6 Energetics

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry
TOPIC 6: ENERGETICS
GRADE 11
SEMESTER 2/2021
Checklist
Students will be assessed on their ability to:

6 .1 know that the enthalpy change, ΔH, is the heat energy change measured at constant pressure and that
standard conditions are 100 kPa and a specified temperature, usually 298 K
6 .2 know that, by convention, exothermic reactions have a negative enthalpy change and endothermic
reactions have a positive enthalpy change
6 .3 be able to construct and interpret enthalpy level diagrams, showing exothermic and endothermic enthalpy
changes
6 .4 know the definition of standard enthalpy change of:
i reaction, ΔrH
ii formation, ΔfH
iii combustion, ΔcH
iv neutralisation, ΔneutH
v atomisation, ΔatH
6 .5 be able to use experimental data to calculate:
i energy transferred in a reaction recalling and using the expression:
energy transferred (J) = mass (g) × specific heat capacity (J g-1 °C-1 ) × temperature change (°C)
ii enthalpy change of the reaction in kJ mol -1
This will be limited to experiments where substances are mixed in an insulated container and
combustion experiments using a suitable calorimeter.
6 .6 know Hess’s Law and be able to apply it to:
i constructing enthalpy cycles
ii calculating enthalpy changes of reaction using data provided, or data selected from a table or obtained
from experiments
6 .7 CORE PRACTICAL 2
Determination of the enthalpy change of a reaction using Hess’s Law.
6 .8 be able to evaluate the results obtained from experiments and comment on sourc es of error and
uncertainty and any assumptions made in the experiments
Students will need to consider experiments where substances are mixed in an insulated container and
combustion experiments using, for example, a spirit burner and be able to draw suitable graphs and use
cooling curve corrections.
Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 1 of 32

6 .9 understand the terms ‘bond enthalpy’ and ‘mean bond enthalpy’, and be able to use bond enthalpies to
calculate enthalpy changes, understanding the limitations of this method
6 .1 0 be able to calculate mean bond enthalpies from enthalpy changes of reaction
6 .1 1 understand that bond enthalpy data gives some indication about which bond will break first in a reaction,
how easy or difficult it is and therefore how rapidly a reaction will take place at room temperature1.2
6A/B INTRODUCTION TO ENTHALPY & ENTHALPY CHANGE SPECIFICATION

OBJECTIVE 6.1,
6.2 & 6.3
Energy and energetics

● Deals with the energy changes in reactions and how these energy changes reflect changes
at a molecular level.
● Energetics is the study of energy transfers between reacting chemicals and their
surroundings.
● The study of these energy transfers is also known as thermodynamics.
● In chemical systems the major transfer of energy is by heating.
First Law of Thermodynamics

● Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but it can be converted from one form
to another.
o Chemical reactions are accompanied by some form of energy change.
o Changes can be obvious but in many cases it goes unnoticed.
● The energy that is transferred to the surroundings is not lost to the universe – it is
dissipated or spread through the surroundings.
● This is an important principle in behavior of the universe which is known as the

principle of conservation of energy.
● The total energy content of the universe is constant.
● Two of the most important forms of energy are:
o Chemical energy and
o Heat energy.

Chemical energy
• Chemical energy is made up of two components; kinetic and potential energy.
• Kinetic energy is a measure of the motion of particles in a substance.
• Potential energy is a measure of how strong the particles interact with one another.
Heat energy
• Heat energy is the portion of the potential energy and kinetic energy of a substance that is
responsible for the temperature of the substance.
• The heat energy of the substance is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
Enthalpy and Enthalpy changes

• Enthalpy is a measure of the heat content of a substance at constant pressure.
• Enthalpy of a system cannot be measured directly. However, the ENTHALPY CHANGE at
CONSTANT PRESSURE can be measured.
• Enthalpy change is denoted by the symbol, ΔH, “delta H” and is expressed in kJ/mol.
• Enthalpy change is the amount of heat energy taken in or given out during any change in
a system provided the pressure is constant
• The enthalpy of a substance depends on the;

o physical state of the substance (solid, liquid or gas)
o amount of substance
o temperature and pressure

Exothermic reactions
● Reactions which liberate heat energy to the Energy level diagram for exothermic reaction
surrounding.
• Enthalpy of reactants > enthalpy of products
● The sign on ΔH = - ve
● The enthalpy of reaction shows that the

energy content of the system has decreased
– some energy has left the system and
entered the surroundings as heat. Hence
there is a net decrease in the potential
Energy profile diagram for exothermic reaction
energy of the system.
● Therefore, reactants are thermodynamically

unstable than the products.
● Many exothermic reactions are

spontaneous. However, despite being
thermodynamically unstable, some
exothermic reactions might not occur due to
kinetic stability, meaning high activation
energy is required to start the reaction.
A reaction is overall exothermic if the energy
● Example: combustion of petrol is highly
released for bond making is greater than
exothermic but occurs only when ignited. energy absorbed for bond breaking.

