are
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Figure 20.7 A section of floor laid with PVC tiles.
Figure 20.8 Fixing quarry tiles.

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Finishes 195
the thickness of the tile, fixed temporarily to the filling with white cement, called grout. You can
floor and levelled (Figure 20.8). The bedding should use matches to space tiles that do not have lugs.
be a 1:10 mix of cement and sand mortar. You Common sizes for wall tiles are
spread the mortar on the concrete and bed the tiles
level to the battens. The joints should be grouted 150 x 150 x 5-6 mm
with a 1:1 cement and sand grout. 100 x 100 x 4-5 mm
Their shapes and sizes may vary, but the meth¬

ods of fixing and pointing are the same for all tiles.
Finishes on timber floors Types of tile

Square tiles are the most popular. They come in
It usually is not practical to lay any cement-based three varieties to suit the exposed ends of tile runs.
finishes on timber floors. Because timber moves The basic tile, which is glazed on the surface
and flexes, it is liable to cause cracks in the floor only, has unglazed edges. The surface of the basic
finish. The added weight of a cement-based finish tile can be:
would also mean that the floor construction would
1. slightly rounded near the edges. This is a
have to be heavier and stronger.
cushion-edged tile;
The finishes that can be laid on timber floors 2. rounded on one edge;
are:
3. rounded on two edges.
1. PVC tiles, which can be laid on the flooring as
long as the boards are flush at the joints. It is Fixing tiles to even surfaces
safer to lay a 3 mm hardboard cover over stand¬ The thin bed method for fixing tiles uses a special
ard 100 mm strip flooring to avoid the joints adhesive 1-2 mm thick to fix thin tiles to a smooth
showing through; surface such as plaster. It can only be used on very
2. carpet, which can be from a wide range of smooth surfaces since the adhesive is the only
qualities and styles. An underlay will protect the anchor for the tiles. You should plaster an entire
carpet and extend its lifespan. You can lay car¬ room and then stick the tiles on instead of plaster¬
pet loosely as squares and rectangles, fit it from ing a small area for fixing tiles first.
wall to wall in seamless areas or lay carpet tiles
on adhesive backs. Fixing tiles to uneven surfaces
If the tiling has to be fixed to an uneven surface,
then you may want to use the thick bed method.
You prepare a 1:4 cement and sand mortar and
Wall tiling spread it over a wall as a wet bed to push the tiles
into. As a guide to the finished levels, you can nail
battens to the wall which are the same thickness as
For centuries, tiles have been a good material to
the tile and mortar bed.
make smooth, hygienic and decorative surfaces.
They are easy to clean and last indefinitely with
normal use.
Tiles are made from clays with special additives. Tiling techniques
The clay is ground to a fine powder and mixed
To produce good tiling you need to know how to:
with water to make a slip (a creamy paste). The
water is extracted and the residue is dried and 1. level;
crushed. The resulting dust is moistened and pressed 2. cut tiles;
into the shape of a tile. 3. set out and measure;
The tiles are fired by putting them into a kiln at 4. fill joints.
high temperature which sets the clay hard. Finally,
a glaze is applied to the surface and the tile is fired Levelling
again to bond the glaze to the unfinished tile. Tiling joints should be perfectly horizontal and
Modern tiles come in exact measurements so vertical. Since the tiles are usually square you only
that it is easy to set them out on a wall. They may need to level the horizontal edges. You begin by
have small lugs or projections on the edges to drawing a line on the wall using a level above a
space them accurately so that a 2 mm gap is left for fitting like a sink or bath. You fix the first row of
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tiles so that their bottom edges are level with this grout over the tile surface and work it into the
line. If there is no fitting, then you fix and level a joints with a damp sponge. You finish by wiping
batten on the wall to be a guide and to support the off the surplus and polishing the tiles with a dry
tiles while the adhesive or mortar sets. You should cloth when the grout is hard.
continue to check the horizontal levels as you
work.
Cutting tiles
You need a glass cutting tool or special tile cutters Plastering and rendering provide even, hard
to cut through a glazed tile surface. If you need a finishes to internal and external brick and block
piece of tile to finish off a row, then follow these walls.
steps: Plaster is usually made from lime or gypsum.
Render is usually cement-based.
1. Measure the space and deduct 4 mm to allow for
Plaster may have to be applied in one, two or
two joints.
three coats, depending on the type of surface and
2. Cut a line into the clay part of the tile using a
how even it is.
straight edge as a guide to the correct measure¬
Plasterboard is a good background surface for
ment.
timber ceilings and pitched roofs.
3. Lay the tile on a batten so that the cut line is
Masonry background surfaces should be wetted
over the edge of the batten.
to prevent suction from the plaster mix.
4. Press down on each side of the line so that the
Paint is decorative and protective.
tile breaks cleanly.
Paint consists of binders, pigments and thinners.
Screeds can provide a level surface for the floor
Setting out and measuring
finishes.
You use this technique to decide where to put a
Wet finishes on concrete floors are usually
piece of tile if the row is not an exact multiple of
cement-based.
the number of tiles.
Wall tiles provide a smooth, durable and water-
resistant surface for kitchens and bathrooms.
Example
Each tile is 150 mm wide. You need a piece REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
of tile 100 mm to complete a row. It could be
fixed in the centre with full tiles on either side 1 Why do you plaster walls and ceilings?
or you could cut two 50 mm pieces for each 2 What do these words mean:
end. i) key
An area of tiles looks better if cut tiles are ii) suction?
in the bottom row and full tiles are above. 3 How do you fix plasterboard on a timber
ceiling?
4 How do you prepare a wall for a backing coat of
Making joints plaster?
All joints have to be filled when you complete the 5 How do you prepare and paint external
tiling. You use a special white grouting material timber?
which is moisture-resistant and flexible enough to 6 How do you apply a bonded screed to a con¬
allow small movement in the tiles. You spread the crete floor?
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ology
Introduction Tests to ensure the quality of the cement are

available, but they are not usually carried out on
In previous chapters you read about using con¬ site. Because cement is normally manufactured to
crete to make foundations, floors, stairs and roofs. such a high standard, you should be able to trust
Because concrete is such an important part of a its quality when you buy it.
building’s structure this chapter looks at how to You usually buy cement in 50 kg bags for small
produce it in more detail. jobs. You must store it in a dry place such as a
The general principles are that you mix cement, small lockable shed.
sand and aggregates with water. The cement ab¬
sorbs the water in a chemical process called
hydration so that it binds the sand and gravel into
a tough, hard mass. Surplus water in the mixture
gives the concrete enough pliability to flow and be You should take these precautions on site to
levelled and compacted. When the surplus water ensure that you use cement which is in excel¬
evaporates, then the concrete sets and hardens lent condition:
into shape. Check the date on the bag to see that it was
manufactured recently. Cement deteriorates
over time.
Store the bags of cement on a timber base
so that they do not rest on the ground.
Cover the bags with a waterproof sheet.
Materials used to make Do not stack the bags too high or the
concrete pressure from the upper bags will com¬
press the cement in the lower bags and
The main materials in concrete are: spoil it.
cement; Use the cement in the order that you re¬
sand; ceive it on site to make sure it does not
become stale.
aggregates;
water.
Cement Sand
Cement (often called Portland cement) is a com¬ Sand is the fine aggregate in concrete mixtures.
bination of limestone (calcium carbonate) and silica, You should use sand from rivers and quarries. If
which is found in some types of clay. Alumina, you use sea sand, then you should wash it thor¬
iron oxide and magnesia are present in small quan¬ oughly to remove the salt, which contains sul¬
tities. The cement may also contain calcium sul¬ phates that can attack cement. The sand must also
phate to extend the setting time. be free from excessive silt or other impurities.
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197
You can carry out a silt test to check that Concrete mixes
there is less than 5 per cent silt in the sand:
Place a sample of sand in the bottom of a Tables 21.1-21.6 show you the most common mixes
measuring flask. for different volumes of concrete and for different
Add water to the top of the flask. parts of concrete structures.
• Shake the flask and allow it to stand for a
few hours. Table 21.1 Volume of concrete produced from
• Measure the amount of silt and sand that 50 kg cement
settles to the bottom (the silt will be a dark Mix Volume of concrete
band on top of the sand).
1:3:6 0.24 m3
• Calculate the percentage of silt.
1:2:4 0.17 m3
1 :.5:3 0.13 m3
Aggregates
The coarse aggregates in the concrete mix have
individual pieces which are more than 5 mm in Table 21.2 Quantity of materials required to
diameter. Typical sizes are: produce 1 m3 of concrete
Mix Cement Sand Aggregate
5 mm (kg) (m3) (m3)
10 mm
1:3:6 172 0.36 0.72
20 mm
38 mm 1:2:4 238 0.33 0.67
1: .5:3 299 0.13 0.62
You make aggregates by crushing rock such as
granite, sandstone, close-grained limestone or gravel
which you obtain from river beds, quarries or the
Table 21.3 Approximate volumes for buckets
seashore. Good aggregates should be:
Mix Cement Sand Aggregates Water
1. clean, so that the cement can adhere to them; (buckets) (buckets) (buckets) (buckets)
2. strong enough to produce the final strength of 1:3:6 1 3 6 0.75
the concrete;
1:2:4 1 2 4 0.5-0.75
3. durable enough to resist extremes of heat and
cold; 1 :.5:3 1 0.5 3 0.5
4. inert in the presence of water.
Water Table 21.5 Water and cement ratio for normal

Water for construction work should be as clean as slump
tap water. River water may contain soluble salts Mix Water and cement ratio Litre of water for
that can spoil the concrete, so you should analyse 50 kg cement
samples before use. You may need to organise 1:3:6 0.7 36
tankers to deliver the water to the site at suitable 1:2:4 0.55 27
intervals. This water should be stored in covered
1 :.5:3 0.5 25
containers.
Table 21.4 Mixes for different concrete structures

Mix Structure Cement Sand Aggregate Water
(kg) (m3) (m3) (litre)
1:3:6 Mass 50 0.11 0.212 36
foundations (25 mm)
■v
Oversite slabs
1:2:4 General 50 0.07 0.143 30
reinforced (15 mm)
concrete work
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Concrete technology 199
Table 21.6 Maximum slump for concrete This section describes the standard mixes and
structures
how to make them using approximate measure¬
Concrete structure Maximum slump (mm) ments. Figure 21.1 describes this process graphi¬
Mass foundations 76 cally as well.
Reinforced foundations 100 Strip foundations, which are mass concrete,
are mixed by volume in the following propor¬
Oversite concrete 125
tions :
Reinforced slabs and beams 125
Reinforced columns 100 1 part cement
3 parts sand
6 parts aggregate
Making concrete by volume To make sure that you put the correct quantities
in the mixer, you should make a gauge box for
Standard mixes are usually successful for small 25 kg cement.
jobs.
?
1 volume of cement/0.035 m3
/
p ? XrtV.iM 71
3 volumes of sand/0.105 m3
/
6 volumes of coarse aggregate/0.21 m3
Mix = 1:3:6
Figure 21.1 Making concrete by volume.
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Example
Cement weighs 1442 kg/m3 so 25 kg has a A 1:2:4 mix is
volume of: 1 volume cement
2 volumes sand
= 0.017 m3
4 volumes aggregate
1442
If you make a gauge box which measures For large quantities of concrete, it is easier to
350 x 200 mm, then the depth will be: weigh the amounts before placing the materials in
a mixer. This method offers greater control over
—2^12- = 0.243 m (say 250 mm) the quality of the concrete if strength and pliability
0.35 x 0.20 are important.
The standard weights of materials are
To measure the ingredients for a 1:3:6 mix for a cement 1442 kg/m3
small mixer, you should use the example in Table sand 1600 kg/m3
21.7 as a guide. aggregates 1440 kg/m3
You need to calculate the quantity of materials
that will fit into a large mixer by converting the
Table 21.7 Volume of ingredients for a 1:3:6 volumes into weights as shown in Table 21.8. The
mix mix ratios are based on a 50 kg bag of cement in
Material (boxes) Weight (kg) Volume (m3) a 1:2:4 mix.
0.04
A mixer with a volume of 0.300 m3 can take the
Cement 2 50
volume of 0.27 m3 as you calculated in Table 21.8.
Sand 6 168 0.11
You can increase the amounts to completely fill the
Aggregate 12 302 0.21
mixer by multiplying the weight of the materials by
1.1 (0.300/0.272).
The weights of materials required to fill a

Table 21.5 shows you that this mixture requires 0.300 m3 mixer are
36 litres of water, which increases the total volume
cement 50 kg x 1.1 = 55 kg
of ingredients to 0.386 m3. During the mixing pro¬
sand 112 kg x 1.1 = 123.2 kg
cess the bulk volume increases so that this mix
aggregate 201.6 kg x 1.1 = 221.76 kg
produces 0.24 m3 wet concrete (Table 21.1).
water 27 litres x 1.1 = 29.7 litres
If this batch is used for strip foundations that are
600 x 200 mm, then it is enough for a 2 metre long
strip. How to weigh the materials
You can choose from two methods to weigh the

