Module # I: Presure & Vacuum Measurement

Lec-1: Introduction—definition &units; Types of Pressure; Methods of Pressure

Measurement; Manometers— U-tube type , Well-type& Enlarged-leg (inclined
tube) type

Ref: D Patranabish, SK Singh, DVS Murty, Nakra & Chaudhry, www.controlsweekly.com

1.1.1 Introduction
 Supervision or Control of nearly all industrial processes (chemical, metallurgical, etc)
demand measurement of liquid or gas pressure. Usually Pressure instruments refer to
those used for measurement of pressure exerted by fluids (liquids or gases).
 Essentials of Pressure. Measurement. are based on the principle that pressure–
 Dependent strongly on position within a static fluid but independent of direction
 Unaffected by the shape of the confining boundaries
 Defined as the force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings. For ex,
pressure, P, is a function of force, F, and area, A  P = F/A
 A container full of gas contains innumerable atoms and molecules constantly bouncing
of its walls and hence the pressure = the average force of these atoms and molecules
on its walls per unit of area of the container.
 Moreover, pressure not essentially to be measured along the wall of a container but
can be measured as the force per unit area along any plane.
 Air pressure ( example) is a function of the weight of the air pushing down on Earth.
 Thus, as the altitude ↑ pressure↓. Similarly, as a scuba diver or submarine dives
deeper into the ocean, the pressure ↑.
 The SI unit for pressure  Pascal (N/m2), CGS unit  Barye(dyne/cm2) but other
common units include  Kg/cm2, pounds per square inch (psi), atmospheres (atm),
bars, inches of mercury (in Hg), and millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
 High Pressure:-
1 N/m2= 1 Pascal(Pa)
1 atm=14.696 psi=101.325 kPa
 Low Pressure:-
1millibar=100 dyne/cm2=14.5x10-3 psi
1 micron = 10-6 m Hg=19.34x10-6 psi
1 torr= 1000 micron=19.34x10-3 psi

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1.1.2 Types of Pressure

The “type” of pressure to be understood for an application – the terms “gauge,” “absolute,”
and “vacuum or differential,” form the basis for this understanding; The 4 basic pressure
types are identified and defined with reference to dial gauge configurations because they
serve as the best means of illustration.
1) Gauge Pressure: measured relative to local ambient atmospheric pressure as shown
in Fig-1. Abbreviations  psig (Pounds per Square Inch Gauge).

Fig 1: Gauge Pressure Sensor

Because gauge pressure gauges allow the surrounding ambient pressure to affect both
sides of the sensing element, the effects of barometric pressure are essentially negated.
Therefore a “gauge pressure” gauge with an open inlet port will start with the pointer at
zero, which means that the gauge is indicating “no pressure in excess of barometric.”
The atmospheric pressure is taken 14.7 psi as reference.
2) Absolute Pressure: measured relative to a vacuum as showing in Fig-2 below. The
abbreviations  psia (Pounds per Square Inch Absolute).
Unlike “gauge pressure,” an absolute gauge does not allow
ambient pressure to affect both sides of the sensing
element. An absolute pressure gauge must have the
Fig- 2:Abs. Press. sensor atmosphere removed from one side of the sensing element
i.e.” Evacuated reference”. This will allow the user to either apply pressure
causing the gauge to read above the barometric pressure value, or causing the gauge to
read below the barometric reading. “Absolute zero” should be achievable under full
vacuum, since the starting point is the actual barometric reading and a full vacuum will
remove all of this existing pressure.
3) Vacuum gauges: Gauges that indicate gauge pressure may be designed to indicate
pressure below zero. Such a gauge is called a “vacuum gauge”. Gauges that indicate
absolute pressure cannot indicate pressures below zero, because zero is a perfect
vacuum.
4) Differential Pressure: Instead of measuring relative to ambient atmospheric pressure,
differential measurements are taken with respect to a specific reference pressure as
shown in Figure 3. Also, the abbreviations psid (Pounds per Square Inch Differential) are
used.