Endothermic reactions
● Reactions which absorb heat energy from the Energy level diagram for endothermic
reaction
surrounding.
● Enthalpy of reactants < enthalpy of products
● The sign on ΔH = + ve
● The enthalpy of reaction shows that the energy
content of the system has increased as it has
gained energy from its surroundings. Hence
there is a net increase in the potential energy of
the system.
● Therefore, reactants are thermodynamically
Energy profile diagram for endothermic
stable than the products. reaction
A reaction is overall endothermic if the

energy released for bond making is less than
energy absorbed for bond breaking.

EXERCISE 1
Classify the following changes into exothermic reactions and endothermic reactions
Physical o chemical change Classification
Freezing water
Evaporating water
Photosynthesis
Combustion of petrol
Acid/base reactions
Exothermic reaction
Dissolving sodium hydroxide in water
Endothermic reaction
Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water
Standard Enthalpy changes

• Enthalpy changes for reactions will vary slightly depending upon the conditions under
which the reaction is carried out.
• Chemists use standard conditions to ensure that all reactions and corresponding enthalpy
changes are carried out under the same conditions.
• They are as close to normal lab conditions as possible.
Standard conditions
• Pressure at 1atm
• Temperature at 298K (25oC)
• Solutions are of concentration 1 mol dm -3
• Normal physical states at standard temperature and pressure
Standard enthalpy change is shown by ΔHƟ or ΔHƟ298K

H - Enthalpy
Δ - Change in
Ɵ symbol represents standard conditions

Standard enthalpy change of reaction, Δ H r

θ
• The enthalpy change when the number of moles of reactants as specified in the balanced
equation react together
Example:
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 ΔrHθ = -92 kJmol -1
But for the reaction when written as
1/2N2 + 3/2H2 → NH3 ΔrHθ = -46 kJmol -1
Per mol refers to one mole of equation and not to one mole of any reactant or product.
Thermochemical Equations
• A thermochemical equation is a chemical equation that includes the value of ΔH.
Example 1:
Burning one mole of carbon releases 393 kJ of heat energy.
This could be written as:
C(s) + O 2(g) → CO 2(g) + 393 kJmol -1

However, the correct way of writing thermochemical equation is:
C(s) + O 2(g) → CO 2(g) ΔH = –393 kJmol -1
Interpretation of the above equation:
o When 1 mole of carbon reacts with 1 mole of oxygen, 1 mole of carbon dioxide is
formed, releasing 393 kJ of energy under standard conditions.
In writing thermochemical equations, it is essential that state

symbols are shown, since a change of physical state is accompanied
by an enthalpy change.

Example 2: Burning one mole of wax releases 20,000 kJ of heat energy
C40H82 + 60.5 O 2 → 40 CO 2 + 41 H2O ΔH = - 20,000 kJ
When you multiply a thermochemical equation, ΔH is also multiplied.
2C40H82 + 121 O 2 → 80 CO 2 + 82 H2O ΔH = –40,000 kJ
When a thermochemical equation is reversed, the sign of ΔH changes (law of conservation

of energy).
40 CO 2 + 41 H2O → C40H82 + 60.5 O 2 ΔH = +20,000 kJ
EXERCISE 2
Question 1. Write thermochemical equations for the following.
a. C (s) + 2H2(g) → CH4(g) + 74.8 kJ
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
b. (i) H2 and I2 react to form 2HI. This reaction requires 53.2 kJ
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(ii) The reaction that forms one mole of HI
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Question 2
2 mol of H2 gas reacts with 1 mol of O 2 gas to produce 2 mol of H2O(l). At 25°C and 1 atm of
pressure this reaction releases 571.8 kJ of heat.
Draw an enthalpy level diagram for the reaction. Label the axis and enthalpy change for the
reaction.

6C STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGE OF COMBUSTION SPECIFICATION

OBJECTIVE 6.4,
6.5, 6.8PART
● The standard enthalpy of combustion is the enthalpy change that occurs when ONE MOLE
of a substance is completely burnt in excess oxygen under standard conditions.

● All reactants and products must be in their standard states.
● It is always exothermic
Example: Standard enthalpy of combustion for ethanol.