Volume of materials materials:
You usually define a concrete mix by the volume 1. using a concrete mixer;
of materials required. 2. using a separate weigh-batcher.
Table 21.8 Converting volumes to weights

Material Mix ratio Volume Weight
(volume) (m3) (kg)
Cement 1 50/1442 = .035 50
Sand 2 0.07 1600 x .07 = 112
Aggregate 4 0.14 1440 x .14 = 201.6
Water 27 0.03
Total volume 0.27
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A concrete mixer may have a scale attached to is to calculate how much to adjust the sand and
weigh materials as they are put into a hopper. A water mix.
dial on the mixer allows you to measure the When you measure the water content in the
amounts. After the hopper is loaded, then the sand you find that each box of wet sand contains
materials slide into the mixer and a valve opens to 2.5 litres of water. The bulking is 15 per cent of
feed the correct amount of water into the drum. the volume of dry sand.
A separate weigh-batcher also has a scale with The mix requires these quantities of materials:
dials that you can read to measure the correct
amounts as you add them. The weigh-batcher is 50 kg cement or 2 gauge boxes
placed near the mixer so that its hopper can tip the 302 kg aggregate or 12 gauge boxes
materials into the drum of the mixer. The correct 168 kg sand or 6 gauge boxes of dry sand
volume of water is added directly to the mixer. Each gauge box should contain 27 kg of dry
sand when full. Because of the water in the sand,
the boxes contain 22.95 kg dry sand (27 kg x
85 per cent).
Adjusting the water content Follow these calculations to find out how much
sand and water to adjust in the mix:
of damp sand
1. 22.95 kg x 6 gauge boxes = 137.7 kg of dry sand.
Wet sand increases in volume by up to 25 per cent, 2. Add 1.3 gauge boxes of wet sand to make up a
depending on the amount of water present. This is deficit of 30.3 kg of dry sand (168 kg - 137.7 kg
called bulking. = 30.3 kg).
When you use wet sand to make concrete you 3. This totals 7.3 gauge boxes of wet sand for the
must consider how much to: mix.
4. 7.3 gauge boxes contain 18.25 litres of water
1. adjust the volume of a batch to ensure that you
(7.3 boxes x 2.5 litres = 18.25 litres).
add the correct amount of sand;
5. Subtract the surplus water from the water re¬
2. reduce the amount of surplus water.
quired for the mix (36 - 18.25 litres).
6. The total amount of water to be added to this
mix with wet sand = 17.75 litres.
You can follow these steps to measure the Summary
water content in sand:
Weigh 1 kg of wet sand in a fireproof The mix should consist of these proportions:
container (remember to weigh the con¬ 2 boxes of cement
tainer). 7.3 boxes of sand
Heat the container over a fire to remove 12 boxes of aggregate
the water. 17.75 litres of water
Weigh the sand and container again to see
if the sand weighs less.
Check the reduction in volume.
If the sand weighs 0.85 kg, then it contained Grading coarse aggregates
0.15 kg (0.15 litres) of water. When you make
concrete with this wet sand, then you need to Grading means selecting the size of stone particles
increase the amount of sand by 15 per cent to suit the type of concrete you produce. You can
and adjust the amount of water that you add. select the aggregate by passing it through mesh
sieves with wires spaced for specific sizes of stones.
Example
The following example shows you how to adjust
If a sieve has 10 mm gaps in the wire mesh, then
the amount of water in the mix.
only stones 10 mm and bigger will stay in it.
Example Smaller stones fall through the holes.
You want to make a concrete mix of 1:3:6 by Sieved aggregate is single size aggregate. Con¬
volume. You know from Table 21.5 that a 50 kg crete made with single size aggregate has large
bag of cement requires 36 litres of water. The task spaces between each stone, which can be filled
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with sand to remove air pockets, which could Push the wheelbarrow carefully so that you
weaken the mixture. do not spill the contents or cause the cement to
To make strong, dense concrete you need to separate from the aggregate. This could affect the
grade the aggregate. This means that you need a strength of the concrete.
range of different sizes of stones to fit together and Similarly, when you pour the concrete, you
fill in the spaces. When you order you can ask for should not tip it more than a metre from the
10 mm gradeci aggregate which will ensure that barrow to the formwork. Bring the lip of the
you get a suitable mixture of the right size stones barrow closer to the ground if the concrete has a
for the type of concrete. A structural engineer can long drop.
determine the correct size and grading of aggre¬
gate for the building project.
Compacting concrete
Moving concrete Concrete has to be compacted to remove trapped
air after it is poured into position. Air can form
After you mix the concrete, then you must move it
cavities in the concrete, which reduces its strength.
to the location for pouring it. The mixture should
You can compact by tamping the concrete steadily
be firm enough so that it does not slop around and
with a steel bar, but a mechanical vibrator is more
spill while it is being moved in a wheelbarrow.
efficient.
If the concrete contains reinforcement you have
to use a vibrator to ensure that the concrete flows
You should lay a line of boards to make a
around the steel bars and into the corners of the
firm surface for pushing a wheelbarrow. A
formwork.
loaded barrow can be extremely difficult to
After you compact concrete, then you should
push over soft spots and obstructions.
level the top with a screed board so that it is level
with the pegs on the formwork.
Gap to allow
moisture to
escape
Figure 21.2 Curing concrete with polythene sheets.

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Controlling moisture loss The most experienced workers on site will be

able to judge when the wet concrete flows cor¬
Concrete dries quickly in hot weather. You need
rectly. Table 21.6 gives you some standard meas¬
to control the rate of moisture loss to:
urements for the slump for different concrete
1. retain water for hydration; structures.
2. slow down shrinkage.
The standard method for controlling moisture The compression test

loss during the hardening and maturing process is
to cover it with polythene sheets or wet sacks. The compression test is another test for concrete.
Polythene traps moisture so that it evaporates very You take a sample cube of concrete that measures
gradually. You can see how to do this in Figure 150 x 150 mm and let it cure and harden for
28 days. It is then crushed in a laboratory to assess
21.2. You need to spray sacks with water at regular
its strength. If the test sample fails to reach the
intervals to keep the concrete moist. These meas¬
required strength, then some of the concrete work
ures are necessary during the seven day curing
process.
Testing concrete and its

materials
The ratio of cement to water has the greatest effect

on the strength and durability of concrete. The
concrete must be wet enough to flow into all parts
of a structure, whether it is formwork for a slab or
an excavation for a strip foundation. At the same
time, the water content must be kept to a minimum
to achieve a full-strength concrete.
The best method for testing for the correct amount
of water in the mixture is to use the slump test
which is described in Table 21.9. Unconfined wet
concrete slumps or sags so a test has been devel¬
oped to measure the amount of slump.
You need this equipment for a slump test:
• special metal cone;
# tamping rod;
measure.
Table 21.9 How to do a slump test

Step Action
1 Put mixed concrete in a metal cone on a flat
base.
2 Pack it down layer by layer with the tamping
rod until the cone is full.
3 Level the top with a steel trowel.

4 Remove the cone and the concrete will sag
(slump).
5 Measure the distance from the top of the cone

to the top of the slumped concrete. Compare
this with the desired level of slump.
6 Increase or decrease the water in the mix to

get the correct slump.
Figure 21.3 Testing concrete in a laboratory.
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may have to be done again. Figure 21.3 shows you

the equipment in a concrete testing laboratory.
Concrete mixers
A simple petrol-driven, tilting-drum mixer is ad¬

equate for small jobs.
The capacity of mixers is measured in litres. This
Reinforcement in concrete indicates the capacity of the mixing drum and the
amount of wet concrete it can produce.
Steel reinforcement bars, which are made from
mild steel, are used to resist the tension forces in Example
concrete. They also control shearing in beams. You If the total volume of ingredients is 0.35 m3 and it
can see a variety of reinforcement bars in Figure produces 0.24 m3, then you need a 400/300 litre
21.4. model. It has a capacity of 0.4 m3 and an output
The thinnest bars, which are used for making of 0.3 m3.
stirrups to hold other bars in position, are 6 mm in Another standard size mixer is the 300/200 model.
diameter. Reinforcement bars range in diameter
from 10 mm to 25 mm.
Other bars, which are called deformed bars, The mixing process, including loading and
are made with patterned surfaces to increase the discharging the concrete, takes from 3 to
bond between the steel and the concrete in highly 5 minutes.
stressed conditions.
Mesh fabric is another type of reinforcement
used in ground-floor slabs or heavy road construc¬ You load the cement and aggregates into the
tion. It consists of 5-12 mm steel wires welded mixer drum as it rotates. Then add the correct
together in a square or oblong pattern. The heavier amounts of water until the contents are completely
mesh comes in flat sheets, but the thinner mesh is mixed. You tilt the drum the other way to pour
supplied in rolls. the concrete into a wheelbarrow or dumptruck.
The bond between the steel bar and concrete is
important. The bar must be so secure that it cannot
move within the concrete. You can bend reinforce¬ Mixing concrete by hand
ment bars into right angles in conditions of low
stress or hook them on their ends to anchor them. You measure out the dry ingredients by volume
The bends or hooks have specific dimensions to and mix them on a clean, hard surface (not on the
retain the structural integrity of the bars. ground). Then make a depression in the middle of
The distance between the reinforcement bars the dry ingredients and add a measured quantity of
and the concrete surface is also important. This water. Mix the ingredients again and continue to
distance is called the cover. The purpose of the add the rest of the water slowly until the concrete
cover is to: has an even appearance.
To test the quality of the mix, you should draw
1. protect the steel from corrosion due to atmos¬
pheric moisture and rain; a shovel backwards through the concrete to leave
2. protect the steel from corrosion due to poor grooves and ridges. If the mix is too dry, then the
compaction or segregation; ridges will crumble. If the mix is too wet, then
the ridges will slump.
3. provide enough concrete to make a good bond;
4. insulate the steel from early failure in a fire.
The formula for the minimum reinforcement

cover is:
It should be twice the diameter of the bar,
and at least 25 mm. •v
If the concrete is exposed to rain, then the Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, aggre¬
gates and water.
cover must be more than 40 mm.
Wet concrete is pliable, but it hardens when it
dries.
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Plain: mild steel
Ribbed: high tensile steel
Figure 21.4 Reinforcement bars.
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Concrete mixes vary according to the strength REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
required.
Aggregates are normally graded according to the 1 What is the purpose of w ater in a concrete mix'
type of structure being built. 2 W hat precautions should you take when you
C Concrete can be made in batches according to store cement?
volume or weight. 3 Describe how to test for silt.
C A slump test is a means of finding out how well 4 What do these words mean:
you can work the concrete for specific structures. 0 graded aggregate
The water content in sand affects the strength of ii) bulking of sand
the concrete. iii) slump?
Concrete must be well-compacted. 5 If you plan to use a 1:2:4 concrete mix with
© Steel reinforcement resists tension and shear 30 litres of water, then calculate the quantities
forces. of materials you need to make 3 m-' concrete
Reinforcement must have enough cover. using a 2^ kg gauge box.
< Concrete must be transported carefully to pre¬ 6 How do you check the moisture content of
vent segregation of the cement and aggregate. sand?
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Introduction The ability to support a load is called the bear¬
ing capacity. The bearing capacity is defined as
The soil that supports a building is called the the load that a unit area of soil can safely support.
natural foundation. The artificial foundation The load that is imposed on the soil is called the
constructed from concrete is built on the natural bearing pressure which must not be greater than
foundation. the bearing capacity of the soil. An artificial foun¬
Everything that goes into the construction of a dation should be constructed with a 10 per cent
building and everything that goes into a building safety margin to ensure that the soil can bear the
exerts a load on the soil. This chapter describes the pressure from the loads.
factors that you should be aware of during con¬ Table 22.1 shows you typical bearing capacities
struction such as: for different types of subsoil.
1. the load-bearing capacity of the soil;
2. the type of soil;
3. the correct foundation for the soil type.
Do you remember from Chapter 7 that you

remove the topsoil before you build the foun¬
dations? This exposes the subsoil.
Load-bearing capacity
The structure of a building is called the dead load.

