І.

ОСНОВНІ ПИТАННЯ З МЕТОДИКИ НАВЧАННЯ АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ

МОВИ

1. Прийоми виправлення помилок в усному та писемному мовленні учнів.

(Techniques for correcting errors in students' oral and written speech.)
When it comes to correcting errors in ESL (English as a Second Language) students'
oral and written speech, there are several effective techniques that can be employed. These
techniques aim to provide feedback and guidance while promoting a positive and supportive
learning environment. Here are some commonly used techniques:
● Model Correct Language Use: The teacher or a fluent English speaker can model
correct sentences or phrases, allowing students to hear and observe the correct
usage of language.
● Immediate Error Correction: When a student makes an error, the teacher can provide
immediate correction by repeating the student's sentence with the correction, or by
providing a prompt for the correct response. This helps students recognize and
self-correct their mistakes.
● Recast: The teacher can rephrase a student's sentence, incorporating the correction
while maintaining the original meaning. This technique helps students hear the
correct form without directly pointing out their error.
● Guided Self-Correction: Instead of providing direct correction, the teacher can ask
leading questions or provide hints that guide students to recognize their own errors
and find the correct answers.
● Error Identification: Teachers can help students identify errors by highlighting them
without immediately providing the correct form. This allows students to notice and
analyze their mistakes before correcting them.
● Error Analysis: Teachers can engage students in analyzing and discussing common
errors or patterns, allowing them to understand the underlying grammar rules and
improve their language awareness.
● Peer Correction: Encouraging students to work together and correct each other's
errors can be beneficial. This promotes collaboration, peer learning, and a sense of
shared responsibility for accuracy.
● Delayed Error Correction: Instead of correcting errors immediately, the teacher can
note down errors during a student's speech or writing and provide feedback after the
completion. This technique reduces interruptions and helps students focus on fluency
before accuracy.
● Error Logs: Students can maintain error logs where they record their frequent
mistakes. Regular review of these logs, either individually or with the teacher's
guidance, helps them identify recurring errors and develop strategies for
improvement.
● Error-focused Activities: Engaging students in focused activities that target specific
language areas, such as grammar or vocabulary, can help reinforce correct language
use and address common errors.

2. Інклюзивне освітнє середовище. Роль вчителя англійської мови в його

створенні (рівень базової середньої освіти). (Inclusive educational environment. The
role of the English language teacher in its creation (level of basic secondary education).)
 An inclusive educational environment refers to an educational setting that embraces
and accommodates the diverse needs of all students, including those with different abilities,
backgrounds, cultures, and languages. It ensures that every student has equal access to
quality education and opportunities for learning, regardless of their individual characteristics
or circumstances. In such an environment, students are respected, valued, and supported to
reach their full potential.
The role of an ESL (English as a Second Language) teacher in creating an inclusive
educational environment at the basic secondary education level is vital. Here's an overview
of their responsibilities:
● Language Support: The ESL teacher assists students who are learning English as an
additional language. They provide language support, including teaching English
language skills, vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, enabling ESL students to
participate fully in classroom activities and academic tasks.
● Differentiated Instruction: In an inclusive classroom, students have diverse learning
styles, abilities, and needs. The ESL teacher plays a crucial role in differentiating
instruction to meet the unique requirements of ESL students. They provide modified
materials, instructional strategies, and assessments tailored to the individual needs
of each student.
● Collaborative Planning: The ESL teacher collaborates with classroom teachers and
other specialists to develop inclusive lesson plans that incorporate language
objectives, support language development across the curriculum, and promote
inclusive teaching practices. They provide input and expertise on adapting materials,
scaffolding instruction, and addressing language barriers.
● Cultural Awareness and Sensitivity: An inclusive educational environment values and
respects diverse cultures and backgrounds. The ESL teacher fosters cultural
awareness and sensitivity by incorporating multicultural perspectives into lessons,
encouraging students to share their cultural experiences, and promoting an
environment of respect and appreciation for different cultures and languages.
● Individualized Support: ESL students may require additional support in their language
development. The ESL teacher identifies individual student needs, conducts
assessments, and develops personalized learning plans. They provide one-on-one or
small group instruction to address specific language challenges, monitor progress,
and provide feedback to students, parents, and other teachers.
● Collaboration and Co-teaching: In an inclusive classroom, the ESL teacher often
collaborates with the classroom teacher in co-teaching models. They work together
to plan and deliver instruction, ensuring that ESL students receive appropriate
language support while actively participating in the general education curriculum.
This collaborative approach fosters an inclusive learning environment where students
learn from each other and benefit from the expertise of multiple educators.
● Advocacy and Support: The ESL teacher advocates for the needs of ESL students
within the school community. They communicate with parents, administrators, and
other stakeholders to ensure that appropriate resources, support services, and
accommodations are in place to meet the unique needs of ESL students. They also
promote a supportive and inclusive school culture by raising awareness about the
value of language diversity and the benefits of an inclusive educational environment.

3. Форми, методи та прийоми навчання англійської мови в інклюзивному

освітньому середовищі (рівень базової середньої освіти). (Forms, methods and
approaches of teaching English in an inclusive educational environment (level of basic
secondary education).)
In an inclusive educational environment at the basic secondary education level,
several forms, methods, and approaches can be used to teach English effectively to cater to
the diverse needs of students. Here are some commonly employed forms, methods, and
approaches:
Forms:
● Whole-Class Instruction: This form involves teaching the entire class as a group,
providing instruction and engaging all students in learning activities together. It can
include interactive lectures, discussions, and multimedia presentations.
● Small Group Instruction: Small group instruction involves dividing the class into
smaller groups based on language proficiency or specific needs. It allows for more
individualized attention, targeted instruction, and collaborative learning opportunities.
● One-on-One Instruction: Providing individualized instruction to students on a
one-on-one basis can be effective for addressing specific language needs, providing
extra support, or accelerating learning for advanced students.

Methods:
● Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): CLT emphasizes meaningful
communication in real-life situations. It focuses on developing students' speaking,
listening, reading, and writing skills through interactive activities, role-plays,
discussions, and authentic materials.
● Task-Based Learning (TBL): TBL centers around completing meaningful tasks that
reflect real-world language use. Students work collaboratively to accomplish tasks,
promoting language acquisition, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills.
● Content-Based Instruction (CBI): CBI integrates English language learning with
subject-specific content. It engages students in learning English through topics and
materials related to other subjects, such as science, history, or literature.
● Cooperative Learning: Cooperative learning involves organizing students into groups
to work together on tasks or projects. It fosters collaboration, peer support, and
intercultural exchange, promoting language development and social skills.
● Differentiated Instruction: This method tailors instruction to meet the diverse needs of
students. It involves modifying materials, instructional strategies, and assessments to
accommodate varying levels of language proficiency, learning styles, and abilities.

Approaches:
● Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): CLIL integrates language learning
with content instruction. It involves teaching subject-specific content in English,
promoting language acquisition while students learn other academic subjects.
● Multimodal Approaches: Multimodal approaches utilize various modes of
communication, such as visuals, videos, audio recordings, and hands-on activities, to
engage students and cater to different learning styles and preferences.
● Scaffolding: Scaffolding refers to providing temporary support and guidance to
students as they develop their language skills. It involves breaking down complex
tasks, providing prompts, visuals, or simplified language, and gradually removing
support as students become more proficient.
● Culturally Responsive Teaching: This approach acknowledges and incorporates
students' cultural backgrounds, experiences, and perspectives into the learning
 process. It promotes inclusivity, fosters cultural awareness, and validates students'
identities and languages.
These forms, methods, and approaches can be combined or adapted to create a
dynamic and inclusive English language learning environment in basic secondary education.
Teachers should consider the diverse needs and abilities of their students while selecting
and implementing these strategies to ensure effective language acquisition and inclusivity in
the classroom.

4. Диференційоване навчання англійської мови (рівень базової середньої

освіти). Врахування індивідуальних психологічних та навчальних
характеристик учнів. (Differentiated teaching of the English language (level of basic
secondary education). Taking into account individual psychological and educational
characteristics of students.)
Differentiated teaching in ESL (English as a Second Language) at the basic
secondary education level involves tailoring instruction to meet the individual psychological
and educational characteristics of students. It recognizes that students have diverse
language proficiency levels, learning styles, abilities, and prior knowledge. By addressing
these differences, differentiated teaching aims to maximize each student's learning potential.
Here's an elaboration on how to implement differentiated teaching while considering
individual psychological and educational characteristics:
● Assessing Students' Language Proficiency: Begin by assessing students' language
proficiency levels to determine their strengths and areas for improvement. This can
be done through formal assessments, informal observations, and diagnostic tests.
Understanding each student's proficiency level allows you to differentiate instruction
accordingly.
● Grouping Strategies: Consider students' language proficiency levels and learning
needs when forming groups for activities and projects. Grouping students
homogeneously or heterogeneously based on language proficiency can provide
targeted instruction and opportunities for peer support. For instance, students at
similar proficiency levels can work together on language-focused activities, while
mixed-ability groups can foster collaboration and learning from one another.
● Varied Instructional Materials and Resources: Provide a range of instructional
materials and resources to cater to different learning styles and abilities. Include
visual aids, hands-on activities, authentic texts, multimedia resources, and
technology-based tools. This allows students to engage with the content in different
ways and helps accommodate their individual preferences and strengths.
● Modified Assignments and Tasks: Differentiate assignments and tasks to match
students' language abilities and learning needs. Provide options for students to
demonstrate their understanding through various modes, such as written, oral, or
visual presentations. Offer additional support, such as sentence frames, vocabulary
lists, or graphic organizers, to help students organize their thoughts and express
themselves effectively.
● Flexible Pacing and Extension Opportunities: Recognize that students may progress
at different rates in language acquisition. Allow flexibility in pacing by providing
additional support or extension activities to address individual needs. For students
requiring additional support, offer extra practice exercises, provide reteaching
opportunities, or assign differentiated homework assignments. For advanced
 students, offer enrichment activities, challenging projects, or opportunities for
independent research.
● Individualized Feedback and Support: Provide timely and constructive feedback that
addresses individual students' strengths and areas for improvement. Offer specific
suggestions for language development and guide students towards self-correction.
Encourage students to set individual language goals and monitor their progress.
Additionally, offer individualized support, such as tutorials or conferencing, to address
specific language challenges and provide personalized guidance.
● Consideration of Cultural and Background Factors: Take into account students'
cultural and background factors when planning instruction. Incorporate multicultural
perspectives, diverse texts, and topics that resonate with students' experiences.
Encourage students to share their cultural knowledge and language skills to create
an inclusive and validating learning environment.
● Regular Assessment and Reflection: Continuously assess students' progress to
monitor their language development and the effectiveness of differentiated
instruction. Reflect on the outcomes and make necessary adjustments to
instructional strategies and materials based on individual students' needs.

5. Внутрішні, зовнішні та афективні фактори оволодіння англійською мовою

учнями (рівень базової середньої освіти). (Internal, external and affective factors of
mastering the English language by students (level of basic secondary education).)
When it comes to mastering the English language at the basic secondary education
level, several internal, external, and affective factors can influence students' language
acquisition and proficiency. These factors contribute to students' overall language
development and play a role in their motivation, confidence, and success in learning English.
Let's elaborate on each of these factors:

Internal Factors:
● Cognitive Abilities: Students' cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, and
problem-solving skills, can impact their language learning. Strong cognitive abilities
can facilitate language acquisition and comprehension.
● Language Aptitude: Some students may have a natural aptitude for learning
languages, making it easier for them to grasp English grammar, vocabulary, and
pronunciation.
● Prior Knowledge: Students' prior knowledge of the English language, including their
exposure to English at home or previous English instruction, can influence their
language proficiency and ease of learning.

External Factors:
● Exposure to English Input: The amount and quality of exposure to English language
input, both inside and outside the classroom, are crucial external factors. Exposure to
authentic materials, such as English books, movies, and music, helps students
develop language skills and cultural understanding.
● Instructional Methods and Materials: The teaching methods, materials, and resources
used in the classroom significantly impact students' language acquisition. Engaging
and interactive instructional approaches, relevant and age-appropriate materials, and
effective use of technology can enhance students' language learning experience.
 ● Supportive Learning Environment: A positive and supportive learning environment,
including the classroom atmosphere, teacher-student relationships, and peer
interactions, contributes to students' motivation, engagement, and willingness to take
risks in using English.

Affective Factors:
● Motivation: Students' motivation to learn English plays a vital role in their language
development. Intrinsic motivation (personal interest, enjoyment, and curiosity) and
extrinsic motivation (rewards, grades, and social recognition) can influence their
engagement and effort in language learning.
● Self-Efficacy: Students' belief in their ability to learn English (self-efficacy) affects
their confidence, persistence, and willingness to take on language challenges.
Positive feedback, success experiences, and a growth mindset can enhance
students' self-efficacy.
● Anxiety and Attitudes: Students' anxiety levels and attitudes towards learning English
can impact their language performance. Reducing anxiety, fostering a positive
attitude, and creating a safe and inclusive learning environment can help students
feel more comfortable and motivated to participate in English language activities.
It's important to note that these factors interact with one another and can vary among
students. Teachers can address these factors by implementing effective instructional
strategies, providing meaningful and engaging learning experiences, offering support and
scaffolding, promoting a positive classroom environment, and fostering students' motivation
and self-confidence. By considering these factors, teachers can create a conducive learning
environment that supports students in mastering the English language at the basic
secondary education level.

6. Основні принципи й ознаки комунікативного навчання англійської мови в

ЗЗСО (рівень базової середньої освіти). (Basic principles and features of
communicative English language teaching in secondary school (level of basic secondary
education).)
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to language instruction
that emphasizes the development of communication skills in real-life contexts. It focuses on
meaningful interaction and authentic language use. When applied to secondary school
education at the basic level, CLT promotes active student participation, fluency, and
functional language proficiency. Here are the basic principles and features of communicative
English language teaching in secondary school:
● Meaningful Communication: CLT places a strong emphasis on meaningful
communication. It prioritizes activities that engage students in real-life language use,
such as discussions, role-plays, debates, and problem-solving tasks. The focus is on
students actively using the language to convey meaning and achieve communicative
goals.
● Authentic Language Use: CLT encourages the use of authentic language input and
materials, such as videos, songs, podcasts, and literature, that reflect real-world
language use. This exposure to authentic language helps students develop their
listening and speaking skills, and it exposes them to a range of language variations
and cultural contexts.
● Student-Centered Approach: CLT is student-centered, putting learners at the center
of the learning process. Teachers facilitate and guide learning rather than being the
 sole source of knowledge. Students are actively engaged, encouraged to collaborate,
and take responsibility for their own learning. This approach promotes autonomy,
critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.
● Task-Based Learning: Tasks and activities are at the heart of CLT. Students engage
in meaningful tasks that simulate real-life situations, such as planning a trip, solving a
problem, or conducting interviews. These tasks require students to use the language
creatively and interactively, promoting fluency and communication skills.
● Focus on Fluency and Communication: CLT prioritizes fluency over accuracy during
the initial stages of language learning. Students are encouraged to focus on
conveying meaning and using the language spontaneously. Error correction is done
in a supportive and constructive manner, without hindering fluency or discouraging
communication.
● Integrated Skills Development: CLT integrates the development of all language
skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Language is taught and practiced in
context, allowing students to make connections between the different language skills
and use them holistically.
● Language for Real-Life Situations: CLT emphasizes the use of language in authentic
and meaningful contexts. It focuses on functional language use and equips students
with the necessary language skills to communicate effectively in real-life situations,
such as making requests, giving opinions, negotiating, and expressing ideas.
● Cultural Awareness and Sensitivity: CLT promotes intercultural understanding and
sensitivity. Students are exposed to different cultures and perspectives through
authentic materials and activities. This helps develop their cultural awareness,
empathy, and communication skills in multicultural contexts.
● Continuous Assessment and Feedback: CLT encourages ongoing assessment that
focuses on students' progress in communication skills rather than isolated language
components. Assessment is based on performance in communicative tasks, class
participation, and portfolio-based evaluation. Timely and constructive feedback is
provided to guide students' language development.

7. Основні стратегії для розвитку навичок читання учнів англійською мовою

(рівень базової середньої освіти). (Basic strategies for developing students' reading
skills in English (level of basic secondary education).)
Developing reading skills in English at the basic secondary education level requires a
combination of effective strategies that promote comprehension, vocabulary expansion, and
critical thinking. Here are some basic strategies for developing students' reading skills in
English:
Pre-reading Activities:
● Activating Prior Knowledge: Engage students in a discussion or brainstorming
session to activate their prior knowledge about the topic or theme of the reading. This
helps students make connections and build a foundation for understanding the text.
● Predicting and Setting Purposes: Encourage students to make predictions about the
content based on the title, headings, and visuals. Ask them to set specific reading
purposes, such as finding answers to questions or identifying main ideas.

Vocabulary Development:
 ● Pre-teaching Key Vocabulary: Introduce and explain important vocabulary words
before reading. Provide definitions, examples, and context to help students
understand and remember the words.
● Contextual Clues: Encourage students to use context clues, such as surrounding
words, phrases, and sentences, to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar words. Teach
them strategies like inferring meaning from context or using word parts (prefixes,
suffixes) to understand new vocabulary.
● Vocabulary Expansion Activities: Engage students in activities that reinforce and
expand their vocabulary, such as word mapping, creating word associations, and
using vocabulary in sentences or short paragraphs.

Reading Comprehension Strategies:

● Skimming and Scanning: Teach students how to skim the text quickly to get a general
idea and scan for specific information. These strategies are useful for locating main
ideas, headings, and specific details.
● Predicting and Making Inferences: Encourage students to make predictions based on
the information provided and to infer meaning from the text. Help them understand
how authors imply information indirectly.
● Summarizing and Paraphrasing: Teach students how to identify main ideas,
supporting details, and the structure of a text. Guide them in summarizing the text in
their own words and paraphrasing information to demonstrate comprehension.
● Questioning: Encourage students to ask questions while reading to deepen their
understanding and engage with the text. Teach them to ask both literal and inferential
questions to enhance critical thinking.

Reading Strategies for Understanding Text Structure:

● Text Mapping: Teach students how to visually represent the structure of the text using
graphic organizers or concept maps. This helps them see the relationships between
different parts of the text.
● Identifying Text Features: Guide students in identifying and utilizing text features such
as headings, subheadings, bolded or italicized words, and bullet points to navigate
and comprehend the text.

Post-reading Activities:
● Discussion and Reflection: Engage students in discussions about the text,
encouraging them to express their opinions, share insights, and make connections to
their own experiences. This promotes critical thinking and deeper comprehension.
● Writing Responses: Assign writing tasks that require students to respond to the
reading, such as writing a summary, creating a personal reflection, or formulating
questions for further exploration.
● Extension Activities: Provide opportunities for students to explore the topic further
through research, presentations, or creative projects. This extends their learning and
encourages independent investigation.

Sustained Reading Practice:

● Independent Reading: Encourage students to develop a habit of independent reading
by providing access to a variety of reading materials at their appropriate reading
levels and interests.
 ● Reading Circles or Book Clubs: Organize reading circles or book clubs where
students can read and discuss books of their choice with their peers. This promotes
engagement, discussion, and a love for reading.
● Reading Aloud: Incorporate regular reading aloud sessions in class to model fluent
reading, intonation, and pronunciation. This helps improve students' listening
comprehension as well.

8. Труднощі, які виникають в учнів під час навчання читання англійською

мовою (рівень базової середньої освіти), та способи їх подолання. (Difficulties
students have when learning to read in English (level of basic secondary education), and
ways to overcome them.)
When learning to read in English at the basic secondary education level, students
may encounter several difficulties. These challenges can stem from various factors, such as
language differences, unfamiliar orthographic patterns, limited vocabulary, and lack of
reading strategies. However, with appropriate support and targeted instructional approaches,
these difficulties can be overcome. Here are some common challenges students may face
when learning to read in English and strategies to address them:
● Limited Vocabulary:
Strategy: Focus on vocabulary development by explicitly teaching new words before
reading. Use context clues, word charts, and visual aids to reinforce vocabulary
understanding. Encourage students to use newly learned words in their speaking and
writing to solidify their comprehension.
● Unfamiliar Orthographic Patterns:
Strategy: Introduce phonics and word recognition skills to help students decode
unfamiliar words. Teach phonics rules, blends, and digraphs to assist students in
understanding the relationship between sounds and letters. Engage students in
phonemic awareness activities, such as identifying sounds in words or playing word
games.
● Lack of Reading Strategies:
Strategy: Teach students effective reading strategies such as skimming, scanning,
predicting, and summarizing. Model these strategies and provide guided practice
opportunities. Encourage students to actively engage with the text by asking
questions, making connections, and visualizing the content.
● Sentence Structure and Grammar:
Strategy: Provide explicit instruction on sentence structure and grammar rules. Break
down complex sentences into simpler parts, and use sentence frames or sentence
strips to help students understand the structure. Offer ample practice activities that
focus on constructing and analyzing sentences.
● Lack of Background Knowledge:
Strategy: Pre-teach background knowledge related to the topic of the reading. Use
videos, images, or real-life examples to provide context and activate students' prior
knowledge. Encourage students to make connections between their experiences and
the text, fostering comprehension and engagement.
● Low Reading Fluency:
Strategy: Incorporate regular reading practice sessions to improve fluency. Use
leveled reading materials that match students' reading abilities. Provide opportunities
for repeated readings, choral reading, and partner reading to build fluency and
confidence. Incorporate timed reading activities to track progress.
 ● Comprehension Difficulties:
Strategy: Teach comprehension strategies such as identifying main ideas, making
inferences, and summarizing. Model and guide students through think-alouds to
demonstrate how skilled readers approach comprehension. Use graphic organizers
and visual representations to help students organize and visualize information.
● Cultural and Idiomatic Challenges:
Strategy: Address cultural and idiomatic differences by exposing students to
authentic English texts and providing explanations or translations of cultural
references or idioms. Encourage discussions and exploration of cultural perspectives
to foster understanding.
● Individualized Support:
Strategy: Provide differentiated instruction based on students' reading levels, needs,
and learning styles. Use assessments and ongoing monitoring to identify individual
strengths and weaknesses. Offer targeted interventions, small-group instruction, or
one-on-one support as necessary.
● Encouraging Reading Engagement:
Strategy: Foster a positive reading environment by creating a classroom library with a
variety of interesting and age-appropriate books. Allow students to choose books
based on their interests and provide time for independent reading. Incorporate
reading-related activities such as book talks, reading circles, or author studies to
enhance engagement.
By implementing these strategies, teachers can help students overcome the
difficulties they may face when learning to read in English. It's important to provide
consistent support, create a supportive and engaging learning environment, and offer
targeted instruction to meet students' individual needs.

9. Способи й засоби безперервного професійного розвитку вчителя

англійської мови. (Ways and means of continuous professional development of the
English language teacher.)
Continuous professional development (CPD) is crucial for ESL (English as a Second
Language) teachers to enhance their knowledge, skills, and teaching practices. Here are
some ways and means of continuous professional development for ESL teachers:
● Workshops and Conferences: Attend workshops, seminars, and conferences focused
on ESL teaching. These events provide opportunities to learn from experts in the
field, discover new methodologies, and exchange ideas with other professionals.
They often cover a wide range of topics, including language acquisition, assessment,
technology integration, and cultural competence.
● Online Courses and Webinars: Take advantage of online courses and webinars
specifically designed for ESL teachers. Platforms like Coursera, EdX, and TEFL
organizations offer a variety of courses covering different aspects of ESL teaching.
These self-paced or instructor-led courses provide flexibility and allow teachers to
gain knowledge and skills from the comfort of their homes.
● Professional Associations and Networks: Join professional associations and
networks dedicated to ESL teaching. These organizations offer resources,
publications, and networking opportunities. They often host conferences, webinars,
and workshops that cater to the professional development needs of ESL teachers.
● Peer Collaboration and Mentoring: Engage in peer collaboration and mentoring by
partnering with experienced ESL teachers or joining professional learning
 communities. Collaborate on lesson planning, share teaching strategies, and
exchange feedback. Peer observation and feedback can be particularly valuable for
professional growth.
● Reflective Practice: Engage in reflective practice by regularly reflecting on teaching
experiences, evaluating lesson plans, and assessing student outcomes. Reflective
journals, self-assessment tools, and feedback from peers or mentors can support this
process. Reflection helps identify areas for improvement and develop action plans for
professional growth.
● Reading Professional Literature: Stay updated with the latest research and
publications in the field of ESL teaching. Read professional books, academic
journals, and online resources focused on ESL pedagogy, second language
acquisition, language assessment, and cultural awareness. This helps broaden
knowledge and understanding of current best practices.
● Classroom Action Research: Conduct classroom-based action research to explore
and address specific teaching and learning challenges. Design and implement
research projects in collaboration with colleagues to investigate the effectiveness of
teaching strategies, materials, or assessment methods. This hands-on approach
promotes reflective teaching and leads to evidence-based practices.
● Technology Integration: Explore and integrate technology tools and resources into
ESL teaching. Attend webinars or workshops on educational technology and digital
tools for language learning. Experiment with new digital platforms, language apps, or
online resources to enhance instructional delivery and engage students in meaningful
language practice.
● Continuing Education Programs: Enroll in continuing education programs offered by
colleges, universities, or language institutes. These programs often provide
specialized courses and certificates in ESL teaching, such as TESOL (Teaching
English to Speakers of Other Languages) certifications or endorsements. These
programs offer comprehensive training and credentials in ESL instruction.
● Reflective Feedback and Evaluation: Seek feedback and evaluation from
supervisors, colleagues, or instructional coaches. Engage in formal or informal
evaluations of teaching performance to receive constructive feedback on strengths
and areas for improvement. Use this feedback to guide professional development
goals and strategies.

10. Афективні психологічні фактори у навчанні англійської мови. Стратегії

вчителя для подальшого розвитку тих факторів, які підвищують мотивацію
учнів, і подолання тих, які служать основою афективного фільтру. (Affective
psychological factors in learning English. Teacher strategies for further development of those
factors that increase student motivation and overcoming those that serve as the basis of the
affective filter.)
Affective psychological factors play a significant role in learning English and can
greatly influence students' motivation, engagement, and language acquisition. Here are
some affective factors in learning English and teacher strategies to further develop positive
factors while overcoming those that contribute to the affective filter:
Positive Affective Factors:
● Motivation:
Teacher Strategy: Foster intrinsic motivation by creating a supportive and engaging
learning environment. Use varied and relevant materials, incorporate student
 interests, and provide meaningful tasks that connect language learning to students'
personal lives and goals.
● Self-confidence:
Teacher Strategy: Provide opportunities for success and celebrate students'
achievements. Offer constructive feedback and praise their efforts. Encourage
risk-taking and provide a supportive classroom atmosphere where students feel
comfortable making mistakes and learning from them.
● Interest and Enthusiasm:
Teacher Strategy: Make English learning enjoyable and relevant by incorporating
authentic materials, such as songs, videos, and literature. Use interactive activities,
games, and role-plays that stimulate students' curiosity and create a positive
emotional connection to the language.
● Sense of Belonging and Community:
Teacher Strategy: Foster a sense of belonging by promoting a positive and inclusive
classroom culture. Encourage cooperative learning, group projects, and peer
collaboration. Provide opportunities for students to share their cultural backgrounds
and perspectives, creating a supportive community of language learners.

Challenges and Strategies to Overcome the Affective Filter:

● Anxiety and Fear:
Teacher Strategy: Create a low-anxiety learning environment by establishing clear
expectations, providing support, and offering scaffolding. Break down tasks into
manageable steps, provide ample practice, and encourage self-reflection.
Incorporate stress-reducing activities, such as deep breathing exercises or
mindfulness techniques.
● Lack of Confidence and Self-esteem:
Teacher Strategy: Build students' confidence by providing positive reinforcement and
creating a safe space for expression. Offer opportunities for success through
achievable tasks, and provide individualized support when needed. Encourage
self-reflection and self-assessment to help students recognize their progress and
strengths.
● Negative Past Experiences:
Teacher Strategy: Acknowledge and address students' negative past experiences
with English learning. Offer reassurance, understanding, and support. Provide
engaging and success-oriented learning activities that help students build positive
associations with English. Focus on their strengths and provide opportunities for
them to redefine their relationship with the language.
● Lack of Relevance and Interest:
Teacher Strategy: Make connections between English language learning and
students' interests, goals, and real-life contexts. Incorporate topics and materials that
are relevant and meaningful to students' lives. Allow for choice and autonomy in
learning tasks to increase student engagement and motivation.
● Cultural and Identity Factors:
Teacher Strategy: Foster cultural awareness and inclusivity by incorporating diverse
materials, perspectives, and experiences in English learning. Encourage students to
explore and share their cultural backgrounds, and create opportunities for
cross-cultural exchanges. Celebrate diversity and promote understanding and
respect for different identities and cultures.
 It is important for teachers to be attentive to these affective factors and create a
positive and supportive classroom environment that addresses students' emotional and
psychological needs. By implementing appropriate strategies, teachers can help increase
students' motivation, overcome barriers created by the affective filter, and create a conducive
atmosphere for effective English language learning.