C2H5OH(l) + 3O 2(g) → 2CO 2(g) + 3H2O(l)
EXERCISE 3
Construct equations representing the standard enthalpy of combustion of
a. Hydrogen
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
b. Carbon
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
c. Methane
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
d. Methanol
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Experimental Determination of enthalpy change of combustion of a liquid

Procedure
• Weigh a spirit burner containing the
fuel.
• Place the spirit burner below a
beaker (or calorimeter) containing a
known mass (volume) of water
• Measure the temperature of water
• Light the burner
• Stir the water at regular intervals
• When the temperature of water has
reached approximately 20°C above
its initial temperature, put out the
flame.
• Reweigh the burner.

Results
Initial mass of spirit burner + lamp 52.76g

Volume of water 100cm3
Initial temperature of water 23.00C
Final temperature of water 47.60C
Final mass of spirit lamp + ethanol 52.37g
Calculating enthalpy change of combustion

Step 1 Calculate the energy required to change the temperature of water.
The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J g–1°C–1.
Q = mcΔT Q = m × c × ΔT
= 100 x 4.18 x (47.6 – 23.0) Where,
= 10,282J / 1000
Q = heat energy in J
= 10.28 kJ
m = mass of the substance to which
energy is transferred, in g
Step 2 Calculate the number of moles of ethanol used.
Mass of ethanol = 52.76 – 52.37 c = Specific Heat Capacity in J g–1 °C–
1
= 0.39g
[ water is 4.18 J g–1 °C–1 ]
Number of moles = mass/ molar mass ΔT = change in temperature
= 0.39 / 46
= 0.00847 mol
Step 3 Calculate heat produced per mol [enthalpy of combustion of ethanol]

Energy
Heat produced per mol =
no of moles
= 10.28/0.00847
= 1213.7kJ mol -1
ΔHcθ of ethanol = -1213.7 kJ mol -1
[negative sign because it is exothermic]

Errors and assumptions made in the experiment

Errors
● Heat loss to the surrounding
● Incomplete combustion of fuel. It would cause black soot to be deposited on the bottom
of the beaker.
● The conditions are not standard. Water vapour is formed instead of liquid water.
● Some of the heat released in burning heats up the air and not the water.
● The beaker and thermometer absorbs some of the heat produced
Assumptions
● 1cm3 of water is equal to 1g.
● No heat is lost to the surrounding
● All heat energy produced by ethanol is absorbed by water.
EXERCISE 4
Question 1
The enthalpy change of combustion of methanol was measured using the following procedure:
• A 250 cm 3 measuring cylinder was used to measure 150 cm 3 of water into a glass beaker and
the initial temperature of the water recorded.
• A spirit burner was filled with methanol and its mass recorded.
• The spirit burner was placed under the beaker as shown.
• The burner was lit and the water in the beaker was stirred while the methanol was burned.
• After about three minutes, the flame was extinguished, and the maximum temperature of the
water recorded.
• The spirit burner was reweighed and the mass recorded.

The results are given in the following table.
(a) Complete the table to show the mass of methanol burned and the temperature change as a
result of this combustion. (1)
(b) Calculate the energy transferred, in joules, for this combustion experiment. (1)
Energy transferred = mass of water × specific heat capacity × temperature change
Density of water = 1.0 g cm −3
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 J g −1 °C−1
(c) Calculate the number of moles of methanol, CH 3OH, burned in this experiment. (1)
(d) Calculate the enthalpy change of combustion, Δ cH, in kJmol −1. Give your answer to the nearest
whole number and include a sign. (2)

(e) The experimental value for the enthalpy change of combustion for methanol is less negative
than the Data Booklet value. Identify two improvements that could be made, either to the
apparatus shown in the diagram or to the procedure which would give an enthalpy change
closer to the Data Booklet value. Justify your suggested changes. Do not include repeating the
experiment or using more accurate measuring equipment. (4)
Improvement 1
...............................................................................................................................................................
…………....................................................................................................................................................
Justification
...............................................................................................................................................................
……….......................................................................................................................................................
Improvement 2
...............................................................................................................................................................
……….......................................................................................................................................................
Justification
...............................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
(f ) State and explain the effect, if any, on the value obtained for the enthalpy change of
combustion if the water in the beaker was not stirred. (1)
...............................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
…………….................................................................................................................................................
(g) If there is insufficient oxygen for the complete combustion of methanol, what is observed on
the underside of the beaker? (1)
...............................................................................................................................................................
Question 2: Checkpoint question page 155 Chemistry Student Book 1

Write the answers in a separate answer sheet.