The people, furniture and fittings which go into a
completed building are the live or superimposed
Table 22.7 Soil bearing capacities
loads
Type of subsoil Soil bearing capacity (kN/m2)
Rock 600-10 000
Typically, building regulations state that the Compact gravel and sand 300-600
building foundation must safely sustain and
Stiff clay 200-400
transmit to the ground the combined dead,
Soft clay 50-100
imposed and wind loads so that there will be
no settlement or movement that could impair Loose gravel and sand 75-200
the stability of the building. Very soft clay and silt 00-75
In Chapter 5 you read about digging trial holes ■

as part of the initial site investigation to find out Classifying soils
about soil conditions. The building designer then
selects the type of foundation that is appropriate Soils can be classified according to the size of their
for the proposed loads and the soil. particles, as you can see in Table 22.2.
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207
Table 22.2 Soil particle size The amount of water in the soil affects the
Subsoil type Particle size (diameter in mm) cohesive qualities of soil types. When cohesive
soils are pressed under loads, then they compact
Rock Does not apply
and settle. Non-cohesive soil types compress only
Gravel Larger than 2.0 slightly under a load because they do not contain
Sand 0.06-2.0 much water.
Silt 0.002-0.06
Less than 0.002 Choosing the right foundation
The guidelines in Table 22.3 will help you to test

Soil can also be classified by its cohesive quali¬ soil types for a foundation.
ties. Cohesive soils have particles that stick to¬
gether more easily. Non-cohesive soils have
particles which do not stick together and remain
separate. Cohesive soils are:
• silt;
• clay.
Non-cohesive soils are:
• gravel;
# sand.
Figure 22.1 Loading on a strip foundation from a Figure 22.2 Loading on a strip foundation from a
one-storey building. two-storey building.
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Soil technology 209
Since the foundation is square, the length of one

You can build a one-storey house in firm,
side would be Vl.346 or 1.160. For practical pur¬
sandy clay which requires a minimum strip
poses this makes a pad foundation that measures
foundation which is 300 mm wide (Figure 1200 x 1200 mm.
22.1). The bearing pressure is 25 kN/per
metre run. This makes a bearing pressure per
square metre of CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1/0.3 x 25 = 83 kN/m2
The soil’s ability to support a load is its bearing
For a two-storey house built on silty sand, capacity.
the minimum width foundation would be The load on the soil is the bearing pressure.
600 mm (Figure 22.2). The bearing pressure Soil is a natural foundation for a building.
per square metre would be The soil must support the dead weight of a
1/0.6 x 33 = 55 kN/m2 building without subsiding.
Trial holes are used to investigate soil condition.
Soils vary widely in their bearing capacity.
Soils can be cohesive or non-cohesive.
Pad foundation sizes are determined by the
Bearing capacity for pad foundations formula
area of foundation in m2 =
A concentrated load may be supported by a col¬
bearing pressure in kN/bearing capacity of soil
umn or free-standing brick pier on a pad founda¬
in kN/m2
tion. The size of the foundation should be related
to the load carried by the pier and the soil bearing
capacity.
Example
The bearing pressure for a brick pier that supports 1 What is the main difference between cohesive
the load from part of the upper floor, wall and roof and non-cohesive soils?
of a two-storey building is 70 kN. The soft clay 2 Which loads are supported by a natural foun¬
ground has a bearing capacity of 52 kN/m2. dation?
Area of foundation in m2 = bearing pressure in 3 What types of soil are poor for building on?
kN/bearing capacity 4 Why should you dig trial holes?
of soil in kN/m2 5 What size foundation do you need for a
= 70/52 column with a bearing load of 118 kN on soil
= 1.346 m2 with a bearing capacity of 48 kN/m2?
Table 22.3 Testing soil types for foundations

Type of subsoil Consistency Testing methods Minimum width of strip foundation
(mm)
25 kN/m 33 kN/m
one-storey two-storey
Rock Hard (sandstone Requires mechanical excavation Width of wall
or limestone)
Gravel and sand Compact Requires a pick to 250 300

break up and pegs hard
to drive in
Clay Stiff Requires pick and cannot be 250 300

moulded by hand
Sandy clay Firm Requires spade and can be 300 350

moulded by hand
Sand Loose Can drive pegs in 400 600

Silty sand
Clay and silt Soft Can be easily moulded 450 650
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Introduction Softwood and hardwood trees
Timber has been a source of building material Softwood trees are also called coniferous or ever¬
since people left the shelter of caves to live in green trees. Their main features are:
open countryside. When we cut down trees for
1. They have an open grained texture, which is
timber for building we should continuously re¬
easier to work on than hardwood.
place them in a planned programme of replanting.
2. They have a lighter colour than hardwood.
The more we know about the properties of trees,
3. They do not shed their leaves seasonally.
the easier it is to put the knowledge to good use
4. Their leaves are usually needle- or cone-shaped.
to protect the environment.
5. They grow quite quickly.
Some species grow more quickly than others.
6. They can be grown in plantations to provide a
Fortunately for the environment, the quick¬
continuous supply of timber.
growing varieties are the bulk of our building
7. The timber they provide needs to be protected
timber. The two main types of tree are the
from the weather by paint, varnish or preserva¬
softwoods and hardwoods. This chapter will
tives.
describe the main features of these types of tree
8. They need to be protected from insect attack
as well as the general characteristics of building
(on the structural timbers).
timber.
Bark
Pith
Heartwood
Sap wood
Medullary rays
Figure 23.7 The parts of a cut tree.
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210
Timber technology 211
Figure 23.2 An overview of turning a tree into timber.
3. outer lighter-coloured concentric rings of woody

Cedar is an exception to these typical features tissue called sapwood;
of softwood trees. It is a broadleaf tree that is 4. lines which radiate from the centre called
very resistant to rot and insect attack. It is medullary rays.
commonly used for fence posts.
Each season a living tree adds alternate rings of
heartwood and sapwood.
Hardwood trees are the broadleaf trees, which
grow more slowly. Their main characteristics are:
How a tree grows
1. They are harder to work with hand tools than
softwood trees. A tree absorbs moisture and nutrients from the
2. They are darker in colour or have distinctive ground through its roots. This material rises to
colours. the leaves where it is converted by photosynthesis
3. They shed their leaves seasonally. to sap, which is the growth material of the tree.
4. They are slow growing and cannot be culti¬ New growth takes place in the last layer of the
vated. trunk and the outer bark. In a mature tree the inner
5. They are more expensive to use for timber. part of the trunk hardens and carries no sap while
6. They are selected for their decorative appear¬ the outer rings carry the sap.
ance.
7. They are usually left undecorated except for
varnish or polish. Seasoning timber
Seasoning is the term that describes the changes in

The structure of timber timber from the time a tree is cut down to its use
in the construction of a building. After a tree is cut
When you examine the cut end of a tree trunk you
down (or felled), then it is made into timber by
can see the parts shown in Figure 23.1:
sawing it into planks. Figure 23.2 shows you an
1. a central core of woody tissue called the pith; overview of this process. The timber is then pre¬
2. inner concentric rings of woody tissue called pared for drying out or seasoning.
heartwood; The moisture contained in the living tree evapo-
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Figure 23.3 Storing timber for air-seasoning.
Figure 23.4 Drying timber in a kiln.
rates when the wood is cut into timber. The mois¬ Natural seasoning
ture loss should be controlled to avoid excessive After timber is cut into planks, it is stacked in open
shrinkage and distortion. The aim is to reduce the sheds and left to dry out naturally (Figure 23.3).
amount of moisture in the wood to an equilibrium This may take several months.
with the moisture in the atmosphere.
Timber should shrink slightly in its width and
Artificial seasoning
thickness, but not in its length.
Timber is seasoned artificially in a kiln like the one
in Figure 23.4, which is an enclosed container with
a temperature control. You put the timber in a kiln
Timber continues to shrink and expand with
and blow warm air into it to evaporate the mois¬
changes in the moisture in the atmosphere.
ture until the timber reaches the required moisture
content. This process takes one or two weeks.
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Timber technology 213
Calculating the moisture content 2. tangential sawing;

3. slab sawing.
For stability, timber should have a 20 per cent
moisture content, which is close to the moisture in The choice of methods depends on the relation¬
the air. ship between the rectangular shape and the growth
You measure the moisture content as the per¬ rings of the tree.
centage difference between a completely dry piece Radial sawing is also called rift or quarter saw¬
of timber and a similar piece containing moisture ing. You first cut the log into four pieces. Each
when you weigh the two for comparison. If you piece is then sawn parallel to the radius into planks.
cut a piece of timber off a plank and weigh it, then The growth rings should fall across the width of
its weight will be its own weight, plus the weight the plank.
of any moisture in it. You then put the piece of Tangential sawing divides the tree into planks
timber in a kiln and heat it until its weight does not that are curved along an angle. The growth rings
reduce any further. This means that all excess curve along the length of the planks.
moisture has evaporated. Slab sawing is sawn straight through to pro¬
duce tangential and radial sawn timber.
The formula for calculating the moisture content is:
Weight of sample with moisture - dry weight ^ Warping is the change in shape from the
Dry weight orginal sawn shape of timber because of
moisture loss. The most shrinkage occurs along
Example the direction of the growth rings. There is also
A piece of timber weighs 132.5 g a small amount of shrinkage in the radial
Its dry weight is 108.7 g direction.
The moisture content weighs 23.8 g
The percentage of the moisture content is
(23.8/108.7) x 100 = 21.9 per cent Preserving timber
Timber should have two types of preservative

applied:
Making timber from trees
1. treatments to resist attack by rot fungus and
A tree is sawn into rectangular pieces using one of wood-eating insects;
three methods, which you can see in Figure 2. treatments such as paint, polish or varnish to
23.5: protect it from moisture and pollution.
1. radial sawing; Timber to be treated with preservative should
Figure 23.5 Three common patterns for sawn timber; (a) radial sawn timber; (b) tangential sawn
timber; (c) slab sawn timber.
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be cut, shaped and prepared in advance of the Timber sizes

building work. Any cutting afterwards exposes un¬
treated timber, which must have liquid preserva¬ Timber is usually sawn into standard size pieces
tive applied by hand. with metric dimensions. For example, you should
You can use two methods to treat timber: be able to obtain these joist sizes easily
1. pressure impregnation; 50 x 100 mm
2. steeping or immersion. 50 x 125 mm
50 x 150 mm
Pressure impregnation is a method whereby
you put the timber in a kiln or other container and Sawn timber is suitable for floor joists and roof
create a vacuum inside by pumping out the air. pieces which do not require a high standard of
You use pressure to force the preservative deeply finish. This timber looks and feels rough.
into the timber. You then adjust the moisture con¬
tent and remove the timber. Prepared timber
Steeping or immersion is a method where Timber can also be prepared, if you need a smoother
you put the timber in a tank filled with preserva¬ piece of wood for painting or polishing. You pre¬
tive. The timber absorbs so much liquid that it is pare timber by planing it square and smooth with
full of the chemical preservative when it dries out a planing machine, which removes about 2 mm of
again. timber from all the surfaces. After planing, a 50 x
You can also apply preservative by hand with a 100 mm piece of sawn timber is reduced to 46 x
spray or a brush. This method is not very effective 96 mm. You must take the reduced dimensions
because penetration is poor. You should only use into account when you draw up joinery details.
this method if there is little chance of attack by rot Figure 23.6 shows you students preparing timber
or insects. in the joinery workshop of a technical college.
Figure 23.6 Students in a joinery workshop.
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Timber technology
Figure 23.7 Common joints used to fix two pieces of timber together: (a) butt joint; (b) dovetail joint;
(c) finger joint; (d) grooved joint; (e) housing joint; (f) lapped joint; (g) mortice and tenon joint.
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rectangular sections of timber at right angles. You

A carpenter usually works with sawn timber see this joint in door frames which have dowels
while a joiner works with planed timber. and wedges.
Joining timber # Softwood trees are usually evergreen with need¬

les instead of leaves.
Timber can be shaped to join pieces which lock # Softwood trees grow quickly.
together firmly. Besides cutting the pieces to fit, Hardwood trees have broad leaves and grow
they are also usually glued. Sometimes small, round slowly.
wooden dowels are used as pins. Softwood is easier to work than hardwood. It
You can see from this list that joiners use a forms the bulk of the timber used in building
variety of joints to join two pieces of planed construction.
timber. Figure 23.7 shows you how the different Seasoning is the gradual drying out of timber
joints look. without causing defects.
The moisture in timber should be about 20 per
1. Butt joint cent of its weight.
A butt joint is not shaped and the two pieces are # Trees are converted to timber by sawing.
only joined by glue. These joints may have dowels Timber should be treated with preservatives or
inserted into them. painted to prevent attack by insects and fungus.
2. Dovetail joint Timber is cut to standard sizes in a sawmill.
A dovetail joint joins two pieces of timber at right Planing reduces the size of cut timber by 2 mm
angles. The shaped projection on one piece locks all over.
into a matching recess on the other piece. Joinery is the method for fitting pieces of planed
3. Finger joint timber together.
A finger joint is a machined joint that joins two
pieces end to end so that the entire length is
strong.
4. Grooved joint
A grooved joint is used in tongue and grooved
floors where a projection on the edge of one piece REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
fits into a groove on the edge of the other piece.
5. Housing 1 Look at examples of hardwood and softwood
This joint joins two pieces that meet at right angles timbers. What are the differences?
in the middle of their length. 2 What is the reason for seasoning timber?
6. Lapped joint 3 How do you apply preservative to timber?
A lapped joint is a simple interlocking joint, which 4 Draw the following types of joint:
can be half-lapped, rebated and notched. i) dovetail
7. Mortice and tenon ii) mortice and tenon
This joint is the most popular joint for joining flat iii) lapped.
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Introduction Compression loading
This chapter expands the information you need to One of the main functions of the structure of a
know about the various stresses that affect the building is to transfer loads safely to the founda¬
parts of a building. Two types of load create tion and the soil. Solid walls are subjected to
stresses: vertical compression loads, which is the reason for
testing the compression strength of bricks, blocks
1. dead loads, which are created by the materials
and stones. You can see an example of compres¬
used to construct a building. Dead loads include
sion loading in Figure 24.1.
walls, floors, roofs, finishes, services and fixed
installations;
2. live or superimposed loads, which are created
Concrete is an excellent material under
by the weights of the people and the movable
compression, which is why it is used in
fittings such as the furniture. Wind pressure is
foundations.
also a live load.
Figure 24.1 How the pressure at the base increases with the height of a wall.
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217
Arches and lintels There is an example of a bending stress in

Figure 24.3.
If you need to transfer a load sideways (bending Because concrete is not strong in tension, it is
stress), then you can construct an arch to carry the not suitable as a structural member in mass form.
compression load down the sides until it becomes You need to stiffen it with reinforcement bars at
a vertical load at the bottom. An example of the the point of the tension stresses. You can control
compression forces at work in an arch is in Figure the shear forces in concrete by inserting vertical
24.2. stirrups in the beam.
Another method of transferring a load sideways
is to bridge an opening with a lintel or beam.
When the lintel or beam bends slightly under
Columns
pressure this is called deflection. Columns and piers also help to spread compres¬
A beam is a horizontal member which transfers sion loads if they are constructed properly. A col¬
loads to the supports at each end. Examples of umn is a vertical structure that is not attached to
beams are floor joists, lintels, rafters or staircase walls. Columns transfer the loads from beams to
strings. They are all able to bend slightly. The the foundations. If the columns are too narrow for
deflection (or bend) should not be more than their height, then they will be unstable and bend
l/360th of the span of the beam. or buckle which leads to collapse (Figure 24.4).
Three types of stress cause a beam to bend Steel reinforcement in columns spreads the stresses
slightly: so that the columns can be smaller.
1. compression, which forces material in the top
half of the beam together; Slabs
2. tension, which pulls the material in the bottom
half of the beam apart; Reinforced concrete slabs which form floors and
3. shear, which bears down on the beam to force roofs are designed as a series of adjacent beams
it to break. that span between wall or beam supports.
Live and dead loads
Additional load at the

base of the arch
Figure 24.2 Compression loads on an arch.