11. Підходи до навчання написання текстів різного типу (текстуальний,

процесуальний і жанровий) англійською мовою (рівень базової середньої
освіти). (Approaches to learning to write texts of various types (textual, procedural and
genre) in English (level of basic secondary education).)
When teaching students at the basic secondary education level to write texts of
various types in English, several approaches can be employed to develop their writing skills.
Here are some common approaches to consider:
1. Process Approach:
● Emphasizes the writing process, including pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing, and
publishing.
● Students engage in brainstorming, organizing ideas, and creating rough drafts before
refining their writing through revision and editing.
● Provides opportunities for peer feedback and teacher guidance at each stage of the
writing process.
2. Genre Approach:
● Focuses on teaching students the characteristics and conventions of different text
types, such as narratives, descriptions, persuasive essays, and reports.
● Students learn about the purpose, structure, and language features specific to each
genre and practice writing texts within those genres.
● Involves analyzing and deconstructing sample texts to identify genre-specific
elements.
3. Scaffolded Writing Approach:
● Provides structured support and guidance to students as they learn to write texts of
various types.
● Includes modeling and shared writing activities where the teacher demonstrates the
writing process, thinking aloud, and engaging students in collaborative writing tasks.
● Gradually reduces support as students gain confidence and independence in their
writing skills.
4. Content-Based Writing Approach:
● Integrates writing instruction with content learning, allowing students to apply their
language skills in the context of other subject areas.
● Students write texts related to topics they are studying in other subjects, such as
science, social studies, or literature.
● Connects language learning to real-world applications and promotes interdisciplinary
learning.
5. Functional Approach:
● Focuses on teaching students how to write texts to fulfill specific communicative
functions, such as making requests, giving instructions, or expressing opinions.
● Students learn the language and structure necessary to accomplish different
communicative goals.
● Provides opportunities for authentic writing tasks that simulate real-life situations.
6. Collaborative Writing Approach:
 ● Engages students in group writing activities where they work together to plan, draft,
and revise their texts.
● Promotes peer interaction, collaboration, and the exchange of ideas.
● Encourages students to provide constructive feedback, revise each other's work, and
learn from their peers.
7. Process-Genre Approach:
● Combines elements of both the process and genre approaches.
● Emphasizes the writing process while focusing on specific genres.
● Students go through the stages of the writing process, with a particular focus on the
conventions and features of different genres.
8. Writing for Authentic Purposes:
● Engages students in writing tasks that have real-life purposes and audiences.
● Students write letters, emails, blog posts, or other texts to communicate with a
specific reader or group of readers.
● Provides authentic contexts for writing and helps students understand the relevance
and importance of their writing.
It's important to adapt these approaches to the specific needs and abilities of the
students, providing appropriate scaffolding, feedback, and modeling to support their
development as proficient writers. Additionally, integrating the teaching of grammar,
vocabulary, and language skills within the writing instruction enhances students' overall
language proficiency and writing competence.

12. Роль фонологічної системи в навчанні англомовному усному

мовленню учнів (рівень базової середньої освіти). (The role of the phonological
system in teaching students English speaking (level of basic secondary education).)
The phonological system, which encompasses the sounds, rhythm, and intonation
patterns of a language, plays a crucial role in teaching ESL students speaking at the basic
secondary education level. Here are some key aspects of the phonological system and its
significance in ESL speaking instruction:
● Pronunciation Accuracy: The phonological system helps students develop accurate
pronunciation of English sounds, which is essential for clear and effective
communication. Teaching students the specific sounds of English and the
corresponding phonetic symbols (e.g., using the International Phonetic Alphabet)
enables them to produce sounds correctly and distinguish between similar sounds
that may not exist in their native language.
● Intelligibility: A solid understanding of the phonological system allows students to be
understood by others. By learning and practicing the appropriate stress, rhythm, and
intonation patterns of English, students can enhance their overall intelligibility and
fluency. Emphasizing word stress, sentence stress, and intonation helps convey
meaning, highlight important information, and express emotions appropriately.
● Listening Comprehension: Teaching the phonological system aids students in
improving their listening comprehension skills. By developing their ability to recognize
and differentiate English sounds, stress patterns, and intonation, students become
more adept at understanding spoken English in various contexts, including
conversations, lectures, and audio materials.
● Speaking Fluency: A solid grasp of the phonological system enables students to
develop speaking fluency. By mastering the sounds and rhythm of English, students
can produce speech more naturally and fluidly. They can also incorporate appropriate
 pausing, phrasing, and intonation patterns, which contribute to smoother and more
coherent speech.
● Word and Sentence Stress: Understanding the phonological system helps students
identify and produce word and sentence stress accurately. Teaching students the
concept of word stress (emphasizing syllables within words) and sentence stress
(highlighting key words within sentences) enhances their ability to convey meaning
and effectively communicate their intended message.
● Error Detection and Self-correction: Knowledge of the phonological system enables
students to detect and self-correct their pronunciation errors. By comparing their own
pronunciation to the target pronunciation, students can identify areas of improvement
and work towards greater accuracy and clarity.
● Confidence and Oral Expression: Developing proficiency in the phonological system
instills confidence in students' oral expression. When students are able to produce
sounds, stress patterns, and intonation accurately, they feel more confident in their
speaking abilities. This confidence positively impacts their willingness to participate in
oral activities, engage in conversations, and express their ideas and opinions in
English.
● Language Variation and Accent: Teaching the phonological system helps students
understand and appreciate language variation and accents. By exposing students to
different English accents and pronunciation variations, they can develop listening
skills that enable them to understand speakers from diverse linguistic backgrounds.
To effectively teach the phonological system in ESL speaking instruction, teachers
can use a variety of techniques, including explicit pronunciation instruction, listening
exercises, drills, oral repetition, modeling, and providing feedback. Additionally, integrating
authentic listening materials, such as songs, podcasts, and audio clips, enhances students'
exposure to natural English pronunciation and fosters their phonological development.
By prioritizing the phonological system in speaking instruction, ESL teachers can
empower students to improve their pronunciation, develop speaking fluency, enhance
listening comprehension, and confidently express themselves in English.

13. Навчання продуктивних та інтеракційних комунікативних видів усної

мовленнєвої діяльності (усної взаємодії та усного продукування). (Teaching
productive and interactive communicative types of oral speech activity (oral interaction and
oral production).)
Teaching productive and interactive communicative oral speech activities is essential
for ESL (English as a Second Language) students to develop their speaking skills and
engage in meaningful conversations. Here are some key considerations and strategies for
teaching oral interaction and oral production:

Oral Interaction:
● Pair and Group Activities: Organize pair and group activities that encourage students
to interact and communicate with their peers. These activities can include
discussions, debates, role-plays, information gap tasks, and problem-solving tasks.
They provide opportunities for students to practice expressing their opinions,
negotiating meaning, and engaging in collaborative conversations.
● Authentic Communication Tasks: Design tasks that mirror real-life communication
situations. For example, ask students to plan an event together, make travel
 arrangements, or conduct interviews. These tasks encourage students to use
language for genuine purposes and engage in authentic interactions.
● Language Functions and Interactional Language: Teach students specific language
functions and interactional language that facilitate oral interaction, such as
expressing agreement/disagreement, giving opinions, asking for clarification, and
turn-taking strategies. Explicitly teach and practice these language forms to enhance
students' ability to engage in effective oral communication.
● Feedback and Error Correction: Provide constructive feedback during and after oral
interaction activities. Offer guidance on pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and
communication strategies. Encourage students to reflect on their performance and
provide peer feedback to promote self-correction and continuous improvement.

Oral Production:
● Speaking Prompts and Topics: Provide engaging and relevant speaking prompts and
topics that stimulate students' creativity and critical thinking. Offer a variety of themes
and contexts, such as personal experiences, current events, debates, or
problem-solving scenarios. This allows students to express their ideas and thoughts
while practicing language structures and vocabulary in context.
● Fluency Practice: Create activities that focus on developing fluency, allowing
students to speak spontaneously without excessive concern for accuracy.
Time-limited speaking tasks, storytelling, or impromptu discussions encourage
students to think quickly and express their thoughts without hesitation. Provide
opportunities for freer speaking practice to build confidence and fluency.
● Model and Demonstrate: Model and demonstrate examples of fluent and accurate
spoken English. Use clear pronunciation, appropriate intonation, and natural
language patterns. This provides students with a linguistic model to imitate and helps
them develop effective communication skills.
● Vocabulary and Language Structures: Integrate vocabulary and language structures
into speaking activities. Teach and review relevant vocabulary related to the topic or
task at hand. Introduce and practice language structures that are appropriate for
expressing ideas and opinions in oral communication.
● Authentic Assessment: Assess students' oral production through authentic
assessment methods, such as presentations, debates, interviews, or oral reports.
Provide clear criteria and rubrics to guide students' performance and provide
constructive feedback based on their strengths and areas for improvement.

Technology Integration:
● Incorporate technology tools to enhance oral interaction and production. For
instance, use video conferencing platforms for virtual discussions, online
collaboration tools for group projects, or digital storytelling tools for oral
presentations. These technologies provide opportunities for authentic communication
and broaden students' exposure to different modes of oral expression.

Pronunciation and Intonation:

● Integrate explicit instruction and practice on pronunciation and intonation. Teach
students the sounds, stress patterns, and intonation patterns of English. Include
pronunciation drills, listening exercises, and pronunciation-focused activities to
improve students' oral clarity and intelligibility.
Cultivate a Supportive Environment:
● Create a supportive and inclusive classroom environment where students feel
comfortable expressing themselves. Encourage active listening, respect for diverse
opinions, and constructive feedback among students. Foster a positive classroom
culture that values oral communication and celebrates students' progress and
achievements.
By implementing these strategies and providing ample opportunities for oral
interaction and production, ESL teachers can support their students' development of
effective speaking skills, promote authentic communication, and enhance their overall oral
proficiency in English.

14. Типи завдань та видів діяльності для розвитку двох типів

комунікативних вмінь учнів: усної взаємодії та усного продукування. (Types of
tasks and types of activities for the development of two types of students' communication
skills: oral interaction and oral production.)
To develop students' communication skills in both oral interaction and oral production,
a variety of tasks and activities can be employed. Here are some examples for each type of
communication skill:
Oral Interaction:
1. Discussion Activities:
● Group discussions on specific topics or issues.
● Debates where students present arguments and counterarguments.
● Roundtable discussions with each student sharing their opinions on a given topic.
● Problem-solving discussions where students collaborate to find solutions.
2. Information Gap Tasks:
● Pair activities where students have different information and need to exchange and
communicate to complete a task.
● Role-plays where students act out specific scenarios and interact with each other to
accomplish a goal.
● Jigsaw activities where students have different pieces of information and must
communicate and share to complete a task or project.
3. Collaborative Projects:
● Group projects where students work together to research, plan, and present a topic.
● Group presentations where each student contributes a part of the presentation.
● Group interviews where students interview a guest or each other on a specific topic.
4. Opinion Exchanges:
● Pair or small group activities where students share and discuss their opinions on a
given topic.
● Think-pair-share activities where students think individually, discuss in pairs, and then
share their thoughts with the whole class.
● Role-plays or simulations where students take on different perspectives and express
their opinions in a given scenario.
Oral Production:
1. Presentation Tasks:
● Individual or group presentations on specific topics.
● Demonstrations or explanations of processes, experiments, or concepts.
● Storytelling or narrating personal experiences or fictional stories.
2. Role-plays and Simulations:
● Role-plays where students act out real-life or hypothetical situations.
● Simulations of job interviews, debates, or negotiations.
● Problem-solving scenarios where students must discuss and propose solutions.
3. Picture or Topic Discussions:
● Pair or group activities where students describe and discuss pictures or visuals.
● Presenting and discussing news articles or current events.
● Talking about personal experiences, hobbies, or interests.
4. Information Sharing:
● Giving instructions or explanations on how to do a task or operate something.
● Describing and discussing diagrams, charts, or graphs.
● Sharing findings from research or surveys.
5. Story Creation and Retelling:
● Collaborative story creation where students take turns adding to a story.
● Retelling or summarizing a book, movie, or news article.
● Storytelling based on a given prompt or picture.
These tasks and activities provide opportunities for students to engage in meaningful
oral communication, express their ideas and opinions, practice language functions, and
develop their fluency and accuracy in spoken English. It is important to scaffold and provide
guidance as needed, provide feedback, and create a supportive environment that
encourages students to take risks and participate actively in oral communication activities.

15. Способи взаємодії учнів (індивідуальна робота, робота в парах, робота в

групах) на уроці англійської мови (рівень базової середньої освіти). (Ways of
student interaction (individual work, work in pairs, work in groups) in the English lesson (level
of basic secondary education).)
In an English lesson at the basic secondary education level, incorporating various
modes of student interaction is important to create an engaging and dynamic learning
environment. Here are different ways of student interaction that can be used:
1. Individual Work:
● Independent writing activities, such as journal entries, essays, or creative writing
exercises.
● Self-paced exercises or worksheets focusing on grammar, vocabulary, or reading
comprehension.
● Individual reading tasks followed by comprehension questions or reflection activities.
● Online language learning platforms or interactive software for individual practice.
2. Pair Work:
● Pair discussions on specific topics or questions.
● Information gap activities where students share and exchange information to
complete a task.
● Role-plays or dialogues between two students practicing specific language functions.
● Peer editing or proofreading exercises for written work.
● Peer feedback and reflection on each other's oral or written presentations.
3. Group Work:
● Group projects or presentations where students collaborate to research, plan, and
present a topic.
● Group discussions or debates on controversial issues.
● Group problem-solving activities or case studies.
 ● Collaborative writing tasks, such as creating a story together or working on a group
report.
● Group games or language learning activities, like word games or quizzes.
4. Whole Class Interaction:
● Whole class discussions on a topic or a text.
● Teacher-led question-and-answer sessions.
● Classroom debates or class surveys.
● Collaborative brainstorming activities.
● Shared reading or listening activities followed by class-wide discussions or
reflections.
The choice of interaction mode should align with the learning objectives and the
specific language skills being targeted. It is beneficial to vary the modes of student
interaction to cater to different learning preferences, encourage active participation, promote
peer learning, and develop students' communication and collaboration skills. Additionally,
providing clear instructions, monitoring and facilitating the interactions, and encouraging
equal participation are important for the success of these interaction modes in the English
lesson.

16. Способи взаємодії учнів (індивідуальна робота, робота в парах, робота в

групах) у процесі навчання продуктивних та інтеракційних комунікативних
видів усної мовленнєвої діяльності (рівень базової середньої освіти). (Ways of
student interaction (individual work, work in pairs, work in groups) in the process of learning
productive and interactive communicative types of oral speech activity (level of basic
secondary education).)
In the process of learning productive and interactive communicative types of oral
speech activity at the basic secondary education level, incorporating different modes of
student interaction is crucial to develop speaking skills effectively. Here are ways of student
interaction that can be utilized:
1. Individual Work:
● Individual presentations where students prepare and deliver a speech or talk on a
given topic.
● Independent practice of pronunciation and intonation through repetition exercises or
audio recordings.
● Self-reflection activities, such as keeping a speaking journal or recording personal
thoughts and reflections.
● Individual role-plays where students act out scenarios or practice specific language
functions on their own.
2. Pair Work:
● Pair discussions on specific topics or issues where students take turns expressing
their opinions and responding to each other.
● Information gap activities where students have different information and need to
exchange and communicate to complete a task.
● Peer interviews or surveys where students interview each other and report their
findings to the class.
● Role-plays or dialogues between pairs where students practice real-life or
hypothetical conversations.
3. Group Work:
 ● Group discussions or debates on controversial topics or current issues where
students work together to express their viewpoints and engage in respectful
arguments.
● Collaborative projects or presentations where students research, plan, and present a
topic as a group.
● Problem-solving activities or case studies where students collaborate to find solutions
and present their findings to the class.
● Group storytelling or story creation activities where each student contributes to the
development of a story.
4. Whole Class Interaction:
● Whole class discussions or debates where the teacher facilitates discussions and
provides opportunities for all students to contribute.
● Class presentations or debates where students present their ideas or arguments to
the whole class and engage in Q&A sessions.
● Class simulations or role-plays where students act out specific scenarios or situations
as a whole class.
● Shared storytelling activities where the whole class creates a story together, with
each student contributing a sentence or paragraph.
By incorporating individual work, pair work, and group work, students have
opportunities to develop their speaking skills through meaningful interactions, active
participation, and collaborative learning. These different modes of student interaction foster
fluency, accuracy, and confidence in oral communication while promoting peer learning,
cultural exchange, and the development of social and interpersonal skills.

17. Етапи проведення дослідження педагогічної діяльності. (Stages of conducting

a study of pedagogical activity.)
Conducting a study of pedagogical activity typically involves several stages to ensure
a systematic and comprehensive analysis. Here are the common stages involved in
conducting such a study:
1. Identifying the Research Objective:
● Clearly define the purpose and scope of the study, such as examining a specific
pedagogical approach, evaluating the effectiveness of a teaching method, or
investigating the impact of a particular intervention.
2. Literature Review:
● Conduct a thorough review of existing literature and research related to the chosen
topic. Identify relevant theories, concepts, and empirical studies that provide a
theoretical foundation for the study.
3. Formulating Research Questions or Hypotheses:
● Develop specific research questions or hypotheses that guide the study. These
questions or hypotheses should address the research objective and serve as a
framework for data collection and analysis.
4. Designing the Research Methodology:
● Determine the appropriate research methodology that aligns with the research
objective. This may include qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-method approaches.
Decide on the research design, data collection methods, and tools to be used (e.g.,
interviews, surveys, observations, document analysis).
5. Data Collection:
 ● Collect data based on the chosen methodology. This involves implementing the
research design, conducting interviews or surveys, observing classrooms, reviewing
documents or artifacts, and collecting relevant data sources that provide insights into
the pedagogical activity under study.
6. Data Analysis:
● Analyze the collected data using appropriate analytical techniques. This may involve
coding and categorizing qualitative data, performing statistical analyses on
quantitative data, or using thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the
data.
7. Drawing Conclusions:
● Interpret the findings from the data analysis in relation to the research questions or
hypotheses. Identify key trends, patterns, or relationships that emerge from the data
and draw conclusions based on the evidence.
8. Discussion and Implications:
● Reflect on the implications of the findings and discuss their significance within the
context of pedagogical practice. Consider the practical implications, limitations of the
study, and potential avenues for further research.
9. Reporting and Dissemination:
● Prepare a comprehensive research report that outlines the research methodology,
findings, and conclusions. Present the findings in a clear and concise manner, using
appropriate visual aids (e.g., tables, graphs). Disseminate the research findings
through conferences, journals, or other appropriate channels.
These stages provide a general framework for conducting a study of pedagogical
activity. However, it is important to adapt and customize the process based on the specific
context, research objective, and available resources.

18. Основні особливості проведення дослідження педагогічної діяльності

на основі збору якісних даних. (The main features of conducting a study of pedagogical
activity based on the collection of qualitative data.)
Conducting a study of pedagogical activity based on the collection of qualitative data
involves gathering and analyzing information to gain insights into the effectiveness, methods,
and outcomes of teaching practices. Qualitative research methods focus on understanding
the experiences, perspectives, and behaviors of individuals involved in the educational
process, such as students, teachers, and administrators. Here are the key steps involved in
conducting such a study:
Define the Research Questions: Clearly articulate the research questions that you
want to address in your study. For example, you might be interested in exploring the impact
of project-based learning on student engagement or understanding the challenges faced by
teachers in implementing a new curriculum.
Select a Qualitative Approach: Determine the qualitative research approach that
aligns with your research questions. Common approaches include ethnography,
phenomenology, case study, grounded theory, or narrative inquiry. Each approach has its
own unique methodology and data collection techniques.
Determine the Participants: Identify the participants who will be involved in the study.
This could include students, teachers, parents, or administrators. Consider the
characteristics and diversity of the participants to ensure a comprehensive understanding of
the pedagogical activity.
 Data Collection: Select appropriate data collection methods to gather qualitative data.
Common methods include interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis.
Interviews allow for in-depth exploration of participants' perspectives, while observations
provide insights into classroom dynamics. Focus groups enable group discussions and
interactions. Document analysis involves examining relevant documents such as lesson
plans, student work, or curriculum materials.
Data Analysis: Transcribe and organize the qualitative data collected from interviews,
observations, and other sources. Apply appropriate qualitative analysis techniques to identify
patterns, themes, and relationships within the data. This could involve techniques such as
coding, thematic analysis, constant comparison, or narrative analysis. The goal is to derive
meaningful insights and interpretations from the data.
Triangulation: Enhance the validity and reliability of your findings by using multiple
sources of data and multiple data collection methods. Triangulation involves cross-verifying
the findings from different data sources to ensure accuracy and completeness.
Interpretation and Reporting: Analyze the results of your data analysis and interpret
the findings in relation to your research questions. Clearly articulate the implications and
significance of the findings for pedagogical practice. Present the results in a comprehensive
research report or article, following the guidelines of your intended audience or publication.
Ethical Considerations: Ensure that ethical considerations are addressed throughout
the research process. Obtain informed consent from participants, maintain confidentiality,
and handle data securely. Comply with relevant ethical guidelines and seek institutional
approval, if necessary.
By following these steps, you can conduct a study of pedagogical activity based on
qualitative data collection methods, allowing you to gain rich insights into the teaching and
learning process.

19. Основні особливості проведення дослідження педагогічної діяльності

на основі збору кількісних даних. (The main features of conducting a study of
pedagogical activity based on the collection of quantitative data.)
Conducting a study of pedagogical activity based on the collection of quantitative
data involves gathering and analyzing numerical information to examine patterns,
relationships, and statistical associations related to teaching and learning practices.
Quantitative research methods focus on collecting data that can be analyzed using statistical
techniques to draw objective conclusions. Here are the key steps involved in conducting
such a study:
Define the Research Questions: Clearly articulate the research questions that you
want to address in your study. For example, you might be interested in investigating the
correlation between student performance and instructional strategies, or exploring the impact
of class size on student achievement.
Select a Quantitative Approach: Determine the quantitative research approach that
aligns with your research questions. Common approaches include experimental studies,
quasi-experimental designs, correlational studies, or surveys. Each approach has its own
unique methodology and data collection techniques.
Determine the Sample: Identify the sample of participants who will be involved in the
study. The sample should be representative of the population you want to generalize the
findings to. Consider factors such as age, grade level, socio-economic status, or other
relevant characteristics.
 Data Collection: Select appropriate data collection methods to gather quantitative
data. Common methods include tests, surveys, questionnaires, or existing databases. Tests
can be used to measure student performance or achievement, while surveys or
questionnaires can collect data on student attitudes, teacher practices, or other relevant
variables. Existing databases, such as educational records, can also be utilized.
Data Analysis: Clean and organize the quantitative data collected from tests,
surveys, or other sources. Apply appropriate statistical analysis techniques to examine
relationships, patterns, or differences in the data. This could involve techniques such as
descriptive statistics, inferential statistics (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA), correlation analysis,
regression analysis, or factor analysis. The goal is to derive meaningful quantitative insights
from the data.
Interpretation and Reporting: Analyze the results of your data analysis and interpret
the findings in relation to your research questions. Clearly articulate the implications and
significance of the findings for pedagogical practice. Present the results in a comprehensive
research report or article, using appropriate tables, graphs, or visual representations to
support your findings.
Consider Limitations: Acknowledge the limitations of your study, such as sample size,
generalizability, or potential confounding variables. Discuss the implications of these
limitations and suggest areas for future research.
Ethical Considerations: Ensure that ethical considerations are addressed throughout
the research process. Obtain informed consent from participants, maintain confidentiality,
and handle data securely. Comply with relevant ethical guidelines and seek institutional
approval, if necessary.
By following these steps, you can conduct a study of pedagogical activity based on
quantitative data collection methods, allowing you to analyze numerical information and draw
objective conclusions about teaching and learning practices.

20. Стратегії вивчення лексики у навчанні англійської мови як іноземної (рівень

базової середньої освіти). (Vocabulary learning strategies in teaching English as a
foreign language (level of basic secondary education).)
When teaching English as a foreign language at the basic secondary education level,
incorporating effective vocabulary learning strategies is crucial to enhance students'
language proficiency and communication skills. Here are some key vocabulary learning
strategies that can be employed in the classroom:
Contextualization: Provide vocabulary within meaningful contexts to help students
understand the usage and meaning of words. Use authentic materials such as texts, articles,
or videos that include the target vocabulary in natural and relevant contexts.
Word Association: Encourage students to make connections between new words and
their existing knowledge. This can be done through word association games, mnemonic
devices, or creating semantic maps to link new vocabulary to related words or concepts.
Visual Aids: Utilize visual aids such as flashcards, posters, or illustrations to reinforce
vocabulary learning. Visual representations help students create mental images associated
with the words, facilitating better retention and recall.
Vocabulary Journals: Assign students to maintain vocabulary journals or personal
dictionaries. Encourage them to record new words, their definitions, sample sentences, and
any personal connections or associations they make with the words. Regularly review and
revise these journals as a reference tool for vocabulary revision.
 Contextualized Practice: Provide ample opportunities for students to practice using
new vocabulary in meaningful and authentic contexts. This can be done through activities
such as role-plays, discussions, debates, or writing exercises that require the application of
the target vocabulary.
Vocabulary Games and Activities: Incorporate engaging and interactive vocabulary
games and activities to make learning enjoyable and memorable. Examples include word
puzzles, crossword puzzles, memory games, vocabulary bingo, or vocabulary jeopardy.
These games promote active engagement and help reinforce vocabulary acquisition.
Word Families and Word Forms: Teach students about word families and word forms
to expand their vocabulary knowledge. Help them recognize the common prefixes, suffixes,
and root words that can be used to form new words. This approach enhances their
understanding of word meanings and boosts their ability to infer the meaning of unfamiliar
words.
Regular Review and Recycling: Ensure regular review and recycling of previously
taught vocabulary to reinforce retention. Plan periodic revision activities, quizzes, or games
that incorporate previously learned vocabulary to keep it fresh in students' minds.
Authentic Language Use: Provide opportunities for students to encounter and use
English vocabulary in authentic contexts outside the classroom. Encourage them to read
English books, newspapers, or magazines, watch English movies or TV shows, and explore
English websites or apps. This exposure to real-world language use enhances vocabulary
acquisition and helps students develop a natural feel for the language.
Personalization and Relevance: Relate vocabulary instruction to students' personal
interests, experiences, and goals. Incorporate topics and themes that are relevant to their
lives to increase motivation and engagement in learning new vocabulary.
Remember, it is important to adapt and tailor these strategies to the specific needs
and learning styles of your students. Provide a variety of learning opportunities and
encourage active participation to make vocabulary learning an enjoyable and effective
experience.

21. Основні принципи створення і формулювання ефективних цілей уроку

(lesson aims), задач (lesson objectives) та результатів учіння (learning
outcomes). (Basic principles of creating and formulating effective lesson aims (lesson
aims), tasks (lesson objectives) and learning outcomes (learning outcomes).)
Creating and formulating effective lesson aims, tasks (lesson objectives), and
learning outcomes is crucial for designing coherent and meaningful lessons that facilitate
student learning and progress. Here are the basic principles for each element:
1. Lesson Aims:
● Clarity: Clearly state what the lesson aims to achieve. Ensure that the aim is specific,
concise, and easily understandable by both the teacher and the students. Avoid
vague or ambiguous language.
● Relevance: Align the lesson aim with the broader curriculum or syllabus objectives.
Make sure the aim addresses a specific topic, skill, or concept that is meaningful and
appropriate for the students' level and needs.
● Measurability: Ensure that the lesson aim is measurable or observable. This means
that the desired outcomes can be assessed or demonstrated through observable
behaviors or actions. This allows for effective evaluation of student progress.
 ● Realistic and Achievable: Set realistic and achievable aims that are attainable within
the given lesson time frame. Consider the students' abilities, prior knowledge, and
the available resources. Unrealistic aims can lead to frustration and demotivation.
● Consideration of Bloom's Taxonomy: Apply the principles of Bloom's Taxonomy to the
lesson aims. Consider whether the aim focuses on lower-order thinking skills (e.g.,
knowledge, comprehension) or higher-order thinking skills (e.g., analysis, synthesis,
evaluation). Ensure a balance and progression in the complexity of the aims across
lessons.
2. Lesson Objectives (Tasks):
● Specificity: Clearly define the tasks or objectives that students are expected to
accomplish during the lesson. Break down complex skills or concepts into smaller,
manageable tasks to enhance understanding and learning.
● Alignment: Ensure that the tasks align with the lesson aims. The tasks should directly
contribute to achieving the aim and provide opportunities for students to practice and
apply the targeted skills or knowledge.
● Sequencing: Plan the tasks in a logical sequence that allows for a gradual
progression of difficulty or complexity. Start with simpler tasks and gradually move
towards more challenging ones to scaffold student learning and build confidence.
● Variety: Incorporate a variety of tasks that cater to different learning styles and
engage students in active learning. Use a combination of individual, pair, and group
tasks to promote collaboration, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.
● Differentiation: Consider the diverse needs and abilities of your students when
designing tasks. Differentiate the tasks to provide appropriate levels of challenge and
support for all learners. This may include modifying the tasks or providing additional
resources or guidance.
3. Learning Outcomes:
● Clarity: Clearly state the expected learning outcomes that describe what students will
be able to do, understand, or demonstrate at the end of the lesson. Use clear and
measurable language to describe the desired outcomes.
● Alignment: Ensure that the learning outcomes align with the lesson aims and tasks.
The outcomes should directly reflect the knowledge, skills, or understanding targeted
in the lesson.
● Measurability: Design learning outcomes that can be assessed or evaluated. Use
action verbs that indicate observable behaviors or actions, such as "identify,"
"explain," "solve," or "analyze." This allows for effective assessment of student
achievement.
● Relevance: Connect the learning outcomes to the broader educational context. Show
how the outcomes contribute to the development of broader skills, competencies, or
goals within the subject area or curriculum.
● Progression: Plan learning outcomes that build upon previous lessons and provide a
clear progression of learning. Ensure that the outcomes lead to higher levels of
mastery or understanding as students advance in their learning journey.
By applying these basic principles, you can create and formulate effective lesson
aims, tasks, and learning outcomes that guide instruction, engage students, and facilitate
meaningful learning experiences. Remember to regularly assess and reflect on the
effectiveness of your aims, tasks, and outcomes to make necessary adjustments and
improvements.
22. Ефективні методики навчання різних типів лексики. (Effective methods of
teaching different types of vocabulary.)
Teaching different types of vocabulary requires employing various effective methods
to cater to the specific characteristics and nuances of each vocabulary category. Here are
some strategies for teaching different types of vocabulary:
1. Basic Vocabulary:
● Contextualization: Introduce basic vocabulary words in meaningful contexts such as
everyday situations, objects, or activities. Use visuals, gestures, or real-life
demonstrations to enhance comprehension.
● Repetition and Drill: Provide repeated exposure to basic vocabulary through drills,
chants, or songs. Practice pronunciation, spelling, and word recognition to reinforce
learning.
● Flashcards: Use flashcards to teach and review basic vocabulary. Include images,
words, and sentences on the cards to stimulate visual and auditory associations.
2. Content-Specific Vocabulary:
● Pre-teaching: Before introducing content-specific vocabulary, provide students with
pre-reading or pre-listening activities that familiarize them with key terms and
concepts. Use graphic organizers, concept maps, or word webs to establish
connections between new and existing knowledge.
● Contextual Reading: Incorporate reading materials related to the content area.
Encourage students to identify and define unfamiliar words based on the surrounding
context. Provide support with glossaries or dictionaries.
● Vocabulary Games: Engage students in interactive games like word bingo,
vocabulary puzzles, or board games that focus on content-specific vocabulary. These
activities promote active engagement and reinforce understanding.
3. Academic Vocabulary:
● Explicit Instruction: Teach academic vocabulary explicitly by providing clear
definitions, examples, and non-examples. Highlight word origins, prefixes, suffixes,
and root words to enhance understanding.
● Contextualized Use: Encourage students to use academic vocabulary in speaking
and writing activities within relevant academic contexts. Model and provide sentence
frames to support their application of new words.
● Word Walls or Word Banks: Create word walls or word banks to display and
categorize academic vocabulary. Use these visual aids as references during lessons,
discussions, or assignments.
4. Idioms and Collocations:
● Contextualized Use: Introduce idioms and collocations within meaningful contexts,
such as dialogues, stories, or authentic texts. Discuss the figurative meaning and
usage of idioms, and explain the importance of using appropriate collocations in
different contexts.
● Visual Representations: Use visuals, such as illustrations or gestures, to depict the
literal and figurative meanings of idioms. This helps students make connections and
remember the idiomatic expressions.
● Role-plays or Skits: Engage students in role-plays or skits where they can use idioms
or collocations in relevant situations. This promotes active usage and comprehension
of these language elements.
5. Technical or Subject-Specific Vocabulary:
 ● Conceptual Understanding: Teach technical vocabulary within the context of the
subject matter. Help students understand the underlying concepts or principles
associated with the technical terms.
● Multimodal Resources: Utilize multimedia resources such as videos, simulations, or
interactive websites to provide visual and interactive explanations of technical
vocabulary. This facilitates comprehension and retention.
● Scaffolded Practice: Provide guided practice activities where students can apply
technical vocabulary in authentic situations related to the subject area. Offer support
through sentence frames, graphic organizers, or templates.
Remember to create opportunities for meaningful practice, repetition, and review to
reinforce and consolidate vocabulary learning across all types. Adapt the methods based on
students' proficiency levels, learning styles, and individual needs. Regularly assess students'
understanding and provide feedback to support their vocabulary development.