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Fig-3: Diff. Press. Sensor

Starting at “gauge pressure zero,” a differential pressure gauge simply measures the
difference between 2 input pressures. A differential dial gauge looks like a gauge pressure
gauge, except it has a second inlet port, with one port marked “hi” and the other marked “lo”.
The line that connects to the higher pressure side of the application is always connected
to the “hi” port, while the lower pressure line is connected to the “lo” port
5) Static or Dynamic (Velocity) Pressure: The pressure in cases where no motion is
occurring is referred to as static pressure. Examples of static pressure include the
pressure of the air inside a balloon or water inside a basin. Often times, the motion of a
fluid changes the force applied to its surroundings. Such a pressure measurement is
known as dynamic pressure measurement. For example, the pressure inside a balloon
or at the bottom of a water basin would change as air is let out of the balloon or as water
is poured out of the basin.
 Fig-4 shows the relation amongst absolute, gauge and atmospheric pressures

Figure 4: Pressure Term Relationships

1.1.3 Methods of Pressure Measurement

 The different pressure measurement devices/ gauges :–
 Manometers
 Elastic pressure transducers
 Electrical / Electronic pressure transducers
 Force-balance gauges

 The different vacuum measurement devices/ gauges :–

 Mechanical type— McLeod gauges
 Electrical type— thermal conductivity (Pirani ) gauge & ionization gauge( hot
cathode and cold cathode type)
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1.1.4 Manometers
 Used for low range (upto 2 kg/ cm2 d or g) pressure, simplest & most accurate of all
types. Two basic types— i) U-tube & ii) Well with variations like inclined tube,
enlarged leg etc.
► U-Tube manometer
 Construction: √ As in the fig-5, transparent U-shaped glass tube partially filled with
liquid (most commonly water or Hg) along with a graduated scale forms such
manometer. Water or Hg preferred density variation with temp. exactly known and
no sticking to the tube.

P1 p2

p1 p2

ρl h2
ρm h 1 ρl

h
h
A B ρm

fig-5: U-tube manometer fig-6: Manometer with large seal pots

√ A more general manometer must have a sealing liquid over the manometer liquid to
separate the process fluid from the manometer fluid as shown in fig-6. The seal
provides protection against absorption, mixing or any hazard (explosion etc) due to
contact between the process and manometer fluid. Seal pots with large diameters are
incorporated to simplify calculation when the change in liquid levels in the seal pots are
neglected and also for increasing the range. The interconnection between the two seal
pots provides pressure equalization for the two limbs for zero calibration.
 Working: √ Due to pressure difference, the liquid in left tube goes down considering
p1>p2. From fig-5 & fig-6,
Balancing at position- A → p1 +hρl =p 2 +hρm ⇒ p1 − p2 =h( ρm −ρl )
Balancing at position-B→ p1 +h1 ρl =p 2 +h 2 ρl +hρm ⇒ p1 −p 2=hρm −(h1 -h 2 ) ρl
⇒ p1− p 2=h( ρ m−ρl ) when change in liq . level in seal pots neglected
for large dia pots yielding → h 1 −h2 ≃h
 Notes:
1) Low pressure water as manometer liquid. High pressure Hg as the liquid
2) Level for the two cases water level almost 14 times than that with mercury

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3) Limitation Difficult to measure the level difference as no fixed reference but

liquid in one limb goes down while in the other limb it goes up. Use of Cistern or
Well type manometer provides the convenience of requiring only one reading of the
manometric liquid.
4) If press as hρ kg/cm2 and as hρg Newton/m2(Pascal)

►Well- or Cistern-type Manometer: √ The reading of only a single leg required as stated
above and hence convenient.
 Construction: √ One of the legs of the U-tube is replaced by a large diameter vessel
(well) as shown in fig-7. The variation in level in the well is negligible and hence
instead of differential level, the height in the small-sized leg gives the measure of the
differential pressure as calculated below,
α2 p2 p2
α2
p1 p1
Datum Float
h
h ρm
ρm
∆h
α1
α1
fig-7: well-type manometer fig-8: enlarged leg manometer