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Structural loads 219
Top of the beam

shortens: the material
Pressure from live and dead loads
Figure 24.4 Loading columns.
Types of loads
the brick bonding. You can see an example of this
Loads can be: process in Figure 24.5.
Point loads transfer load stresses to a single
® uniformly distributed; structural member. An example of this is the end of
# point loads. a roof truss that rests on a wall or beam.
Uniformly distributed loads (UDL) transfer
stresses evenly to a structural member. For ex¬ Forces in a roof truss
ample, a strip foundation that supports a load-
bearing wall will transfer the forces along the A roof truss has a triangular structure to make it
length of the foundation because of the effect of stiff enough to bear the forces of the roof. Figure
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No bending stress or shear
supports the UDL of the wall
Figure 24.5 Uniformly distributed loads on a strip foundation.
Figure 24.6 The forces on a trussed rafter roof.
24.6 describes which parts of the structure respond A brace stiffens the roof truss when the wind
to the loads. force bears on the roof. It can be in tension or
A strut is the compression member that runs compression.
between the rafter and the roof tie. The rafter tends
to sag under the weight of the roof and pushes
down on the strut, which takes the compression.
The strut may take tension temporarily when the Reactions and moments
roof slope is lifted up by the wind on the down¬ V
wind side. Reactions occur at the ends of loaded structural

A tie is the bottom horizontal member of a truss. members when the loads are transferred to the
It spans the extreme ends of a truss and pulls supporting construction.
against the thrust of the rafters. Moments are a measurement of a reaction.
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Structural loads 221
Measuring reactions CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Uniformly distributed Load (UDL)
The building structures must support and resist
V_V V V V K7 V X7^ JV\7\7yy\7U\7 the loads and forces acting upon them.
A
L—
Reaction 'A'
UDL
Reaction 'B'
A Loads can be live loads or dead loads.
Wind pressure also applies a load.
Most loads are compressed, except in suspended
structures which have tension forces.
With a UDL the reactions at 'A' and 'B' are Tension is caused by suspended members
equal and are therefore each equal to half of bending under pressure.
the amount of the UDL. Downward pressures in suspended structures
create shear forces.
i.e. = reaction at 'A' or 'B' Loads are uniformly distributed or are point
loads.
Point loads
C
Jz.
Reaction 'A'
7K REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
Reaction 'B‘
1 How does an arch differ from a beam when it
With a central point load the reactions at 'A1 spans an opening?
and 'B' are as for the UDL. 2 Draw a beam with a UDL and show the
reactions at the supports.
* y 3 What happens to a tall, narrow unreinforced
I
load
5 7
column?
Reaction 'A'
z
Reaction 'B'
4 Figure 24.6 shows a roof truss. Which forces
act on the main parts?
5 A beam is 9 5 metres long. It has a point load
When the point load is closer to one support 3.25 metres from one end. If the load is 63 kN,
the reaction at this support will be greater then what are the moments at each end?
than at the one further away. To measure the
reactions, moments are taken about one of
the reactions.
i.e. Moments about Reaction 'A'

load x x = reaction B x (x + y)
„ . „ load x x
Reaction B = —-—
(x + y)
Example To find reactions

A point load of 50 kN is 3 metres from
Reaction A on a beam 10 metres long
Moments about 'A'

50 X 3 = B x 10
Thus reaction B = ^ X ^ = 15 kN
10
aua reaction A = 50-15= 35 kN
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Answers to revision exercises
and questions
Introduction □ Keep an eye on the time. Make sure that you

try all the questions you are required to an¬
This section provides you with all the answers to swer.
the variety of questions and exercises given in the Always present your work as clearly as you
book. Always try a question or exercise yourself can, whether you are writing or drawing. Make
before you look at the answer. This will increase your work easy to follow for the examiner or
your understanding of the topic and give you assessor.
practice in answering questions. If you are not sure Try and allow some time at the end to check
of a particular answer, re-read the relevant section your answers and improve them.
or chapter in the book to revise the work. You I1 In practical work, make sure that you under¬
need to understand why a question has a particular stand what you are being asked to do by re¬
answer, so that you can apply your understanding reading the question before you start. Follow
to similar types of question or exercise in your all instructions carefully.
examinations and course assignments.
To revise a topic quickly you can also refer to
the ‘Check your understanding’ sections given at Chapter 1
the end of each chapter, and the list of key words 1 A building worker should have a hard hat,
with definitions given at the end of the book. rubber boots and gloves.
2 You should inspect excavations after heavy
rain to check that the sides are stable.
Hints to answering questions in 3 If someone receives a serious shock you should:

examinations and course work turn off the electric current;
make the person comfortable;
Read all the questions carefully before you try • keep the person warm;
anything. Make sure that you understand what check the pulse;
each question is asking you to do. apply artificial respiration;
Plan the time that you will spend on each contact an ambulance or medical facility.
question. Use the marks as a guide: the more
4 Three dangerous materials on a building site
marks a question is worth, the more time it is
are:
worth spending on it.
i) petrol;
If you have a choice of questions, try to make
ii) explosives;
your choice and stick to it. Don’t change your
iii) paraffin.
mind halfway through the examination.
You may be able to think of other dangerous
Make sure that you earn all the ‘easy’ marks.
materials.
Do not spend too long on a question you find
difficult. Leave it; if you have time, you can try 5 A site is healthy if it has space for the workers
it again later when you have finished all the to take rest breaks, cook food and for sanita¬
other questions. tion facilities.
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Answers to revision exercises and questions 223
Chapter 2
3 A plan, a section and an elevation are the
1 The client needs finance and a site. different views of a building that explain the
2 The structural engineer carries out the calcula¬ relationship of the structure.
tions for the main parts of the structure. 4 A specification is the description of how to do
3 The contractor uses a subcontractor’s special the building work. A bill of quantities is the
expertise to do parts of the construction work. estimate of the quantities of material required
as a basis for pricing a job.
4 i) Planning controls are concerned with the
environmental and design aspects of the 5
work. Window Door Window
ii) Building regulations are concerned with
the structure of the building.
5 The contractor buys:
i) paint from a builder’s merchant;
ii) sand from a quarry;
iii) timber from a timber merchant.
6 Look for building uses such as medical, ser¬
vices, schools, residential or commercial. How
many more can you find in your area?
7 Put this information neatly on a map of your
area.
6 i) 50m2 x 9 = *450
Chapter 3 ii) 60m2 X 120 = *7 200
1 Any three out of these five factors can increase iii) 60m2 x 73 = *4 380
building costs: iv) 215m2 X 60 = *12 900
i) soil conditions; Total = *24 930
ii) ground water;
iii) sloping ground; Chapter 5
iv) availability of services; 1 The working drawings and specifications are
v) proximity to other buildings. the documents that enable the contractor and
2 The three services that are useful for site devel¬ subcontractors to carry out their work.
opment are: 2 Three main responsibilities of the main con¬
i) water; tractor are to:
ii) electricity; i) employ skilled workers;
iii) drainage. ii) complete a job on time;
3 Manholes in the road indicate the presence of iii) observe health and safety requirements.
drains. You may want to add other answers to this
question.
4 Use a 30 metre tape and a magnetic compass.
Reduce your building to a 1:100 or 1:50 scale 3 A contractor can lay a hardcore road base
so that it fits on a sheet of paper. down at the start of the contract.
5 You should be able to find a survey map in 4 Termite nests should be destroyed because
your local planning office. termites will attack and destroy untreated
timber.
Chapter 4 5 A contractor should dig trial holes before work

1 A site plan positions the building on the site. begins to find out the condition of the ground
and the level of the natural water table.
2 The documents which you need to have ap¬
proved for building work to start are: 6 Your drawing should be similar to Figure 5.1. It
i) the working drawings; should show access to the site and clear work¬
ii) the specification. ing space around the areas under construction.
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Chapter 6 3 The purpose of a raft foundation is to spread