6D STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGE OF

SPECIFICATION
NEUTRALISATION OBJECTIVE 6.4, 6.5
& 6.8 PART
● The standard enthalpy of neutralization is the enthalpy change that occurs when ONE MOLE
of water is formed in a reaction between an acid and an alkali under standard conditions.
H+ (aq) + OH¯(aq) → H2O (l) Δ n eut H° = -57.9kJ mol -1
● A value of -57kJ mol -1 is obtained when strong acids react with strong alkalis. This is because
strong acids and alkalis are fully ionized, so the reaction is the same in every case.
Experimental Determination of enthalpy change of neutralisation

Procedure
• Wear safety glasses and lab coat.
• Using a pipette fitted with a safety filler,
place 25.0cm 3 of 1.00moldm -3 acid into
an expanded polystyrene cup.
• Measure the temperature of the acid.
• Using a pipette fitted with a safety filler,
place 25.0cm 3 of the alkali (dilute sodium
hydroxide of concentration slightly
greater than 1 moldm-3 – to ensure all
acid has neutralized) into a beaker.
• Measure the temperature of the alkali.
• Add the alkali to the acid, stir with the
● The enthalpy change of reactions can
thermometer and measure the be measured using a calorimeter.
maximum temperature reached.
● A calorimeter is an insulated reaction
vessel which minimizes heat exchange
Results to the air and the surroundings.
Volume of 1.00moldm -3 acid 25.0cm3 ● The simplest calorimeter is a

polystyrene cup but there are quite
Volume of 1.20moldm -3 alkali 25.0cm3
complex calorimeters.
Initial temperature of acid 18.60C
Initial temperature of alkali 18.80C
Maximum temperature reached 25.4 °C (298.5K)

Calculating enthalpy change of neutralisation

Mean starting temperature = (18.6 + 18.8)/2 = 18.7 °C (291.7 K)
Temperature change = (298.5 – 291.7) = +6.7 K
Total volume of solution heated = (25 + 25) = 50cm3
Mass of solution heated = 50.0g (assuming that density of solution is 1 gcm -3)
Assume specific heat capacity of solution is 4.18 Jg -1K-1
Q = mcΔT
= 50 x 4.18 x 6.7
= 1400.3J / 1000
= 1.4003 kJ
Amount of acid neutralized = amount of water formed
= (1 x 25)/1000
= 0.025 mol
Δ neut H θ = -1.4003/0.025 = -56 kJmol -1
Errors and assumptions made in the experiment

Errors
● Heat loss to the surrounding
● The polystyrene cup and thermometer absorb some of the heat produced.
● Uncertainties of measurements involved with the use of pipette and thermometer.
Assumptions
● Specific heat capacity of the resultant solution is equal to that of water (4.18 J g –1°C–1)
● Density of the resultant solution is equal to that of water (1gcm -3)
● No heat is lost to the surrounding
● Total volume of the solution is equal to the sum of the volume of two solutions initially
taken
Improvements
● Use a lid on the polystyrene cup
● Use laggings

EXERCISE 5
1. To find the enthalpy of neutralization, a student placed 50cm 3 of 1M hydrochloric acid in a

polystyrene cup. The initial temperature of the acid was measured. 50 cm 3 of 2M sodium
hydroxide was then added and the mixture stirred. The maximum temperature rise was
6.750C. (NaOH was in excess to ensure that all the HCl reacted).
Calculate the enthalpy of neutralization.
2. A student placed 25.0 cm 3 of 1.0 M HCl in a coffee-cup calorimeter, and measured its
temperature as 22.50C. 25.0 cm 3 of 1.0M NaOH, also at 22.50C was added quickly to the acid.
The mixture was stirred and the final temperature was recorded as 29.2 0C. If the specific heat
capacity of the solutions is 4.2 Jg -1K-1 and if their densities can be taken as 1.00g cm -3, calculate
the enthalpy change for this reaction per mole of HCl, assuming that no heat was lost to the
surroundings.
3. To find the enthalpy of reaction when solid NaHCO 3 reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, a
student added 3.71g of NaHCO 3 to 30cm3 of 1M HCl (an excess) in a polystyrene cup. The
temperature of the acid fell by 8.50C

Graphical method - Cooling Curves

• The temperature is taken every half
minute before mixing the reactants.
• Reactants are mixed after 3 minutes.

• For example, reactants are mixed at
exactly 3.0 minutes or 3.5 minutes.
• Further readings are taken every half
minute as the reaction mixture cools.
• Extrapolate the lines as shown and
calculate the value of ΔT
• Extrapolating the graph compensates for
heat loss to the surrounding.
• In other words, this method allows for
cooling correction.
EXERCISE 6
1. In an experiment to find the enthalpy change for the reaction

Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
A student was given the following list of instructions:
• Weigh out 5.0 g of zinc powder into a weighing bottle.

