Instrumentation & Process Control

CHM 131
Pressure Measurements
• In what follows, focus is made on the
measurement of pressure, flow rate,
temperature and liquid level. The approach
will emphasize the following points for any
measuring element:

1. Basics
2. Description
3.Working principle
4. Ability to send or transmit a signal
5. Accuracy
6. Range
7. Sensitivity
Importance of Pressure Measurement
• Pressure influences boiling and condensation temperatures
of some separation operations like distillation and therefore
their costs

• Pressure measurement is necessary for measurement of

flow and level
Definition and Units of Pressure
• Pressure is the normal force exerted on unit area of a surface

• According to definition, SI unit of pressure is Pa or k Pa (Pa = N/m2)

for low pressures, kgf / cm2 for high pressures

• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere at

sea level Patm = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi
Pressure Expressed as Head
• Pressure can be thought as produced by the
weight of some liquid column of certain
height

w h
 w mg ρ Vg ρ Ahg
P   
A A A A

P  ρhg
Types of Pressure (Text P. 68, 69)
1. Static pressure: is the pressure of fluids or gases that are not in
motion (this the one usually measured)

2. Dynamic pressure: is the pressure exerted by a fluid or gas when it

hits a surface or an object due to its flow

3. Impact pressure: is the sum of the static and dynamic pressure on a

surface
Static and Impact
Pressure
4. Atmospheric pressure: is the pressure on the
earth’s surface due to the weight of the
gases in the earth’s atmosphere and is
normally expressed at sea level as 14.7 psi,
or 101.3 kPa. The atmospheric pressure is
dependant on weather conditions.

5. Total or absolute vacuum: is zero pressure

6. Vacuum: is a pressure value between total

vacuum and normal atmospheric pressure
Pressure Measurement Scales (Text P. 69)
• Pressure is always measured with respect to a particular reference
pressure.

• As such, there are three basic pressure scales:

1. Gauge pressure:
• Pressure is measured with respect to atmospheric
• Gauge pressure values could either be positive or negative values
2. Absolute pressure:
• Pressure is measured with respect to absolute
vacuum
• Absolute pressures could only be positive values.

3. Differential pressure:
• Pressure is expressed with respect to another
pressure and is therefore the difference between
two values.
• The difference could be either positive or negative
Gauge and Absolute Differential Pressure
Pressure scales
 • Absolute pressure readings are generally more
accurate than gauge readings. The reason is that
the reference of the gauge pressure measuring
instruments which is the atmospheric pressure
fluctuates with weather conditions and altitude from
the earth surface.

• The relation between absolute and gauge pressure

is given by the equation:

Absolute pressure  Gauge pressure  Atmospheric pressure

Examples

What is 4 kgf /cm2 gauge when expressed in absolute

pressure? atmospheric pressure = 101.3 k Pa , and 1 k Pa =
0.0102 kg f /cm2
Solution
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure
+ atmospheric
pressure

= 4 + 101.3 X 0.0102 = 5.03 kgf /cm2

What is 300 k Pa when expressed as pressure
head of water? given that g = 9.8 m/s2 and
water = 1000 kg/m3

Solution:
Substituting in the equation:
P  ρhg
h = 300 X1000/(1000 X 9.8) = 30 m
Pressure Measuring Elements
A. U-tube Manometer (Text, P. 73&74)

1. Description: It consists of U-shaped transparent glass or

plastic tube partially filled with a manometer liquid (water
or mercury). The scale of the manometer is usually
calibrated in pressure units.
U-Tube Manometer
2. Principle:
• When both arms of a manometer are
exposed to the atmosphere or when the
pressures are equal, the scale reading is zero

• When a pressure difference is applied to the

arms, then the manometer liquid in rises in
the lower pressure arm and drops in the
higher pressure arm giving a difference in
height of the liquid between the two arms
Differential Pressure Measurement
with Manometer
 P1- P2 = ρ g h
• The equation above is the manometer
equation, (see example 5.11, Text P.75)
• ρ is the density of the manometer liquid and
h is the difference in the height of
manometer liquid
3. Pressure scales used:
a) Differential pressure
b) Gauge pressure (if p2 = patm )
c) Absolute pressure ( if p2 = 0)
d) Atmospheric pressure (if p1 = patm , p2 =0)

4. Indication and transmission: Local only i.e.

manometer is not a transducer, no signal
can be sent out from a manometer
5. Range: low to medium range depending on the
manometer liquid:
• Water for low pressure range
• Mercury for high pressure range