1 In a 3-A-5 triangle, 3 = 750 mm, 4 = 1000 mm, the load on poor soils. Raft foundations are
5 = 1250 mm also used if the load is small.
2 If the diagonals are not equal, then you should 4 i) The width of a foundation depends on the
move the pegs until the corners are square. load and bearing capacity of the soil,
ii) The thickness of a strip foundation is meas¬
3 Make sure that the length of the string forming
ured by a 45° angle from the base of the
the triangle adds up to a multiple of 12 so that
wall.
you know that you have a 3-4-5 triangle.
5 See Figure 8.1.
4 See Table 6.4 for an example. Make a trammel
that is the same length as the fixed radius of 6 Strip foundation:
the circle. Concrete = *650
Brickwork = *1000
5 You set up a site datum mark by using a survey
Backfill = *200
datum level or a convenient fixed object above
Total = *1850 per metre run
ground level such as a manhole cover. You
Deep strip foundation:
find the levels with a levelling instrument, a
Cost of concrete = *650 x 3
staff and a wooden peg as the datum.
= *1950 per metre run
Chapter 9
Chapter 7 1 i) The main functions of load-bearing walls
1 See Figure 7.7 are to transfer loads to the foundations,
support the weights of floors and roofs and
2 i) Cut and fill excavation uses excavated soil
resist wind pressure.
to build up the levels at the lower end. This
ii) The main functions of non-load-bearing
reduces the total amount of excavation re¬
walls are to separate spaces, provide sound
quired to produce a level site,
insulation and fire resistance.
ii) Stepped foundations reduce the amount of
trench foundation required. 2 See Figure 9-26.
3 Foundations are built below ground level to 3 You can use cement, sand, aggregates, laterite,
protect against impact and to reduce the effect fuel ash and timber shavings to make cement-
of climatic variations. based blocks in 1:6 or 1:8 mixtures.
4 You should remove topsoil because it is not 4 A damp-proof course is a waterproof barrier to
firm enough to support building loads; it con¬ prevent the entry of moisture.
tains vegetation and is less compact.
5 A closer maintains the bond in the brickwork
5 i) To clear a site you use a bulldozer. where openings or corners interrupt the course.
ii) To dig narrow trenches you use a backacter.
6 See Figure 9-17.
iii) To remove soil from an excavation you use
a mechanical shovel and tipper truck. 7 You position the first bricks correctly by stretch¬
ing lines between profiles on outer wall sur¬
6 Set the profiles so that they are level. Then
faces. You need to mark corners in wet mortar.
make a boning rod so that it reaches from the
top of the profile to the bottom of the trench. 8 The advantages of cavity wall construction are
Sight between profiles until the boning rod is that in cold, wet conditions it keeps the build¬
aligned. ing interior warmer and drier. Cavity walls can
also insulate against heat gain.
Chapter 8 Chapter 10
1 1250 kg x 10/1000 = 12.5 kN approximately 1 See Figure 10.2 and Table 10.1.
2 31 250 kg = 312.5 kN 2 i) A throat increases the rate of flow of the
Area of foundation = 312.5 + 52 = 6 m2 hot gases and improves combustion,
Length of side of foundation = V~6 m2 = 2.45 m ii) A gathering links the top of the fireplace to
(say 2500 mm) the narrower mouth of the flue.
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225
3 50 mm.
5 Roof trusses support purlins, which support
4 See Figure 10.4. rafters. Trussed rafters use all rafters as trusses
without purlins.
Chapter 11 6 See Figure 12.18.
1 An oversite concrete slab can be used as:
i) a finished floor slab; 7 You lay bituminous felt in layers. The first layer
ii) a slab beneath a suspended timber floor; should be nailed to the boarding. The end of
iii) a raft foundation. the second layer should overlap the first layer.
You then apply a layer of bitumen adhesive
2 A honeycomb sleeper wall supports timber before adding a final coat of bitumen. You
floor joists and allows the air to circulate. finish by sprinkling white stone chippings on
3 See Figure 11.4. the bitument to provide protection and to re¬
flect heat.
4 A wet concrete slab is covered with polythene
sheets for seven days. It should be kept moist
so that the moisture evaporates slowly. It can
Chapter 13
also be covered with hessian, which is lightly
watered at intervals and removed after seven 1 A scaffold is stable if it has:
i) a firm and level base;
days. You use a tamp to compact and level the
surface. ii) diagonal bracing;
iii) level platforms;
5 Steel reinforcement introduces tension in the iv) ties to the building under construction.
bottom of the slab to counteract the poor
strength of concrete when under tension or 2 The four poles used in a putlog scaffold are:
compression. i) standard, which is a vertical pole that
transfers loads to the ground;
6 See Figure 11.7. ii) ledger, which is a horizontal pole that ties
the standards together;
Chapter 12 iii) putlogs, which are horizontal poles sup¬
porting the platform;
1 The function of a roof is to:
iv) braces, which are diagonal poles that stiffen
i) keep out wind and rain;
the scaffolding.
ii) weigh down the structure of the house;
iii) keep the interior cool. 3 See Figure 13-1.
You may have other answers to this question.
4 See Figure 13.2.
2 i) Pitch is the slope of the roof from a hori¬
5 The triangular shapes of the diagonal braces
zontal level.
stiffen the scaffolding.
ii) A hip is the intersection of two external
roof slopes. 6 A comparison of the advantages and disadvan¬
iii) A gang nail plate is the metal plate that tages of timber and metal scaffolding.
joins the beams in a trussed rafter.
Timber scaffolding
iv) A gauge is the space between tiling bat¬
Advantages Disadvantages
tens.
i) cheap; i) slower to put up;
v) A parapet wall is a projection above the
ii) materials available; ii) joints are not as
level of the roof.
reliable;
3 A flat roof needs some slope to drain rain iii) no special fittings iii) hard to detect
water. A minimum pitch is 1:80. required. defects in the
timber.
4 i) The structural members support the frame¬
work of the roof, Metal scaffolding
ii) The main members are the: Advantages Disadvantages
# rafters; i) durable; i) more expensive;
# joists; ii) more adaptable; ii) more fittings;
# purlins; iii) consistent quality. iii) must be stored and
# trussed rafters. protected.
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Chapter 14 Chapter 17
1 The formula is 225 mm + 2 risers = 700 mm 1 If drains are too steep, then solid matter is left
2 risers = 700 - 225 mm = 475 mm behind because water flows through too quickly.
1 riser = 237.5 mm If the drains are too shallow, then the water
does not flow strongly enough to carry the
2 See Figure 14.8.
solid matter away.
3 See Figure 14.5. 2 The fall in the drain is 45 000/40 = 1125 mm
4 See Figure 14.6. Depth of invert at lower end is 1125 + 875 mm
= 2000 mm
5 See Figure 14.2.
3 Concrete, clay and iron are rigid materials.
Chapter 15 Plastic and pitchfibre are flexible materials.
1
4 i) Hydraulic test;
ii) Ball test;
iii) Mirror and torch test.
5 See Figure 17.5.

6 A septic tank treats the solid effluent by break¬
ing it down under bacterial action. A cesspool
does not break effluent down and must be
emptied regularly.
7 You use a boning rod to check the depth of the
drain run so that it falls to the correct depth.
8 i) The purpose of a manhole is to:
a) give access for cleaning and inspection;
2 i) Putty;
b) allow for changes in direction of the drain
ii) Beads.
run;
3 See Figure 15.4. c) allow connecting drains to join the main
drain.
4 i) Rim-fixed;
ii) The reason for venting a drainage system is
ii) Morticed.
to prevent the build up of gas pressure in
5 See Figure 15.1. the drains.
iii) Branch drains connect to the main drain at
a manhole and in the direction of the flow.
Chapter 16
1 For a side-hung window you need a pair of 9 The waste from a WC flows directly to a man¬
hinges, a casement handle and catch and a hole. Sink waste goes through a gully.
casement stay and pins.
Chapter 18
2 The window should be 1190 x 1490 mm to
1 Rivers, wells and reservoirs.
allow 10 mm all around for bedding.
2 A water treatment plant removes bacteria and
3 You should point joints with mastic and put
filters out other matter.
drip mouldings and grooves in the rails.
3 i) Stored water is best for washing and
4 The purpose of a cill is to push rainwater
cleaning.
flowing down a window surface clear of the
ii) Mains water is best for drinking and cook¬
brickwork underneath.
ing.
5 The three ways that metal windows are better
4 i) A stopcock shuts off the water supply.
than timber are:
ii) A ball valve controls the amount of water
i) the smaller sections allow in more daylight;
supplied to a tank or cistern.
ii) the windows do not rot and are resistant to
termites; 5 0 An active solar water heating system needs
iii) the windows are simple to make. a pump to circulate the water. A passive
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Answers to revision exercises and questions 227
system circulates the water naturally due to • applying a skim coat of neat plaster.
a thermo-syphon action,
ii) The main advantages of the active system 4 You prepare a wall for a coat of plaster by:
are that: • applying plaster daubs at spaced intervals;
• it can be placed up high to reach more • level the daubs horizontally and vertically;
sunlight; • apply the plaster in vertical bands over the
• it is easier to protect from damage. daubs;
The main disadvantages of the active system • apply a backing coat of plaster in between
are that: the screeds and level off with a screeding
• it needs a pump and an electrical supply; board.
• it can be more difficult to maintain. 5 To prepare timber you follow these steps:
The main advantages of the passive system are • rub down;
that: • dust;
• it requires fewer parts; • seal knots;
• it is easier to maintain. • prime;
The main disadvantages axe that: • apply filler;
• it does not receive as much sunlight; • rub down;
• it can be damaged more easily. • apply undercoat;
• rub down;
6. Compression and capillary joints.
• apply gloss coat.
6 You put a bonded screed on a concrete floor

Chapter 19
by placing timber battens with daubs of ce¬
1 The standard colour codes are:
ment about a metre apart. You fill in the gaps
• brown = live;
with the screed mix and level them with a
• blue = neutral;
screed board.
• yellow/green = earth.
2 Earthing allows an electrical current to flow Chapter 21

into the ground if a fault occurs which allows 1 The purpose of water in a concrete mix is to
a live wire to come into contact with equip¬ hydrate the cement and make it workable.
ment. The earthing forces the fuse to blow,
which shuts off the supply and prevents the 2 When you store cement you should:
consumer from receiving a shock. • check the date of manufacture;
• store it off the ground;
3 W= Vx I • protect it from rain;
2000 = 240 x / • limit the height of the stacks;
I = 2000/240 • use older cement first.
= 8.3 amps
3 To test for silt you should mix sand and water
4 See Figure 19.2. in a measuring beaker. Then measure the
amount of silt that settles to the bottom. There
should be less than 5 per cent of the total
Chapter 20 volume.
1 You should plaster walls and ceilings to make
4 i) Graded aggregate is aggregate with a range
a smooth finish to provide a base for decora¬
of particle sizes.
tion.
ii) Bulking of sand occurs when the moisture
2 i) Key means the adhesion created by the content of sand increases the total volume.
roughness of a surface, iii) Slump is the measurable level of collapse
ii) Suction means the penetration of the mix¬ of a sample of concrete. A slump test checks
ture into the surface of the backing. the amount of water content in the con¬
crete.
3 You fix plasterboard to a ceiling by:
• nailing; 5 Two boxes of cement = 50 kg = 0.035 m3
• filling nail holes; Four boxes of sand = 0.070 m3
• filling and scrimming joints; Eight boxes of aggregate = 0.140 m3
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Water = 30 litres = 0.030 m3 4 5 Chapter 23

Total bulk volume = 0.275 m3 1 The main differences between hardwood and
softwood are:
Volume of concrete produced # hardwood has closer grain lines;
per batch = 0.275 x 2/3 = 0.18 m3 # hardwood is harder to cut or plane;
To produce 3 m3 of concrete you need # hardwood is darker;
3.00/0.018 m3 = 16.6 (say 17 bags) of cement # hardwood is more dense;
Material needed: # hardwood resists indentation more.
Cement = 17 bags = 850 kg
2 The reason for seasoning timber is to reduce
Sand = 0.07 x 17 = 1.19 m3
the amount of moisture in the wood to an
Aggregates = 0.14 x 17 = 2.38 m3
equilibrium with the moisture in the atmos¬
Water =30x17 =510 litres
phere.
6 You can check the moisture content of sand by
3 You apply preservative to timber by:
weighing it in its natural state, heating it until it
# pressure impregnation;
is completely dry and then weighing it again.
# steeping;
# painting.
4 See Figure 23.6.
Chapter 22
1 Non-cohesive particles such as sand separate.
Cohesive particles such as clay stick together. Chapter 24
1 An arch transfers a load vertically under com¬
2 A natural foundation supports:
pression at the top. A beam transfers a load
# superimposed loads made up of the occu¬
horizontally under compression at the bottom.
pants, furniture, fittings and plant;
# dead loads made up of the structure of the 2 See Figure 24.3.
building.
3 If a column is too high, then it will buckle or
3 These types of soil are poor for building on: bend under stress. A tall column requires rein¬
# made-up ground; forcement.
# black cotton;
4 See Figure 24.6.
# some types of clay.
i) The struts take compression forces.
4 You should dig trial holes to check the condi¬ The ties take tension forces.
tion of the soil and to help design the correct The braces take tension or compression
foundations. forces.
5 If the area = 118/48 kN = 2.46 m2, then the si 5 i) The reaction at A = 41.5 kN
of the base is V2.46 = 1568 X 1568 mm ii) The reaction at B = 21.5 kN
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Abutment Brace A piece of timber that stiffens a larger structure.
a) The point where an arch meets a wall. Breast The brickwork for a fireplace that projects into a
b) A junction, such as the point where the edges join on a room.
parapet roof. Builder’s square A frame with a right-angled corner.
Adhesion Strong, firm contact between surfaces. Butt A joint formed between the squared ends of two
Aggregates The stones and gravel used to make con¬ jointed pieces that do not overlap.
crete.
Air brick A ventilator that fits into the brickwork to Carriage The support underneath a staircase.
ventilate suspended timber ground floors. Casement A side-hung opening window.
Amperage The unit of electrical current. Caulk The filler in a spigot or socket joint of a drain pipe
Arch A structure of wedge-shaped stones or pieces that that makes the seal watertight.
support each other by mutual pressure and curve up¬ Cavity walls Two layers of wall with a space in between.
wards. Cement
Architrave A wooden facing strip fixed around a door a) The process of bonding two surfaces together.
frame or lining to cover the joint between the plaster b) A combination of limestone and silica used in making
and the frame. concrete.
Arris The corner where two surfaces meet. Centring A timber piece with the same shape as an arch
Artificial foundation The structure that lies between the that is used to achieve the upward curve of an arch
building and the natural foundation. under construction.
Asphalt A dark, hard substance mixed with rock chips or Cesspool A pit or pool for collecting waste water.
other materials and used for paving or roofing. Chase The groove cut in a wall to take conduits or
Auger A spiral-shaped cutter used to remove a cylinder cables.
of soil. Chimney The brick structure that carries the flue above
a roof.
Back The vertical brick surface that makes the opening Cill A horizontal member at the base of a door or win¬
for the fireplace. dow.
Baluster The infill between the handrail and the string Cladding One material that covers another.
on a staircase. Closer A brick cut in half along its length.
Balustrade The protection erected on the outer edge of Compression The volume of a material being reduced
a staircase. under pressure.
Barge board A board that hides and protects the gable Concrete A mixture of materials, such as cement, sand,
end of a roof. gravel and water, that bond into a stronger mass.
Batten A piece of timber which is fixed in place to attach Consumer unit Distribution unit for electricity in a build¬
another part of the structure to. ing.
Beam A large straight piece of timber or metal that forms Contours Lines that show the amount and direction of
one of the main staictural members of a building. slope.
Bedding To lay in layers or on a surface. Corbel The projection of brickwork from a wall.
Bevel A sloping edge to a board or piece of timber. Course A complete layer of bricks including the mortar.
Bituminous felt A roof-covering material that is treated Cramp A metal fastening.
with a mineral substance. Crazing A covering of fine surface cracks on plaster.
Blinding A smooth level finish on hardcore.
Boiler An apparatus for heating water. Datum level The baseline for survey levels.
Bonding Datum level mark A mark on survey maps to indicate
a) The overlapping connection of one stone or brick with the height above sea level.
another. Dead loads These are the weights of the fixed parts of
b) Earthing in electrical circuits. buildings such as the walls, floors, roofs and fittings.
Boning rod A T-shaped timber rod used for taking Deflection When a level beam or surface bends down¬
levels. ward from a horizontal line.
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229
Density The proportion of a mass to bulk or volume. Hinge The joint on which a door turns.
Dowel A wooden pin that secures timber joints. Honeycomb sleeper walls Brick or block walls built
Down service The water supply from the cold water over oversite concrete so that air can circulate underneath.
tank. Hopper
Dpc A layer of moisture-proof material laid on brickwork a) A fitting at the head of a rainwater pipe attached to a flat
to prevent rising damp in walls. roof.
Dpm A layer of moisture-proof material laid under a b) The container for weighing and loading materials to go
concrete slab and screed to prevent rising damp in in a concrete mixer.
floors. Hydrate A compound that can expel and absorb
Drain A pipe to carry waste water or rainwater away water.
from a building.
Dressing Cutting stones into suitable shapes and sizes Immersion heater An electrical apparatus in the water
for building work. in a boiler, used for heating water.
Dry lining A method of finishing walls with plasterboard In situ Constructing something, such as lintel, in position.
instead of plaster. Inspection chamber A manhole that gives access to a
drain run.
Eaves The bottom edges of pitched roofs. Insulation The material used to reduce energy loss in
Effluent The outflow from a sewage treatment plant. walls and roofs.
Elevations External views of a building that show the Invert The depth from the datum level to the lowest part
general appearance. of a drain.
Excavation The process of digging out the ground on a Ironmongery Metal hardware fitted to doors and win¬
site. dows.
Face The exposed surface of a brick or block.