• Use a measuring cylinder to transfer 50 cm 3 of 1.0 moldm –3 aqueous copper (II) sulphate into
a polystyrene cup, firmly held in a 250 cm 3 beaker.
• Stir the solution with the thermometer and record the temperature to the nearest 0.5 °C.
• Continue to stir the solution, recording its temperature every minute.
• At exactly 3.5 minutes, add the zinc powder to the aqueous copper (II) sulphate stirring
continuously.
• Record the temperature of the solution every minute from 4.0 to 9.0 minutes.
The temperature readings obtained are shown in the table below.

Time/min 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Temperature/ °C 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 63.0 60.5 59.0 57.0 55.5 53.0
(a) (i) Plot a graph of temperature against time on the grid below. (2)
(ii) Use the graph to calculate the maximum temperature change, ΔT. Show clearly on the graph
how you obtained your answer. (2)
ΔT = ................................................°C
(iii) Give ONE reason why a series of temperature readings is obtained instead of just the starting
and maximum temperatures. (1)
...............................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................

(b) (i) Calculate the heat change, in joules. (1)
The specific heat capacity of the solution is 4.18 J g –1°C–1.
(ii) What assumption have you made about the solution in your calculation in (i)? (1)
...............................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
(iii) Calculate the amount (moles) of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO 4, in 50 cm3 of a 1.0 moldm –3
solution. (1)
(iv) Calculate the enthalpy change for this reaction in kJ mol–1. (2)
(c) Suggest TWO improvements that could be made to the experimental procedure. Give a reason
for each. (4)
Improvement
...............................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
Reason
...............................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
Improvement
...............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Reason.............................................................................................................. .....................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
Question 2: Checkpoint question page 157 Chemistry Student Book 1

6E STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGE OF SPECIFICATION

OBJECTIVE 6.4
FORMATION & HESS’S LAW PART, 6.6 & CP2
Standard Enthalpy change of formation, Δ H f

θ
• The standard enthalpy of formation is the enthalpy change that occurs when ONE MOLE of a
substance is formed from its elements in their standard states under standard conditions.
Example: Standard enthalpy of formation of ethanol
2C(s,graphite) + ½O 2(g) + 3H2(g) → C 2 H5OH(l)
• Elements in their standard states have zero enthalpy of formation.

Example:
ΔfHƟ of H2(g) = 0
ΔfHƟ of O 2(g) = 0
• Carbon is usually taken as the graphite allotrope.
EXERCISE 7
Question: Construct equations representing the standard enthalpy of formation of

• Methane
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• water
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• propanol
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Hess’s Law
● Hess’s Law states that the enthalpy change of a chemical reaction is independent of the path
taken in converting reactants into products, provided the initial and final conditions are the
same.
● For some reactions the enthalpy changes cannot be measured directly due to
o High activation energy
o Slow rate of reaction
o More than one reaction occurring at the same time

o Difficult to measure temperature change
o Reaction does not stop when the stated products are formed
● Hess's law allows to work out enthalpy changes that are not possible to measure.
● applying Hess’s Law enables one to calculate enthalpy changes The lattice enthalpy is the
from other data enthalpy change involved in
● used for calculating changes which can’t be measured directly - formation of the ionic
compound from gaseous
Lattice Enthalpy
ions.
● used for calculating ;
o enthalpy change of reaction from bond enthalpy
o enthalpy change of reaction from ΔH°c
o enthalpy change of formation from ΔH°f

● The total energy for each route is the same: These are called Enthalpy cycles or Hess’s cycles
Calculations involving Hess’s Law – using Δ H and Δ H f

θ c
θ
The Standard enthalpy change of formation of carbon monoxide is difficult to measure directly
as some amount of carbon dioxide may form. Hence, this enthalpy can be calculated using the
enthalpy changes of combustion of carbon and carbon monoxide which can be determined
experimentally.
Example 1
C (s, graphite) + O 2(g) → CO 2(g) ΔcHθ = -394 kJmol -1
CO(g) + 1/2O2(g) → CO 2(g) Δ c Hθ = -283 kJmol -1
Method 1 – Subtract equations

Reverse the second equation above and then add to the first:
C (s, graphite) + O 2(g) → CO 2(g) ΔcHθ = -394 kJmol -1
CO 2(g) → CO (g) + 1/2O 2(g) ΔcHθ = -283 kJmol -1
Adding the two equations give:
C(s, graphite) + ½ O 2(g) → CO(g)
Therefore ΔfHθ [CO(g)] = -111 kJmol -1
Method 2 – using Hess’s cycle
ΔfHθ + (-283) = -394 kJmol -1