23. Умови й стратегії розвитку навчальної автономії учня на уроці англійської

мови (рівень базової середньої освіти). (Conditions and strategies for the
development of the student's learning autonomy in the English language class (level of basic
secondary education).)
Developing students' learning autonomy in the English language class at the basic
secondary education level is essential to empower them to take ownership of their learning,
become independent learners, and continue their language development beyond the
classroom. Here are the conditions and strategies for fostering students' learning autonomy:
1. Clear Learning Goals and Objectives:
● Communicate clear learning goals and objectives to students, outlining what they are
expected to achieve and the skills they need to develop. This provides a sense of
direction and purpose for their learning.
2. Supportive Classroom Environment:
● Create a supportive and inclusive classroom environment that encourages students
to take risks, make mistakes, and actively engage in their learning. Foster a positive
and collaborative atmosphere where students feel comfortable expressing their ideas
and seeking help when needed.
3. Gradual Release of Responsibility:
● Gradually shift the responsibility for learning from the teacher to the students. Start
by providing structured activities and explicit instruction, and then gradually release
control to allow students to take ownership of their learning process.
4. Goal Setting and Self-Reflection:
● Teach students how to set specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and
time-bound (SMART) goals. Encourage regular self-reflection where students assess
their progress, identify areas for improvement, and adjust their learning strategies
accordingly.
5. Metacognitive Strategies:
● Teach metacognitive strategies such as self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and
self-regulation. Encourage students to reflect on their thinking processes, identify
effective learning strategies, and make adjustments when faced with challenges.
6. Learning Strategies and Techniques:
● Introduce a variety of learning strategies and techniques to students, such as
note-taking, summarizing, visualizing, organizing information, using mnemonics, and
 setting up study routines. Teach them how to choose and apply appropriate
strategies based on the task or learning objective.
7. Scaffolded Autonomy:
● Provide scaffolding and support as students develop their learning autonomy.
Gradually reduce the level of support over time, allowing them to take on more
responsibility for planning, organizing, and evaluating their learning process.
8. Choice and Flexibility:
● Offer students choices and opportunities to personalize their learning. Allow them to
select topics, materials, or projects that align with their interests, which promotes
engagement and motivation.
9. Technology Integration:
● Incorporate technology tools and resources that support independent learning, such
as online language learning platforms, language apps, digital dictionaries, or
language learning websites. Teach students how to effectively use these tools to
enhance their language skills.
10. Reflective Discussions and Peer Learning:
● Foster reflective discussions and encourage peer learning opportunities. Provide
opportunities for students to collaborate, share their learning experiences, discuss
strategies, and learn from one another.
11. Continuous Assessment and Feedback:
● Regularly assess students' progress using various formative and summative
assessment methods. Provide timely and constructive feedback that focuses on
students' strengths, areas for improvement, and suggestions for further development.
12. Teacher as Facilitator:
● Take on the role of a facilitator and guide rather than the sole provider of knowledge.
Encourage student inquiry, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. Provide
guidance, resources, and support as students explore and navigate their learning
journey.
By implementing these conditions and strategies, teachers can promote the
development of students' learning autonomy in the English language class at the basic
secondary education level. This not only enhances their language skills but also equips them
with valuable lifelong learning skills that can be applied in various contexts.

24. Встановлення зворотнього зв’язку на уроці англійської мови (рівень

базової середньої освіти). (Establishing feedback in the English lesson (level of basic
secondary education).)
Establishing feedback in the English lesson at the basic secondary education level is
crucial for promoting student growth, providing guidance, and improving their language skills.
Here are some key aspects to consider when implementing feedback in the English lesson:
1. Clear Expectations: Clearly communicate the learning objectives and expectations
to students at the beginning of the lesson. This helps them understand what they are
working towards and provides a framework for feedback.
2. Timely Feedback: Provide feedback in a timely manner, ideally during or
immediately after the completion of a task or activity. Prompt feedback allows students to
make connections between their performance and the specific language skills or content
being assessed.
3. Balanced Feedback: Provide both positive reinforcement and constructive
criticism. Acknowledge and celebrate students' strengths and achievements, while also
providing specific suggestions for improvement. Balance is important to maintain motivation
and foster growth.
4. Specific and Actionable Feedback: Be specific in your feedback, pointing out what
the student did well or where they need to improve. Offer concrete examples and
suggestions for how they can enhance their language skills or address any areas of
weakness.
5. Individualized Feedback: Personalize feedback to each student's needs.
Recognize their unique strengths, challenges, and learning styles. Tailor feedback to
address their specific areas of improvement and provide targeted support.
6. Formative Assessment: Incorporate formative assessments throughout the lesson
to gather information about student progress and understanding. These assessments can be
used as opportunities for immediate feedback and to identify areas for further instruction.
7. Varied Feedback Modes: Offer feedback through various modes to cater to
different learning styles and preferences. This can include oral feedback during class
discussions, written comments on assignments, or recorded audio feedback.
8. Peer Feedback: Encourage students to provide feedback to their peers. Peer
feedback not only lightens the workload for the teacher but also promotes active
engagement and collaboration among students. Provide clear guidelines and structures for
effective peer feedback.
9. Self-Reflection: Promote self-reflection by asking students to reflect on their own
work and progress. Encourage them to evaluate their strengths and areas for improvement
and set goals for future learning.
10. Feedback Dialogues: Engage in feedback dialogues with students. Rather than
solely providing feedback in a one-way manner, allow for discussions where students can
ask questions, seek clarification, and actively participate in the feedback process.
11. Feedback Tracking: Help students track their progress over time. This can be
done through self-assessment checklists, portfolios, or individual learning journals where
they can document their growth and reflect on the feedback received.
12. Continuous Improvement: Emphasize that feedback is a means for continuous
improvement. Encourage students to use the feedback they receive to make deliberate
efforts to enhance their language skills and monitor their progress.
13. Constructive Classroom Culture: Foster a positive and supportive classroom
culture where feedback is seen as an opportunity for growth rather than criticism. Encourage
students to value and appreciate the feedback they receive from peers and the teacher.
By implementing these strategies, teachers can establish effective feedback
mechanisms in the English lesson at the basic secondary education level. This feedback
process not only enhances students' language skills but also promotes their metacognitive
abilities, self-regulation, and motivation to become lifelong learners.

25. Критерії оцінки та відбору навчального матеріалу для уроку

англійської мови (рівень базової середньої освіти). (Criteria for evaluation and
selection of educational material for the English language lesson (level of basic secondary
education).)
When selecting educational materials for the English as a foreign language lesson at
the basic secondary education level, it is important to consider several criteria to ensure that
the materials are appropriate, effective, and aligned with the learning objectives. Here are
some key criteria for evaluating and selecting educational materials:
 1. Relevance to Learning Objectives: The materials should align with the learning
objectives of the lesson or curriculum. They should cover the necessary language skills
(reading, writing, listening, speaking) and target the specific language areas or content being
taught.
2. Authenticity: Authenticity refers to using real-world, meaningful language materials
that reflect how the language is used in authentic contexts. Select materials that provide
exposure to natural language use, cultural aspects, and current topics of interest to engage
students and make the learning experience more realistic.
3. Language Level and Appropriateness: Consider the language level and complexity
of the materials. Ensure that they are suitable for the proficiency level of the students at the
basic secondary education level. The materials should provide appropriate challenges
without overwhelming or frustrating students.
4. Cultural Appropriateness: Choose materials that are culturally sensitive and
relevant to the students' cultural backgrounds. Avoid materials that may include stereotypes
or bias. If using materials from different cultures, ensure they are presented in a respectful
and inclusive manner.
5. Clarity and Organization: The materials should be clear, well-organized, and easy
to navigate. They should have a logical progression and provide clear instructions for
activities or tasks. Visual aids, headings, and subheadings can enhance clarity and facilitate
comprehension.
6. Authenticity and Variety of Texts: Include a variety of authentic texts such as
articles, stories, dialogues, and multimedia resources. Different text types and genres
provide exposure to various language structures, vocabulary, and discourse patterns.
Ensure that the materials are engaging, interesting, and relevant to the students' lives and
experiences.
7. Multimodal Approach: Consider materials that incorporate multiple modes of
communication, such as visuals, audio recordings, videos, and interactive elements.
Multimodal materials can enhance comprehension, engagement, and provide different entry
points for students with diverse learning styles.
8. Practicality and Flexibility: Select materials that are practical to implement in the
classroom setting. Consider factors such as the availability, cost, and ease of access to the
materials. Choose materials that allow for flexibility, adaptation, and customization to meet
the specific needs of the students and teaching context.
9. Language Practice Opportunities: Evaluate materials based on the opportunities
they provide for students to practice and apply the target language skills. Look for materials
that offer meaningful and interactive tasks, exercises, or activities that allow for active
engagement and application of language knowledge.
10. Supplementary Resources and Support: Consider whether the materials come
with additional resources, such as teacher's guides, answer keys, audio recordings, or online
support. Supplementary resources can enhance the effectiveness of the materials and
provide additional support for teachers and students.
11. Positive Representation and Inclusivity: Ensure that the materials represent
diverse perspectives, cultures, and identities in a positive and inclusive manner. Look for
materials that promote understanding, respect, and appreciation for different cultures and
backgrounds.
12. Evidence-Based and Quality Content: Consider the credibility and quality of the
materials. Look for materials that are developed by reputable publishers or educational
organizations. Seek materials that are based on sound pedagogical principles,
research-based approaches, and incorporate best practices in English language teaching.
When evaluating and selecting educational materials, it is also important to gather
feedback from colleagues, students, and consider their preferences and needs. Regularly
review and update the materials to ensure their continued effectiveness and relevance in the
English as a foreign language classroom at the basic secondary education level.

26. Стратегії, прийоми підвищення мотивації учнів до вивчення англійської

мови з урахуванням впливу афективних факторів. (Strategies, methods of
increasing students' motivation to learn English, taking into account the influence of affective
factors.)
Increasing students' motivation to learn English as a foreign language is crucial for
promoting engagement, persistence, and overall language proficiency. Considering the
influence of affective factors, such as emotions, attitudes, and beliefs, the following
strategies and methods can help enhance students' motivation:
1. Create a Positive and Supportive Classroom Environment: Foster a positive and
inclusive classroom atmosphere where students feel safe, valued, and respected.
Encourage collaboration, active participation, and mutual support among students.
2. Establish Clear Learning Goals: Clearly communicate learning goals and
outcomes to students. Help them understand the relevance and importance of learning
English for their personal and academic development.
3. Personalize Learning: Tailor instruction and activities to students' interests, needs,
and aspirations. Incorporate topics, materials, and tasks that resonate with their lives,
cultures, and backgrounds.
4. Provide Meaningful and Authentic Learning Experiences: Engage students in
real-life language use and meaningful tasks that connect the language to their daily lives.
Incorporate authentic materials, such as videos, songs, and articles, that reflect
contemporary language use.
5. Foster Autonomy and Choice: Encourage students to take ownership of their
learning by offering choices and opportunities for decision-making. Allow them to select
learning activities, projects, or topics of interest, promoting a sense of autonomy and control.
6. Set Achievable Challenges: Provide tasks and assignments that are challenging
yet attainable for students. Set incremental goals and celebrate their achievements to build
confidence and a sense of accomplishment.
7. Offer Varied and Engaging Activities: Incorporate a variety of interactive and
stimulating activities, such as role-plays, debates, games, group projects, and multimedia
resources. Varying the activities keeps students motivated and maintains their interest.
8. Use Technology: Integrate technology tools and resources that support language
learning. Incorporate interactive websites, language learning apps, and digital platforms that
provide engaging and interactive language practice.
9. Foster Collaboration and Peer Interaction: Encourage collaborative learning
opportunities where students work together, exchange ideas, and support each other's
language development. Pair or group activities promote a sense of belonging and create a
supportive learning community.
10. Provide Regular Feedback and Encouragement: Offer timely and constructive
feedback to students on their progress and achievements. Recognize their efforts, strengths,
and improvements to boost their motivation and self-confidence.
 11. Celebrate Progress and Achievements: Celebrate milestones, achievements, and
language milestones in the classroom. Provide rewards, certificates, or public recognition to
acknowledge students' hard work and dedication.
12. Promote Positive Attitudes and Beliefs: Foster a growth mindset by emphasizing
that language learning is a journey and that mistakes are opportunities for learning and
growth. Encourage positive self-talk and the belief that effort leads to improvement.
13. Connect Language Learning to Personal Goals: Help students see the relevance
of English language learning to their future aspirations, career opportunities, and personal
growth. Discuss how language skills can open doors to new experiences and enhance their
global communication abilities.
14. Encourage Reflection and Goal Setting: Engage students in regular reflection on
their learning progress, challenges, and achievements. Encourage them to set short-term
and long-term goals and develop action plans to achieve them.
15. Incorporate Emotionally Engaging Content: Integrate emotionally engaging
content, such as inspiring stories, thought-provoking discussions, or culturally relevant topics
that tap into students' emotions and create a meaningful connection to the language.
Remember that motivation can fluctuate among students, so it's essential to
continuously adapt and adjust strategies to meet their evolving needs and interests. Building
a positive and motivating learning environment that considers affective factors is key to
fostering students' intrinsic motivation and long-term language learning success.

27. Прийоми введення граматичного матеріалу (пояснення вчителя, прийом

керованого відкриття, самопізнання). (Techniques for introducing grammatical
material (teacher's explanation, guided discovery, self-discovery).)
When introducing grammatical material in the English language classroom, teachers
can utilize various techniques to help students understand and internalize the concepts
effectively. Here are three common techniques for introducing grammatical material:
teacher's explanation, guided discovery, and self-discovery.

Teacher's Explanation:
In this technique, the teacher provides a clear and concise explanation of the
grammatical concept. It involves breaking down the grammar rules, providing examples, and
offering explanations in a step-by-step manner. The teacher may use visual aids, charts, or
diagrams to illustrate the concept. The key is to present the information in a structured and
comprehensible way, ensuring that students understand the rules and usage of the target
grammatical structure.
● Pros: Teacher's explanation provides a straightforward and direct approach to
introducing grammar. It can be particularly useful when teaching complex or
unfamiliar structures. It allows students to grasp the fundamentals of the grammar
point without spending excessive time on exploration.
● Cons: Relying solely on teacher's explanation may limit students' active engagement
and critical thinking. Some students may find it challenging to apply the concept
independently without further practice or reinforcement.

Guided Discovery:
Guided discovery involves guiding students towards discovering the grammar rules
themselves through a series of carefully designed questions and examples. The teacher acts
as a facilitator, prompting students to analyze patterns, make observations, and draw
conclusions about the target grammar point. This technique encourages active learning and
critical thinking skills.
● Pros: Guided discovery fosters student engagement, promotes higher-order thinking
skills, and encourages students to take ownership of their learning. It promotes a
deeper understanding of the grammatical concept by allowing students to actively
explore and internalize the rules.
● Cons: Guided discovery requires careful planning and preparation from the teacher
to ensure that the questions and examples effectively guide students towards the
intended learning outcomes. It can be time-consuming, and some students may
require additional support or scaffolding during the discovery process.

Self-Discovery:
Self-discovery empowers students to independently explore and understand
grammatical concepts through hands-on activities and tasks. The teacher provides
opportunities for students to engage in authentic language use, problem-solving, and
meaningful context-based activities. Students discover the rules and patterns through their
own analysis and reflection.
● Pros: Self-discovery promotes student autonomy, critical thinking, and
problem-solving skills. It fosters a deeper understanding and long-term retention of
grammar rules as students actively engage in the learning process. It also
encourages students to develop metacognitive skills by reflecting on their own
learning strategies and identifying areas of improvement.
● Cons: Self-discovery requires careful planning and designing of activities that provide
meaningful opportunities for students to explore and discover the grammar rules.
Some students may require additional support or guidance during the self-discovery
process. It can also be time-consuming to create and implement self-discovery tasks
effectively.
In practice, a combination of these techniques can be used based on the specific
grammar point, the students' proficiency level, and the teaching context. It's important for
teachers to gauge their students' needs, monitor their progress, and provide appropriate
support and feedback throughout the learning process. The ultimate goal is to help students
develop a solid understanding of grammar and apply it accurately and confidently in their
language use.

28. Особливості основних форматів уроків

(презентація-практика-продукування, тестування-навчання-тестування,
навчання на основі завдань) у навчанні англійської мови (рівень базової
середньої освіти). (Peculiarities of the main lesson formats
(presentation-practice-production, testing-learning-testing, task-based learning) in teaching
English (level of basic secondary education).)
In teaching English at the basic secondary education level, several main lesson
formats are commonly used, each with its own peculiarities and benefits. Let's explore the
characteristics of three prominent lesson formats: presentation-practice-production (PPP),
testing-learning-testing (TLT), and task-based learning (TBL).

Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP):
 The PPP lesson format follows a structured sequence of stages: presentation,
practice, and production. This format is widely used for introducing new language concepts
or structures.
● Presentation: In the presentation stage, the teacher introduces the target language
using various techniques such as explanations, examples, visuals, and context. The
focus is on comprehension and understanding of the language point.
● Practice: After the presentation, students engage in controlled practice activities to
reinforce their understanding and develop accuracy. These activities typically involve
completing gap-fill exercises, matching, or substitution drills, where students
manipulate the target language within structured contexts.
● Production: In the production stage, students apply the newly learned language in
meaningful and communicative tasks. They engage in activities that require more
creative and open-ended use of the language, such as role-plays, discussions, or
writing assignments. The focus is on fluency and integrating the target language into
real-life contexts.

Testing-Learning-Testing (TLT):
The TLT lesson format involves an initial testing phase, followed by a learning phase,
and concludes with a final testing phase. This format emphasizes diagnostic assessment
and subsequent targeted instruction based on the assessment results.
● Testing: In the initial testing phase, students are given a pre-test or diagnostic
assessment to identify their existing knowledge, strengths, and areas that need
improvement. This helps the teacher understand the students' proficiency level and
tailor the instruction accordingly.
● Learning: After the initial testing, the learning phase focuses on targeted instruction
based on the assessment results. The teacher provides explicit instruction, practice
activities, and targeted feedback to address the identified areas of improvement.
● Testing (Post-Learning): The final testing phase allows students to demonstrate their
progress and mastery of the targeted language skills. It could involve a post-test or
assessment to assess their learning outcomes and measure their growth.

Task-Based Learning (TBL):

Task-based learning is a student-centered approach where language learning is
integrated into meaningful and purposeful tasks. This format focuses on developing
communication skills and promoting language use in real-world contexts.
● Task Design: Tasks are designed to simulate authentic communication situations,
such as planning an event, solving a problem, or completing a project. They are
meaningful, goal-oriented, and require students to use the target language to
accomplish a specific outcome.
● Task Engagement: Students work in pairs or groups to complete the task, which
promotes collaboration, negotiation of meaning, and the development of
communication strategies. The teacher takes on the role of a facilitator, providing
support and guidance as needed.
● Language Focus: During and after the task completion, the teacher identifies and
highlights language features, vocabulary, and grammar points that emerged during
the task. Language input is provided in response to students' needs, allowing for
personalized and contextualized language learning.
 ● Reflection and Feedback: Students reflect on their performance, receive feedback
from peers and the teacher, and engage in language-focused discussions. The focus
is on promoting self-awareness, metacognition, and learner autonomy.
These lesson formats offer different approaches to language teaching, and their
selection depends on the learning objectives, students' needs, and the specific teaching
context. It is important for teachers to adapt and modify these formats as needed to suit the
learners' level, interests, and learning styles, ensuring an engaging and effective English
language learning experience at the basic secondary education level.

29. Основні етапи сучасного уроку з навчання сприймання на слух.

Обґрунтуйте доцільність їхнього виділення. (The main stages of a modern lesson
on listening comprehension. Justify the expediency of their selection.)
A modern lesson on listening comprehension typically includes several stages that
aim to develop students' listening skills effectively. The main stages are pre-listening,
while-listening, and post-listening. The selection of these stages is justified based on their
significance in preparing students for listening tasks, engaging them during the listening
process, and consolidating their learning afterward. Let's explore each stage in detail:

Pre-Listening Stage:
The pre-listening stage prepares students for the listening task by activating their
prior knowledge, building interest, and setting the purpose for listening. This stage may
include the following activities:
● Warm-up: Engage students in a short discussion, brainstorming, or a related
warm-up activity to activate their background knowledge on the topic or theme of the
listening material. This primes their schema and helps them make connections with
the upcoming content.
● Vocabulary and Predictions: Pre-teach or review relevant vocabulary and
expressions that may appear in the listening text. Encourage students to make
predictions about the content, setting, or possible speakers based on provided cues
or visuals. This enhances their engagement and sets expectations.
● Setting the Purpose: Clearly state the specific task or goal for listening. For example,
ask students to listen for specific information, identify main ideas, or follow a
narrative. This focuses their attention and directs their listening efforts.
The pre-listening stage is important as it activates students' prior knowledge,
establishes a context for understanding, and creates a purposeful mindset for effective
listening.

While-Listening Stage:
The while-listening stage is the core phase where students actively listen to the
target material. It involves tasks and activities that engage students with the listening text
and develop their listening skills. Here are some examples:
● Listening for Specific Information: Provide students with a specific task, such as filling
in a chart, answering comprehension questions, or completing a gap-fill exercise.
This encourages focused listening and comprehension of specific details.
● Note-Taking: Ask students to take notes while listening to capture key points,
supporting details, or main ideas. This promotes active engagement and helps
develop their note-taking skills, which are valuable for academic and real-life
situations.
 ● Multiple Listenings: Play the audio or video clip multiple times, allowing students to
listen for different purposes or levels of understanding. This enables students to
enhance their comprehension, catch nuances, and improve their listening accuracy.
The while-listening stage is crucial for developing students' listening skills, such as
comprehension, inference, and extracting specific information from spoken texts. It provides
opportunities for students to practice active listening strategies and develop their ability to
understand spoken English in various contexts.

Post-Listening Stage:
The post-listening stage focuses on consolidating and extending students'
understanding of the listening material. It involves activities that deepen their
comprehension, promote reflection, and encourage language use. Some post-listening
activities include:
● Comprehension Check: Engage students in follow-up questions or discussion to
assess their understanding of the listening material. Encourage them to share their
answers, compare responses, and justify their choices.
● Vocabulary and Language Focus: Discuss vocabulary or language items
encountered in the listening text, highlighting their meaning, usage, or collocations.
This expands students' language repertoire and reinforces their understanding of
language in context.
● Reflective Tasks: Encourage students to reflect on their listening experience, share
their thoughts, and relate the content to their own experiences or opinions. This
fosters critical thinking, personalization, and higher-level language processing.
● Extension Activities: Provide opportunities for students to extend their learning by
engaging in related tasks, such as role-plays, debates, or writing assignments. This
promotes language production, integration of skills, and application of listening
content in meaningful contexts.
The post-listening stage consolidates students' understanding, reinforces language
learning, and promotes reflection and language use beyond the listening task.
The selection of these stages is justified as they provide a comprehensive approach
to listening comprehension. The pre-listening stage prepares students mentally and
linguistically, the while-listening stage engages them actively with the target material, and the
post-listening stage consolidates their learning and extends their language use. This
sequential structure helps students build their listening skills progressively, from pre-task
preparation to post-task reflection and application.
Furthermore, these stages cater to different learning styles, promote active
engagement, and align with current communicative language teaching methodologies. They
also foster the development of critical thinking, inference, note-taking, and language
production skills, which are crucial for successful listening comprehension.
Overall, the main stages of a modern lesson on listening comprehension ensure a
well-rounded and effective approach to develop students' listening skills, maximize their
comprehension abilities, and promote their overall language proficiency.

30. Процеси декодування та побудови смислового змісту почутого у процесі

навчання аудіювання (рівень базової середньої школи). (Processes of decoding and
construction of the semantic content heard in the process of learning listening (basic high
school level).)
 In the process of learning listening at the basic high school level, students engage in
the processes of decoding and constructing the semantic content heard. These processes
are essential for understanding spoken language and extracting meaning from auditory
input. Let's explore these processes in more detail:
Decoding:
Decoding refers to the process of recognizing and understanding individual sounds,
words, and phrases in spoken language. It involves applying knowledge of phonetics,
phonology, and vocabulary to comprehend the auditory input. Here are the key aspects of
the decoding process:
● Phonetics and Phonology: Students use their knowledge of phonetic sounds and
phonological patterns to recognize and differentiate sounds, stress patterns,
intonation, and word boundaries. This helps them break down the auditory input into
meaningful units.
● Word Recognition: Students apply their vocabulary knowledge to identify familiar
words and phrases in the spoken language. They use their understanding of
pronunciation, spelling patterns, and word meaning to connect the auditory input with
their mental lexicon.
● Listening for Cues: Students actively listen for contextual and grammatical cues such
as sentence structure, function words, and cohesive devices. These cues help them
infer meaning and establish connections between different parts of the auditory input.
● Prediction and Inference: Students make predictions based on the context,
background knowledge, and cues in the spoken language. They use their
understanding of language patterns and discourse to anticipate upcoming words or
ideas. Inferences are made by drawing conclusions based on the information
presented and filling in gaps in understanding.
The decoding process enables students to break down the auditory input into
recognizable linguistic elements, facilitating their understanding of the spoken language.

Construction of Semantic Content:

Once the decoding process is underway, students engage in the construction of
semantic content. This refers to the process of integrating the recognized linguistic elements,
interpreting meaning, and constructing a coherent understanding of the spoken language.
Here are the key aspects of the construction process:
● Comprehension of Meaning: Students use their knowledge of vocabulary, grammar,
and syntax to comprehend the meaning of individual words, phrases, and sentences.
They integrate these elements into a coherent understanding of the overall message
or information conveyed.
● Contextual Understanding: Students rely on the context, including situational,
cultural, and linguistic cues, to interpret the intended meaning. They make
connections between the auditory input and their prior knowledge, experiences, and
cultural background.
● Inference and Interpretation: Students go beyond the literal meaning and make
inferences about implied information, speaker attitude, intention, or underlying
messages. They interpret the spoken language by considering factors such as tone
of voice, intonation, and non-verbal cues.
● Mental Representation: Students create mental representations or mental models of
the information heard. They organize the auditory input into meaningful structures,
 such as understanding a narrative, following a sequence of events, or identifying
relationships between ideas.
The construction of semantic content allows students to derive meaning from the
auditory input and create a mental representation that reflects their understanding of the
spoken language.
Both decoding and construction of semantic content are iterative processes that
occur simultaneously during the listening comprehension task. Students continuously
engage in deciphering individual sounds and words while simultaneously integrating them
into a coherent understanding of the spoken language.
To support students in these processes, teachers can provide opportunities for
extensive listening practice, expose students to a variety of authentic listening materials, and
incorporate pre-listening activities that activate background knowledge and set expectations.
Additionally, explicit instruction in phonetics, vocabulary development, and strategies for
comprehension monitoring can enhance students' decoding and construction abilities.
Overall, by developing these processes, students can improve their listening
comprehension skills and successfully extract meaning from the spoken language at the
basic high school level.