Jamb The sidepiece or post of a door or fireplace.
Fascia The vertical timber board fitted to the roof joists to
Joint The point where two surfaces or pieces meet.
secure the gutters.
Joist A steel or timber beam that supports a floor or roof.
Fillet A narrow piece of wood or metal.
Fillet weld A material laid down in the angle of the
Landing The level space that breaks up a flight of stairs.
intersection between two surfaces.
Latch A door catch lifted by a lever.
Fire resistance The ability of a material to resist fire for
Laterite A clay formed by weathering, which is com¬
a specified period of time.
posed mainly of iron and aluminium hydroxides.
Firring Tapered strip of wood that forms a slope on flat
Lining A timber framework inserted into an opening in
roofs.
an internal wall.
Flashing The metal covering for upright structures on a
Lintel A beam that spans an opening to support the load
roof.
of the wall above.
Flight A series of steps between floors or a floor and
landing. Live loads The weights of the people, furniture and
machines in a building.
Flue
a) The opening inside a chimney that takes the hot air, Load-bearing wall It carries the weight of a structure
such as a roof or floor above it.
smoke or flames outside.
b) A separate pipe that links to the chimney from a self- Louvres Individual pieces of glass held in position in a
window by metal clips.
contained appliance such as a boiler.
Frame A solid timber or metal structure fixed to a wall.
Manhole The access point to the drainage system.
Gable The triangular portion of wall between the sloping Masonry Building work in stone, bricks or blocks.
edges of a pitched roof. Mastic An oily cement.
Gaskin The yarn used to seal spaces in pipe joints. Member A piece, which is usually timber or metal, that
Gauge forms part of an entire structure.
a) Width of a row of slates. Mortar A mixture of cement and sand used in brick and
b) A standard of measurement. blockwork.
Gloss paint Paint containing varnish to give it a hard, Mortice A hole in a timber frame that takes another piece
shiny finish. of timber or a fitting.
Going The horizontal distance between risers. Moulding A shaped piece of timber.
Gusset Piece of plywood that joins timber trusses.
Natural foundation The ground underneath the base of
Hardcore Broken brick or stone used as a base for the building after excavation.
ground-floor concrete slabs. Noggin A piece of wood inserted in a wall to receive
Haunch A sloping mortar fillet for bedding materials nails.
such as tiles. Non-load-bearing wall It does not carry the weight of a
Header A brick laid in a wall so that the smallest surface structure above it.
is visible. Nosing The part of the tread that projects beyond the
Hearth The fireproof horizontal base of a fireplace. riser.
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Key words 231
Ohm The unit of electrical resistance. Scale The measure for drawing objects to a smaller size
Opening light The opening portion of a window. while keeping the correct proportions.
Screed
Parapet A brickwork projection above the edge of a a) A band of plaster laid on the surface of a wall as a guide
roof. to the thickness of the coat.
Partition A wall that separates two rooms. b) A layer of mortar finishing off the surface of a floor to
Percolation test A test to see how long it takes for water make it level for fixing other finishes.
to filter into the soil. Sections Show the depth of the foundations, the levels of
Perpend the floors and roofs and other construction details.
a) The vertical joint running through brickwork. Septic tank A tank in which oxygen is removed and
b) A stone running through a wall from face to face. sewage is broken down by anaerobic bacteria.
Pier Sewer The main drain for moving water-borne human
a) A free-standing column of brickwork. waste.
b) A projection from the surface of a wall which stiffens it. Shear A force on a beam.
Piles These are load-bearing cylinders driven into the Site datum A fixed point, such as a wooden peg, used to
ground to support a foundation. measure the different levels of a building.
Pit A hole that is excavated in the ground for founda¬ Slab A large area of thin concrete.
tions. Soakaway An area where water percolates into the
Pitch The slope of a roof or the angle of the nosings on soil.
a staircase. Socket Outlet for the electrical wiring which takes plugs.
Plant The mechanical equipment used on a building site. Soffit The horizontal underside of a surface.
Plate The timber piece used at the bottom of structures to Span The horizontal distance between the supports of
spread a load. structural members.
Plumb-bob A weight at the end of a line to show vertical Specification Document that describes the standards of
levels. workmanship and materials required for a building
Plumb-line A vertical line. project.
Pneumatic drill A drill that is driven by compressed air. Spigot The end of a pipe that goes into a socket.
Polings These are vertical timber boards that support the Spirit level A glass tube that shows a central bubble
soil in a trench. when a surface is level.
Precasting Making something, such as a lintel before Stile An outer vertical piece of a door frame.
putting it in position. Stopcock A short pipe opened and stopped by turning a
Profile A timber board that marks the boundaries of handle or a key.
excavations and walls. Stretcher A brick or block placed so that its length is the
Purlin A beam that supports the rafters or roof sheeting. same direction as a wall.
Putlog Cross-pieces of a scaffold that have one end built String The beam which supports the treads and risers
into a building. in a staircase.
Strut A structural beam under compression.
Stud partition A timber partition.
Quoin The external corner where two wall surfaces meet.
Subsoil The soil below ground level after excavation of
the topsoil
Racking back The stepping back of brickwork to reduce Substructure The part of the building below ground
the height of a wall. level.
Raft foundation A reinforced concrete slab used in Suction The process of absorbing water in a mixture.
ground with poor bearing capacity. Surface water The rainwater that falls on the hard sur¬
Rafter An inclined beam that supports a roof. faces around a building.
Rebate A groove cut in one board to hold the end of
another board.
Reinforced concrete Concrete strengthened by embed¬ Trammel A board used to make a circle.
ded steel bars or mesh. Transom Cross-piece on a scaffold, a window or a door.
Render A cement and sand plaster applied to the exter¬ Tread The horizontal surface of a step.
nal surfaces of a building. Trial holes Holes dug in the ground as part of site
Reveal The side surface of a door or window opening. investigation.
Ridge A timber at the apex of a roof that takes the tops Truss A framed structure for supporting a weight.
of the rafters. Truss-beam
Ring main The electrical circuit that connects the socket a) A wooden beam strengthened by a steel tie-rod.
outlets in a building. b) A steel framework acting as a beam.
Riser The vertical surface of a step.
Rising main The pipework for the water supply in a
building. Undercoat A coat of paint put on before the finishing
coat.
Sash The entire moving part of a window, including the UPVC A plastic material used for making pipes, door and
frame and glass. window frames.
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Vent A pipe that releases pressure from a drainage sys¬ Walings These are horizontal timber boards that support
tem or hot water installation. polings.
Ventilation The method of circulating fresh air into a Wall plate The piece used as a base for fixing floor joists.
room. Wall tie A fitting used to tie the inner and outer surfaces
Verge The edge of a roof that projects beyond a gable. of a cavity wall.
Vitrified clay Clay fired at a very high temperature to Water table The natural level of water in the ground.
make it waterproof. Wattage The unit of electrical power.
Voltage The pressure of the electric current. Wind loads These are the pressures on the walls and
roofs from the wind.
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Index
(Page numbers in bold refer to illustrations)
abutment 63, 229 section of 127 plastering 183 building industry regulators
access gates: for construction steel 127 safety with 3, 7 7
site 18 vertical 126 sandcrete 50 building inspector 7
access road: temporary, to balustrades 119, 121 solid 50, 69 building line 12
site 20 barge board 229 standard dimensions 50, 51 building materials: for
acrylic primers 188 base boards: for scaffolding for walls 68-70 external walls 49-52
African house: roof of 92 115 weights 69 suppliers 5, 7
aggregates: for concrete 197, base plates: for scaffolding boilers, hot water 171-2 building sites: clearing 18-22
198, 229 115 bolts, door 136 cooking facilities 3
grading 201-2 basements: excavating 30 security 135 health and safety on 1^4
weight of 200 on sloping site 34 bonding: altering 54 building surveyor: see
agricultural buildings 8 basin 161 block 72, 73 surveyor
air bricks 84, 229 bat: brick 52 in blockwork 54-5 building types: categories of
aluminium sheets: for roofs bath 161 in brickwork 53-5, 229 8
93 beams 61 stones 66 built-up roofing: see
aluminium wood primer 188 compression load on 218 in stonework 54 bituminous felt
amperage 179 and steel anchors 62 bond patterns: for tiles 102 bulking: in sand 201
apprentices 6 bed: brick 52 boning rod 31, 229 bulldozer 36, 37
arches 6l-4 bed joint 52 use of 32, 33 burglar bars: on windows 145
centring 63 bending stress 218 bottom-hung windows 139 butt 229
compression loading on in a beam 219 boundaries: site 18 joint 215, 216
218 bevel 229 braces: door 130-1
making brick 63 bill of quantities 6, 13, 16 roof 220 calcium plumbate primer 188
parts of 62-3 sample page 16 for scaffolding 115, 229 cardboard lattice: in doors
segmental 62 binders 97 breast: of fireplace 76 132, 133
semicircular 62 paint 188 brick gauge 52 carpenter 216
stages in building 64 bituminous felt: laying 110 bricklaying: materials 55 carpet: tiles 195
types of 63 for roofs 93, 109 technical words for 52 on timber floors 195
architect 5 blinding: for floors 82, 83, tools and equipment 55 casement: fasteners 139
drawing office 5 229 bricks 7 stays 139
architrave 229 blockboard 85, 88 arches 63 window 139
arris 52, 229 blocks: bonding 72, 73 for external walls 49, 50 cast iron pipes 149
asphalt: mastic 110, 113 cement-based 49, 50 building 55-8 caulk 229
for roofs 93 choice of 69 openings in 58-65 caustic cleaners: storage of 2
auger 33, 45, 229 concrete 50 piers 85 cavity walls 65
mechanical 33, 36, 37 concrete partition walls plastering 183 construction 65
70, 71, 72-3 safety with 3 moisture entry prevention
back: of fireplace 76 curing 69 standard dimensions 50, 51 66
backacter: use of 31, 33, 36, hollow 50, 69 bridles: for scaffolding 115 cedar: softwood 211
37 landcrete 50 builders’ merchants 7 cellulose thinners: storage of
ball drain test 151, 152 manufacture 69 building: circular 27 2
ball valve 168, 171 in situ 69 setting out 23-9 cement 197
baluster 119 materials for 69 square or rectangular 23-7 based, on concrete
inclined 126 piers 85 building control approval 13 subfloor 190
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233
234 Index
precautions with 197 see also strip diesel: storage of 2 emulsion paints 188
weight of 200 foundations: concrete distribution bars 89 English bond 53, 54, 56
wet, on concrete subfloor concrete mixer: position, on dog leg: on stairs 122 equipment: correct use of 1
190 site 20, 200, 201, 204 domestic buildings 8 for site clearance 20-1
working with 3 construction documents doors 129-37 see also mechanical
centre: of arch 63 13-17 construction 130-3 equipment
cesspool 147, 165 construction team 6 dimensions 135 estimator 2
chase 229 consumer units: of electricity durability 129 excavations 30-8
chimney 76, 78 177 framed, braced and barriers round 1
and window position 78 for hot water heater 178 battened 131, 133 cut and fill 34
chipboard 85, 88 for switch meter 178 frames and linings 137 depth of 33
cill: door 130 contract supervisor 6 flush 132, 133 heavy loads near 1
masonry joint 143 contractor’s team 5, 6-7 ironmongery 134, 135, 136 inspection of 1, 4
see also window cill contours: site 12 ledged, braced and methods of 21
cistern l6l cooker, electric: control unit battened 131 plant for 36, 37
clay soil 208 178 operation 129 supports in 1, 21, 30, 34,
clerk of works 6 wiring 180 panelled 133 35, 37
client: for building 5 copings: brick-on-edge 109 parts of 129-30 water in 30, 35, 37
closed couple roof 95, 96 on parapet roof 109 performance standards 129 working in 1
closer 52 copper pipes 174-5 dovetail joint 215, 216 expanded polystyrene
in bonded blockwork 68 corbel 229 dowel 229 boards 113
collar roof 95, 96 core: of door 133 down service: water 168 explosives: record book for
columns: compression corners, of building: setting drainage 147-67 2
loading on 218, 219 out 24 above ground 157-61 storage of 2
construction 58 corrugated iron sheets: for below ground 147-57 external rendering 187
digging pits for 30 external walls 70 connections 158 cracking 187
pad foundations for 44, 209 corrugated metal sheets: location, on site 12 crazing 187
setting out 26 fixing 25 soil drainage 147-9 defects in 187
commercial buildings 8 for roofs 93, 105, 106 drains 147-53, 230 loss of adhesion 187
compression loading 217-18 corrugated mineral fibre: for bedding 151, 152 pebbledash 187
on arch 218 roofs 93, 105, 106 calculating depth of 149, roughcast 187
concrete: compacting 202 costs: of developing site 9 152 scraped 187
compression loading 217 couple roof 95, 96 clearing 152-3 smooth 187
compression test 203 closed 95, 96 excavating layout 150-1 Tyrolean 187
curing 84, 202, 203 course, brick 52 laying near buildings 151 external walls: building
drain pipes 149 covering: of roofs 93, 95 positions 151 materials for 49-52
for floors 81—4 crawl boards: on roofs 3, testing 151-3 characteristics 49
casting 89 106 see also drainage; pipes load-bearing 48
compression loading on crown: of arch 63 dressing: stones 66 non-load bearing 48, 70
218 curing concrete 84, 202, 203 dry lining walls 184, 229 extrados 63
construction 88-90 dump truck 36, 37
curing 84 damp-proof course (dpc) 56, fall: of roof 93
mix for 90 57, 84, 229 earthing: electricity 177 fascia 93, 229
upper structure 86 vertical 65 eaves 93, 102, 103, 229 fibreboard, insulating: for
for foundations 41 damp-proof membrane effluent 147, 229 roofs 113
minimum mix for 42 (dpm) 34, 56, 229 discharging 156-7 fibre cement: fixing 106
lintels 59, 60, 6l for floors 82, 83 electric: boilers 171 rainwater pipes 164
making by volume dangerous materials: storage geysers 171-2 for roofs 93, 105
199-200 of 2 meters 177 fibreglass mats: for roofs
making by weight 200 using 2 shocks 2 113
materials for making 197-8 datum level 12 first aid for 2 finger joint 215, 216
mixes 198-9 dead loads: see load: dead electric current 177 finishes: wall and floor
mixing by hand 204 deep strip foundations: see alternating 179 183-96
moving 202 under strip foundations direct 179 fireback 76, 79
plastering 183-4 deflection: under pressure flow, and resistance 179 fireplaces 76-9
principles of deflection 88 218 electrical: energy, building 78-9
reinforced roofs 107-9 depth: of arch 63 components of 179 dimensions 77
reinforced staircases 120, see also foundations: installations 177-82 finishing off 79
121 depth of domestic 178 parts of 76, 77
assembling 124, 125, 127 design drawings 5 theory 177-9 ^ working of 76
reinforcement in 204 design specification 16 wiring 179-81 fire resistant doors 129
slump test 203 design team 5 identification 179 firrings 106
technology 197-206 detonators: record of 2 electricity 2, 177 pieces, calculating
testing 203 storage of 2 elevations 13, 14 dimensions for 107
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Index
235
first aid: box 3 types of 41-6 height of, as site datum jack rafter 93
contents 3 width 42 level 27 jambs: door 130
for electric shocks 2 see also stepped; strip use of 31 of fireplaces 77
flashing 229 frame: door 130, 131, 137 hard hats 1, 38 and stile joint 143
flat roofs 93, 106-13 fixing 137 notices about 4 window 139, 143
insulating 113 fuses 177, 180 hardwood 210-11 joiner 216
junctions on 110, 111 values of 177 haunch: of arch 63, 229 joints 149-50, 229
reinforced concrete 107-9 hawk: for plastering 184 capillary, for copper pipes
timber 106, 107 head: door 130
gable roof 94, 95, 229 175
ventilation 112 of fireplace 76
galvanised iron: for roofs 93 compression, for copper
wind effects on 113 in timber partition 73
galvanised joist hangers 85 pipes 175
Flemish bond 53, 55, 56 of water 174
galvanised steel ties: for for timber 215, 216
flight: of stairs 119 of window 139, 143
roofs 113 for uPVC 159, 160
straight 121, 122 header 229
gang nail plates 98 between wall tiles 196
float: in water storage tank bond 53 joists 229
. gas boilers 172
168 stones 66 ceiling 97
gaskin 229
floor: boarding 84 health and safety: on
gathering: of fireplace 76 dimensions 85
finishes 189-95 building sites 1-4 for flat roofs 106
general foreman 6
characteristics required heartwood: of tree 211 sizes 107
glass, window 141, 143
189-90 hearth 77 floor 84-5
clear 141
subfloors 190-5 hinges, door 134, 135 trimmed 87
fixing 141, 143
floor joists 84 butt 134, 135 trimmer 87
obscure 141
floor plans: house 13 strap 134, 135 trimming 87
safety 141
floors 80-91 window 139
toughened 143
concrete ground-floor hip roof 93, 95, 102, 105 keystone: of arch 63
wired 143
slabs 81 holes: barriers for 3
gloves 38
functions of 80 hollow pot: floor 88 labourers 6
for cement working 3
ground 80-1 construction 90-1 ladders: regulations for 118
with bricks and blocks 3
construction 81-5 structure 90 land: as building site 9
gloss paint 188
ground-floor slab 81 roof 108 landing, stair 119, 121
on woodwork 188-9
oversite concrete slab 80, honeycomb sleeper walls 84 half-space 122
goggles: use of 38
81, 83 housed joint 87 quarter-space 122
going: dimensions 122
laying, into bays 83 housing joint 215, 216 lapped joint 215, 216
for stairs 119
raft construction 81 hydraulic drain test 151 latches, door: cylinder night
gravel soil 208
upper 81 hygiene: on building sites 3 latch 134
grooved joint 215, 216
construction 85-91 fixing 135
grouting: between wall tiles
flues 76-9 immersion heaters 171, 174 lock and latch unit 134
196
building 78-9 independent scaffold 116 spring-operated 134
guard rails: for scaffolding
concrete cover 78 structure of 116 lean-to roof 94, 95
115
dimensions 77 industrial buildings 8 ledgers: door 130-1
gully 147
offset, construction of 78 insect screens: for windows for scaffolding 112
surface water 166
flush: doors 132, 133 145 levelling instrument 31, 32
gutter 111
mortar joint 52 inspection chamber 147 levels: reducing 30, 31, 37
box 163
panel 133 insulation, for flat roofs: low see also vertical levels
bracket connection 163
foreman, general 6 density materials 113 light, window: fixed 139
dimensions 164
formwork: for columns 58 reflective finishes 113 opening 139, 140
on flat roofs 163, 165
for concrete upper floors insulation jackets: for hot lighting circuit 181
half-round 163
89 water cylinders 171 lime putty 184
parapet 165
erecting 2 intermediate rails 133 limewashes 188
valley 163, 166
for reinforced concrete internal walls: lining: door 130, 137
gypsum (plaster of Paris)
stairs 124, 135, 127 characteristics of 49 fixing 137
183, 184
foundations 39^17 concrete block partitions lintels 59-61, 68, 229
artificial 39, 40, 41, 207 70, 71, 72-3 building 59
checks for correct 41 half-round mortar joint 52 load-bearing 48, 49 casting concrete 59
choice of 41 handles, door 135 non-load-bearing 49, 70-4 casting in situ 6l
conditions affecting 39 lever 136 timber partitions 70, 71, compression loading on
depth of 30, 31, 42 pull 136 73-4 218
as site datum level 27 handrails 119 intrados: of arch 63 for fireplaces 79
excavation of 30, 37 for concrete stairs 127 invert levels 229 forming 60
in rock 34 height of 127 calculating 149 heights of 28
loading 39, 40 hardcore 229 ironmongery 229 precasting concrete 6l
natural 39, 40, 41, 207 bed, for floors 82, 83 door 134 standard dimensions 59
plans 14, 15 depth under, as site for opening sash window weights of 59
and soil type 207-9 passim datum level 27 139 lipping: of panel door 133
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236 Index
live loads: see load: live nailing: secret 85 falls 148-9 making and using 25-6
load-bearing capacity: of natural features: on site 12 flexible 152 moving 27
floors 28 newel, stair 119 joints 149-50 protective clothing: wearing
of rafters 28 newel post 119, 124 for uPVC 159, 160 1, 2, 3
of roof trusses 28 noggins 73^ rigid 152 public buildings 8
of soil 207 nosing, stair 119 sizes 148 public sewer 147
of wall plates 28 types of 149-50 pump: electric, for water in
loads: dead 39, 207, 217 ohm 179 pipes, water: copper 174-5 excavations 37
live (superimposed) 39, oil fired boilers 172 for hot water system 174-5 purlin 94, 230
207, 217 ‘O’ ring 159, 160 iron 175 roof 95, 106
structural 217-21 ordnance datum level mark joints: for copper pipes with struts 97
types of 219 10 174-5 trussed 98
wind 39, 207, 217 overhanging roof 108 mains water 168 putlogs, for scaffolding 115,
see also compression oversite concrete slab: height overflow 168 117
loading as site datum level 27 primary circuit 171 spacing ratios 117
lock block: for doors 133 see also under floors service 168 structure of 115
locks, door: dead lock 134 pitch: of roof 94, 95, 230 PVC: pipes 149, 164
fixing 135 pad foundation 42, 44 pitch fibre drain pipes 149, tiles, on floors 193, 194
lock and latch unit 134 bearing capacity for 209 150
morticed 135 calculating size of 46 pitched roofs 93, 95-106 quantity surveyor 6, 16
recessed 136 designing 47 parts of 95 quarry tiles: on floors 193,
rim 136 painting 187-9 structure 95 194, 195
louvre windows 139, 141 materials 188 timber 98 quoin 230
types of 188 types of 95
use of gloss: on metal 189 ventilation 112 racking back 52
main contractor 6, 13 on woodwork 188-9 pith: of tree 211 radius: of arch 63
responsibilities 18 panelled doors 133, 135 planing: timber 214 raft foundation 42, 43, 81,
mains water: pipes 168 bottom rail 133 planners 7-8 83-4, 230
rising 168 parts of 133 planning approval 13 dimensions 83
manhole 147, 149 panels 133 plans 13, 14 rafter 94, 97, 220, 230
building 153, 154 paraffin: storage of 2 foundations 14 trussed rafter roof 95, 99
dimensions 153 parapet roof 108, 229 house floor plans 13, 14 rainwater: disposal 162-7
mask: with cement use 3 copings on 109 roof 14 outlet, on roof 111
when excavating 1 pargetting: see rendering: in site 14 pipes 163-4
masonry 48 fireplaces plaster: painting 189 dimensions 164
blocks 68 partition walls 70-4 plasterboards 74 rammer 82
dimensions 50, 51 pebbledash render 187 for ceilings 185, 186, 187 reactions 220
materials 50 percolation test 156-7 plastering 183-7 measuring 221
mastic asphalt: see under perspectives 5 applying 184-5 rebate 230
asphalt petrol: storage of 2 ceilings 185 door 130
mechanical equipment: for use of 2 materials 183 recessed mortar joint 52
excavations 31, 36, 37 piers 229 preparing surfaces 183—4 regulators 5
mechanical shovel 36, 37 attached to wall 58 skim coat 187 reinforcement: in concrete
medullary rays: of tree 211 block 85 tools for 184 first floors 88-90
mesh reinforcement 43 brick 85, 209 plastic (PVC) drain pipes cover 204
metal: painting 188, 189 compression loading on 149, 164 steel mesh, in floors 83,
rainwater pipes 164 218 plate vibrator 82 84, 204
metal hanger 87 construction of 56, 58 plumb line 56 reinforcing bars: and
metal ties: with concrete digging pits for 30 plywood 85, 88 compression loading
partition walls 72 pad foundations for 44 gussets 101 218
metal windows 143, 145 setting out 26 pneumatic drill 36, 37 in concrete 204, 205
parts of 144 pigments: paint 188 point loads 219, 221 cross, for concrete stairs
on precast concrete cill pile foundation 42, 45 poker vibrator 90 127
145 short-bored 45 polings 35 for foundations 34
mirror and torch drain test piles: bored 45 polypropylene sleeves 150 for lintels 59
151, 152 digging holes for 30, 33, 37 polythene sheets: for roofs for upper floors 89-90
moments 220 displacement 45 101 rendering 230
mono-pitch roof 94, 95 driven 45 preserving timber: pressure in fireplaces 77
mortar 50, 52, 229 short-bored 33 impregnation 214 see also external
types of joints 52 measurements for 45 steeping (immersion) 214 v rendering; plastering
mortice and tenon joint 215, timber displacement 45 primer paints 188 retaining walls 34
216 pink primer 188 privacy: with doors 129 reveal pins: for scaffolding
mullion window 139 pipes, drainage: depth in profiles 230 115
muntins 133 ground 149 locating 25 ridge: of roof 94, 102
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Index 237
ridge tile 94, 103, 105 granolithic 190-1 types: for foundations 41, regular coursed rubble 67,
half-round 104 levelling 191 208-9 68
right angles: making 23-4 monolithic 190 on building sites 30, 45 squared rubble 66, 67, 68
ring main system 180 vertical 186 water in 208 uncoursed random rubble
rise: of arch 63 seasoning timber 212 see also subsoil; topsoil 66, 67
riser, stair 119, 123 artificial 212 soil (sewer): drainage 147 stop: door 130
dimensions 122 natural 212 principles of 147-9 stopcock 168, 170, 171
road access: for site 12 sections 13, 14 vent pipes 111, 147, 159, location 171
temporary 18 security: doors 129 161 stresses 217
rock: drilling 37 windows 140, 145 solar power, for hot water bending 218, 219
foundations in 34 security fence: for 172 types of 218
igneous 66 construction site 18 active system 173, 174 stretcher bond 53, 55, 68
metamorphic 66 septic tank 147, 153, 155 passive system 172, 173 string: stair 119, 124, 230
sedimentary 66 building 156 sole plate 73 strip foundations 30
roofs 92-114 location 156 solid fuel boilers 172 calculations for 46
coverings 93, 95, 101-6 services: location, on site 12, sound insulation: with doors concrete 41, 42
functions of 92 19 129, 133 deep 41
insulating 113 setting out building 23-9 span: of arch 63 detail of 31
parts of 93, 94 columns and piers 26-7 of roof 94, 95 dimensions of 47
safety on 3 corners of 24 specification 13, 14, 16 height of, as site datum
types of 93 settlement 39 sample 16 level 27
ventilation 112 sewage 147 spigot and socket drain pipe trench for 31, 32
waterproof finishes 109-13 sewer, disposal works 147 joints 150, 160, 230 see also stepped
roof tie 220 see also drains split-ring connectors 98 foundations: strip
see also flat roofs shear stress 218, 230 spot levels 10, 12 structural engineer 5-6
rubber boots: use of 1, 38 sheet roofing: on pitched spring point: of arch 63 struts 35, 97, 220, 230
roof 105 springer: of arch 63 herringbone 87-8
safety notices 4 shower 161 springing line: of arch 63 making 87-8
safety skills 1 side-hung windows 139 staircase: reinforced concrete solid 88
sand: for concrete 197-8 sink 161 89-90, 120, 121 stud partitions 73, 74
damp, water content of 201 silt 208 steel 120, 121 studs 73
silt test for 198 site: clearing 19 timber, 119, 120 subcontractors 6, 13
soil type 208 cost of developing 9 stairs 119-28 subfloor: concrete 190-5
weight of 200 entrance 18 construction 120, 122, preparation 190-1
sanitary fittings 159, 161 facilities 20 124, 125 subsoil 41, 230
pipework to 159 investigations 9-12 design 122, 123 drain and open joints 155
sapwood: of tree 211 levels 10, 27 dimensions, calculating 122 excavating 31, 32, 37
sash window 139 preparation 18-22 layout 121-2 irrigation system 155, 157
glazed and hinged 139 setting up 18, 20 length of, calculating 124 sump 37
solid battened timber 139 servicing 19 materials 119, 121 superimposed loads 39
sawing: radial 213 sloping 30 parts of 119, 120 surface water drainage 147,
slab 213 digging into 33-4 types of 122-7 166
tangential 213 suitability of 9 stair well 122 survey drawing 9
scaffolding 115-18 surveying 9, 10-11 standards: for scaffolding 116 surveying site 9, 10-11
independent scaffold: site agent 6 steel: anchors 62 surveyor 2, 6, 9
structure of 116 site datum 27 staircases 120, 121 swan neck junction 164
inspection and skewback: of arch 63 steps: tapered, on stairs 122 switch meter 178
maintenance 118 slenderness ratio 58 stepped foundations 30 syphonage: induced 160
metal 116 slip 195 strip 42, 44 self 160
connections 117 slump: of concrete 198-9 stile: door 130
parts of 115-16 test 203 closing 130 tamping: concrete 202
poles 116 soakaways 156, 162-3 hanging 130 tank, water: cold 168
putlog scaffold: structure size of 163 meeting 130 hot, parts of 174
of 115 soffit 94, 230 and mullion joint 143 technicians 7
regulations: for materials softwood 210, 211 window 139, 143 training for 7
116-17 boards 85 stone masonry: tools for 66 tender 6
for erection of 117 soil: classification 207-8 stone, natural: for external estimate 13
safety standards 2 cohesiveness 208 walls 49, 50 tension 218
timber 116 effect of load-bearing building with 68 termites: clearing 21
use of 115 pressure on 4l stone staircases 121 terra zzo: on concrete
screed 84, 185 load-bearing capacity 43, stone walls 65-8 subfloor 190, 191-2
board 184 45, 207 building 66 thatch: for roofs 93
bonded 190 particle size 208 coursed random rubble thermosyphon 172
cement and sand 190 technology 207-9 66, 67 thinners: paint 188
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238 Index
window frames 141, 142, undercloak 104 community 169