ΔfHθ = -111 kJmol -1
Example 2: Calculate the enthalpy of formation of methane, CH4(g), using the enthalpy of
combustion data.
Step 1: Write the equation for the formation of the compound:
C(s,graphite) + 2 H2(g) → CH4(g)
Step 2: Construct an energy cycle using the enthalpies of combustion.
C(graphite)+ 2 H2(g)
Δ f Hθ CH4(g)
Substance Enthalpy of
c ombustion/
kJmol-1
2×-286
-394 -890 C(s, graphite) -394
H2(g) -286
CO 2(g)+ 2H2O (l) CH4(g) -890
C2H6(g) -1560
Step 3: Apply Hess’s law to the cycle C3H8(g) -2220
Δ fHθ + (-890) = (-394) + (2 x -286)
Δ fHθ = [-394 + 2(-286)] – (-890)
= -76 kJmol -1
In general,
● When the products are burned, the amount of CO 2 and H2O produced is the same as when
the reactants are burned.
● By applying Hess’s law, when combustion data is given
ΔH[reaction] + sum ΔcHθ [products] =sum ΔcHθ [reactants]
ΔH[reaction] = sum ΔcHθ [reactants] - sum ΔcHθ [products]

Example 3: Calculate the enthalpy change for the

reaction using the enthalpy of formation data. Substance Enthalpy of formation/
kJmol-1
CaCO 3(s) → CaO (s) + CO 2(g)
CaCO3(s) - 1207
CaO(s) - 635
Step 1: Write the equation for the reaction
CO2(g) - 394
CaCO 3(s) → CaO (s) + CO 2(g)
Step 2: Construct an energy cycle using the enthalpies of combustion.
Δ r Hθ
CaCO 3(s) CaO (s) + CO 2(g)
-635
-1207
CO 2(g)+ 2H2O (l) -394
Step 3: Apply Hess’s law to the cycle
Δ rHθ + (-1207) = (-635) + (-394)
Δ rHθ = [(-635)+(-394)] – (-1207)
= +178 kJmol -
● When enthalpy of formation for all the reactants and products are given, the enthalpy
change of the reaction can be calculated by drawing Hess’s cycle with elements required
to form the reactant and products.
● By applying Hess’s Law ...
sum Δ fHθ[reactants] + ΔH[reaction] = sum ΔfHθ [products]

ΔH[reaction] = sum Δ fHθ [products] - sum Δ fHθ [reactants]

Hess’s Law calculations for other reactions

WORKED EXAMPLE
Calculate ΔrHθ for the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate into calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide given the following data.
CaCO 3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl 2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO 2(g) ΔrHθ = -17kJ/mol
CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl 2(aq) + H2O(l) ΔrHθ = -195 kJ/mol
Ans: +178 kJmol -1
WORKED EXAMPLE
Calculate ΔrHθ for the hydration of anhydrous copper(ll)sulfate, given the following data.
CuSO 4.5H2O + aq → Cu2+ (aq) + SO 42- (aq) + 5H2O(l) ΔrHθ = +11.3 kJ/mol
CuSO 4(s) + aq → 2+ 2-
Cu (aq) + SO 4 (aq) ΔrHθ = - 67.0 kJ/mol
Ans: -78.3 kJmol -1

EXERCISE 8
Question 1
Checkpoint question page 159 Chemistry Student Book 1
Question 2.
(a) The standard enthalpy changes of formation for the three compounds are:
(i) The standard enthalpy change of formation of H 2O(g) is –241.8 kJ mol –1. Explain why this is less
negative than the standard enthalpy change of formation of H 2O(l). (1)
...............................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
(ii) Use the data in the table to calculate the standard enthalpy change of combustion of
2-methylpropane in kJ mol –1. Show your method, which may involve the use of a Hess cycle.
Include a sign and units in your answer. (3)
(iii) A refill canister for the cordless hair-styler holds 15 g of 2-methylpropane. Calculate the energy
in kJ which can be obtained from one canister. (2)