II. ЛЕКСИКОЛОГІЯ АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ

1. Лексикологія як лінгвістична дисципліна: предмет, завдання, типи та

основна проблематика. (Lexicology of the English language as a linguistic discipline:
subject, tasks, types and main issues.)
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics which studies words. It also studies all kinds of
semantic grouping and semantic relations: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, semantic fields,
etc.
The subject-matter of lexicology is the word, its morphemic structure, history and
meaning. There are several branches of lexicology: general lexicology, special lexicology,
contrastive lexicology, descriptive lexicology.
Its basic task is to study and descript systematically the vocabulary in respect to its
origin, development and current use.
LG is concerned with words, variable workgroups, phraseological units and with
morphemes. Modern English LG investigates the problems of word structure and word
formation in modern English.
The semantic structure of English words, the main principles underlying the
classification of vocabulary units into various groupings, the laws, governing, and the
development of the vocabulary.
It also studies the variation, existing between various lexical layers of the English
vocabulary and the specific laws and regulations that govern its development at the present
time.

The types of Lexicology

Lexicology is divided into General, Special, within Special Historical and Descriptive,
Comparative and Contrastive types.
 1) General Lexicology is part of General Linguistics, it is concerned with the study of
vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language.
2) Special Lexicology is the Lexicology of a particular language, i.e. the study and
description of its vocabulary and units, primarily words as the main units of language. It goes
without saying that every special lexicology has its own inner branches as historical and
descriptive lexicology.
3) Historical (Diachronic) Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that discusses the
origin of different words, their change and development, their semantic relations and the
development of their sound form and meaning. (Greek dia-“through” and chronos – “time”)
4) Descriptive (Synchronic) Lexicology deals with the vocabulary of a given language
at a given stage of its development. It studies the vocabulary at a definite stage of its
development. The Descriptive Lexicology of the English language deals with the English
word in its morphological and semantic structures, investigating the interdependence
between these two aspects. (Greek syn-“together, with” and chronos – “time”)
5) Comparative and Contrastive Lexicology aims to study the correlation between the
vocabularies of two or more languages and find out the correspondences between the
vocabulary units of the languages under comparison. The difference between the terms
comparative and contrastive is that comparative methods give the similarities and
differences of vocabulary of related languages and contrastive aims to investigate the
vocabulary of non-related languages.

2. Словотвір сучасної англійської мови. (Word-building in modern English language)

Word-building in modern English involves the creation of new words through various
processes, including word formation, word compounding, and word derivation. These
processes contribute to the dynamic nature and expansion of the English vocabulary. Let's
explore the different aspects of word-building in modern English:

1. Word Formation:
Word formation refers to the process of creating new words by adding affixes
(prefixes and suffixes) to existing words. This process can change the meaning, part of
speech, or grammatical function of the base word. For example:
● Adding the prefix "un-" to the word "happy" creates the word "unhappy" with the
opposite meaning.
● Adding the suffix "-er" to the verb "teach" creates the noun "teacher" to denote a
person who teaches.
● Adding the suffix "-able" to the verb "read" creates the adjective "readable" to
describe something that can be read.

2. Compounding:
Compounding involves combining two or more words to create a new word with a
distinct meaning. The resulting compound word may be written as a single word,
hyphenated, or separated by a space. For example:
● "Book" + "shelf" = "bookshelf"
● "High" + "way" = "highway"
● "Black" + "board" = "blackboard"
Compounding allows for the creation of new concepts, especially in technical fields
and specialized domains.
 3. Derivation:
Derivation involves adding affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to base words to create new
words with modified meanings or different parts of speech. Derivational affixes can change
the word's meaning, tense, or grammatical category. For example:
● Adding the suffix "-er" to the noun "write" creates the verb "writer" to denote a person
who writes.
● Adding the prefix "pre-" to the adjective "historic" creates the adjective "prehistoric" to
describe something that occurred before recorded history.
Derivation allows for the expansion of vocabulary by creating words with related
meanings or different grammatical functions.

4. Conversion:
Conversion, also known as zero derivation, involves using an existing word as a
different part of speech without changing its form. This process relies on context to
determine the word's function. For example:
● "Email" can function as a noun ("I received an email") or a verb ("I will email you").
● "Access" can function as a noun ("I have access to the database") or a verb ("You
can access the website").
Conversion allows for flexibility in language use and enables the creation of new
word functions without the addition of affixes.

5. Clipping:
Clipping involves shortening a word by removing one or more syllables. This process
typically occurs in informal language and often results in familiar and widely used words.
Examples include:
● "Phone" from "telephone"
● "Exam" from "examination"
● "Info" from "information"
Clipping is a common process in modern English, particularly in informal contexts.

6. Back-formation:
Back-formation involves the creation of a new word by removing an affix from an
existing word, based on a mistaken perception of its origin. This process often occurs when
a word is incorrectly assumed to be derived from another word. For example:
● "Donation" was derived from "donate" through back-formation.
● "Edit" was derived from "editor" through back-formation.
Back-formation allows for the creation of new words based on perceived etymological
patterns.

7. Acronyms:
Acronyms are created by taking the initial letters of a phrase or a series of words and
pronouncing them as a single word. Examples include:
● "NASA" (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
● "RADAR" (RAdio Detection And Ranging)
● "SCUBA" (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus)
Acronyms often become widely used in specific domains or as common vocabulary.

8. Initialisms:
 Similar to acronyms, initialisms are formed by using the initial letters of a phrase or a
series of words, but they are pronounced as individual letters. Examples include:
● "BBC" (British Broadcasting Corporation)
● "CEO" (Chief Executive Officer)
● "DVD" (Digital Versatile Disc)
Initialisms are commonly used in business, technology, and other fields.

9. Blending:
Blending involves combining parts of two or more words to create a new word with a
blended meaning. Examples include:
● "Brunch" (breakfast + lunch)
● "Smog" (smoke + fog)
● "Spork" (spoon + fork)
Blending allows for the creation of words that reflect new concepts or objects.

10. Borrowing:
Borrowing involves adopting words from other languages into English. English has a
long history of borrowing words from various languages, including Latin, Greek, French, and
more recently, from languages like Spanish and Arabic. Examples include:
● "Café" (from French)
● "Sushi" (from Japanese)
● "Piano" (from Italian)
Borrowing enriches the English vocabulary and reflects cultural influences.

11. Onomatopoeia:
Onomatopoeic words are formed by imitating or mimicking sounds. They reflect the
sounds associated with objects, actions, or natural phenomena. Examples include:
● "Buzz" (the sound of a bee)
● "Sizzle" (the sound of frying food)
● "Crash" (the sound of a collision)
Onomatopoeic words evoke sensory experiences and add vividness to language.

12. Eponyms:
Eponyms are words derived from the names of people or places associated with the
concept or object they represent. Examples include:
● "Sandwich" (named after John Montagu, the 4th Earl of Sandwich)
● "Volt" (named after Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist)
● "Shakespearean" (related to the works of William Shakespeare)
Eponyms honor individuals or locations by giving their names to specific concepts or
objects.
Word-building in modern English is a dynamic process that contributes to the growth
and adaptation of the language. It allows speakers and writers to express new concepts,
adapt to evolving needs, and expand the vocabulary to reflect changes in society,
technology, and culture.

3. Етимологічна структура вокабуляра сучасної англійської мови. (Etymological

structure of the vocabulary of the modern English language.)
 The modern English language has a rich and diverse vocabulary, which has evolved
over centuries and has been influenced by various languages and cultures. The etymological
structure of the English vocabulary can be broadly categorized into four main sources:
Germanic, Romance, Greek, and Latin.
Germanic: The Germanic component of English comes from the Germanic tribes,
particularly the Anglo-Saxons, who invaded and settled in England during the 5th and 6th
centuries. This Germanic influence forms the foundation of English vocabulary. Words of
Germanic origin are typically short and basic, relating to everyday concepts. Examples
include "house," "man," "woman," "father," and "mother."
Romance: The Romance component of English vocabulary comes from Latin, which
was the language of the Roman Empire. Latin words entered English primarily through the
Norman Conquest in 1066, when William the Conqueror, a Norman, became the King of
England. These Latin-derived words tend to be more formal, sophisticated, and often related
to law, government, religion, and academia. Examples include "government," "justice,"
"religion," and "education." Additionally, French, which is derived from Latin, also contributed
a significant number of words to English during the Norman period and later. Examples of
French-derived words in English include "table," "chair," "beauty," and "culinary."
Greek: The English language has borrowed numerous words from Greek, especially
in the fields of science, medicine, and philosophy. Greek words often have complex and
specific meanings. Examples include "biology," "philosophy," "psychology," and
"telecommunication."
Latin: Although Latin is a Romance language, it deserves a separate mention due to
its influence on English beyond the Norman Conquest. Latin has had a pervasive influence
on English vocabulary through the Roman Catholic Church, the legal system, scientific
terminology, and academia. Many scientific and technical terms, as well as legal and
academic jargon, have Latin roots. Examples include "biology" (from Latin "biologia"), "law"
(from Latin "lex"), "academy" (from Latin "academia"), and "science" (from Latin "scientia").
French: During the Norman Conquest, French became the language of the English
elite for several centuries. As a result, English borrowed a substantial number of words from
French, particularly in areas such as law, government, cuisine, fashion, and the arts.
Examples include "jury," "government," "chef," "ballet," and "couture."
Spanish: English has absorbed numerous words from Spanish, especially through
exploration, colonization, and cultural exchange between English-speaking and
Spanish-speaking countries. Spanish loanwords are often related to food, music,
architecture, and cultural concepts. Examples include "taco," "siesta," "fiesta," "patio," and
"adobe."
Dutch: During the 17th century, English borrowed a significant number of words from
Dutch due to trade, particularly in areas such as sailing, commerce, and art. Examples
include "yacht," "cookie," "easel," "landscape," and "brandy."
Arabic: English has borrowed words from Arabic, especially in the fields of
mathematics, astronomy, architecture, and technology. Examples include "algebra,"
"algorithm," "coffee," "sugar," and "magazine."
Hindi/Urdu: English has absorbed several words from Hindi/Urdu, particularly related
to cuisine, clothing, yoga, and cultural concepts. Examples include "curry," "chutney,"
"pyjamas," "yoga," and "bungalow."
These are just a few examples, and English has borrowed words from many other
languages as well, such as Italian, German, Chinese, Japanese, Native American
languages, and more. The process of borrowing words from other languages continues to
this day as English interacts with global cultures and incorporates new concepts and
technologies into its vocabulary.

4. Семантика: проблема визначення слова, типи значень слів, значення і

контекст. (Semantics: the problem of word definition, types of word meanings, meaning
and context.)
Semantics is the branch of linguistics that focuses on the study of meaning in
language. It explores how words and sentences convey meaning and how meaning is
interpreted by speakers and listeners. Semantics tackles various aspects of meaning,
including the problem of word definition, types of word meanings, and the role of context in
understanding meaning.

Problem of Word Definition:

Defining words is a complex task because words often have multiple meanings and
can be used in different contexts. The problem of word definition arises due to the inherent
ambiguity and flexibility of language. Words can have different senses and connotations, and
their meanings can change over time or in different linguistic contexts. Dictionary definitions
provide a general sense of a word's meaning, but they may not capture all the nuances and
variations of its usage.

Types of Word Meanings:

Semantics identifies different types of word meanings to understand the various
aspects of linguistic meaning. Here are some important types:
● Denotative Meaning: This refers to the basic, literal, or dictionary definition of a word.
It focuses on the objective, shared meaning that allows us to communicate concepts.
For example, the denotative meaning of the word "dog" is a domesticated mammal of
the canine family.
● Connotative Meaning: Connotation refers to the subjective, emotional, or cultural
associations attached to a word. It involves the additional layers of meaning beyond
the denotation. For example, the word "dog" might have positive connotations for dog
lovers but negative connotations for someone with a fear of dogs.
● Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the phenomenon where a single word has multiple
related meanings. For example, the word "bank" can mean a financial institution, the
edge of a river, or the act of tilting or inclining.
● Homonymy: Homonyms are words that sound alike but have different meanings.
They can be homophones (e.g., "write" and "right") or homographs (e.g., "lead" as a
verb meaning to guide and "lead" as a noun referring to a metallic element).
● Synonymy: Synonyms are words that have similar meanings. However, perfect
synonyms are rare, and most synonyms have subtle differences in their connotations
or usage. For example, "happy" and "joyful" have similar meanings but evoke slightly
different emotional states.

Meaning and Context:

Meaning is not fixed or absolute; it is shaped by context. The same word can have
different interpretations depending on the linguistic, social, and cultural context in which it is
used. Context provides crucial cues that help decipher the intended meaning. Context
includes the surrounding words, the situation, the speaker's tone, body language, and
shared knowledge between the interlocutors.
 ● a. Pragmatic Meaning: Pragmatics deals with how meaning is influenced by context
and the intentions of speakers. Pragmatic meaning goes beyond the literal
interpretation of words and takes into account the speaker's intentions, implied
meanings, and the effects of utterances on the listener. For example, a simple
question like "Can you pass the salt?" may be a polite request rather than a literal
inquiry.
● b. Idiomatic Expressions: Idioms are expressions whose meaning cannot be inferred
from the literal meanings of their individual words. They rely on cultural and linguistic
conventions. For example, the phrase "kick the bucket" means to die and has no
connection to actual kicking or buckets.
Understanding semantics is essential for effective communication, as it allows us to
interpret meaning, disambiguate words, and consider the contextual nuances of language. It
helps us navigate the complexities of language and comprehend the intended messages
conveyed by speakers.

5. Стилістична класифікація вокабуляра сучасної англійської мови. (Stylistic

classification of the vocabulary of the modern English language.)
The stylistic classification of the vocabulary of the modern English language involves
categorizing words based on their usage and stylistic features. It allows us to understand
how different words are employed in various contexts, registers, and genres to convey
specific meanings and create different effects. Here are some common stylistic
classifications of English vocabulary:
● Colloquial Vocabulary: Colloquial words are informal, everyday words and
expressions used in casual or familiar conversations. They often reflect regional
dialects, slang, and idiomatic expressions. Colloquial vocabulary varies across
different English-speaking regions and may include words like "gotta" (short for "have
got to"), "wanna" (short for "want to"), "cool," "awesome," "dude," and "gonna" (short
for "going to").
● Formal Vocabulary: Formal words are used in more formal and professional contexts
such as academic writing, legal documents, business communications, or official
speeches. These words tend to be more precise, technical, and adhere to standard
grammatical and syntactic conventions. Examples of formal vocabulary include
"therefore," "consequently," "obtain," "utilize," and "analyze."
● Technical Vocabulary: Technical words are specialized terms used in specific fields
such as science, technology, medicine, law, or engineering. They often have precise
meanings within their respective domains and may be unfamiliar to those outside of
the field. Examples of technical vocabulary include "genome," "algorithm," "neuron,"
"acquittal," and "nanotechnology."
● Literary Vocabulary: Literary words are associated with written literature, including
poetry, novels, plays, and literary criticism. They often exhibit more poetic or
imaginative qualities and may employ figurative language or archaic words.
Examples of literary vocabulary include "metaphor," "symbolism," "epiphany,"
"diction," and "sonnet."
● Poetic Vocabulary: Poetic words are specifically used in poetry to create vivid
imagery, evoke emotions, or enhance the rhythm and sound of the language. Poetic
vocabulary often involves the use of metaphors, similes, alliteration, and other literary
devices. Examples include "gossamer," "azure," "whisper," "ebb," and "murmur."
 ● Jargon and Slang: Jargon refers to specialized vocabulary used within specific
professional or social groups. It includes technical terms, abbreviations, and
acronyms that are familiar to those within the group but may be confusing or
unintelligible to outsiders. Slang, on the other hand, is informal language used in
particular subcultures or social groups. It often reflects the latest trends, expressions,
and unconventional usage. Examples of jargon and slang vocabulary include "API"
(Application Programming Interface) in computer science, "LOL" (Laugh Out Loud) in
internet slang, or industry-specific jargon like "bull market" in finance.
● Scientific Vocabulary: Scientific words are used in the realm of scientific research,
experiments, and publications. They often describe specific phenomena, theories,
and concepts within various scientific disciplines. Examples of scientific vocabulary
include "hypothesis," "experiment," "quantum," "photosynthesis," and "molecule."
● Academic Vocabulary: Academic words are commonly used in educational settings,
scholarly writing, and academic discussions. These words are more formal and
precise, and they often reflect advanced concepts and theories. Examples of
academic vocabulary include "analysis," "synthesize," "paradigm," "empirical," and
"theoretical."
● Archaic Vocabulary: Archaic words are no longer in common contemporary usage
but can be found in older literature, historical texts, or formal contexts. They often
evoke a sense of antiquity or have a poetic or literary quality. Examples of archaic
vocabulary include "thou," "henceforth," "thy," "thine," and "whence."
● Regional or Dialectal Vocabulary: Regional or dialectal words are specific to
particular geographic regions or local communities. These words may reflect unique
accents, pronunciations, or cultural practices of a specific area. Examples of regional
or dialectal vocabulary include "pop" (soda) in some parts of the United States,
"brolly" (umbrella) in British English, or "loo" (toilet) in informal British English.
● Business Vocabulary: Business vocabulary consists of terms and expressions used
in the business and corporate world. It includes words related to management,
finance, marketing, and entrepreneurship. Examples of business vocabulary include
"ROI" (Return on Investment), "synergy," "benchmark," "entrepreneur," and
"branding."
It's important to note that these stylistic classifications are not rigid or fixed, and
words can shift between different stylistic categories depending on the context and the
intended effect. Additionally, language is dynamic, and new words, especially in the realms
of technology and popular culture, continue to emerge and shape the stylistic landscape of
the English vocabulary.

6. Варіанти англійської мови. (Variants of the English language.)

The English language has evolved and diversified over time, giving rise to various
variants that are influenced by regional, social, and cultural factors. These variants differ in
terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and even idiomatic expressions. Here are
some of the major variants of English:
● British English (BrE):
British English is the form of English spoken in the United Kingdom. It encompasses
a range of accents and dialects, with Received Pronunciation (RP) being historically
associated with the British upper class. However, today RP is less dominant, and regional
accents are widely accepted and celebrated. Accents such as Cockney (London), Geordie
(Newcastle), and Scottish English (Scotland) have distinct features in pronunciation and
vocabulary.
British English has its own vocabulary and idiomatic expressions. Some examples
include "lift" (elevator), "lorry" (truck), "boot" (trunk), "biscuit" (cookie), and "chips" (French
fries). Additionally, British English often follows different spelling conventions, such as using
"centre" (instead of "center"), "colour" (instead of "color"), and "organisation" (instead of
"organization").
● American English (AmE):
American English is the form of English spoken in the United States. It also exhibits a
wide range of accents and dialects, including General American, Southern, New England,
and Midwestern accents. General American is often associated with national media and is
considered the most widely understood accent within the United States.
American English differs from British English in terms of vocabulary, pronunciation,
and spelling. Some examples of American English vocabulary include "elevator" (instead of
"lift"), "truck" (instead of "lorry"), "trunk" (instead of "boot"), "cookie" (instead of "biscuit"), and
"French fries" (instead of "chips"). Additionally, American English often follows simplified
spelling conventions, such as using "color" (instead of "colour"), "center" (instead of
"centre"), and "organization" (instead of "organisation").
● Canadian English (CanE):
Canadian English is the variety of English spoken in Canada. It shares some
similarities with both British English and American English, but also has its own distinct
features. Canadian English exhibits regional variations and accents, with influences from
British English in Eastern Canada and influences from American English in Western
Canada.
Canadian English may include Canadian spellings such as "colour" (instead of
"color") and "centre" (instead of "center"), but it may also share some American English
vocabulary and pronunciation. Canadian English has unique terms and expressions, such as
"toque" (knitted cap), "double-double" (coffee with two creams and two sugars), and
"runners" (athletic shoes).
● Australian English (AusE):
Australian English is spoken in Australia and has its own distinct vocabulary, accent,
and idiomatic expressions. It shares some similarities with British English but also exhibits
influences from other regional accents, including Irish and Scottish English.
Australian English has a unique lexicon, often featuring colloquialisms and slang.
Some examples include "mate" (friend), "barbie" (barbecue), "brekkie" (breakfast), "footy"
(football), and "esky" (portable cooler). Australian English also has unique pronunciations,
such as the "shortening" of words, like "arvo" (afternoon) and "uni" (university).
● New Zealand English (NZE):
New Zealand English is spoken in New Zealand and has its own characteristics,
including pronunciation patterns, vocabulary, and idiomatic expressions. It shares some
similarities with Australian English but also exhibits influences from British English and
indigenous Māori language.
New Zealand English has its own unique vocabulary, including terms like "jandals"
(flip-flops), "bach" (holiday home), "ute" (utility vehicle), and "kiwi" (referring to both the
native bird and New Zealanders). New Zealand English also has distinct pronunciation
features, such as the "New Zealand accent," which is characterized by vowel sounds and
the flattening of certain consonant sounds.
7. Вокабуляр англійської мови як система. (Vocabulary of the English language as a
system.)
A system is a structured set of elements united by common relations. Vocabulary can
be classified on etymological (native and borrowed words), stylistic (slang, argot, tewrms,
vulgar and professional words, etc.), geographical (words of national language and dialectal
ones) criteria.

8. Основні засади англійської лексикографії. Типи словників. (Basic principles of

English lexicography. Types of dictionaries.)
Lexicography is the theory and practice of compiling dictionari­es. A dictionary is a
systematically arranged list of socialized linguistic forms, compiled from the speech habits of
a given speech community and commented on by the author in such a way that reader
under­stands the meaning of each separate form and is informed of the relevant facts,
concerning the function of that form in the community. there are various type of dictionaries.
One of the most important principles of division among dictionaries is diachronic and
synchronic.
Diachronic dictionaries are primarily concerned with the history and development of
words in respect of their forms and meanings. Among them we can find etymological and
historical dictionaries. Historical dictionaries focus their attention on the changes in the form
and meaning of words within a period of time, for which there is his­torical evidence at hand.
Etymological dictionaries focus their atten­tion on the origin of words. They deal with
prehistory of words. The prehistory often requires the origin of the word in other languages.
'Clinic' - [comes from Greek <'a bed'], 'Scene' - [comes from Greek < 'a tent']. In a historical
dictionary the semantic developments are extremely important.
The purpose of synchronic dictionaries is to deal with the lexical stock of language
oh a certain stage of historical development. The terms 'synchronic' and 'contemporary' are
not equal, as 'contempora­ry' relates to the present day and 'synchronic' - to the present
century.
The second division of dictionaries is divided into general and restricted. General
dictionaries are based on the principle which is concerned with the national standard
language. There are two types of general dictionaries: standard-descriptive and
overall-descriptive.
Standard-descriptive dictionaries can be characterized as descri­bing the standard
national language used at the point of time, when the dictionary is being compiled, and it is
expected to be used some time after its publication. This dictionary points to the norms of
using words. It describes what is generally regular, normal and exercises on using the
words. It does not describe dialectal forms, archaisms, origin of words. Overall-descriptive
dictionaries include all the information about words. Such a dictionary will tend to register
occasional appli­cations (применение), author's words, technical words. It may be used while
reading books of two or three centuries. Most frequently standard-descriptive and
overall-descriptive dictionaries are combined in one publication.
Restricted dictionaries are based on a variation of language: a Dictionary of
Dialects,. a Dictionary of Slang, a Dictionary of Synonyms, a Dictionary of Phraseological
Units, a Dictionary of Abbreviations, a Dictionary on Science, some author's dictionaries, a
Dictionary of Foreign Words, etc.
Another principle on which dictionaries can be based is the number of languages
represented in it: bilingual dictionary (англо-­український словник). The main difficulty then
is to coordinate the lexi­cal units of one language to that of another.
9. Сучасні методи й процедури лексикологічного аналізу. (Modern methods and
procedures of lexicological analysis.)
Comparative and contrastive analysis involves the systematic comparison of two
or more philogenically-related and non-related languages with the aim of finding the
similarities and differences between or among them.. “The comparative method is a
technique of linguistic analysis that compares lists of related words in a selection of
languages” This method also helps individuals study the structure of a target language by
comparing it to the structure of their native language. Specialists in the field of applied
linguistics believe that the most effective teaching materials are those that are based upon a
scientific description of the target language, carefully compared with a parallel description of
the native language of the learner. The contrastive analysis is the prediction that a
contrastive analysis of structural differences between two or more languages will allow
individuals to identify areas of contrast and predict where there will be some difficulty and
errors on the part of a second-language learner. The method helps to predict and explain
difficulties individuals may experience while learning a second language.
The second approach is statistical, or quantitative. A quantitative method is used to
represent data in numbers; it is a study that uses numerical data with emphasis on statistics
to answer the research questions. A quantitative method differs from a qualitative
method. Qualitative research does not highlight statistical data. It is a research done in “a
natural setting, involving intensive holistic data collection through observation at a very close
personal level without the influence of prior theory and contains mostly verbal analysis”). A
qualitative method may be used in case studies and discourse analysis.
The term immediate constituents (IC) “The principle of immediate constituents
leads us to observe the structural order, which may differ from their actual sequence”).
Ginzburg et al. further develop the theory of immediate constituents, and they try to
determine the ways in which lexical units are relevantly related to one another. For example,
the phrase effective use of published research for practical purposes in educational settings
may be divided into the following successive layers – immediate constituents, which in turn
are subdivided into further immediate constituents.
In the distributional analysis and co-occurrence, the term ‘distribution’ means “the
occurrence of a lexical unit relative to other lexical units of the same level (words relative to
words / morphemes relative to morphemes, etc.) . Lexemes occupy certain positions in a
sentence, and if words are polysemous, they realize their meanings in the context, in
different distributional patterns; for example, compare the verb chase in the phrases chase
around after someone (to seek someone or something in different places), chase after
someone or something (to pursue or hunt for someone), chase someone or something away
from some place (to drive someone or something out of some place), chase someone or
something down (to track down and seize someone or something), chase someone in(to)
some place (to drive someone or some creature into a place), and chase someone and
something up (to seek someone or something out; to look high and low for someone or
something. So, the term ‘distribution’ is “the aptness of a word in one of its meanings to
collocate or to co-occur with a certain group, or certain groups of words having some
common semantic component”)term this analysis as collocation analysis when the
presence of one word in the text affects the occurrence of other words, so a collocation is
“the occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each other in a corpus”.
Transformational analysis in lexicological investigations is the “re-patterning of
various distributional structures in order to discover difference or similarity of meaning of
practically identical distributional patterns”. In a number of cases, distributional patterns are
polysemous; therefore, transformational procedures will help to analyze the semantic
similarity or difference of the lexemes under examination and the factors that account for
their polysemy. If we compare the compound words highball, highland, highlight, and
high-rise, we see that the distributional pattern of stems is identical, and it may be
represented as adj+n pattern. The first part of the stems modifies or describes the second
part, and these compounds may be assumed as ‘a kind of ball,’ ‘a kind of land,’ ‘a kind of
light,’ and ‘a kind of rise.’ However, this assumption may be wrong because the semantic
relationship between the stems is different; therefore, the lexical meanings of the words are
also different. A transformational procedure shows that highland is semantically equivalent to
‘an area of high ground’; highball is not a kind of ball but corresponds to “whiskey and water
or soda with ice, served in a tall glass’ or ‘a railroad signal for a train to proceed at full
speed’; highlight semantically equals to ‘the part of the surface that catches more light’; and
high-rise is semantically the same as ‘a building with many stories (Br. storeys).’
Structural linguists take a seemingly different approach to the analysis of lexemes,
known as componential analysis—that is an analysis in terms of components. This view to
the depiction of meaning of words and phrases is based upon “the thesis that the sense of
every lexeme can be analyzed in terms of a set of more general sense components

10. Процеси розвитку і зміни значень слів. (Processes of development and changes in
word meanings.)
Transference based on resemblance (similarity)
This type of transference is also referred to as linguistic metaphor. A new meaning
appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their
outward similarity. Box and stall are examples of this type of transference.
Other examples can be given in which transference is also based on the association
of two physical objects. The noun eye, for instance, has for one of its meanings “hole in the
end of a needle” (cf. with the R. ушко иголки), which also developed through transference
based on resemblance. A similar case is represented by the neck of a bottle.
The noun star on the basis of the meaning “heavenly body” developed the meaning
“famous actor or actress”. Nowadays the meaning has considerably widened its range, and
the word is applied not only to screen idols, but also, to popular sportsmen (e.g. football
stars), pop-singers, etc.
The meanings formed through this type of transference are frequently found in the
informal strata of the vocabulary, especially in slang. A red-headed boy is almost certain to
be nicknamed carrot or ginger (рудий) by his schoolmates, and the one who is given to
spying and sneaking gets the derogatory nickname of rat. Both these meanings are
metaphorical, though, the children using them are quite unconscious of this fact.
Transference based on contiguity
Another term for this type of transference is linguistic metonymy. The association is
based upon subtle psychological links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes
traced and identified with much difficulty. The two objects may be associated together
because they often appear in common situations, and so the image of one is easily
accompanied by the image of the other; or they may be associated on the principle of cause
and effect, of common function, of some material and an object which is made of it, etc.
Let us consider some cases of transference based on contiguity. We will notice that
they are of different kinds.
 The foot of a bed is the place where the feet rest when one lies in the bed, but the
foot of a mountain got its name by another association: the foot of a mountain is its lowest
part, so that the association here is founded on common position.
The meaning of the noun hand realized in the context hand of a clock (watch)
originates from the main meaning of this noun “part of human body”. It is also developed due
to the association of the common function: the hand of a clock points to the figures of the
face of the clock, and one of the function of human hand is also that of pointing to things.
Meanings produced through transference based on contiguity sometimes originate
from geographical or proper names. China in the sense of “dishes made of porcelain”
originated from the name of the country which was believed to be the birthplace of porcelain.
The name of a painter is frequently transferred onto one of his pictures: a Matisse = a
painting by Matisse.
Broadening (or Generalization) of meaning. Narrowing (or Specialization) of
meaning
Sometimes, the process of transference may result in a considerable change in
range of meaning. For instance, the verb to arrive (French borrowing) began its life in
English in the narrow meaning “to come to shore, to land”. In Modern English it has greatly
widened its combinability and developed the general meaning “to come (e.g. to arrive in a
village, town, country, at a hotel, college, theatre, place, etc.). The meaning developed
through transference based on contiguity, but the range of the second meaning is much
broader.
It is interesting to trace the history of the word girl as an example of the changes in
the range of meaning in the course of the semantic development of a word.
Degeneration of meaning.
Knave: boy >swindler, scoundrel
Gossip: god parent > the one who tells slanderous stories about other people
These examples show that the second meaning, in contrast with the one from which
it developed, denotes a person of bad repute or character. The second meaning developed a
negative evaluative connotation which was absent in the first meaning.
The same process can be observed in other parts of speech, and not only in nouns.
E.g. Silly: happy > foolish
Elevation of meaning.
Fond: foolish > loving, affectionate
Nice: foolish > fine, good
In these two cases the situation is reversed: the first meaning has a negative evaluative
connotation, and the second meaning has not.