threshold: door 130
143 undercoat 188, 230 domestic 170
throat: of fireplaces 77
water exclusion 143 underlay 195 hot 171-4
tie beam 6l, 220
tiles, for floors: concrete timber cladding: for external uniformly distributed loads water table 35, 230
walls 70 (UDL) 219, 220 and foundations 39
193-5
for internal walls 74 upstand 111 water-thinned paints 188
PVC 193, 194
quarry 193, 194 timber mould: for block urban building site 19 wattage 179
on timber 195 making 70 WC (toilet) 161
tiles, for roofs 101-5 timber partition walls 70, 71, valley: of roof 94, 102, 105 weatherboard: door 130
interlocking 93, 101, 102 73-4 see also gutter: valley weather-resistance doors 129
laying 104-5 timber scaffolding 116 vent 230 weather-struck mortar joint
section of 104 tipper truck 36, 37 ventilation 230 52
laying 101-5 toe boards: for scaffolding for indoor drainage system wedges 35
plain 93, 101 116 161 weigh-batcher 200, 201
laying 102 tongue and groove: battens for roofs 112 well: see stair well
with nibs 101 131 ventilator: window 139 white spirit 188
ridge 94 boards 85 verge: on gable wall 102 wind loads: see load: wind
tiles, on walls 195-6 tools: correct use of 1 of roof 94, 105, HI wind pressure: on windows
cutting 196 for site clearance 20-1 vertical levels: from site 138
techniques 195-6 top-hung windows 139 datum 27-8 window cills 139, 143-4
thick bed fixing 195 topsoil: removal 30, 31, 37 vibrator 202 heights of 28
thin bed fixing 195 trades foreman 6 vitrified clay pipes 149 windows 138-46
types of 195 tradespeople 6 voltage 179 bottom rail 139, 143
tiling battens 101-2 trammel 27 building regulations for 139
calculating positions 102, transoms: for scaffolding walings 35 combination 140-1
105 116, 117 wall plates 84, 85, 94, 97 dimensions 139-40
fixing 102 spacing ratios 117 wall ties 65, 230 fixing 144-5
treating with preservative window 139, 143 walls 48-75 glazing 141-3
102, 104 trap, drainage 147, 157 building materials: bricks 49 louvred 141
tilting fillet 102 bottle 160 block 68-9 metal 143
timber: drying 212 purpose of 160 stone 65-8 parts of 138, 139
finishes on 195 standard sizes 158 cavity 65 security 140, 145
for flat roofs 107 types of 160 characteristics of 49 top rail 139, 143
flooring 85 ‘U’ trap 160 types of 48-9 types of 139
floors, suspended 84-5 tread, stair 119, 123 see also brick, building; wiring: circuit 177
joints for 215, 216 trees: growth of 211 external walls; internal electric 2
making, from trees 213 parts of 210 walls domestic appliances
moisture content 213 for timber 211 warping: of timber 213 179-81
for pitched roof 95-101 types of 210-11 water: for concrete 197, 198 with timber partitions 74
preserving 213-14 trial holes 9, 21, 30, 35, 45 in excavations 30, 35, 37 wood float 90
seasoning 211, 212 trimmer joist 87 in soil 208 wood: mosaic floor 192
sizes 213 trimming joist 87 water bar: door 130 strip flooring 192, 193
staircases 119, 120 trussed roof 95 water flow: control 170-1 see also timber
assembling 122, 124 notes on 98 water heater: consumer unit working drawings 5, 13-14,
underside 123 purlin roof 99 178 30
structural limits 84 rafter roof 95 wiring 180 symbols on 14, 15
structure 211 prefabricated 97, 99 water meter 168 working platform, scaffold:
technology 210-16 trusses: connecting 98-9, water pipes: with timber regulations for 118
types 210-11 100, 101 partitions 74
upper floor construction forces in 219, 220 water pressure 168 yokes 58
85-6 tusk tenon 87 water supply 168-76
structure 86 Tyrolean render 187 cold 168-71 zinc chromate primer 188
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THE
TIVATE
SERIES ,
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Each text in this series has been written by experts in their particular field with years of experience
in teaching and presenting the subject.
Building Construction Principles and Practices fully meets the requirements of building
and construction syllabuses in the technical and vocational curriculum of both senior secondary
and college levels. The text provides practical information and theory on typical building
techniques and materials for students who plan to work in the construction industry.
Titles in the MOTIVATE series
Building Construction: Principles and Practices 978 0 333 60522-6
- - -
Business Management Studies NEW EDITION 978 0 230 03039-8