6. Accuracy: depending on the following sources of

error:
a) Temperature effect on the density of the
manometer liquid
b) Position of the manometer (must be kept vertical)
c) Trapping of gases in liquids or trapping of liquids
in gases
• Well -type manometer: provides better
accuracy, because zero level in the wide leg
is kept almost at the same position . The
manometer is used for measuring low
pressure difference by using low-density
liquid.
7. Sensitivity: inclined manometers were
developed to increase sensitivity of
manometer readings and therefore can
measure low pressure difference
B. Bourdon Tube (Text, P.77)
1. Description: It consists of a C-shaped hollow elastic metal tube open
at one end and connected to a pointer-scale indicating mechanism at
the other closed end.

• A special type of Bourdon tubes is the seal-type Bourdon tube which

is used for measuring the pressure of corrosive liquids, easily
solidifying liquids, or liquids containing suspended solids
Bourdon Tube
Seal-type Bourdon tube
2. Principle: If pressure is applied to the open
end, then the hollow tube straightens
causing the pointer to move and indicates a
higher pressure value on the scale

3. Pressure scales used:

Only gauge pressure
4. Indication and transmission: Local and
remote transmission. The indicator
mechanism may be replaced by a
transducer producing an electric signal

5. Range: Low to high depending on the tube

radius of curvature, tube wall thickness,
and material of construction
6. Accuracy: main source of error is the
temperature effect on metal expansion

7. Sensitivity: straightening of the C-shaped

tube can be increased by using a helical
Bourdon tube
Helical Bourdon Tube
C. Bellows (Text, P.77)
1. Description: It consists of an elastic metal cylinder with
deep folds. Bellows resembles the Accordion musical
instrument.
• Bellows may be connected to an opposing spring that will
help in having a desired range and sensitivity and the spring
will also help restore the shape of the bellows after
measurement is done
2. Principle: When applying pressure a bellow
expands or contracts and this causes a
pointer mechanism to indicate a higher
pressure on the scale.

3. Pressure scales used:

• Gauge pressure
• Absolute pressure
• Differential pressure is measured by
opposed bellows
4. Indication & transmission: local and remote
transmission. The pointer mechanism may
be replaced by a linear variable differential
transducer (LVDT) which senses the
expansion and change it into an electric
signal.

5. Range: low to medium

Pressure Measurement and
Signal Transmission by
LVDT Transducer
P1

Opposed Bellows for

Measuring Differential
Pressure
6. Accuracy: main source of error is the
temperature effect on bellow metal
expansion
D. Diaphragm (Text, P. 75,76 &77)
1. Description: It consists of a thin flat circular elastic metal
plate. The diaphragm may be loaded with a spring as in
bellows for the same purposes explained before.

2. Principle: both sides of the diaphragm are exposed to

different pressures. The diaphragm bends towards the side
that has the lowest pressure
Pressure Measurement with
a Diaphragm
3. Pressure scales used:
• Gauge pressure
• Absolute pressure
• Differential pressure

4. Indication & transmission: local and remote

transmission. The pointer mechanism may be
replaced by a strain gauge which senses the
bending and change it into an electric signal.

5. Range: low to high

Silicon Diaphragm with a
strain gauge
6. Accuracy: main source of error is the
temperature effect on diaphragm material
expansion

7. Sensitivity: can be increased by using

capsules connected together in series
• One capsule is formed of two diaphragms
joined back to back

• Pressure is applied to the space between the

two diaphragms
Increasing Sensitivity by Using
Several Capsules Joined in
Series
Electronic Pressure Sensor (Text, P. 79)
Piezoelectric pressure gauge:
It uses a piezoelectric crystal that produces a voltage between
the opposite faces of the crystal if pressure is applied to it
Vacuum Measuring Elements (Text, P. 80)
• Bourdon tubes, diaphragms and bellows can be vacuum
gauges.
The following measuring devices can be used to measure very
high vacuum (very low negative pressures about 1 torr )

• Pirani gauge: see book

• Ionization gauge: see book
Summary of Points
1. Importance of pressure measurement and control

2. Definition and units

3. Types of pressure and pressure scales

4. Manometers

5. Bourdon tubes

6. Bellows

7. Diaphragms and capsules

8. Piezoelectric pressure gauge

9. Vacuum measuring Instruments