III. ФОНЕТИКА АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ

1. Співставлення артикуляційних баз англійської та української мов.

Інтерференція. (Articulation basis of English as compared with Ukrainian)
The differences in the articulation bases between the two languages are in the
general tendencies their native speakers have in the way they move and hold their lips and
the tongue both in speech and in silence, in the way they coordinate the work of the
obstructer and vibrator mechanisms. The main peculiarities of the articulation bases of
English and Ukrainian consonants are the following:
1) In the articulation of the English consonants the tip of the tongue near the teeth
ridge (apical position).
2) In the articulation of the English [e,8] the tip of the tongue placed between the
upper and lower teeth, this position of the tip of the in Ukrainian it tends to move has the
tendency to occupy more retracted, more flat and low position the tongue characterizes only
the English articulation basis.
3) The bulk of the tongue in the articulation of the English consonants
4) The English "soft" consonants are [s. . dz, ts) and the soft of the tongue in their
production is raised higher to the hard palate the in the articulation of the Ukrainian
consonants The Ukrainian (n', 6', M', H', T', A'] are also pronounced softly, but the mid very
often mispronounced by the Ukrainian learners. They use the a during the production of the
English "soft" consonants.
5) The bilabial [w], which is pronounced with the round narrowing the articulation
bases of the English and Ukrainian languages are dental (B] or [v] instead of the English [w
Articulation bases of English and Ukrainian vowels are also different
1) The lips. In the production of Ukrainian vowels the b considerably protruded and
rounded [o, y]. In the articulation of the English [o, o:], [u, u:] such protrusion does not take
place. Englishmen have the so-called "flat-type" position of the lips, their lips are tenser, fart
lips of the Ukrainians, and the corners of the lips are raised to resemble a smile.
2) The bulk of the tongue in the production of Ukrainian ia occupies mostly the front
part of the mouth cavity, in the articulation English vowel sounds the bulk of the tongue is
more often in the ta of the mouth cavity. Besides, in the articulation of the English vowels
bulk of the tongue occupies more positions than in the Ukrainian vowel production.
3) The length of the vowels. Short vowels in English are considered to be tense.
There are no long vowels which can be opposed phonetically to short vowels in the
Ukrainian language.
4) The stability of articulation There are monophthongs and diphthongs in the
Ukrainian vowel system, but there are no diphthongs.

2. Класифікація систем приголосних в англійській мові та порівняння з

українською. (General Characteristics and Classification of English Consonants)
Consonants are usually classified according to the following principles:
1. According to the type of obstruction and the manner of the production of noise.
2. According to the active speech organ and the place of obstruction.
3. According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation.
4. According to the position of the soft palate.
According to the type of obstruction, English consonants are divided into
occlusive and constrictive. Occlusive consonants are produced with a complete
obstruction formed by the articulating organs, the air passage in the mouth cavity is blocked.
Occlusive consonants may be: 1) noise consonants; 2) sonorants. According to the
manner of the production of noise, occlusive noise consonants are divided into plosive
consonants (stops) and affricates. In the production of plosive consonants the speech
organs form a complete obstruction which is then quickly released with plosion. The English
plosive consonants are: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; the Ukrainian [n, 6, T, A. K, r]. In the production of
affricates the speech organs form a complete obstruction which is then released. The
English [ts, dz] and the Ukrainian [ц, ч, дж, дз].
 Constrictive consonants are produced with an incomplete obstruction, that is by
the narrowing of the air-passage. Constrictive consonants may be: 1) noise consonants
(fricatives); 2) sonorants. The English noise constrictives: [f, v, S, z, 0”, O-, s, ž, h]; the
Ukrainian [ф, B, c, 3, ш, ж X).
In the production of constrictive sonorants the air-passage is fairly wide so that the
air passing through the mouth does not produce friction and voice prevails over noise. The
English median sonants are: [w, r, j) the English lateral sonant is (l).
According to the active organ of speech English consonants are divided into labial,
lingual and glottal. Labial consonants may be 1) bilabial; 2) labio-dental. Bilabial
consonants are articulated by the two lips. The English (p. b, m, w]; the Ukrainian (п, б, M,
B). Labio-denta consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth. The
English [f, v); the Ukrainian (ф. B).
Lingual consonants may be 1) forelingual; 2) mediolingual, 3) backlingual.
Forelingual consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue pressed against the
upper teeth or the alveolar ridge. According to the position of the tip English forelingual
consonants may be apical [0, ð, t, d, I, n, s, z). The Ukrainian (л, ш, ж ч] are apical and [т. д.
н, с, з] are dorsal. There is also a cacuminal forelingual English consonant [r], which is
articulated by the tongue tip raised against the back part of the alveolar ridge. In Ukrainian
[p] is cacuminal.
Mediolingual consonants are articulated with the front of the tongue against the hard
palate.English j and Ukrainian й.
Backlingual consonants are articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft
palate. The English [k, g, n] and the Ukrainian (K, г,х).
Glottal consonants are produced in the glottis. The English glottal consonant is (h)
and the Ukrainian is (r).
According to the point of articulation forelingual consonants are divided into 1) dental
(interdental or post-dental); 2) alveolar, 3) palato-alveolar.
Dental consonants are articulated against the upper teeth either the tip of the tongue
[Õ, e], the Ukrainian [л], or with the blade of the tongue the Ukrainian (т).
Alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the alveolar
ridge: the English [t, d, n, I, s, z] and the Ukrainian [p).
Palato-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip and blade of the tongue against
the alveolar ridge or the back part of the alveolar ridge while the front of the tongue is raised
in the direction of the hard palate English [S, 3, ts, dz] and the Ukrainian [ш, ж].
Post-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the back
part of the alveolar ridge: the English [r).
According to the work of vocal cords they may be voiceless and voiced. Voiced
consonants are: the English [b, d, g, v, ô, Z dz) Ukrainian [б, B, г, д, ж, 3]. Voiceless
consonants are: the English (t,f, s, h, O-, s, ts]; the Ukrainian [п, ф, T, K, ш, ч, ц, x
In Ukrainian, vice versa, voiceless consonants are weak and voiced consonants are
strong. According to the position of the soft palate, consonants are divided into oral and
nasal. Nasal consonants are produced with the soft palate lowered while the air passage
through the mouth is blocked. As a result, the air escapes through the nasal cavity. The
English nasal consonants are (m, n, n], the Ukrainian - M, H. The oral consonants are
produced when the soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth.

3. Класифікація систем голосних в англійській мові та її порівняння з

українською. (General Characteristics and Classification of English Vowels)
 The English vowel phonemes are divided first of all into two large groups:
monophthongs and diphthongs. This division is based on the stability of articulation.
A monophthong is a pure (unchanging) vowel sound. In its pronunciation the organs
of speech do not perceptibly change their position throughout the duration of the vowel. The
English monophthongs are: m. [e], [æ). [o], [u]. [^]. [ə]. [a:], [0:], [E:].
A diphthong is a complex sound consisting of two vowel elements pronounced so as
to form a single syllable. The first element of an English diphthong is called the nucleus. It is
a strong, clear and distinct sound. The second element is rather weak; it is called the glide.
There are eight diphthongs in English: three with a glide towards ) [ei], [ai), [oi]), two with a
glide towards [U] ([au], [ou]), and three with a glide towards [a] ([ie], [ca), [ua]). In Ukrainian
there are no diphthong sounds.
The English monophthongs may be classified according to the following principles: 1)
According to the tongue position. 2) According to the lip position. 3) According to the length
of the vowels. 4) According to the degree of tenseness. In vowel production the tongue may
move in a horizontal direction (forward and backward) and in a vertical direction (to various
heights in the mouth).
According to the horizontal movement of the tongue vowels are divided into five
groups: 1) front; 2) front-retracted; 3) central; 4) back; 5) back. advanced.
1) Front vowels are those which are produced with the bulk of the tongue in the front
part of the mouth while the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate.
The English front vowels are (1:]. (e) (ae) (eэ).The Ukrainian front vowels are і,е.
2) Front-retracted vowels are those which are produced with the bull of the tongue
in the front part of the mouth, but somewhat retracted (compared with its positions for [i:], [e].
[æ]). There is only one from retracted monophthong in English: it is [i].
3) Central vowels are those in which the central part of the tongue's central vowels
are [^]. [ɛ:], [a] and the nucleus of [ou]. The Ukrainian cerntra and [au) are also
front-retracted. raised towards the juncture between the hard and soft palate. Engi
4) Back vowels are those which are produced with the bulk of the tongue in the back
part of the mouth while the back of the tongue is raise in the direction of the soft palate,
forming an empty space in the front pa of the mouth. The English back vowels are [o], [0:].
[u:] and the nucleus vowel is [u].
5) Back-advanced vowels are those which are produced with the bu of the tongue in
the back part of the mouth, but somewhat advanced a compared with the positions for back
vowels). The English back-advance vowels are [a:], [u]. The Ukrainian back-advanced
vowels are (0], 9).
According to the height of the raised part of the tongue (or the vetir movement of the
tongue) vowels are divided into three groups:. 1) close, high vowels; 2) open, or low vowels;
3) mid-open, or mid vowels.
1) Close (high) vowels are those which are produced when one of parts of the
tongue comes close to the roof of the mouth and the passage is narrowed, but not so much
as to form a consonant. The Engi close vowels are [i:], [i]. [u:], [u]. The Ukrainian close
vowels are [). D)N the diphthong [oi). The Ukrainian back vowel is [a].
2) Open (low) vowels are those which are produced when the rase part of the tongue
is very low in the mouth, and the air-passage is ve wide. The English open vowels are [æ],
[a:], [o], [o:] and the nuclei f [au]. The Ukrainian open vowel is [a].
3) Mid-open (mid) vowels are those which are produced when the raised part of the
tongue is half-way between its high and low position The English mid-open vowels are [e],
[E:], [a]. [^] and the nuclei of fe The Ukrainian mid-open vowels are [e], [o].
 Each of these three main tongue-positions (high, mid and low) have variations:
narrow and broad.
According to the lip position vowels may be rounded and unrounded.
Rounded vowels are produced when the lips are more or less rounded and slightly
protruded. The English rounded vowels are (o]. [o:], [u). [u:) and the nuclei of [ou), foil. The
Ukrainian rounded vowels are [o). [y).
Unrounded vowels are produced when the lips are spread or neutral. The English
unrounded vowels are fi:1, (0. (e]. [æ], [a:]. (^). (E:). [e] and the nuclei of all the diphthongs
except those of [ou]. [oi). The Ukrainian unrounded vowels are [e), (a], (1). [n].
According to their length vowels may be long and short.
According to the degree of tenseness English vowels are divided into tense and lax.
Tense vowels are produced when the organs of speech are tense. All the English
long vowels are tense: [i:], [a:], [o:], [u:], [ɛ:).
Lax vowels are those which are produced with lesser tenseness of the speech
organs. All the English short vowels are lax [i], [e], [æ), [0]. [U], [^], [el. In Ukrainian vowels
are not divided into tense and lax.

4. Зміни голосних і приголосних звуків у зв’язному мовленні (асиміляція,

редукція, лізія). (Phenomena of connected speech: assimilation, accommodation,
reduction, elision)
As a result of the intercourse between consonants and vowels and within each class
there appear such processes of connected speech as assimilation, accommodation, vowel
reduction and elision which is sometimes termed deletion.
Assimilation. Two adjacent consonants within a word or at a word boundary often
influence each other in such a way that the articulation of one sound becomes similar to or
even identical with the articulation of the other one. This phenomenon is called assimilation.
Assimilation may be of three degrees: complete, partial and intermediate.
Assimilation is said to be complete when the articulation of the assimilated
consonant fully coincides with that of the assimilating one. For example, in the word
horse-shoe [ho:s gu:] which is a compound of the words horse [ho:s] and shoe [su:], [s] in
the word [ho:s] was changed to [sl under the influence of [s] in the word [su:).
Assimilation is said to be partial when the assimilated consonant retains its main
phonemic features and becomes only partly similar in some feature of its articulation to the
assimilating sound. For example, in twice [twais], please [pli:z), try [trai), the principal fully
voiced variants of phonemes [w], ). ] are replaced by their partly devoiced variants, while
their main phonemic features are retained.
The degree of assimilation is said to be intermediate between complete and partial
when the assimilated consonant changes into a different sound, but does not coincide with
the assimilating consonant. Examples of intermediate assimilation are gooseberry ['guzberi],
where [s] in goose [gu:s] is replaced by [z] under the influence of [b] in berry, congress
['koŋgres], where [n] is replaced by [n] under the influence of [g).
Assimilation may be of three types as far as its direction is concerned:
progressive, regressive and double. Progressive assimilation the assimilated sound is
influenced by the preceding consonant. This can be represented by the formula A-B, where
A is the assimilating consonant, and B the assimilated consonant. In What's this? [wots õis]
[z] is replaced by [s] under the influence of [t). In regressive assimilation the preceding
consonant is influenced by the one following it (AB). For example, the voiced consonant [z]
in news (nju:z] is replaced by the voiceless consonant [s] in the compound newspaper ['nju:s
peipe] under the influence of the voiceless sound [p). In horse-shoe [ho:s su:] (s] in horse
[ho:s] was replaced by [s] and thus become fully assimilated to [s] in shoe [su:]. In
reciprocal, or double, assimilation two adjacent consonants influence each other. For
example, in twenty ['twenti], quick [kwiki sonorant [w] is assimilated to the voiceless plosive
consonants [t) and e respectively by becoming partly devoiced. In their turn, [t] and a k
assimilated to [w] and are represented by their labialized variants. While by assimilation we
mean a modification in the articulation consonant under the influence of a neighbouring
consonant of a modification in the articulation of a vowel under the influence of an adjacert
consonant, or, vice versa, the modification in the articulation of a consonant under the
influence of an adjacent vowel is called adaptation accommodation.
In accommodation the accommodated sound does not change in main phonemic
features and is pronounced as a variant of the same phoneme slightly modified under the
influence of a neighbouring sound, in modern English there are three main types of
accommodation.
1. An unrounded variant of a consonant phoneme is replaced by its rounded variant
under the influence of a following rounded vowel phoneme as at the beginning of the
following words: [ti:] tea – [tu:] too; flesi les [lu:s] loose. This type of accommodation presents
labialization consonants. Some other examples pool, moon, rude, soon, who, cool also
possible to speak about the spread lip position of consonants followed or preceded by front
vowels [i:], [i), e.g. tea – beat; meet - team; feat – lest
2. A fully back variant of a back vowel phoneme is replaced by i slightly advanced
(fronted) variant under the influence of the preceding mediolingual phoneme [j]: [mu:n] –
moon; ['mju:zik] music.
3. A vowel phoneme is represented by its slightly more open variart before the dark
(1) under the influence of the latter's back secondary focus Thus the vowel sound in bell, tell
is slightly more open than the vowel in bed, ten ([bel] - [bed], [tel]- [ten]).
Reduction of vowels. The modifications of vowels in a speech chan are traced in
the following directions: they are either quantitative or qualitative or both. These changes of
vowels in a speech continuum are determined by a number of factors such as the position of
the vowel in re-word, accentual structure, tempo of speech, rhythm, etc. The change of
quality and quantity of vowels in connected speech is called reduction. The decrease of the
vowel quantity or in other words the shortening of the vowel length is known as a quantitative
reduction of vowels, which may be illustrated as follows: you fiu 1- fiu 1- fju), he [hi:]-[hi ]-[hi).
your ljo:] - [jo']- jo). Qualitative reduction of most vowels occurs in unstressed positions.
Unstressed vowels lose their "colour quality, which is illustrated by the examples below. 1. In
unstressed syllables vowels of full value are usually subjected to qualitative changes, e.g.
man [mæn] I kondəkt) – conduct [kan'd^kt], In such cases the quality of the vowel is reduced
to the neutral sound [a]. 2. Slight degree of nasalization marks vowels preceded or followed
by the nasal consonants [n], [m], e.g. "never", "no", "then", "men" (accommodation). The
realization of reduction accommodation is connected with the styte of speech. In rapid
colloquial speech reduction may result in vowel elision, the complete omission of the
unstressed vowel, which is also known as zero reduction.
Elision. In rapid colloquial speech certain notional words may lose some of their
sounds (vowels and consonants). This phenomenon is called elision. It marks the following
sounds: 1. Loss of [h] in personal and possessive pronouns he, his, her, him and the forms
of the auxiliary verb have, has, had is widespread, e.g. What has he done? [wot ez I d^n]. 2.
[] tends to be lost when preceded by [o:], e.g. always [0:wiz), already [0:redi), all right [o:
rait). 3. Alveolar plosives are often elided in case the cluster is followed by sportsman
[spo:tsman], conduct well as assimilation and as another consonant, e.g. next day [nekst dei]
- [neks dei], just one [dAst w'n] - [dAs w'n]. If a vowel follows, the consonant remains, e.g.
first of all, passed in time. Whole syllables may be elided in rapid speech: library ['laibri],
literary ['litri]. Examples of historical elision are also known. They are initial consonants in
write, know, knight, the medial consonant [t] in fasten, listen, castle.

5. Проблема фонеми та її алофонів. (Phoneme and allophone)

The phoneme is a minimal abstract unit, released in speech in the form of speech
sounds, opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of
morphemes and words.
Phonemes are released in speech in the form of speech sounds. The phoneme
exists in the speech of all the people belonging to the same community. Each phoneme is
released in speech as a set of sounds. This is called allophones of the phoneme. The term
sound can be interpreted in two ways. On one hand, we can say that [t] and (d different
sounds in English: [t] being fortis; [d] being lenis. We can illust them by showing how they
contrast with each other to make different meaning: tie – die; seat – seed. But on the other
hand-[t) in "let us a in "let them" are not the same. In "let us" it is aspirated and alveolar, in
them" [t] is not aspirated and dental.
To avoid ambiguity linguists use 2 separate terms:
1) phoneme is used to mean sound in its contrastive sense
2) allophone is used for sounds which are variants of the phoneme.
The phoneme is a functional unit. That means that being opposed to other phonemes
in the same phonetic context it is capable of differentiating the meaning. The phoneme is
realized in speech in the material form of speech sounds of different types. Allophones of the
same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. They cannot differentiate the
meaning since there is no mutual opposition possible in this case. Such speech sounds are
grouped into a phoneme and function as a language unit opposed to other language units.

6. Проблема словесного наголосу в англійській та українській мовах. Фразовий

наголос. (Stress in English and Ukrainian)
The sequence of syllables in the word is not pronounced identically. The syllable or
syllables which are uttered with more prominence than the other syllables of the word are
said to be stressed or accented. The correlation of varying prominences of syllables in a
word is understood as the accentual structure of the word or its stress pattern. The effect of
prominence is achieved by any or all of four factors: force, tone, length and vowel colour.
The dynamic stress implies greater force with which the syllable is pronounced. European
languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Ukrainian are believed to possess
predominantly dynamic word stress. In Scandinavian languages the word stress is
considered to be both dynamic and musical. The musical (or tonic) word stress is observed
in Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese. It is effected by the variations of voice pitch in
relation to neighbouring syllables. Languages are also differentiated according to the
placement of word stress. The traditional classification of languages concerning place of
stress in a word is into those with a fixed stress and those with a free stress. In languages
with a fixed stress the occurrence of the word stress is limited.
Degrees of word-stress. The majority of British phonetician distinguish three
degrees of word-stress. The strongest stress is called primary . The second strongest
secondary , while all the other degrees of stress are called weak .The syllables bearing
either primary or secondary stress are termed stressed while syllables with weak stress are
called unstressed. In the phonetic transcription used in textbooks and works on phonetics as
well as in pronouncing dictionaries, the position of the accent indicated by placing the stress
mark before the symbol of the first sound the accented syllable, primary stress being marked
by a raised the vertical stroke (tick), secondary stress by a lowered one, e [ig, zæmi neiçn]
(examination). The stress mark in this case indicated simultaneously the point of syllable
division. The fact that the primary stress is usually shifted in derivatives f of same root
presents a special difficulty for Ukrainian learners of English. For instance, verbs with
rhythmic stress such as 'demonstrate, 'organize are pronounced with the primary stress on
the same syllabic as the correspond nouns, demon'stration,, organi'zation. In words with the
primary stress on the third syllable the secondary stress usually falls on the first syllable The
secondary stress is manifested in polysyllabic words with the primary stress on the third or
on the fourth syllable from the beginning the primary stress falls on the fourth or fifth syllable
the secondary stress very commonly on the second syllable.

7. Просодична система англійської мови. Інтонація та її функції. (Prosodic System

of the English Language)
Prosody or prosodic features of language is a term that refers collectively to
variations in pitch, loudness, tempo, timbre and rhythm. Prosodic features extend over
stretches of utterance, they are superimposed on speech Sounds/ segments and that's why
they are also called supra-segmental. There is an agreement between phoneticians that on
perception level a complex unity formed by significant variations of pitch, loudness, timbre
and tempo is called intonation. Thus, prosody and intonation relate to each other as a more
general notion (prosody) and its part (intonation). Many foreign phoneticians restrict the
formal definition of intonation to the pitch movement alone. But in fact in the process of
speech all these components function as a whole, though the priority of the pitch parameter
is quite evident.
Prosody is concerned with three matters:
1) with the ways in which an utterance is broken into "intonation bebivib groups";
2) with the position of accent - the emphasis that makes one deiion t Syllable more
prominent than other syllables, and therefore makes one word more prominent than the
other words in the intonation group;
3) with the intonation or melody – the patterned way in which the aimrtyt oir pitch of
the voice changes in the utterance.
Speech melody, or the pitch component of prosody, is the variations in the pitch of
the voice which take place when voiced sounds, especially vowels and sonorants, are
pronounced in connected speech. The pitch of speech sounds is produced by the vibrations
of the vocal cords.
Stress in speech is the greater prominence which is given to one or more words in a
sentence as compared with the other words of the same sentence. In English this greater
prominence is achieved by uttering the stressed words with greater force of exhalation and
muscular tension than the unstressed words, as well as by a change in the pitch and by an
increase in the length of stressed syllables of words in the sentence.
The voice quality (tamber) is a special colouring of the voice in pronouncing
sentences which is superimposed on speech melody and shows the speaker's emotions,
such as joy, sadness, irony, anger, indignation, etc.
The tempo of speech is the speed with which sentences or their parts are
pronounced. It is determined by the rate at which speech-sounds are uttered and by the
number and length of pauses. Closely connected with the tempo of speech is its rhythm: the
recurrence of stressed syllables at more or less equal intervals of time.
Intonation is the rise and fall of the voice in speaking. Functions:
- The attitudinal function. The most obvious role of intonation is to express our
attitudes and emotions – to show shock or surprise, pleasure or anger, interest or boredom,
seriousness or sarcasm, and many others. We do this by tone.
- The grammatical function. Intonation helps identify grammatical structures in
speech, rather as punctuation does in writing. We use intonation to mark the beginning and
of grammatical units such as clause and sentence.
- The focusing function. Intonation helps to show what information in an utterance is
new and what is already known.
- The discourse (or cohesive) function. Intonation signals how sequences of clauses
and sentences go together in spoken discourse, to contrast or to cohere.
- The psychological function. Intonation helps us organize speech into units that are
easy to perceive, memorize and perform.

8. Географічні, соціальні та ситуативні варіанти вимоги англійської мови.

(Geographical, social and situational variants of the English language requirement.)
In present-day linguistics the term variety is used to refer to any variant of a language
which can be sufficiently delimited from another variant. The grounds for such differentiation
may be social, historical, spatial or a combination of these. The necessity for a neutral term
such as variety arose from the loaded use of the term dialect: this was not only used in the
neutral sense of a regionally bound form of a language.
Geographical dialect continua. In many parts of the world, if we examine the rural
areas, we are faced with a situation which is known as a geographical dialect continuum.
There are linguistic differences between the dialects of different villages in rural areas, which
are sometimes larger and sometimes smaller but the further we get from a definite starting
point in an area, the larger the differences become. The striking point is that a chain of
mutual intelligibility links all the dialects spoken throughout the area. At any point on this
extensive continuum, speakers of one dialect can understand speakers of other dialects who
live in adjacent areas to them. In other words, dialects on the outer edges of the
geographical area may not be mutually intelligible, but they are linked by a chain of mutual
intelligibility. At no point is there a complete break, but the cumulative effect of the linguistic
differences will be such that the greater the geographical separation, the greater the difficulty
of comprehension. This situation is clearly illustrated by German dialects which form an
uninterrupted continuum from the Dutch border in the north west to the Hungarian border in
the south-east. The varieties in these extremes are not mutually intelligible but at any two
points on the continuum they are.
Social dialect continua. Dialect continua can also be social rather than
geographical. A good example of this is provided by the situation in Jamaica. The initial
linguistic situation in Jamaica was such that those at the top of the social scale, the British,
spoke English, while those at the bottom of the social scale, the African slaves, spoke
Jamaican Creole. English, the international and prestigious language of the upper classes,
had a considerable impact over the centuries on Jamaican Creole. Since Jamaican Creole
was recognised as being similar to English, although these two languages are not mutually
intelligible, it came to be regarded as inferior or debased vis à vis English because of the
social situation.
9. Літературна норма вимоги: Received Pronunciation, Estuary English. (Literary
norm of the requirement: Received Pronunciation, Estuary English.)
Received Pronunciation, or RP for short, is the instantly recognisable accent often
described as ‘typically British’. Popular terms for this accent, such as ‘the Queen’s English’,
‘Oxford English’ or ‘BBC English’ are all a little misleading. The Queen, for instance, speaks
an almost unique form of English, while the English we hear at Oxford University or on the
BBC is no longer restricted to one type of accent. RP is an accent, not a dialect, since all
RP speakers speak Standard English. In other words, they avoid non-standard grammatical
constructions and localised vocabulary characteristic of regional dialects. RP is also
regionally non-specific, that is it does not contain any clues about a speaker’s geographic
background. RP is probably the most widely studied and most frequently described variety of
spoken English in the world, yet recent estimates suggest only 3% of the UK population
speak it. It has a negligible presence in Scotland and Northern Ireland and is arguably losing
its prestige status in Wales. It should properly, therefore, be described as an English, rather
than a British accent. As well as being a living accent, RP is also a theoretical linguistic
concept.
Estuary English is an English accent associated with the area along the River
Thames and its estuary, including London. Phonetician John C. Wels proposed a definition
of Estuary English as "Standard English spoken with the accent of the southeast of
England". Estuary English may be compared with Cockney, and there is some debate
among linguists as to where Cockney speech ends and Estuary English begins. Estuary
English is widely encountered throughout southeast England, particularly among the young.
It is considered to be a working-class accent, although often used by the lower middle
classes too. In the debate that surrounded a 1993 article about Estuary English, a London
businessman claimed that RP was perceived as unfriendly, so Estuary English was now
preferred for commercial purposes. Some adopt the accent as a means of "blending in" to
appear to be more working class or in an attempt to appear to be "a common man". That
affectation of the accent is sometimes derisively referred to as "Mockney". A move away
from traditional RP accents is almost universal among middle-class young people.

10. Основні типи вимови: Американський і Британський варіант вимови. (Main

types of speeches: American and British versions of the speech.)
The English language was first introduced to the Americas by British colonisation,
beginning in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The language also spread to numerous
other parts of the world as a result of British trade and colonisation and the spread of the
former British Empire, which, by 1921, included 470–570 million people, about a quarter of
the world's population. Written forms of British and American English as found in
newspapers and textbooks vary little in their essential features, with only occasional
noticeable differences.
Over the past 400 years, the forms of the language used in the Americas—especially
in the United States—and that used in the United Kingdom have diverged in a few minor
ways, leading to the versions now often referred to as American English and British English.
Differences between the two include pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary (lexis), spelling,
punctuation, idioms, and formatting of dates and numbers. However, the differences in
written and most spoken grammar structure tend to be much less than in other aspects of
the language in terms of mutual intelligibility. A few words have completely different
meanings in the two versions or are even unknown or not used in one of the versions. One
particular contribution towards formalising these differences came from Noah Webster, who
wrote the first American dictionary (published 1828) with the intention of showing that people
in the United States spoke a different dialect from those spoken in the UK, much like a
regional accent.
This divergence between American English and British English has provided
opportunities for humorous comment: e.g. in fiction George Bernard Shaw says that the
United States and United Kingdom are "two countries divided by a common language";and
Oscar Wilde says that "We have really everything in common with America nowadays,
except, of course, the language" . Henry Sweet incorrectly predicted in 1877 that within a
century American English, Australian English and British English would be mutually
unintelligible (A Handbook of Phonetics). Perhaps increased worldwide communication
through radio, television, the Internet and globalization has tended to reduce regional
variation. This can lead to some variations becoming extinct (for instance the wireless being
progressively superseded by the radio) or the acceptance of wide variations as "perfectly
good English" everywhere.
Although spoken American and British English are generally mutually intelligible,
there are occasional differences which might cause embarrassment—for example, in
American English a rubber is usually interpreted as a condom rather than an eraser; and a
British fanny refers to the female pubic area, while the American fanny refers to an ass (US)
or an arse (UK).