 Working: Let α1 & α2 area of cross-section of the well & tube respectively and
when p1> p2, ∆h = the change in height in the well due to (p1- p2 ) Hence at balance,
α2
p1 = p2 +(h+Δh) ρm ⇒ p1 − p2 =( h +h . )ρ since, Δh . α 1 =h .α 2 →Δh=h (α 2 /α1 )
α1 m
α2
Therefore, p1 −p 2 =h(1+ )ρ and for α 1 >> α 2 ⇒ p1 − p2 =h ρm
α1 m

 Notes:
1) Even though there is little zero error = ∆h for the well type manometer with
application of pressure, this can be compensated by suitably distorting the length of
the scale.
2) Such type of manometer with or without the scale compensation is sensitive to the
non-uniformity of tube cross-sectional area and hence somewhat less accurate.

►Enlarged – leg & Inclined – tube manometers

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 Construction & working of enlarged-leg manometer: √ As shown in fig-8. In this

case, α2 is not negligible compared to α1. It has a float in the enlarged leg which is
utilized for indicating differential pressure on a calibrated scale. The two legs are
connected by seperable tubing and any of the legs can be changed for a desired
measurement span.
√ The balance equation for diff. press. is as derived above and given by—

α2
p1 −p 2=h(1+ ) ρm
α1

 Construction & working of inclined-tube manometer: √ Also an enlarged leg

p1 p2 p2 p1
α2 Micrometer

β x Scale Magnify
∆h
ρm h Well
α1
Flexible
fig-9: Inclined-tube manometer fig-10: Micrometer manometer

manometer with its measuring leg inclined to the vertical axis by an angle β as shown
in the fig-9 above. Generally the angle of inclination ≈ 10 0 and done to expand the
scale and thereby increasing the sensitivity.
√ Used to measure very small pressure difference ( hundredth of an inch of water) as
the liquid in the inclined leg moves through a larger distance while there is a small
displacement of liquid level in the enlarged leg ( h >> x as obvious from the fig)
√ The differential pressure, in this case, can be derived as –

The factor cos β expands the scale of the instrument and for large β, h can be
increased such that h cos β remains constant.
►Micrometer type manometer

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 Construction & working of Micrometer manometer: √ Also works on the principle of

inclined tube manometer and used for measurement of extremely small pressure
difference. Resolution of such instrument can be order of 40 x10–4 kg/cm2.
√ A micrometer consists of a well connected to a flexible tube whose one end is
inclined as in fig- 10 above. A magnifier provided with cross hair line is attached to the
inclined tube for fluid level observation. A micrometer ( turning of a screw attachment
to move the well up & down on a micrometer scale ) is connected to the well for
observation of the raising or lowering of the well required for measurement,
√ The micrometer is initially adjusted when p1= p2, so that the level in the well and that
in the tube are same as viewed thru’ the magnifier and the position of the fixed hair line
is taken as the reference level. Micrometer reading at this position of the well is noted.
Now when a pressure difference is applied ( say p1> p2), the meniscus in the inclined
tube moves off the hair line ( in this case to move up). This is restored by raising (or
lowering when p1< p2) the well with the micrometer.
√ The difference between the initial and final micrometer readings gives the change in
height and thus the pressure difference.
♦ Note:
1) In stead of micrometer movement of the well, this can be of the inclined tube
itself, which is less bulky.
2) Motorized screw can also be provided in stead of manual one so that the screw
rotation is possible to be converted into digital read-out.
3) Different types of micrometer attachment, pl refer Nakra & Chaudhry (p239&240)
1.2.0 Various aspects for consideration
► Manometric fluid
 Characteristics : √ The general criteria to be —
1) Non-corrosive & without chemical reaction with the fluid whose pressure to be
measured.
2) Of low viscosity to adjust quickly to pressure change.
3) Of negligible surface tension and capillary effects.

 Various fluids: √ Common fluids— water, red oil and mercury. Uses are based on—
1) Water  best for air pressure measurement. Use of kerosene or antifreeze
minimizes the effect of freezing & evaporation.