(b) The enthalpy change of the reaction can also be calculated using the cycle below.
(i) Calculate the enthalpy change of the reaction using this cycle. (1)
(ii) The enthalpy change of vaporization of water was one piece of data used to calculate the
enthalpy changes shown beside the arrows in the cycle. What other information was needed?
(1)
Question 3. Sodium hydrogencarbonate decomposes on heating to form sodium carbonate,

carbon dioxide and water.
Reaction 1 2NaHCO 3(s) →Na 2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO 2(g)
(a) Suggest why it is difficult to measure the enthalpy change of this reaction directly. (1)
...............................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
(b) The enthalpy change can be measured indirectly using the enthalpy changes for the following
two reactions and applying Hess’s Law.
Reaction 2 NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO 2(g)
Reaction 3 Na2CO 3(s) + 2HCl(aq)→2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO 2(g).
An experiment was carried out to measure the enthalpy change of Reaction 2. 100 cm3 of 1.25
mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid was placed in a polystyrene beaker with capacity 200 cm 3. The initial

temperature of the acid was 21.5C. 8.00 g of solid sodium hydrogencarbonate was added, a lid
was placed on the beaker and the mixture was stirred. The lowest temperature of the mixture was
14.2C.
(i) Explain why the beaker used in this experiment is large. (1)
...............................................................................................................................................................
(ii) Show by calculation that the hydrochloric acid is present in excess. (2)
(iii) Calculate the energy transferred and hence the enthalpy change of the reaction in kJ mol –1.
Include a sign and units in your answer.
Use the equation: Energy transferred (J) = 100 × 4.18 × temperature change. (3)
(iv) The enthalpy change for Reaction 3 was found to be –36.3 kJ mol –1. Complete the Hess cycle
by adding the appropriate arrows and formulae to the outline. Use your completed cycle to
calculate the enthalpy change for Reaction 1. (4)

6F BOND ENTHALPY & MEAN BOND ENTHALPY SPECIFICATION

OBJECTIVE 6.9
PART
Bond Enthalpy
● Bond enthalpy, ΔBH, is the enthalpy change when 1 mol of a bond in the gaseous state is
broken.
Example: for diatomic molecules
XY(g) → X (g) + Y(g)
Cl 2 (g) → 2Cl(g) ΔBH = +243kJmol -1
HCl (g) → H(g) + Cl(g) ΔBH = +432 kJmol -1
For polyatomic molecules, each bond must be considered separately.
For example:
CH4(g) → CH3 (g) + H(g) ΔBH = +423 kJmol -1
CH3(g) → CH2 (g) + H(g) ΔBH = +480 kJmol -1
CH2(g) → CH (g) + H(g) ΔBH = +425 kJmol -1
CH (g) → C (g) + H(g) ΔBH = +335 kJmol -1
The strength of a bond depends on its environment, so MEAN values are quoted.
Mean Bond Enthalpy

● Mean bond enthalpy, E, is the average quantity of energy required to break one mole of
covalent bond in a gaseous species (at a pressure of I atm).
For example:
The mean bond enthalpy for C – H bond in methane is approximately +416 kJmol-1
[423 + 480 + 425 + 335]/4 = 415.75
The C -H bond in different compounds would have slightly different bond enthalpy values,
so an average value is used.
● The enthalpy change calculated for a reaction using standard enthalpy of formation data
or standard enthalpy of combustion data is more accurate than the enthalpy change
calculated for the same reaction using bond enthalpy values. This is because the bond
enthalpy values are mean values.

Standard Enthalpy Change of Atomisation, Δ H at

θ
● The standard enthalpy of atomization is the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of
gaseous atoms is formed from the element in its standard state under standard conditions.
Example: Na(s) → Na(g)
½ Cl 2(g) → Cl(g)
● It is always endothermic as energy is required to break bonds.
● For diatomic molecules, bond enthalpy is twice the enthalpy of atomization.
Example:
o Enthalpy of atomization: ½ Cl 2(g) → Cl(g) ΔH = +121 kJ mol-1
o Bond enthalpy: Cl2(g) → 2Cl(g) ΔH = +242kJ mol -1
6G USING BOND ENTHALPY SPECIFICATION

OBJECTIVE 6.8,
6.9, 6.10 & 6.11
Calculations involving bond enthalpy and mean bond enthalpy

● Enthalpy change for a reaction can be calculated using bond enthalpy values and Hess’s cycle.
● By applying Hess’s law
ΔH[reaction] + sum E[products] = sum E[reactants]
ΔH[reaction] = sum E[reactants] - sum E[products]

WORKED EXAMPLE
What is the enthalpy of reaction for the formation of gaseous water given
E(O-H) = +462kJmol -1,

E(H-H) = +436 kJmol -1
E(O=O) = 498 kJmol -1.
ΔH r + 2E[O-H] = E[H-H] +1/2E [O=O]
ΔH r = E[H-H] +1/2E [O=O] - 2E[O-H]
ΔH r = (436kJmol-1) + (1/2×498kJmol-1) – (2×462kJmol-1)
ΔH r = -239kJmol-1
Limitations of using bond enthalpy

• Bond enthalpies are measured in gaseous state.
• Bond enthalpies are not exact values but an average value
•
EXERCISE 9
Question 1
Calculate the enthalpy of reaction for
C2H4(g) + H20(g) → CH3CH2OH(g)
Given the following bond enthalpy terms:
C-C +347 kJmol -1, C=C +612 kJmol -1, C-H +413 kJmol -1, O-H +464 kJmol -1, C-O +358
kJmol -1.