IV. ІСТОРІЯ АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ

1. Періоди розвитку англійської мови та їхній короткий огляд. (Periods of English

language development and their brief overview.)
● Old English (450-1100 AD) (Beowulf)
Old English did not sound or look like English today. Native English speakers now
would have great difficulty understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the most
commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The words be, strong and
water, for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until around 1100.

● Middle English (1100-1500) (Chaucer)

The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which
became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a period
there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the
upper classes spoke French. In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again,
but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English. It was the
language of the great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native
English speakers to understand today.

● Modern English (Early Modern English (1500-1800) (Hamlet))

Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation
(the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter.
This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases
entered the language. Books became cheaper and more people learned to read.
 ● Late Modern English (1800-Present)
The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is
vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors:
firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the
British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English
language adopted foreign words from many countries.

2. Основні проблеми розвитку фонетичної системи англійської мови. (The main

problems of development of the phonetic system of the English language.)
In the Old English period, a number of umlaut processes affected vowels in complex
ways, and unstressed vowels were gradually eroded, eventually leading to a loss of
grammatical case and grammatical gender in the Early Middle English period. The most
important umlaut process was i-mutation (c. 500 CE(common(current)area), which led to
pervasive alternations of all sorts, many of which survive in the modern language: e.g. in
noun paradigms (foot vs. feet, mouse vs. mice, brother vs. brethren); in verb paradigms (sold
vs. sell); nominal derivatives from adjectives ("strong" vs. "strength", broad vs. breadth, foul
vs. filth) and from other nouns (fox vs. "vixen"); verbal derivatives ("food" vs. "to feed"); and
comparative adjectives ("old" vs. "elder"). Consonants were more stable, although velar
consonants were significantly modified by palatalization, which produced alternations such
as speak vs. speech, drink vs. drench, wake vs. watch, bake vs. batch.
Other changes that left echoes in the modern language were homorganic
lengthening before ld, mb, nd, which accounts for the long vowels in child, mind, climb, etc.;
pre-cluster shortening, which resulted in the vowel alternations in child vs.(versus)against)
children, keep vs. kept, meet vs. met; and trisyllabic laxing, which is responsible for
alterations such as grateful vs. gratitude, divine vs. divinity, sole vs. solitary.

3. Розвиток граматичних категорій номінальних частин мови. (Development of

grammatical categories of nominal parts of speech.)
The parts of speech in OE were the following: the noun, the adjective, the pronoun,
the numeral (nominal parts of speech), the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction,
and the interjection.
Grammatical categories are usually subdivided into nominal categories, found in
nominal parts of speech, and verbal categories. There were 5 nominal categories in OE:
number, case, gender, degrees of comparison and the category of
definiteness/indefiniteness.
The noun had three grammatical categories: number, gender and case. As for
declensions, they are regarded as a sort of morphological classification.
The adjective had five categories: number, gender, case, degrees of comparison and
declensions. The number of forms within one and the same grammatical category in different
parts of speech did not coincide, e.g. the noun had 4 cases (Nominative, Genitive, Dative
and Accusative) whereas the adjective had 5 cases (the same plus Instrumental); the
personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person distinguished three numbers – singular, plural
and dual.
Besides, there were 3 kinds of declensions – noun, pronoun and adjective. They had
the same grammatical categories, the main difference lay in the quantity of the categorical
forms of number (3 number-forms in personal pronouns) and case (4 case-forms in nouns
and 5 case-forms in personal pronouns and adjectives).
 Verbal categories were: tense, mood (verbal categories proper) and number and
person (showed agreement between the verb-predicate and the subject of the sentence).

4. Розвиток аналітичної системи англійської мови на основі граматичних форм і

категорій дієслова. (Development of the analytical system of the English language on the
basis of grammatical forms and categories of verbs.)
All languages can be either analytical or synthetic.
The modern English language is analytical. Analytical language is the language in
which the predicative line is expressed with the help of conjunctions, prepositions and word
order.
The old English was synthetic. It means that the predicative line was expressed with
the help of changing the forms of the words in the sentence.
In the OE language there was no form of the Future tense. The category of Tense
consisted of two members: Past and Present. The Present Tense could indicate both present
and future actions, depending on the context. There was another way of presenting future
actions — modal phrases consisting of verbs «sculan, willan, magan, cunnan»(NE shall, will,
may, can) and the Infinitive of the notional verb.
In ME the use of modal phrases, especially with the verb «shall» became
increasingly common. «shall» plus Infinitive was not the principal means of indicating future
actions in any context. «Shall» could retain its modal meaning of necessity, but often
weakened it to such an extent that the phrase denoted «pure» futurity.
In late ME texts «shall» was used both as a modal verb and as a Future Tense
auxiliary. Future actions were also commonly expressed by ME «willen» with an Infinitive.

5. Проблема вивчення словникового складу англійської мови. (The problem of

studying the vocabulary of the English language.)
Already in this period of Old English, the language began applying its intention to
borrow words from other languages. From the native Celts, it took clan, bin, gull, and crag,
as well as names for places and rivers (Dover, Kent, Severn, and Thames).
Latin words arrived even earlier with the Roman conquest of 43 B.C. (Before Christ)
(cheese, cup, kitchen, plant, street, wine). A later wave of Latin words was brought with
Christian monks and missionaries, such as abbot, altar, acolyte, candle, martyr, Mass, and
lily.
The next addition to the vocabulary to close the Old English period resulted from the
Viking invasions to Britain during the 8th and 9th centuries. These newcomers, who had
settled alongside the Anglo-Saxons, contributed Old Norse vocabulary such as the following:
From Old Norse: flat, cake, take, get, call, husband, want, cut, both, ugly, fellow, hit,
odd, egg, sister, law, leg, rag, window, die, are (form of the verb be) words beginning with sk
sound: scorch, scrape, scrub, skill, and sky.
The year 1066 marked the dramatic transition to Middle English, with William the
Conqueror, king of Normandy in Western France, drawing his army into Britain. Old French
thus became the spoken language of the ruling classes; the peasants and lower classes
spoke Anglo-Saxon and some surviving Celtic dialects;
In the coming 400 years, Middle English gradually overthrew French and became the
language of all classes, but words for government, religion, food, law, art, literature, and
medicine are originally French.
From Norman French: parliament, justice, crime, marriage, money, ornament, art,
pleasure, joy, rent.
6. Розвиток лексикографії англійської мови. (Development of English lexicography.)
The first English dictionaries were published in the sixteenth century, though none of
them were ever called 'dictionaries': various names were used, like hortus 'garden' or
thesaurus 'hoard'. They included words organized in a systematic, usually alphabetic, way
so that the user could find words easily.
They were bilingual foreign language word-books (English-French and
French-English, English-Italian and Italian-English, English-Spanish and Spanish-English,
English-Latin and Latin-English).
In 1604 the first monolingual dictionary was published. It was A Table Alphabeticall,
containing and teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usual English words
borrowed from the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, or French, etc., by Robert Cawdrey ,a
schoolmaster.
The best dictionary of this time was the Universal Etymological Dictionary by
Nathaniel Bailey(1721). For the first time a dictionary included etymology, usage including
style information, syllabification, illustrative and even pronunciation.

7. Характеристика літературних пам’яток англійської мови і їх важливість для

вивчення історії мови. (Characteristics of literary monuments of the English language and
their importance for the study of the history of the language.)
● Old English
The Old English language or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest form of English. The Old
English was spoken from about A.D.(Anno Domini)-(Before Christ) 600 to about 1100. Many
of the poems of the period are pagan, in particular Widsith and Beowulf. The greatest
English poem, Beowulf is the first English epic. The author of Beowulf is anonymous. It is a
story of a brave young man Beowulf in 3182 lines.
● Middle English
Ideas and themes from French and Celtic literature appear in English writing at about
this time, but the first great name in English literature is that of Geoffrey Chaucer
(1343-1400). Chaucer introduces the iambic pentameter line, the rhyming couplet and other
rhymes used in Italian poetry. Some of Chaucer's work is prose and some is lyric poetry, but
his greatest work is mostly narrative poetry, which we find in Troilus and Criseyde and The
Canterbury Tales.
● The Canterbury Tales: 1387-1400
Collections of tales are a favourite literary convention of the 14th century. Boccaccio's
Decameron is the best-known example before Chaucer's time, but Chaucer in The
Canterbury Tales outshines his predecessors.

8. Зміни у синтаксисі англійської мови. (Changes in the syntax of the English language)
The syntactic structure of a language can be described at the level of the phrase and
at the level of the sentence.
In OE texts we find a variety of word phrases.
A noun pattern consisted of a noun as the head word and pronouns, adjectives,
numerals and other nouns as determiners and attributes. Most noun modifiers agreed with
the noun in gender, number and case,
An adjective pattern could include adverbs, nouns or pronouns in one of the oblique
cases with or without prepositions, and infinitives, e.g. him wæs manna þearf ‘he was in
need of man’.
 Verb patterns included a great variety of dependent components: nouns and
pronouns in oblique cases with or without prepositions, adverbs, infinitives and participles,
e.g. brinз þā þīnз ‘bring those things’.
Middle English tends to be very similar to Present-Day English word order.
However, Modern English word order is quite rigid. It has to be, really, because the
word order is what tells you about the subject and the object in a sentence. There is a
difference between Jack ate the fish and The fish ate Jack

9. Конверсія, як один з найважливіших засобів розвитку словникового складу

англійської мови. (Conversion, as one of the most important means of developing the
vocabulary of the English language.)
Conversion is to some extent inherent in many languages, but in English it is
particularly widespread. The question of the place of conversion in the system of word
formation of the English language has great theoretical and practical significance.
Thus, in Robert Morris's grammar it was pointed out that one and the same word, in
his opinion, can be a noun in one part of the sentence, an adjective in another and a verb in
the third. The conversion is often associated with metonymy.
It should be noted that conversion facilitates the perception and understanding of the
language, i.e. you have to remember less words, and you can guess the meaning of a word.
Thus, conversion is an extremely productive way of replenishing the vocabulary with new
words. There are different models of conversion: nouns, verbs and adjectives can be
converted into other parts of speech.

10. Характеристика поширення англійської мови на континенті Америка в

історичному плані. (Characteristics of the spread of English on the continent of America in
historical terms.)
The vocabulary of modern English has evolved in different historical epochs with the
help of various derivational means. The name "conversion" has been the subject of fierce
discussions since 1981, when the famous English linguist Henry Sweet first used the term.
One of the problems associated with conversion is attributing it to one or another type of
word formation.
Approximately until the XV century, the formation of verbs from nouns and adjectives
was greatly reduced due to the appearance of a large number of nouns and verbs borrowed
from the French language.
Probably most of the borrowed words brought to America on the tongues of English
colonists that carried the same or closely related meanings on both sides of the Atlantic. But
other words have arisen, and some older words have shifted meaning.
A conversation between American and British friends today would highlight the
effects of a centuries-long separation. Americans use the terms highway and freeway (not
motorway), traffic circle (not roundabout), and we usually pass (rather than overtake) other
motorists.
Some of the previously adopted Spanish words are now extinct in English; however,
the body of terms in current use is still vast: marijuana, cockroach, coyote, mustang,
sombrero, lasso, hacienda, wrangler, cafeteria, pueblo, bonanza, canyon, sierra, filibuster,
rumba, tornado, etc.
Although the Dutch influence in America was not long-lasting (New Amsterdam was
captured by the English in 1664), certain Dutch expressions made their way through the
linguistic "crowd" and gained for them-selves a fixed place in the English vocabulary.” The
following serve as examples: spook, Santa Claus, dope, yankee, boodle, coleslaw. The list
of German loanwords in AE is also quite extensive.

V. ЛІНГВОКРАЇНОЗНАВСТВО АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ

1. Основні етапи історичного розвитку Англії (Кельти в історії Англії;

Римська Британія; Норманське завоювання Британії; Правління Тюдорів). (The
main stages of the historical development of England (Celts in the history of England;
Roman Britain; Norman conquest of Britain; Tudor rule).)
Celts in the History of England:
The Celts, a group of Indo-European tribes, migrated to the British Isles around 500
BCE. The Britons, one of the Celtic tribes, inhabited what is now England. They lived in tribal
societies and had a rich culture characterized by distinctive languages, intricate art styles,
and elaborate religious practices. The Celts engaged in agriculture, grew crops such as
wheat and barley, and raised livestock. They also had skilled metalworkers who crafted
intricate jewelry, weaponry, and everyday objects. The Celts traded with other cultures, such
as the Phoenicians and later the Romans, establishing a network of commerce.

Roman Britain:
In 43 CE, the Roman Empire, led by Emperor Claudius, launched an invasion of
Britain. The Romans gradually conquered the island, establishing the province of Britannia.
Roman rule brought significant changes to England. They constructed a network of roads,
including the famous Fosse Way and Watling Street, which facilitated trade and
communication. The Romans built cities such as Londinium (London), Eboracum (York), and
Verulamium (St Albans) with their characteristic grid patterns and architectural features like
amphitheaters and bathhouses. Christianity arrived in Britain during the Roman period, and
several Christian communities emerged.

Norman Conquest of Britain:

The Norman Conquest took place in 1066 when William the Conqueror, Duke of
Normandy, invaded England. The conquest culminated in the decisive Battle of Hastings,
where William defeated King Harold II. William ascended to the English throne, marking the
beginning of Norman rule. The Normans were of Viking origin but had adopted the French
language and culture. They brought significant changes to England, including the
introduction of a feudal system. Large stone castles, such as the Tower of London and
Durham Castle, were constructed to consolidate Norman power. The Normans also
implemented administrative reforms, including the Domesday Book, a comprehensive survey
of landownership in England. The Norman Conquest had a profound impact on the English
language, as French words and phrases were incorporated into English, creating a linguistic
blend known as Anglo-Norman.

Tudor Rule:
The Tudor period began in 1485 with the ascent of Henry VII to the throne and lasted
until the death of Elizabeth I in 1603. The Tudor dynasty was of Welsh-English origin and
played a pivotal role in shaping England's history. Henry VII established a strong central
government, restoring stability after the Wars of the Roses. His son, Henry VIII, is known for
his break with the Roman Catholic Church, leading to the English Reformation and the
establishment of the Church of England. Henry VIII's reign was also marked by his six
marriages and the dissolution of the monasteries. His daughter, Elizabeth I, became one of
England's most influential monarchs, overseeing a period of cultural and economic growth
known as the Elizabethan era. This period saw the flourishing of English literature, with the
works of William Shakespeare and other playwrights. The Tudors also fostered exploration
and colonization, with figures like Sir Francis Drake circumnavigating the globe and England
establishing colonies in the New World.

2. Основні етапи історичного розвитку США (Корінні американці; Війна за

незалежність; Расова нерівність та Громадянська війна у США). (The main
stages of the historical development of the USA (Native Americans; War for Independence;
Racial inequality and the Civil War in the USA).)
Native Americans:
Before the arrival of European settlers, the land that is now the United States was
inhabited by various indigenous peoples. Native American tribes had diverse cultures,
languages, and societal structures. They lived off the land, engaging in hunting, gathering,
and agriculture. Native Americans had established complex civilizations, such as the Maya,
Inca, and Aztec in what is now Mexico and Central America, as well as the Cahokia
civilization in what is now Illinois. In North America, tribes like the Apache, Cherokee,
Iroquois, Sioux, and many others had their own distinct cultures and territories. Native
Americans had a deep connection to the land and were diverse in their traditions, spiritual
beliefs, and social organizations.

War for Independence:

The War for Independence, also known as the American Revolution, took place from
1775 to 1783. It was a conflict between the American colonies and Great Britain, which had
established colonial rule over the region. The colonists, inspired by ideas of liberty and
independence, sought to break free from British control. The war was characterized by
pivotal events such as the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the Declaration of
Independence in 1776, and the decisive victory at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781. The war
concluded with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which recognized the United States as an
independent nation. The war laid the foundation for the formation of a new government and
the drafting of the United States Constitution.

Racial Inequality and the Civil War:

One of the defining challenges in American history has been the issue of racial
inequality, particularly concerning African Americans. Slavery was a deeply entrenched
institution in the southern states, where enslaved Africans and their descendants were
treated as property and denied basic rights. The tension between the slaveholding South
and the free states in the North grew over time, leading to the eruption of the Civil War in
1861. The war pitted the Union, composed of the northern states, against the Confederacy,
made up of the southern states that seceded from the Union. The primary cause of the war
was the debate over slavery and the South's desire to preserve it. The war lasted for four
years, resulting in immense loss of life and destruction. The Union victory in 1865 led to the
abolition of slavery with the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States
Constitution. However, racial tensions and the struggle for civil rights persisted in the
aftermath of the war.
3. Історія США 20 століття (Буремні 20-ті; Велика депресія; Епоха Холодної
війни). (History of the USA in the 20th century (Roaring 20s; Great Depression; Cold War
Era).)

Roaring Twenties:
The 1920s, often referred to as the Roaring Twenties or the Jazz Age, were a time of
cultural and societal change in the United States. The decade followed the end of World War
I and was characterized by economic prosperity, technological advancements, and a shift in
social norms. The economy experienced rapid growth, with the automobile industry
booming, mass production increasing, and the stock market reaching unprecedented
heights. This era saw the rise of consumer culture, with Americans embracing new
technologies like radios, refrigerators, and household appliances. The entertainment industry
flourished, with the popularity of jazz music, dance clubs, and the emergence of Hollywood
as the center of the film industry. However, the decade also had its challenges, including
racial tensions, the resurgence of nativism, and the Prohibition era, which banned the sale
and consumption of alcohol.

Great Depression:
The Great Depression, which began with the stock market crash of 1929, was one of
the most severe economic downturns in American history. The crash led to widespread
unemployment, business failures, and a collapse of the banking system. The 1930s were
marked by widespread poverty, hunger, and homelessness. Millions of Americans lost their
jobs and were unable to support their families. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who took
office in 1933, implemented a series of programs known as the New Deal to combat the
effects of the Great Depression. These programs aimed to stimulate the economy, provide
relief to those in need, and reform the financial system. The New Deal included initiatives
such as the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Works Progress Administration, and Social
Security. While the Great Depression lasted throughout most of the 1930s, the United States
began to recover following the outbreak of World War II, as industrial production ramped up
to support the war effort.

Cold War Era:

The Cold War era, which lasted from the late 1940s to the early 1990s, was a period
of political tension and ideological conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. It
was characterized by the arms race, espionage, and the threat of nuclear warfare. Following
World War II, the United States emerged as a global superpower, and the Soviet Union
emerged as its primary rival. The two nations engaged in a global struggle for influence, with
the United States advocating for democracy and capitalism, and the Soviet Union promoting
communism. The Cold War manifested through proxy conflicts, such as the Korean War and
the Vietnam War, as well as through competition in space exploration, known as the Space
Race. The era was marked by events like the Cuban Missile Crisis, where the world came
close to nuclear conflict. The Cold War finally came to an end with the collapse of the Soviet
Union in 1991, symbolized by the fall of the Berlin Wall.

4. Основні етапи історичного розвитку Шотландії та Ірландії (Роберт Брюс

та народження шотландського націоналізму; Марія королева Шотландії;
Плантація Ольстера; Сучасна історія Ольстера). (The main stages of the historical
development of Scotland and Ireland (Robert Bruce and the birth of Scottish nationalism;
Mary Queen of Scotland; Plantation of Ulster; Modern history of Ulster).)
Scotland:
Robert Bruce and the Birth of Scottish Nationalism:
In the early 14th century, Scotland faced political turmoil and disputes over the
succession to the Scottish throne. Robert Bruce, a Scottish nobleman, claimed the throne
and led the Scottish Wars of Independence against English domination. His most notable
victory came at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, where the Scottish forces defeated a
much larger English army. This victory led to the eventual recognition of Scotland's
independence in the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328. Robert Bruce's reign marked
the birth of Scottish nationalism and solidified Scotland as a separate nation.

Mary Queen of Scotland:

Mary Stuart, also known as Mary Queen of Scots, played a significant role in Scottish
history during the 16th century. She became queen at the age of six days old and faced
numerous challenges during her tumultuous reign. Mary's reign was marked by religious
conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, and she faced opposition from various factions,
including Protestant nobles. Her complicated personal life, including her marriages and
involvement in political intrigues, led to her imprisonment and eventual execution by order of
Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1587. Despite her troubled reign, Mary Queen of Scots
remains a notable figure in Scottish history.

Ireland:
Plantation of Ulster:
The Plantation of Ulster refers to the colonization of Ulster, the northern province of
Ireland, by English and Scottish settlers during the 17th century. It was a deliberate effort by
the English crown to assert control over the region and weaken the power of the native Irish
clans. The plantation began in the early 1600s and involved the confiscation of land owned
by Irish landowners, who were mostly Catholic. The land was then distributed among
Protestant settlers, predominantly English and Scottish, who were encouraged to establish
agricultural and commercial enterprises. This event had a lasting impact on the
demographics, culture, and politics of Ulster and contributed to long-standing tensions
between the Catholic and Protestant communities in the region.

Modern History of Ulster:

The modern history of Ulster, particularly Northern Ireland, has been marked by
sectarian tensions and conflicts between the Catholic and Protestant communities. Following
the partition of Ireland in 1921, Northern Ireland, which comprised six counties of Ulster,
remained part of the United Kingdom. The predominantly Protestant unionist community
supported Northern Ireland's status as part of the UK, while the predominantly Catholic
nationalist community sought reunification with the rest of Ireland. The struggle for civil rights
and equality in the 1960s led to increased violence and the emergence of paramilitary
groups such as the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and loyalist paramilitaries. This period,
known as "The Troubles," resulted in thousands of deaths and widespread social and
political unrest. The Good Friday Agreement of 1998, a peace agreement between the UK
and Ireland, helped bring about a more peaceful and stable environment in Northern Ireland,
although tensions and occasional incidents continue to persist.
5. Географія та демографія частин Сполученого Королівства – Англії та
Уельсу. (Geography and demography of parts of the United Kingdom - England and Wales.)
England:
Geography:
England is located in the southern part of the island of Great Britain and shares
borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. It is predominantly low-lying, with a
varied landscape that includes rolling hills, fertile plains, and river valleys. The Pennines, a
range of hills and mountains, stretch across the central part of England. The country has a
diverse coastline, featuring cliffs, sandy beaches, and estuaries. England's major rivers
include the Thames, Severn, Mersey, and Tyne. It experiences a temperate maritime
climate, characterized by mild winters and relatively cool summers, with rainfall distributed
throughout the year.
Demography:
England is the most populous country within the United Kingdom, with a diverse
population. Major cities include London (the capital), Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, and
Liverpool. The population of England is predominantly English, but it also includes significant
communities of people from various ethnic backgrounds, such as those of South Asian,
African, Caribbean, and East Asian descent. Christianity is the predominant religion,
although there is a significant presence of other faiths, including Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism,
and Buddhism.

Wales:
Geography:
Wales is situated in the western part of Great Britain, sharing a border with England
to the east. It is a predominantly mountainous country, with the Cambrian Mountains and
Snowdonia National Park occupying much of its central and northern regions. The coastline
of Wales is known for its scenic beauty, featuring rugged cliffs, sandy beaches, and
picturesque bays. The country has several rivers, including the Severn, Wye, and Dee.
Wales experiences a temperate maritime climate, with mild winters and cool summers,
although the mountainous areas tend to be cooler and wetter than the lowland regions.
Demography:
Wales has a smaller population compared to England, and its demographic makeup
is predominantly Welsh. The majority of the population resides in the southern and eastern
parts of the country, with Cardiff being the capital and largest city. Welsh is spoken by a
minority of the population, particularly in the western and northern regions. Christianity is the
predominant religion, but there is also a growing presence of non-religious and other faith
communities.

6. Географія та демографія частин Сполученого Королівства –Шотландії та

Північної Ірландії. (Geography and demography of parts of the United Kingdom - Scotland
and Northern Ireland.)
Scotland:
Geography:
Scotland occupies the northern part of the island of Great Britain and shares borders
with England to the south. It is known for its diverse and striking landscapes. The Scottish
Highlands, located in the north and west, are characterized by rugged mountains, including
Ben Nevis, the highest peak in the British Isles. The region also features deep glens, lochs
(lakes), and vast stretches of moorland. The Central Lowlands, which include cities like
Glasgow and Edinburgh, are dominated by rolling hills, fertile farmland, and river valleys,
including the River Clyde and River Forth. Scotland has an extensive coastline with
numerous islands, including the Inner and Outer Hebrides and the Orkney and Shetland
Islands.
Demography:
Scotland has a population with a strong sense of national identity and cultural
heritage. The majority of the population is of Scottish descent, and the people are known as
Scots. The largest city and capital is Edinburgh, with other major cities including Glasgow,
Aberdeen, and Dundee. English is the primary language spoken, although Scotland has its
own distinct Scots dialect. The country has a rich history and traditions, including Highland
and Lowland cultures, traditional music, and events like the Highland Games. Christianity,
particularly the Church of Scotland, is the predominant religion, but there is also religious
diversity, including Roman Catholicism, other Christian denominations, and non-religious
affiliations.

Northern Ireland
Geography:
Northern Ireland is located in the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, sharing a
border with the Republic of Ireland to the south. It is a relatively small region, encompassing
six counties and an area known as Ulster. The landscape of Northern Ireland is diverse and
picturesque, featuring mountains, such as the Mourne Mountains in County Down, and a
stunning coastline with cliffs, sandy beaches, and glens. Lough Neagh, the largest
freshwater lake in the British Isles, is situated in Northern Ireland. The Giant's Causeway, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site, is a famous natural attraction known for its unique rock
formations.
Demography:
Northern Ireland has a population composed of different ethno-religious communities,
primarily the unionist (predominantly Protestant) and nationalist (predominantly Catholic)
communities. The largest city and capital is Belfast, with other significant urban centers
including Derry/Londonderry, Newry, and Armagh. English is the primary language spoken,
with a regional variation known as Ulster Scots. Northern Ireland has a complex history and
has experienced periods of political and sectarian tensions, particularly during the period
known as "The Troubles." The peace process and the Good Friday Agreement of 1998 have
contributed to a more stable and inclusive society.

7. Географія та демографія США, Австралії та Канади. (Geography and

demography of the USA, Australia and Canada.)
United States:
Geography:
The United States is a vast country located in North America. It is bordered by
Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The country has a diverse range of
geographical features. It includes the Appalachian Mountains in the east, the Rocky
Mountains in the west, and the Great Plains in the central region. The country has numerous
rivers, including the Mississippi, Missouri, and Colorado, as well as major bodies of water
such as the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. The United States is known for its varied
climates, ranging from arctic conditions in Alaska to tropical climates in Hawaii and Florida.
Demography:
 The United States is one of the most populous countries in the world. It is known for
its diverse population, which includes people from various ethnic and cultural backgrounds.
The largest ethnic group is of European descent, followed by African Americans, Hispanics,
Asian Americans, and Native Americans. English is the primary language spoken, but due to
its diverse population, many other languages are also spoken across the country. The United
States has major urban centers, including New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and
Houston, with each city having its own unique cultural and demographic characteristics.

Australia:
Geography:
Australia is the world's largest island and the smallest continent, located in the
southern hemisphere. It is surrounded by the Indian and Pacific Oceans and is separated
from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas. The country is known for its vast, arid interior
known as the Outback, which covers a significant portion of the continent. Australia has
diverse landscapes, including coastal regions, mountain ranges such as the Great Dividing
Range, and fertile agricultural areas. The country is famous for its unique wildlife and natural
landmarks, such as the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru (Ayers Rock).
Demography:
Australia has a relatively small population compared to its geographic size. The
majority of the population is concentrated in urban areas along the coasts, particularly in
cities such as Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide. Australia has a
multicultural society, with people from various ethnic backgrounds. The indigenous
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have a significant presence and contribute to
Australia's cultural diversity. English is the most widely spoken language, and Christianity is
the predominant religion, although Australia has a growing number of people identifying as
non-religious or following other faiths.