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2) Mercury when measured fluid mixes with the manometer fluid or very long
connecting tube length ( effect discussed later under Learn More)
3) Red Oil when reading of manometer required from a distant place— easier to
read and doesn’t combine chemically with some fluids in a dry system.
► Errors
 Temperature effect:
√ ρm  dependent on temp & hence measured press diff. is affected.
√ The effect – Temp↑ → volume↑→ ρm ↓ → h ↑ (for the same differential pressure).
The reverse is equally applicable for decrease of temperature.
√ Use of mixture as manometric fluid not recommended  selective distillation due to
change of temp. may cause unknown change of density i.e. specific weight.
 Capillary effect:
√ Large bore tubes (> 10mm diameter) reduces capillary effect.
√ When the same fluid applied in both the legs effect often neglected.
 Variable meniscus effect:
√ crescent-shaped top surface of a liquid column meniscus. The effect is due to
cohesive force (surface tension) of the liquid molecules and adhesive force between
molecules of liquid and capillary material.
√ For Hg cohesive force>> adhesive force  convex meniscus, for water
cohesive force<< adhesive force concave meniscus
√ Reading of indication taken at the centre of the meniscus

► Advantages
1) Simple & time proven 2)High accuracy & sensitivity 3) Wide range of filling fluids —
different densities are possible 4)Reasonable cost 5)Suitable for low pressure &
differential pressure

►Disadvantages
1) Bulky & Large 2) Condensation problem likely 3) Need leveling 4) Less portability
5) No over-range protection 6) Measured & manometer fluid to be compatible

1.2.1 Assignments

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► Problems
1. A well type manometer as in fig-7 above is to have a float in the left-hand chamber.
A electromagnetic transducer is used to measure the motion of the fluid. The float
motion is 5 mm for a pressure of 50 kN/m 2. If the diameter of the float chamber is
40 mm, find the required diameter for the right-hand chamber. For mercury, ρ =
13600 kg/m3.

Hints: use the formula and ∆h. α1= h. α2

Put  ∆h= 0.005m, h=0.005(α1/ α2) Now, p1-p2= 50 kN/m2=5.1x103 kg/m2,
Hence, 5100 = [0.005+ 0.005(α 1/ α2)] 13600 where α 1= (π/4) (0.04)2
=0.001256m2 , Therefore, α2= 0.001256/ 74 = 1.7 x 10-5 m2 , So dia, d2 = 4.65
mm
2. A mercury manometer has one arm in the shape of a well and the other as a tube
inclined at 300 to the horizontal. The well is 4 cm in diameter and the tube 5 mm in
diameter. Find the percentage error if no area correction is used.
Hints: Ref fig-9 α2 / α1 = (5/40)2= 1/64, β= 600 with area correction, p 1-
p2= hρm( cos 600 + 1/64) = (33/64) hρm  represents true value. Without the
area correction, p1-p2= hρm( cos 600 )=0.5 hρm  Indicated value . % error
=100 (IV- TV)/TV =3.03 %
► Questions
1. What type of manometer is recommended for measuring the pressure of the inside
of the reheating furnaces? Why?
A well type manometer has its capillary diameter to well diameter ratio as 1:20. If it
is required to measure a differential pressure of 0.1 kg/cm2, what should be the
approximate length of the Hg- column in the capillary? How much error is there in
the pressure value with this approximate indication? ( Ref: D Patranabis)

► MCQs
1. The difference between gauge and absolute pressure is— a) a vacuum b) 0.433
psia c) atmospheric pressure d) zero  (c )
2. Pressure is defined as – a) F/A b) F.A c) A/F d) None of these  (a)
3. One torr is defined as–a) 1 mm of Hg b) 1 inch of Hg c) 1 atm. d) 1 kPal  (a)
4. Pressure reading can be negative if measurement is taken in – a) absolute
b) gauge c) vacuum d) differential pressures  (b)

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5. The scale of an well-type manometer is determined by – a) well diameter

b) tube diameter c) ratio of cross-sectional areas of the well & tube
d) manometer liquid  (b)
6. An inclined tube manometer is more accurate with – a) large well diameter
b) large tube diameter c) high inclination of the tube with the vertical d) high
inclination of the tube with the horizontal  (c)

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