Question 2. Calculate the mean bond enthalpy of the SiF bond in SiF4(g) given:
enthalpy of formation of SiF4(g) = -1615 kJmol -1
enthalpy of atomisation of silicon = +456 kJmol -1
enthalpy of atomisation of fluorine = +79 kJmol -1
Question 3 Gaseous but-1-ene is an alkene that readily reacts with liquid bromine. Using molecular
formulae, the equation for the reaction is
C4H8 + Br 2 → C4H8Br 2
(i) Using the bond enthalpy values in the table, calculate the enthalpy change for this reaction.
(ii) Give one reason why the value calculated for the reaction in part (b)(i) using bond enthalpies
is different from the true value. Do not consider experimental error, mean bond enthalpy values
or non-standard conditions. (1)

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

6 .4 know the definition of standard enthalpy change of:

iii combustion, ΔcH

6 .5 be able to use experimental data to calculate:

i energy transferred in a reaction recalling and using the expression:

ii enthalpy change of the reaction in kJ mol -1

6 .6 know Hess’s Law and be able to apply it to:

i constructing enthalpy cycles

Determination of the enthalpy change of a reaction using Hess’s Law.

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 1 of 32

6 .1 0 be able to calculate mean bond enthalpies from enthalpy changes of reaction

6A/B INTRODUCTION TO ENTHALPY & ENTHALPY CHANGE SPECIFICATION

Energy and energetics

● The study of these energy transfers is also known as thermodynamics.

● In chemical systems the major transfer of energy is by heating.

First Law of Thermodynamics

o Chemical reactions are accompanied by some form of energy change.

o Changes can be obvious but in many cases it goes unnoticed.

● This is an important principle in behavior of the universe which is known as the

● The total energy content of the universe is constant.

● Two of the most important forms of energy are:

o Chemical energy and

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 2 of 32

Enthalpy and Enthalpy changes

• The enthalpy of a substance depends on the;

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 3 of 32

• Enthalpy of reactants > enthalpy of products

● The enthalpy of reaction shows that the

● Therefore, reactants are thermodynamically

● Many exothermic reactions are

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 4 of 32

A reaction is overall endothermic if the

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 5 of 32

Physical o chemical change Classification

Standard Enthalpy changes

Standard enthalpy change is shown by ΔHƟ or ΔHƟ298K

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 6 of 32

Standard enthalpy change of reaction, Δ H r

This could be written as:

C(s) + O 2(g) → CO 2(g) + 393 kJmol -1

In writing thermochemical equations, it is essential that state

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 7 of 32

Example 2: Burning one mole of wax releases 20,000 kJ of heat energy

C40H82 + 60.5 O 2 → 40 CO 2 + 41 H2O ΔH = - 20,000 kJ

When you multiply a thermochemical equation, ΔH is also multiplied.

2C40H82 + 121 O 2 → 80 CO 2 + 82 H2O ΔH = –40,000 kJ

When a thermochemical equation is reversed, the sign of ΔH changes (law of conservation

40 CO 2 + 41 H2O → C40H82 + 60.5 O 2 ΔH = +20,000 kJ

Question 1. Write thermochemical equations for the following.

a. C (s) + 2H2(g) → CH4(g) + 74.8 kJ

b. (i) H2 and I2 react to form 2HI. This reaction requires 53.2 kJ

(ii) The reaction that forms one mole of HI

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 8 of 32

6C STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGE OF COMBUSTION SPECIFICATION

of a substance is completely burnt in excess oxygen under standard conditions.

Example: Standard enthalpy of combustion for ethanol.

Construct equations representing the standard enthalpy of combustion of

Experimental Determination of enthalpy change of combustion of a liquid

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 9 of 32

Initial mass of spirit burner + lamp 52.76g

Calculating enthalpy change of combustion

Step 3 Calculate heat produced per mol [enthalpy of combustion of ethanol]

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 6 -Energetics /2021/semester 2 Page 10 of 32

Errors and assumptions made in the experiment