Canada:
Geography:
Canada is the second-largest country in the world by land area, occupying most of
North America. It is located to the north of the United States and is bordered by the Atlantic,
Pacific, and Arctic Oceans. Canada is known for its vast wilderness, including expansive
forests, rugged mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains, and the Canadian Shield, a
large area of exposed ancient rock. The country has numerous lakes and rivers, including
the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. Canada experiences diverse climates, ranging
from arctic conditions in the north to temperate climates in the southern regions.
Demography:
Canada has a relatively small population compared to its land area. The majority of
Canadians live in urban areas, with significant population centers including Toronto,
Montreal, Vancouver, and Calgary. Canada is known for its cultural diversity, with a
significant proportion of the population being immigrants or descendants of immigrants from
various countries. English and French are the official languages, and Canada has a bilingual
policy. Christianity is the predominant religion, but there is a growing presence of other faiths
and a significant number of people identifying as non-religious.
VI. ТЕОРЕТИЧНА ГРАМАТИКА АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ

1. Граматичні класи слів, принципи їхньої класифікації. (Grammatical classes of

words, principles of their classification.)
The traditional term “ parts of speech ” was developed in Ancient Greek linguistics.
The term “parts of speech” is accepted by modern linguistics to denote the
lexico-grammatical classes of words correlating with each other in the general system of
language on the basis of their grammatically relevant properties.
Parts of speech are grammatical classes of words distinguished on the basis of three
criteria: semantic, morphological and syntactic, i.e. meaning, form and function.
The classification is based on three principles: (1) meaning, (2) form, (3) function.
(1) By meaning we do not mean the individual meaning of each separate word (its
lexical meaning) but the meaning common to all the words of the given class and
constituting its essence. Thus, the meaning of the substantive (noun) is "thingness". This
applies equally to all and every noun and constitutes the structural meaning of the noun as a
type of word. Similarly, the meaning of the verb as a type of word is that of "process",
whatever the individual meaning of a separate verb may happen to be.
(2) By form we mean the morphological characteristics of a type of word. Thus, the
noun is characterized by the category of number (singular and plural), the verb by tense,
mood, etc. Several types of words (prepositions, conjunctions, and others) are characterized
by invariability.
(3) By function we mean the syntactical properties of a type of word: (a) its method of
combining with other words, (b) its function in the sentence; (a) has to deal with phrases, (b)
with sentence structure.
For example, write letters – Verb+Noun; (write quickly – Verb + Adverb).
Traditionally, all parts of speech are subdivided on the upper level of classification
into notional words and functional words. Notional words, which traditionally include nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns and numerals, have complete nominative meanings,
are in most cases changeable and fulfill self-dependent syntactic functions in the sentence.
The noun, for example, as a part of speech, is traditionally characterized by 1) the categorial
meaning of substance (“thingness”), 2) a specific set of word-building affixes, the
grammatical categories of number, case and article determination, prepositional connections
and modification by an adjective, and 3) the substantive functions of subject, object or
predicative in the sentence. In the same way, all the other notional parts of speech are
described. Functional words, which include conjunctions, prepositions, articles,
interjections, particles, and modal words, have incomplete nominative value, are
unchangeable and fulfill mediatory, constructional syntactic functions.

In the English language, words are classified into different grammatical classes, also
known as parts of speech, based on their syntactic and semantic properties. Here's an
elaboration on the major grammatical classes in English:
● Noun: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns can be
classified further into proper nouns (specific names of people, places, etc.) and
common nouns (general names of people, places, etc.). Examples: John, London,
cat, love.
 ● Pronoun: A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid repetition. Pronouns
refer to a noun or group of nouns called the antecedent. Examples: he, she, it, they,
who, which.
● Verb: A verb is a word that expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being. Verbs
can be classified into different categories such as action verbs, linking verbs, and
helping verbs. Examples: run, is, have, become.
● Adjective: An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun by
giving more information about its quality, size, shape, color, etc. Examples: beautiful,
big, round, red.
● Adverb: An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb,
providing information about how, when, where, or to what extent the action or quality
occurs. Examples: quickly, very, here, often.
● Preposition: A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun (or
pronoun) and another word in the sentence. Prepositions often indicate location,
time, or direction. Examples: in, on, at, to, from.
● Conjunction: A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses in a
sentence. Conjunctions can be coordinating (connect words or groups of words of
equal importance) or subordinating (connect a dependent clause to an independent
clause). Examples: and, but, or, because, although.
● Interjection: An interjection is a word or phrase used to express strong emotion or
sudden exclamation. Interjections are usually set apart from the rest of the sentence
by an exclamation mark or a comma. Examples: oh!, wow, ouch, hey.

2. Загальна характеристика іменника і його граматичних категорій. (General

characteristics of the noun and its grammatical categories.)
- Nouns directly name various phenomena of reality and have the strongest
nominative force among notional parts of speech: practically every phenomenon can be
presented by a noun as an independent referent, or, can be substantivized. Nouns denote
things and objects proper (tree), abstract notions (love), various qualities (bitterness), and
even actions (movement). All these words function in speech in the same way as nouns
denoting things proper.
- Formally, the noun is characterized by a specific set of word-building affixes and
word-building models, which mark a noun: suffixes of the doer (worker, naturalist, etc.),
suffixes of abstract notions (laziness, rotation, security, elegance, etc.), special conversion
patterns (to find – a find), etc. As for word-changing categories, the noun is changed
according to the categories of number (boy-boys), case (boy-boy’s), and article
determination (boy, a boy, the boy). Formally the noun is also characterized by specific
combinability with verbs, adjectives and other nouns. The noun is the only part of speech
which can be prepositionally combined with other words, e.g.: the book of the teacher, to go
out of the room, away from home, typical of the noun, etc.
- The most characteristic functions of the noun in a sentence are the function of a
subject and an object, since they commonly denote persons and things as components of
the situation, e.g.: The teacher took the book. Besides, the noun can function as a
predicative (part of a compound predicate), e.g.: He is a teacher; and as an adverbial
modifier, e.g.: It happened last summer. The noun in English can also function as an
attribute in the following cases: when it is used in the genitive case (the teacher’s book),
when it is used with a preposition (the book of the teacher), or in contact groups of two
nouns the first of which qualifies the second (cannon ball, space exploration, sea breeze, the
Bush administration, etc.).
- The category of gender in English is a highly controversial subject in grammar.
The fact is, the category of gender in English differs from the category of gender in many
other languages, for example, in Russian, in French or in German. The category of gender
linguistically may be either meaningful (or, natural), rendering the actual sex-based features
of the referents, or formal (arbitrary).
- In English gender is a meaningful category for the whole class of the nouns,
because it reflects the real gender attributes (or their absence/ irrelevance) of the referent
denoted. It is realized through obligatory correspondence of every noun with the 3rd person
singular pronouns - he, she, or it: man – he, woman – she, tree, dog – it. Personal pronouns
are grammatical gender classifiers in English. The category of gender is formed by two
oppositions organized hierarchically. The first opposition is general and opposes human, or
person nouns, distinguishing masculine and feminine gender (man – he, woman – she) and
all the other, non-human, non-person nouns, belonging to the neuter gender (tree, dog – it).
The second opposition is formed by the human nouns only: on the lower level of the
opposition the nouns of masculine gender and of feminine gender are opposed.
- The category of number presents a classic example of a binary privative
grammatical opposition. The category of number is expressed by the paradigmatic
opposition of two forms: the singular and the plural. The strong member in this opposition,
the plural, is marked by special formal marks, the main of which is the productive suffix –(e)s
which exists in three allomorphs - [s], [z], [iz], e.g.: cats, boys, roses. The singular is regularly
unmarked (weak member).
- The category of case in English constitutes a great linguistic problem. There are
four approaches which can be distinguished in the analysis of this problem (the theory of
positional cases, the theory of prepositional cases, the theory of limited case, the theory of
the possessive postposition”or “the theory of no case”). The theory of limited case” is the
most widely accepted theory of the case in English today. It is based on the oppositional
presentation of the category; the category of case is expressed by the opposition of two
forms: the first form, “the genitive case”, is the strong, featured member of the opposition,
marked by the postpositional element ‘–s’ e.g.: the girl’s books, the girls’ books; the second,
unfeatured form is the weak member of the opposition and is usually referred to as “the
common case” (“non-genitive”). The category of case is realized in full in animate nouns and
restrictedly in inanimate nouns in English, hence the name – “the theory of limited case”.

3. Загальна характеристика дієслова. Проблема класифікації дієслів. (General

characteristics of the verb. The problem of classification of verbs.)
- The verb as a notional part of speech has the categorial meaning of dynamic
process, or process developing in time.
- Formally, the verb is characterized by a set of specific word-building affixes, e.g.: to
activate, to widen, to classify, to synchronize, to overestimate, to reread, etc.; there are
some other means of building verbs, among them sound-replacive and stress-shifting
models, e.g.: blood – to bleed, import – to import. The processual semantics of the verb
determines its combinability with nouns, and with adverbs. The verb is usually
characterized as the most complex part of speech, because it has more word-changing
categories than any other notional part of speech. It is changed according to the categories
of person and number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. Besides, each verb has a specific set
of non-finite forms (the infinitive, the gerund, participle), otherwise called “verbals”, or
“verbids”, opposed to the finite forms of the verb; their opposition is treated as “the category
of “finitude”.
- The verbal category of tense in the most general sense expresses the time
characteristics of the process denoted by the verb. In English there are four verbal tense
forms: the present (work), the past (worked), the future (shall/will work), and the
future-in-the-past (should/would work). The two future tense forms of the verb express the
future in two separate ways: as an after-event in relation to the present, e.g.: He will work
tomorrow (not right now), and as an after-event in relation to the past, e.g.: He said he would
work the next day.
- there are two interconnected tense categories in English. The first verbal tense
category, which can be called “primary time”, “absolutive time”, or “retrospective time”, is
expressed by the opposition of the past and the present forms. The suffix “-ed” of the regular
verbs is the formal feature which marks the past as the strong member of the opposition.
The present, like any other weak member of an opposition, has a much wider range of
meanings than its strong counterpart. The second verbal tense category, which may be
called “prospective”, or “relative”, is formed by the opposition of the future and the non-future
separately in relation to the present or to the past. The future, marked by the auxiliary verbs
shall/will (the future in relation to the present) or should/would (the future in relation to the
past).
- The general meaning of the category of aspect is the inherent mode of realization
of the process. Aspect can be expressed both by lexical and grammatical means. In English,
the aspective meaning is manifested in the lexical subdivision of verbs into limited and
unlimited, e.g.: to go – to come, to sit – sit down, etc. The category of aspect, like the
category of tense, is not a unique grammatical category in English, but a system of two
categories. The first category is realized through the paradigmatic opposition of the
continuous (progressive) forms and the non-continuous (indefinite/simple) forms of the verb.
This category can be called the category of development. The strong, marked member of the
opposition, the continuous, is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be and participle I of
the notional verb, e.g.: I am working. The weak, unfeatured member of the opposition, the
indefinite, stresses the fact of the performance of the action. The second aspective
category is formed by the opposition of the perfect and the non-perfect forms of the verb;
this category can be called the category of retrospective coordination. The perfect is formed
with the help of the auxiliary verb to have and participle II of the notional verb: I have done
this work.
- The verbal category of voice shows the direction of the process which regards the
participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic structure of the sentence. Voice is a
very specific verbal category: it does not reflect the actual properties of the process denoted,
but the speaker’s estimation of it.
- The category of voice is expressed by the opposition of the passive and active
forms of the verb; the active form of the verb is the unmarked, weak member of the
opposition, and the passive is the strong member marked by the combination of the auxiliary
verb to be (or the verbs to get, to become in colloquial speech) and participle II of the
notional verb. It denotes the action received or a state experienced by the referent of the
subject of the syntactic construction; in other words, the syntactic subject of the sentence
denotes the patient, the receiver of the action in the situation described, while the syntactic
object, if any, denotes the doer, or the agent of the action.
- The category of mood shows whether the action is real or unreal. This category is
realized through the opposition of the direct (indicative) mood forms of the verb and the
oblique mood forms: the indicative mood shows that the process is real, i.e. that it took place
in the past, takes place in the present, or will take place in the future, e.g.: She helped me;
She helps me; She will help me; the oblique mood shows that the process is unreal,
imaginary (hypothetical, possible or impossible, desired, etc.), e.g.: If only she helped me! In
this respect the category of mood resembles the category of voice: it shows the speaker’s
subjective interpretation of the event as either actual or imaginary.

4. Прикметник. Загальна характеристика прикметників. Граматична

категорія ступенів порівняння. (Adjective. General characteristics of adjectives.
Grammatical category of degrees of comparison.)
The adjective expresses the categorical semantics of property of a substance.
Adjectives are distinguished by a specific combinability with nouns, which they modify, by a
combinability with link verbs and with modifying adverbs, as well as by special derivational
features. In the sentence the adjective performs the functions of an attribute and a
predicative. The English adjective is distinguished only by the category of comparison.
Some authors distinguish between base adjectives, having no derivational suffixes,
and derived adjectives, characterized by some patterns of derivation.
In accordance with their meanings adjectives are traditionally divided into two large
subclasses: qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of size, shape,
colour, which an object may posses in different degrees. Relative adjectives express
properties determined by the direct relation to some other substances. The ability of an
adjective to form degrees of comparison is usually taken as a formal sign of its qualitative
character. However, in actual speech, two types of contradictions may be pointed out: 1)
substances can posses such qualities as are incompatible with the idea of degrees of
comparison (immobile, deaf, final, etc.): 2) many relative adjectives can form the degrees of
comparison and can be graded quantitatively (a military design – a less military design – a
more military design). In order to overcome these contradictions such two terms are
proposed: evaluative and specificative. Thus, one and the same adjective can be used
either in the evaluative or specificative function.
A special lexemic set is recognized among the words signifying properties of a
nounal referent. These words – the category of state – are built up by the prefix a- and
denote different states (alive, afloat, awake, alike, etc.). Some authors consider them as a
separate part of speech on the basis of discriminating three features – morphological (their
specific form), syntactical ( the predicative function) and semantic (the meaning of state).
But this part-of-speech interpretation is not shared by all linguists and they prove that these
words belong to the adjectival class and their peculiarities are common for all adjectives.
Adjectives display the ability to be easily substantivized by conversion when used in
the typical nounal functions – those of the subject and the predicate. These words are
distinguished by a high productivity in Modern English and mixed categorical nature. They
fall into two main grammatical subgroups:
● Pluralia tantum – personal multitudes –semantically they express sets of people
(the English, the poor, the rich, the deaf, etc.).
● Singularia tantum – express abstract ideas of various types and connotations (the
unforgivable, the invisible).
The category of the degrees of comparison expresses quantitative distinctions of
qualities, it shows whether the adjective denotes the property of some substance absolutely
(the positive degree), relatively, having the feature of restricted superiority between two
elements (the comparative degree) and the highest amount of property, having the feature
of unrestricted superiority (the superlative degree). The synthetical forms of comparison in
–er and –est coexist with the analytical forms effected by the auxiliaries more and most.
There are also specific less/least combinations which are called reverse comparison. But
some writers reject their interpretation as analytical degrees of comparison and look at
them as the combinations of adverbs with adjectives.

5. Теорія словосполучення та основні типи словосполучень. (The theory of word

combinations and the main types of word combinations.)
The way in which word combinations are constituted is described as minor syntax in
contrast to major syntax dealing with linguistic units of communicative value. The syntactical
description of any language is facilitated by isolating certain recurrent units of expression
and examining their distribution in contexts. English syntax is a many-layered organization of
relatively few types of its basic units. We should distinguish between:
● syntagmatic groupings of notional words only – having a self-dependant nominative
function, denoting complex phenomena and their properties, including
semi-predicative combinations (a clever girl, very beautiful, sitting in an armchair);
● groupings of notional words with functional words – equivalent to separate words by
their nominative function and non-self-dependant (in a low voice, with difficulty);
● syntagmatic groupings of functional words – analogous to separate functional words
and used as connectors and specifiers of notional elements (so that, from out of).
Groupings of notional words are divided into two types by their grammatical and
semantic properties: subordinate phrases, coordinate phrases. The first type is constituted
by the words which are syntactically unequal, one of them plays the role of the modifier to
the other. Phrases of the second type are related to one another on an equal rank.
Coordinate (equipotent) connection may be realized with the help of conjunctions
(syndetically), or without the help of conjunctions (asyndetically). Subordinate (dominational)
connection is achieved in such a way that one of the constituents is principal (dominating)
and the other is subordinate (dominated).
The two basic types of dominational connection are bilateral (reciprocal, two-way)
and monolateral (one-way).
The predicative connections of words are structures in which the syntactic functions
of the component parts differ from the function of the phrase. The reciprocal nature of these
connections consists in the fact that the subject dominates the predicate, determining the
person of predication, and the predicate dominates the subject, determining the event of
predication. Alongside fully predicative groupings there exist partially predicative
combinations formed by a non-finite form of the verb and a substantive element. Such are
infinitival, gerundial, and participial constructions.
Subordinate phrases may be subdivided according to their kernel into noun phrases,
adjectival phrases, verb-phrases, adverbial-phrases. Some authors (M. Bloch) divide these
dominational groupings into objective and qualifying. Objective connections reflect the
relation of the object to the process and may be prepositional (to work on the problem) and
non-prepositional (to remember somebody). Qualifying connections may be attributive and
adverbial. Both are expressed in English by word order and prepositions.
Dominational connection is achieved by different forms of the word (categorical
agreement, government), connective words (prepositions, i.e. prepositional government),
word order.
6. Загальна характеристика речення. Проблема класифікації речень. (General
characteristics of the sentence. The problem of sentence classification.)
The sentence is the central object of study in syntax. It can be defined as the
immediate integral unit of speech built up by words according to a definite syntactic pattern
and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. The correlation of the
word and the sentence shows some important differences and similarities between these
two main level-forming lingual units. Both of them are nominative units, but the word just
names objects and phenomena of reality. It is a purely nominative component of the
word-stock, while the sentence is at the same time a nominative and predicative lingual unit:
it names dynamic situations, and at the same time reflects the connection between the
nominal denotation of the event and objective reality, showing the time of the event.
A sentence can consist of only one word, as any lingual unit of the upper level can
consist of only one unit of the lower level: Why? Thanks. But a word, making up a sentence,
is turned into an utterance-unit expressing various connections between the situation
described and actual reality. Another difference between the word and the sentence is as
follows: the word exists in the system of language as a ready-made unit, which is
reproduced in speech; the sentence is produced in speech, except for a limited number of
idiomatic utterances. Being a unit of speech, the sentence is distinguished by a relevant
intonation: each sentence possesses certain intonation contours, including pauses, pitch
movements and stresses, which separate one sentence from another in the flow of speech
- The center of predication in the sentence is the finite form of the verb, the predicate:
it is through the finite verb’s categorical forms of tense, mood, and voice that the main
predicative meanings are expressed.
- The primary classification of sentences is based on the communicative principle,
traditionally defined as “the purpose of communication”. According to the purpose of
communication, sentences are subdivided into declarative, interrogative and imperative.
Declarative sentences are traditionally defined as those expressing statements, either
affirmative or negative: He (didn’t) shut the window. Imperative sentences express
inducements of various kinds (orders or requests); they may also be either affirmative or
negative: (Don’t) Shut the window, please. Interrogative sentences express questions, or
requests for information: Did he shut the window?
- On the basis of various communicative intentions of the speaker, J. R. Searle and
J.Austin produced a detailed classification of so-called pragmatic utterance types. The two
basic utterance types are defined as performatives and constatives (representatives):
performatives are treated as utterances by which the speaker explicitly performs a certain
act: I pronounce you husband and wife; and constatives (representatives) as utterances by
which the speaker states something, e.g.: I am a teacher.
- Traditionally, the simple sentence has been studied primarily from the point of view
of its grammatical, or nominative division. The content of the situation reflected by the
sentence, which includes 1) a certain process as its dynamic center, 2) the agent of the
process, 3) the objects of the process, 4) various conditions of the process form the basis for
traditional syntactic division of the sentence into its nominative parts, or members of the
sentence.
The syntactic functions or the members of the sentence are traditionally divided into
principal (main) and secondary. The principal parts of the sentence are the subject and the
predicate, which modify each other: the subject is the “person” modifier of the predicate, and
the predicate is the “process” modifier of the subject. They are interdependent. The
secondary parts are: the object – a substance modifier of the predicate; the attribute – a
quality modifier of substantive parts, either the subject or the object; the adverbial modifier –
a quality modifier of the predicate; the apposition – a substance modifier of the subject; the
parenthesis (parenthetical enclosure) - a detached speaker-bound modifier either of one of
the nominative parts of the sentence or of the sentence in general; the address (addressing
enclosure) – a modifier of the destination of the whole sentence; the interjection
(interjectional enclosure) – an emotional modifier.

7. Граматика у системній концепції мови. Розвиток теорії англійської

граматики. (Grammar in the system concept of language. Development of the theory of
English grammar.)
The aim of the theoretical grammar of English is to scientifically analyze and define
its grammatical categories and study the mechanisms of grammatical formation of
utterances out of words in the process of speech making.
The tasks of the theoretical grammar are:
● To get a better insight into the problems of grammar and methods of linguistic
analysis
● To foster the competence in facing academic controversies concerning problems
liable to polemical excesses and terminological discrepancies
● To progress in developing a grammatically-oriented mode of understanding facts of
language.
Any linguistic description may have a practical or theoretical purpose. The word
“grammar” has several meanings; a system of grammatical categories; a branch of
linguistics studying this system; an art referring to the standards of good speech and writing.
The task of the practical grammar is to represent the existing laws or regularities in the use
of the existing grammatical forms enabling a practical mastery of this language. A theoretical
grammar pursues analytical aims. It gives a scientific analysis of the grammatical structures
and exposes the intrinsic mechanisms of their functioning.
Modern linguistics lays a special stress on the systemic character of language as a
means of communication. Language incorporates three constituent parts: the phonological
system, the lexical system and the grammatical system. Only the unity of these elements
forms a language. Interactions between grammar and other levels of language structure are
extremely essential being studied in synchronic and diachronic aspects. Lingual synchrony is
interpreted as coexistence of lingual elements. Diachrony deals with different time periods in
the development of lingual elements as well as language as a whole.
English grammatical theory has a long tradition dating back to the earliest Latin
grammars of the 17th century, when “grammar” meant only the study of Latin. The history of
grammar is divided into two unequal periods:
● The age of prescientific grammar (from the 16th century to 1900): prenormative and
normative (prescriptive) grammars.
● The age of scientific grammar (from 1900): classical scientific grammar (descriptive
and explanatory), structural, transformational and generative grammars.
Methods of scientific research used in linguistic studies have always been connected
with the general trends in the science of language. The 1st decade of the 20th century is
known to have brought new theoretical approaches to language and the study of its nature.
The principles of comparative linguistics have been of paramount importance in the
development of scientific approach to historical word study. The second half of the 20th
century has been directed toward the development of methodologies for dealing with the
structure of language in a non-historical sense.
 The methods of structural linguistics which are widely applied in modern linguistic
analysis are: 1) distributional analysis; 2) the analysis into immediate constituents; 3)
substitution: 4) transformational analysis; 5) oppositional analysis; 6) semantic structure.
Present tendencies in linguistics lie not in the exceptional value of only one method but
rather in recognition of several methods which contribute a lot to a comprehensive study of
language. The present-day methods include functional, cognitive and corpus-based methods
of analysis.

8. Проблема синтагматичних і прагматичних зв’язків. (The problem of syntagmatic

and pragmatic connections.)
Lingual units stand to one another in two fundamental types of relations: syntagmatic
and paradigmatic. Syntagmatic relations are immediate linear relations between units in a
segmental sequence. They are observed in utterances.
The combination of two words or word-groups one of which is modified by the other
forms is known as syntactic syntagma. There are 4 main types of notional syntagmas:
predicative, objective, attributive and adverbial. The other type of relations exists between
the elements of the system outside the strings where they co-occur. These intra-systemic
relations and dependencies find their expression in the fact that each lingual unit is included
in a set or series of connections based on different formal and functional properties and are
called paradigmatic. In the domain of grammar, series of related forms realize grammatical
numbers and cases, persons and tenses, gradations of modality, sets of sentence-patterns,
etc. The grammatical paradigm presents a productive series of forms each consisting of a
syntagmatic connection of two elements: one common for the whole of the series, the other
specific for every individual form in the series.
Units of language are divided into segmental and suprasegmental. Segmental units
consist of phonemes and form phonemic strings. Suprasegmental units are realized together
with segmental and express different modificational meanings which are reflected on the
strings of segmental units.
The segmental units of language form a hierarchy of levels:
The lowest level is phonemic. The phoneme has no meaning, its function is purely
differential, it differentiates morphemes and words as material bodies. Units of all the higher
levels are meaningful and may be called signemes.
The level located above is morphemic. The morpheme is the elementary meaningful
part of the word. The morpheme expresses abstract significative meanings.
The third level is the level of words or lexemic level. The word is a naming unit of
language. Its function is nominative (i.e. to name things and relations between them).
The phrasemic level is constituted by word-groups or phrases. Like separate words,
phrases have a nominative function, but it is called polynomination, i.e. they represent the
complicated phenomena and relations between them.
The proposemic level is the level of sentences. The sentence is characterized by the
function of predication. It shows the relation of the situation expressed in the sentence to
reality.
The highest level of lingual units is represented by sentence-groups and is called
supra-proposemic. The combination of separate sentences according to regular lingual
patterns forms a textual unity. The text is distinguished by two properties: semantic unity and
syntactic cohesion.

9. Тексти як одиниця вищого рівня. (Texts as a higher level unit.)

 The highest level of lingual units is represented by sentence-groups and is called
supra-proposemic. The combination of separate sentences according to regular lingual
patterns forms a textual unity. The text is distinguished by two properties: semantic unity and
syntactic cohesion.
Sentences in continual speech are not used in isolation, they are interconnected and
interdependent both semantically and syntactically. The general idea of the text includes two
important notions: 1) it is a succession of written or spoken utterances; 2) it implies a strictly
topical stretch of talk. Thus, the text is interpreted as a lingual element with semantic
(topical) unity and semantico-syntactic cohesion.
The signemic essence of the text is exposed in its topic. The monologue text or
discourse is then a topical entity; the dialogue text or conversation is an exchange-topical
entity. The cumuleme and the occurseme are component units of these two types of text.
Sentences in a cumulative sequence can be connected prospectively (to relate a
given sentence to one that is to follow it) and retrospectively (To relate a given sentence to
the preceeding one).
On the basis of the functional nature of connectors cumulation is divided into
conjunctive and correlative. The cumuleme is delimited in the text by a finalizing intonation
contour. The basic semantic types of cumulemes are factual (narrative and descriptive),
modal (reasoning, perceptive, etc.) and mixed. Cumuleme in writing is expressed by a
paragraph, but these two units are not identical.

10. Актуальне членування речення. (Actual sentence structure.)

In Modern English syntactical relations of words in the sentence are very often
indicated by the position the words occupy in the sentence. As it is known the English
sentence is characterized by a rigid word-order in accordance with which the subject of
declarative sentences precedes the predicate. This is the so-called direct order of words.
Any derivation in it is termed as inversion. We distinguish full inversion (when the predicate
precedes the subject, as in Here comes the lady of the house) and partial inversion (when
only part of the predicate precedes the subject, as in Happy may you be). In some
constructions inversion may be taken as a normal order of words and is thus devoid of any
special coloring. In other cases inversion is a sort of reordering for stylistic effect or for
emphasis.
Word order fulfills several functions in a sentence – grammatical, emphatic or
communicative and linking. The main function of word order is to express grammatical
relations and determine the grammatical status of a word by fixing its position in a sentence.
The second function of word order is to make prominent or emphatic that part of the
sentence which is more important or informative in the speaker’s opinion. Prominence and
emphasis are achieved by placing the word in an unusual position. The third function of word
order is to express continuity of thought in sentences or clauses following one another.
Alongside the nominative division of the sentence, the idea of so-called actual
division has been put forward in theoretical linguistics. The purpose of it is to reveal the
correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative
role in an utterance. The actual division of the sentence exposes its informative perspective.
The main components of the actual division are the theme and the rheme. The theme
expresses the starting point of the communication. It denotes an object or phenomenon
about which something is reported. The rheme expresses the basic informative part of the
communication, its contextually relevant center.
 The principal parts of the proposition are the logical subject and the logical predicate.
However, if logic analyzes these parts as the meaningful components of certain forms of
thinking, linguistic analyses the categories of theme and rheme as the means of expression
the informative content of the communication.
The actual division finds its expression in a concrete context of speech. Among the
formal means of expressing the distinction between the theme and the rheme are such
structural elements of language as word-order patterns, intonation contours, constructions
with introducers, syntactic patterns of contrastive complexes, constructions with articles and
other determiners, constructions with intensifying particles.
The actual division of the sentence enters the predicative aspect of the sentence,
whereas it makes up part of syntactic predication, because it meets the functional purpose of
predication. One of the most important manifestations of the immediate contextual relevance
of the actual division is the regular ellipsis of the thematic parts of the utterance. Thus the
rheme is placed in isolation.
Sentences in continual speech are not used in isolation, they are interconnected and
interdependent both semantically and syntactically. The general idea of the text includes two
important notions: 1) it is a succession of written or spoken utterances; 2) it implies a strictly
topical stretch of talk. Thus, the text is interpreted as a lingual element with semantic
(topical) unity and semantico-syntactic cohesion.
From the point of view of the communicative direction of the component-sentences,
sentential sequences are divided into monologue sequences (directed from one speaker to
the listeners) and dialogue sequences (uttered by speakers-interlocutors in turn). The
formation of one-direction sequence is based on the syntactic cumulation of sentences, thus
a suprasentential construction of this type may be called a cumuleme. The formation of a
two-direction sequence is based on its sentences being positioned to meet one another, i.e.
on occursive connection, and such a construction may be called an occurseme.
The signemic essence of the text is exposed in its topic. The monologue text or
discourse is then a topical entity; the dialogue text or conversation is an exchange-topical
entity. The cumuleme and the occurseme are component units of these two types of text.
Sentences in a cumulative sequence can be connected prospectively (to relate a
given sentence to one that is to follow it) and retrospectively (To relate a given sentence to
the preceeding one).
On the basis of the functional nature of connectors cumulation is divided into
conjunctive and correlative. The cumuleme is delimited in the text by a finalizing intonation
contour. The basic semantic types of cumulemes are factual (narrative and descriptive),
modal (reasoning, perceptive, etc.) and mixed. Cumuleme in writing is expressed by a
paragraph, but these two units are not identical.