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Computer Studies and Information Technology NEW EDITION 978 1 4050 7450-6
- - -
Electrical Installation: Principles and Practices 978 0 333 60160-0

- - -
Essential Mathematics for Technicians 978 0 333 67796-4

- - -
Introductory Radio and Television Electronics 978 0 333 61656-7

- - -
Metalwork Technology 978 0 333 60054-2

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Motor Vehicle Technology for Mechanics 978 0 333 60159-4

- - -
Practical Electricity and Electronics 978 0 333 60056-6

- - -
Practical Plumbing 978 0 333 61657-4

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Practical Welding
978 0 333 60957-6
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Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Technology 978 0 333 60958-3

- - -
Technical Drawing with Design 978 0 333 60161-7

- - -
Textiles
978 0 333 61658-1
- - -
Woodwork Technology 978 0 333 60053-5

- - -
BN 978 333 60522
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M SERIES

Macmillan Texts for Industrial Vocational

Macmillan Texts for Industrial Vocational and Technical Education

Text © Denis Walton 1995

First published 1995

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be

Illustrated by 1-11 Line Art

Printed and bound in Malaysia

Introduction viii Check your understanding 21

Openings in brick walls 58 Scaffolding 115

Fireplaces and flues

Principles of soil drainage 147 Check your understanding 196

Figure 0.1 The elements of a sound building.

Introduction ways wear a hard hat to protect your head in case

to the equipment and lighting may get rough treat¬

If a person suffers an electric shock on

Working with bricks and blocks

Working with bricks is not usually unsafe, but you

It can be quite dark inside a building under con¬

Safety notices Explosive materials should be recorded on a

REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS

Buildings are the result of the need to provide an

The design team includes a structural engineer,

Working together merchants buy the materials such as paint, cement,

1. help to prepare working drawings; building regulations;

Builders’ merchants usually supply the building

Surveying the site

Part of the site investigation is the site survey for

Figure 3.3 A site survey drawing with contours.

The drawing includes: • A site survey uses measuring equipment to es¬

Figure 4.2 The elevation of a house.

The site plan shows the relationship of the

Working drawings use symbols to show the differ¬

Raft foundation for the

Strip foundations for load-bearing walls

Figure 4.4 A foundation plan.

Figure 4.5 Symbols on working drawings.

for a building project. The design team writes the

BILL No. 3/ FOUNDATIONS

65/A. Hardcore well watered, rolled and M3 9 t 4-1.00 t 37Z- OO

65/B. 50 mm thick sand blinding M2 60 112.-OO t 72o. OO

65/C. 1200 gauge polythene damp-proof M2 60 \ l% oo t I0$0. OO

65/D. 100 mm thick 1:2:4 concrete class B25 M2 60 1130.00 t ?xoo. oo

Figure 4.6 A sample page from a bill of quantities.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

The contractor’s site preparation begins after the:

Setting up the site

One of the contractor’s first jobs is to lay out the

Figure 5.4 An urban building site.

4. an axe for chopping down trees;

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

The building site and surrounding areas should be

Introduction fixed lines and profiles. This chapter describes

Setting out the

Table 6.1 describes how to set out the corners of

Figure 6.1 Setting out the corners of a building.

Another method of making right angles

Figure 6.3 Locating the profiles.

Figure 6.4 Setting out columns.

Setting out circular buildings

Figure 6.6 Detail of a datum in relation to the

A 3-^-5 triangle is a check that the lines are

REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS

1 If the shortest side of a 3^-5 triangle is 750