VII. СТИЛІСТИКА АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ

1. Стилістична класифікація англійського словника. (Stylistic classification of the

English dictionary.)
The English dictionary encompasses a wide range of words with diverse stylistic
characteristics. While it is not possible to provide an exhaustive stylistic classification of the
entire English dictionary, we can highlight some common stylistic categories and
characteristics of words found within it. Here are a few broad stylistic classifications:
Formal/Literary Vocabulary: This category includes words that are often used in
formal or literary contexts, such as "commence," "endeavor," or "obtain." These words are
associated with a more elevated or sophisticated style of writing and are commonly found in
academic, legal, or literary texts.
Informal/Colloquial Vocabulary: Informal or colloquial words are typically used in
everyday conversations or informal writing. Examples include "gotta," "wanna," or "ain't."
These words add a conversational and relaxed tone to the language and are commonly
found in dialogue or informal writing styles.
Technical/Scientific Vocabulary: Technical or scientific vocabulary comprises words
specific to particular fields or domains, such as "mitosis," "algorithm," or "photosynthesis."
These words are used in technical or specialized contexts and are associated with precision
and accuracy.
Slang Vocabulary: Slang words are informal and often non-standard expressions that
reflect contemporary or subcultural language use. Examples include "lit," "bae," or "YOLO."
Slang adds a sense of informality, trendiness, and social identity to the language.
Archaic/Obsolete Vocabulary: This category includes words that were commonly
used in the past but are no longer in common usage. Examples include "thou," "thy," or
"henceforth." These words can be found in historical or literary texts and contribute to a
sense of time or historical context.
Poetic/Lyrical Vocabulary: Poetic or lyrical vocabulary consists of words that are often
used in poetry or song lyrics. These words tend to be vivid, metaphorical, or evocative, such
as "serenade," "twilight," or "whisper." They create imagery, rhythm, and a heightened sense
of expression.
It's important to note that many words can belong to multiple stylistic categories
depending on their usage and context. Additionally, new words and stylistic shifts continually
emerge in the English language, reflecting the evolving nature of stylistic classifications.
This classification provides a general overview of some stylistic categories within the
English dictionary, but it is by no means exhaustive, as the richness and diversity of the
English language allow for countless stylistic variations and nuances.

2. Денотативні і конотативні значення у стилістиці. Компоненти

конотативного значення. Виражальні засоби і стилістичні прийоми. (Denotative
and connotative meanings in stylistics. Components of the connotative meaning. Means of
expression and stylistic techniques.)
Denotative and connotative meanings are two aspects of meaning in stylistics that
play a crucial role in shaping the overall effect and impact of a text. Let's explore these
concepts and their components, as well as the means of expression and stylistic
techniques associated with connotative meaning.
● Denotative Meaning: Denotative meaning refers to the literal, objective, or dictionary
definition of a word or expression. It represents the basic, straightforward meaning
that is commonly understood by most people. Denotative meaning is concerned
with the primary or explicit sense of a word, free from subjective interpretations or
emotional associations.
● Connotative Meaning: Connotative meaning refers to the subjective, emotional,
cultural, or contextual associations and implications that go beyond the literal
definition of a word. It involves the personal and cultural associations, values, and
 emotions that are attached to a word or expression. Connotative meaning allows for
layers of interpretation and subjective responses.

Components of Connotative Meaning:

● Emotional Associations: Words can evoke various emotions or feelings based on
cultural, personal, or situational contexts. For example, the word "home" may
connote warmth, comfort, and security.
● Cultural and Social Associations: Words can carry cultural and social connotations,
reflecting specific values, beliefs, or societal norms. For instance, the word
"freedom" may connote ideals of liberty and democracy.
● Personal Associations: Each individual may have personal associations and
experiences attached to certain words, shaping their connotative meaning. For
example, the word "summer" may connote happy memories of vacations for one
person and unpleasant heat for another.
● Figurative Language: Figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, and
symbols, contributes to the connotative meaning of a text. These devices bring
additional layers of meaning and evoke specific associations or images.

Means of Expression and Stylistic Techniques:

● Metaphor and Simile: Metaphors and similes create connotative meanings by
associating one thing with another, highlighting similarities or drawing comparisons.
They can evoke vivid imagery and emotional responses.
● Symbolism: Symbolism involves the use of symbols to represent abstract ideas,
values, or concepts. Symbols often carry connotative meanings that resonate with
cultural or contextual associations.
● Irony: Irony involves using words or situations to convey a meaning that is different
from the literal or expected meaning. It can create connotative meanings through
the contrast between what is said and what is meant.
● Allusion: Allusion refers to indirect references to well-known people, events, or
works of literature. Allusions carry connotative meanings by drawing on the
associations and cultural significance of the referenced elements.
● Tone and Mood: The tone and mood of a text contribute to its connotative meaning.
The choice of words, sentence structure, and overall style shape the emotional and
atmospheric qualities of a text.
● Word Choice and Connotation: The selection of specific words with different
connotations can create nuanced meanings. Words with positive or negative
connotations can influence the overall tone and perception of a text.

3. Стилістичні теорії й класифікації виражальних засобів і стилістичних

прийомів. Парадигматична і синтагматична стилістика. (Stylistic theories and
classifications of expressive means and stylistic techniques. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic
stylistics.)
Stylistic theories and classifications provide frameworks for understanding and
analyzing the expressive means and stylistic techniques employed in language. Two
important dimensions in stylistics are the paradigmatic and syntagmatic axes, which help
categorize and analyze stylistic features within a text.
● Paradigmatic Stylistics: Paradigmatic stylistics focuses on the selection and
substitution of linguistic units within a text. It examines the choices made from a set
 of alternatives available in a particular linguistic context. This dimension is
concerned with the vertical relationships between linguistic elements. Examples of
paradigms include synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, and word associations.
Paradigmatic stylistics analyzes the effects of lexical choices, wordplay,
metaphorical expressions, and other semantic relationships.
● Syntagmatic Stylistics: Syntagmatic stylistics deals with the linear arrangement and
combination of linguistic units within a text. It explores the horizontal relationships
between linguistic elements. This dimension focuses on the structural organization,
cohesion, and coherence of a text. Syntagmatic stylistics analyzes aspects such as
sentence structure, grammatical patterns, sentence types, and rhetorical devices
like repetition, parallelism, and inversion.

Stylistic techniques can be classified based on their expressive means and the
effects they create. Here are a few common categories:
● Lexical Techniques: Lexical techniques involve the use of specific words, including
metaphors, similes, puns, allusions, euphemisms, and neologisms. These
techniques contribute to the overall tone, imagery, and figurative language of a text.
● Grammatical Techniques: Grammatical techniques focus on the manipulation of
sentence structures, such as parallelism, repetition, inversion, ellipsis, anaphora,
and chiasmus. These techniques contribute to rhythm, emphasis, and rhetorical
impact.
● Stylistic Devices: Stylistic devices encompass various techniques used to create
specific effects, including irony, hyperbole, litotes, personification, onomatopoeia,
and oxymoron. These devices add layers of meaning, create contrasts, or evoke
emotions.
● Rhetorical Techniques: Rhetorical techniques involve strategies used to persuade
or engage the reader, such as rhetorical questions, appeals to ethos, logos, and
pathos, as well as rhetorical figures like antithesis, climax, and enumeratio.

4. Лексико-семантичні стилістичні прийоми. Фігури заміщення. (Lexical-semantic

stylistic techniques. Figures of substitution.)
Lexical-semantic stylistic techniques refer to the various strategies and devices that
writers use to create specific effects and enhance the style and meaning of their texts.
Figures of substitution are one such category of these techniques. They involve replacing
one word or phrase with another in order to achieve a particular stylistic or rhetorical effect.
Here are some common figures of substitution:
● Metaphor: Metaphor is a figure of substitution in which a word or phrase is used in a
non-literal sense to create a vivid comparison between two unrelated things. For
example, "The world is a stage."
● Simile: Similar to metaphor, simile also involves a comparison between two things,
but it uses the words "like" or "as" to make the comparison explicit. For example,
"She sings like an angel."
● Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of substitution in which a word or phrase is
substituted with another word or phrase that is closely associated with it. For
example, using "crown" to refer to a king or queen.
● Synecdoche: Synecdoche is a figure of substitution in which a part of something is
used to represent the whole or vice versa. For example, "All hands on deck" refers to
needing the help of the entire crew.
 ● Antonomasia: Antonomasia involves substituting a proper name with an epithet or
descriptive phrase. For example, referring to someone as "The Bard" instead of using
their actual name, William Shakespeare.
● Periphrasis: Periphrasis is a figure of substitution that involves using a longer phrase
or expression to replace a shorter or more direct term. For example, using "the Big
Apple" to refer to New York.
● Euphemism: Euphemism is a figure of substitution that replaces a harsh, unpleasant,
or taboo word or phrase with a milder or more socially acceptable alternative. For
example, using "passed away" instead of "died."

5. Лексико-семантичні стилістичні прийоми. Фігури поєднання. (Lexical-semantic

stylistic techniques. Combination figures.)
Combination figures, also known as tropes or figures of combination, are a category
of lexical-semantic stylistic techniques that involve the combination or juxtaposition of words
or phrases to create specific effects. These techniques manipulate the meaning, sound, or
structure of language to enhance the stylistic quality of a text. Here are some common
combination figures:
● Oxymoron: An oxymoron combines two contradictory terms to create a paradoxical
effect. For example, "bittersweet" or "living dead."
● Pun: A pun exploits the multiple meanings or sounds of words that sound similar but
have different meanings. It often involves wordplay for humorous or rhetorical effect.
For example, "Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana."
● Irony: Irony involves using words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of their
literal or expected meaning. It often creates a contrast between what is said and what
is meant. For example, saying "What a beautiful day!" when it is actually raining
heavily.
● Paradox: A paradox is a statement or situation that appears contradictory or absurd
but may reveal a deeper truth. For example, "Less is more" or "I can resist anything
but temptation."
● Antithesis: Antithesis juxtaposes contrasting ideas or words within a sentence to
create a balanced and contrasting effect. For example, "It was the best of times, it
was the worst of times" (from Charles Dickens' "A Tale of Two Cities").
● Chiasmus: Chiasmus is a figure of speech in which the order of words or phrases is
reversed in parallel clauses or phrases. For example, "Ask not what your country can
do for you; ask what you can do for your country" (from John F. Kennedy's inaugural
address).
● Anaphora: Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of
successive clauses or sentences for emphasis or rhetorical effect. For example, "I
have a dream" (from Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous speech).
● Alliteration: Alliteration involves the repetition of initial consonant sounds in a series
of words or phrases. It creates a musical or rhythmic effect. For example, "Peter
Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers."
These combination figures add richness, depth, and artistry to the language, making
the text more engaging and memorable for the reader. Writers often employ these
techniques to create emphasis, contrast, humor, or to convey complex ideas in a concise
and impactful manner.

6. Синтаксичні стилістичні прийоми. (Syntactic stylistic techniques.)

 Syntactic stylistic techniques refer to the various strategies and devices that writers
use to manipulate the structure and arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in order to
create specific effects and enhance the style and impact of their texts. These techniques
involve the organization and arrangement of words within sentences and paragraphs. Here
are some common syntactic stylistic techniques:
● Parallelism: Parallelism involves the repetition of grammatical structures or patterns
within a sentence or across multiple sentences. It creates a sense of balance,
rhythm, and symmetry. For example, "She likes hiking, swimming, and running."
● Repetition: Repetition is the deliberate use of the same word, phrase, or sentence
structure for emphasis or rhetorical effect. It can create emphasis, reinforce ideas,
and evoke strong emotions. For example, "Never, never, never give up" (from
Winston Churchill).
● Antithesis: Antithesis is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas or words within a
sentence or paragraph to create a balanced and contrasting effect. It highlights the
opposition or contrast between two ideas. For example, "To err is human; to forgive,
divine" (from Alexander Pope).
● Inversion: Inversion involves reversing the normal word order in a sentence for
emphasis or stylistic effect. It can create a dramatic or poetic tone. For example, "Into
the darkness walked he."
● Ellipsis: Ellipsis is the deliberate omission of words or phrases from a sentence to
create a concise and fragmented effect. It allows the reader to fill in the missing
information. For example, "The more, the merrier."
● Asyndeton: Asyndeton is the deliberate omission of conjunctions (such as "and," "or,"
or "but") between words or phrases in a series to create a fast-paced or fragmented
effect. For example, "I came, I saw, I conquered."
● Polysyndeton: Polysyndeton is the deliberate use of multiple conjunctions within a
sentence or series of sentences to create a slower and more deliberate rhythm. For
example, "They ran and jumped and laughed and played."
● Rhetorical Question: A rhetorical question is a question posed for effect or emphasis,
without expecting an answer. It engages the reader and prompts them to think about
the topic. For example, "Isn't it time for a change?"

7. Поняття стилю у функціональній стилістиці. (Concept of style in functional

stylistics.)
In functional stylistics, the concept of style refers to the distinctive and characteristic
way in which language is used in different contexts or genres for specific communicative
purposes. It focuses on the functional aspects of language, emphasizing how language
choices and structures are shaped by the purpose, audience, and social context of
communication.
Style in functional stylistics is not seen as an abstract or inherent quality of a text, but
rather as a dynamic and context-dependent phenomenon. It is shaped by the social, cultural,
and situational factors that influence language use. Different registers, genres, or discourse
types are associated with specific styles that reflect the conventions, norms, and
expectations of those contexts.
Functional stylistics examines how stylistic features are employed to achieve specific
communicative goals and effects. It analyzes how linguistic choices, such as vocabulary,
grammar, syntax, cohesion, and rhetorical devices, contribute to the overall style and
meaning of a text. The focus is on understanding the relationship between language use and
its intended function or purpose.
For example, in a formal academic essay, the style may be characterized by a more
precise and technical vocabulary, complex sentence structures, and an objective tone. On
the other hand, in an informal conversation among friends, the style may involve casual and
colloquial language, shorter sentences, and a more relaxed tone.
Functional stylistics also considers the role of context and the intended audience in
shaping style. The same speaker or writer may adjust their style based on factors such as
the formality of the situation, the social status of the participants, or the expectations of the
audience. This dynamic nature of style highlights its responsiveness to communicative
needs and the social dynamics of language use.
Overall, style in functional stylistics is a multifaceted concept that encompasses the
functional and contextual aspects of language use. It recognizes that language is not a static
entity but a flexible tool that adapts to different communicative purposes and situations. By
analyzing stylistic features in relation to their communicative functions, functional stylistics
provides insights into how language is used to achieve specific goals and create desired
effects in various contexts.

8. Мовні особливості публіцистичного стилю. (Linguistic features of journalistic

style.)
Publicist (media) style is a style used in public speeches and printed publicist
works, which are addressed to a broad audience and devoted to important social or political
events, public problems of cultural, educational or moral character. Publicist style falls into
the oratory speeches (lectures, reports), the style of radio and TV programs (media style),
the style of essays and journalistic articles. The main features of this style are clear logical
argumentation and emotional appeal to the audience.
Publicist style has the following distinctive linguistic features:
Phonetic features (in oratory): standard pronunciation, wide use of prosody, as a
means of conveying the subtle shades of meaning, overtones and emotions. Phonetic
compression.
Morphological features: frequent use of non-finite verb forms, omission of articles,
link verbs, auxiliaries, pronouns, especially in headlines and news items.
Syntactical features: frequent use of rhetorical questions and interrogatives in
oratory speech.
In headlines: use of impersonal sentences, elliptical constructions, interrogative
sentences, infinitive complexes and attributive groups.
In news items and articles: news items comprise one or two sentences; absence of
complex coordination with chain of subordinate clauses and a number of conjunctions;
absence of exclamatory sentences.
Articles demonstrate more syntactical organization and logical arrangement of
sentences.
Lexical features: newspaper clichés and set phrases; terminological variety;
elevated and bookish words; abbreviations; the use of proper names.
In headlines: frequent use of pun, violated phraseology, vivid stylistic devices.
Compositional features: text arrangement is marked by precise, logic and expressive
power; carefully selected vocabulary; variety of topics; wide use of quotations, direct speech
and represented speech; use of parallel constructions throughout the text.
 In oratory: simplicity of structural expression, clarity of message, argumentative
power.
In headlines: use of rhyme, pun, high degree of compression, graphic means.
In news items and articles: strict arrangement of titles and subtitles, emphasis on the
headline; careful subdivision into paragraphs, clearly defined position of the sections of an
article.
The publicist style has features in common not only with the style of official or
scientific works, on the one hand, but also with some elements of emotionally coloured
colloquial style, on the other hand. Accordingly, the publicist style is characterized by the use
of logically connected syntactic structures in their full form, but at the same time an
emotional impact is achieved by the use of emotionally coloured vocabulary common in
belletristic and colloquial styles.
Publicist style has a particular genre: the essay.
The essay in English literature dates from the 16th century, and its name is taken
from the short “essays” (= experiments, attempts) by the French writer Montaigne, which
contained his thoughts on various subjects. An essay is a literary composition of moderate
length on philosophical, social or literary subjects, which preserves a clearly personal
character and has no pretence to deep or strictly scientific treatment of the subject. It is
rather a number of comments without any definite conclusions.
Nowadays an essay is usually a kind of feature article in a magazine or newspaper. It
is characterized by clarity and brevity of expression, by the use of the first person singular,
by expanded use of connecting words to express clearly all the logical relations in the
development of thought, and abundant use of emotionally coloured words, various stylistic
devices.
Newspaper language is recognized as a particular variety of style, characterized by a
specific communicative purpose and its own language means. The content of newspaper
material is fairly diverse, it comprises news and commentary on the news, press reports and
articles, advertisements and official announcements, as well as short stories and poems,
material for entertainment. Thus, newspaper style includes a system of interrelated lexical,
phraseological and grammatical means serving the purpose of informing, instructing and
entertaining the reader. On the whole, newspaper style has the following typical features: the
use of special political or economic terminology; the use of lofty, bookish vocabulary;
frequent use of abbreviations; the use of neologisms; the use of complete simple sentences,
complex and compound sentences, but in newspaper headlines elliptical sentences prevail.

9. Мовні особливості офіційно-ділового стилю. (Linguistic features of the official

business style.)
The style of official (business) documents aims at establishing, developing and
controlling business relations between individuals and organizations. Being devoid of
expressiveness, it is fully impersonal, rational and pragmatic. Official (legal, diplomatic) and
business documents are written in formal style of speech, which requires the choice of a
special kind of vocabulary, grammar forms and structures. Such documents often require the
use of special formulas of politeness: e.g. I beg to inform you; I beg to move; the items on
the agenda; the above mentioned; hereinafter named; on behalf of; We remain respectfully
yours, etc.
Official style has the following distinctive linguistic features:
Morphological features: adherence to the norm, sometimes outdated or even
archaic, especially in legal documents.
 Syntactical features: use of long complex sentences with several types of
coordination and subordination (up to 70% of the text); use of passive and participial
constructions, numerous connectives; use of objects, attributes and all sorts of modifiers in
the identifying and explanatory function; extensive use of detached constructions and
parenthesis.
Lexical features: prevalence of stylistically neutral and bookish vocabulary; use of
terminology: e.g. legal: acquittal, testimony, aggravated larceny; commercial: advance
payment, insurance, wholesale, etc.; use of proper names, officialese vocabulary: clichés,
opening and conclusive phrases; conventional and archaic forms and words: kinsman,
hereof, thereto, thereby, ilk; foreign words, especially Latin and French: status quo, force
majeure, persona non grata; abbreviations, contractions, conventional symbols: M.P.
(member of Parliament), Ltd (limited), $, etc.; use of words in their primary denotative
meaning; absence of tropes, no evaluative and emotive colouring of vocabulary.
Compositional features: special compositional design: coded graphical layout,
clear-cut subdivision of texts into units of information, logical arrangement of these units,
order-of-priority organization of content and information; accurate use of punctuation;
generally objective, concrete, unemotional and impersonal style of narration.

10. Мовні особливості наукового стилю. (Linguistic features of the scientific style.)
Scientific / academic style exists for the most part within the bounds of the written
form of language (scientific articles, thesis, prose), but it may also manifest itself in its oral
form (scientific reports, lectures, discussions); in the latter case it may have some features of
colloquial speech.
The aim of scientific speech is to present precise information, therefore it requires the
use of special terminology which does not admit of polysemy or figurative meanings,
emotional connotations (all of which is typical of colloquial and publicist styles). The author of
scientific works tends to sound impersonal, using the pronoun “WE” instead of “I”,
impersonal constructions, passive voice constructions, etc.
Scientific / academic style has the following distinctive linguistic features:
Morphological features: terminological word formation and word derivation,
conversion; restricted use of finite verb forms; use of “the author’s we” instead of “I”; frequent
use of impersonal constructions.
Syntactical features: complete and standard syntactical mode of expression; direct
word order; use of lengthy sentences with subordinate clauses; extensive use of verbals;
extensive use of adverbial and prepositional phrases; frequent use of parenthesis introduced
by a dash; preferential use of prepositional attributive groups instead of the descriptive of
phrase; prevalence of nominal constructions over the verbal ones to avoid time reference for
the sake of generalization.
Lexical features: extensive use of bookish words; abundance of scientific
terminology and phraseology; use of words in their primary dictionary meaning, restricted
use of connotative contextual meanings; use of neologisms; abundance of proper names;
restricted use of emotive colouring, interjections, phrasal verbs, colloquial vocabulary, etc.
Compositional features: types of texts compositionally depend on the scientific
genre: monograph, scientific article, presentation, thesis, etc. In scientific proper and
technical texts: highly formalized text with the prevalence of formulae, tables, diagrams. In
humanitarian texts – descriptive narration, supplied with argumentation and interpretation.
Extensive use of citation, references and foot-notes. Restricted use of EMs and SDs.
Definite structural arrangement in a hierarchical order: introduction, chapters, paragraphs,
conclusions. Special set of connective phrases and words to sustain coherence and logic,
such as consequently, on the contrary, likewise, etc. Extensive use of double conjunctions
like as … as, either … or, both…. and, etc. Compositionally arranged sentence patterns:
postulatory (at the beginning), argumentative (in the central part), formulative (in the
conclusion).

11. Художній стиль. Техніки декодування художнього тексту. (Literary style.

Decoding techniques of artistic text.)
The differentiation of literary colloquial style and familiar colloquial style.
Literary colloquial style is the style of informal oral communication. The vocabulary of
this style is usually lower than that of the formal or neutral styles, it is often emotionally
coloured and characterized by connotations.
Literary colloquial style has the following distinctive linguistic features:
Phonetic features: standard pronunciation in compliance with the national norm;
phonetic compression of frequently used forms (e.g. it’s, don’t, I’ve); omission of unaccented
elements due to the quick tempo: e.g. you know him?
Morphological features: use of regular morphological features, with interception of
evaluative suffixes: e.g. deary, doggie, duckie; prevalence of active and finite verb forms.
Syntactical features: use of simple sentences with a number of participial and
infinitive constructions; syntactically correct utterances compliant with the literary norm; use
of various types of syntactical compression, simplicity of syntactical connection; use of
grammar forms for emphatic purposes; decomposition and ellipsis of sentences in a
dialogue; use of special colloquial phrases.
Lexical features: wide range of vocabulary strata in accordance with the register of
communication and participants’ roles: formal and informal, neutral and bookish, terms and
foreign words; extensive use of intensifiers and gap-fillers: e.g. absolutely, definitely, awfully,
kind of, so to speak, I mean, if I may say so; extensive use of phrasal verbs; use of words of
indefinite meaning like thing or stuff; use of interjections and exclamations: e.g. Dear me, my
God, Goodness, well, why, now, oh; avoidance of slang, vulgarisms, dialect words, jargon.
Compositional features: can be used in written and spoken varieties: dialogue,
monologue, personal letters, diaries, essays, articles, etc. Spontaneous types have a loose
structure, relative coherence and informality of form and content.
Besides the standard literary-colloquial speech, there is also a non-standard style of
speech, mostly represented by a special vocabulary. The familiar colloquial style is used in
informal situations of communication. It admits the use of emotionally coloured words,
low-colloquial vocabulary and slang words.
Familiar colloquial style has the following distinctive linguistic features:
Phonetic features: casual and often careless pronunciation; use of reduced and
contracted forms; emphasis on intonation as a powerful semantic and stylistic instrument
capable to render subtle nuances of thought and feeling.
Morphological features: use of evaluative suffixes, nonce words formed on
morphological and phonetic analogy: e.g. baldish, moody, hanky-panky, etc.
Syntactical features: use of simple short sentences; use of echo questions, parallel
structures, repetitions of various kinds; asyndetic coordination in complex sentences;
extensive use of ellipsis and syntactic tautology; abundance of gap-fillers and parenthetical
elements.
 Lexical features: combination of neutral, familiar and low colloquial vocabulary,
including slang, vulgar and taboo words; mixture of curse words and euphemisms; extensive
use of collocation and phrasal verbs instead of neutral and literary equivalents.
Compositional features: no specific compositional patterns; strong emotional
colouring; little coherence or adherence to the topic; use of deviant language on all levels.
Essential concepts of decoding stylistic analysis and types of foregrounding
Decoding stylistics investigates the same levels as linguostylistics - phonetic,
graphical, lexical and grammatical. The basic difference is that it studies expressive means
provided by each level not as isolated devices that demonstrate some stylistic function but
as a part of the general pattern on the background of relatively lengthy segments of the text,
from a paragraph to the level of the whole text.
Stylistic analysis is valid in case it takes into account the overall concept and
aesthetic system of the author reflected in his writing.
A systematic and elaborate presentation of decoding stylistics as a branch of general
stylistics can be found in the book by prof. Arnold I. V. “Stylistics of modern English.
Decoding Stylistics”.
One of the fundamental concepts of decoding stylistics is foregrounding. The
notion itself was suggested by the scholars of the Prague linguistic circle, which introduced
into linguistics a functional approach to language. Their central thesis is that language is a
dynamic functional system, i.e. a system of means of expression that serve a definite
purpose in communication.
In decoding stylistics foregrounding means a specific role some language units play
in a certain context so that the reader’s attention is drawn to them. In a literary text such
means become stylistically marked features that build up its stylistic function.
The main techniques that ensure the effect of foregrounding in a literary text are:
● convergence
● defeated expectancy
● coupling
● semantic field.

Convergence
Convergence is a combination or accumulation of stylistic devices promoting the
same idea, emotion or motive.
Stylistic function is not the property of language expressive means as such. Any type
of expressive means will make sense stylistically when treated as a part of a bigger unit, the
context, or the whole text. It means that there is no immediate dependence between a
certain stylistic device and a definite stylistic function.
A stylistic device is not attached to this or that stylistic effect. For example, a
hyperbole may provide a number of stylistic effects: tragic, comical, pathetic or grotesque.
Inversion may give the narration a highly elevated tone or an ironic ring of parody.
This “chameleon” (easily changeable, unstable) quality of stylistic devices enables
the author to apply different stylistic devices for the same purpose. The use of more than
one type of expressive means in close succession is a powerful technique to support the
idea that carries paramount importance in the author’s view. Such redundancy ensures the
delivery of the author’s message to the reader.
An extract from Ray Bradbury’s novel “Fahrenheit 451” demonstrates convergence of
expressive means used to create an effect of enigmatic romantic atmosphere of the autumn
night when a man and a young girl meet for the first time:
 The autumn leaves blew over the moonlit pavement in such a way as to make the girl
who was moving there seem fixed to a sliding walk, letting the motion of the wind and the
leaves carry her forward. Her head was half bent to watch her shoes stir the circling leaves.
Her face was slender and milk-white, and in it was a kind of gentle hunger that touched over
everything with tireless curiosity. It was a look, almost, of pale surprise; the dark eyes were
so fixed to the world that no move escaped them. Her dress was white and it whispered. He
almost thought he heard the motion of her hands as she walked…
The trees overhead made a great sound of letting down their dry rain. The girl
stopped and looked as if she might pull back in surprise, but instead stood regarding Montag
with eyes so dark and shining and alive…

Defeated expectancy
Defeated expectancy is a principle considered by Riffaterre as a basic principle of a
stylistic function. Its use is not limited to some definite level or type of device. The essence of
the notion is connected with the process of a literary text decoding.
The linear organization of the text mentally prepares the reader for the consequential
and logical development of ideas and events. The normal arrangement of the text both in
form and content is based on its predictability, so a reader can supply parts of certain set
phrases or collocations after they see the first element.
An example from Oscar Wilde’s play “The Importance of Being Ernest” perfectly
illustrates how predictability of the structure plays a joke on the speaker who cannot extricate
himself from the grip of the syntactical composition:
Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you more than any girl … I have
met … since I met you.
The pauses show he is caught in the trap of the structure unable either to stop or say
anything new. The clash between the perfectly rounded phrases and empty content creates
a humorous effect and shows at the same time how powerful are the inherent laws of
syntagmatic arrangement.
Without predictability there would be no coherence and no decoding. Meanwhile
stylistically distinctive features are often based on deviation from the norm and predictability.
An emergence of an unpredictable element may block the process of decoding and acquire
the full force of the reader’s attention. Such concentration on this specific feature enables the
author to effect his purpose.
Paradox is an example of defeated expectancy. Everyone knows the proverb
Marriages are made in Heaven. Oscar Wilde introduced an unexpected element and the
phrase acquires an inverted implication Divorced are made in Heaven.

Coupling
Coupling deals with the arrangement of textual elements that provide the unity and
cohesion of the whole structure. The notion was introduced by S. Levin in his work
“Linguistic structures in Poetry”. Coupling helps to decode ideas, their interaction, inner
semantic and structural links and ensures compositional integrity.
Coupling is based on the affinity of elements that occupy similar positions throughout
the text. Coupling provides cohesion, consistency and unity of the text form and content.
The affinity may be different in nature. It may be phonetic, structural or semantic.
Phonetic affinity is represented by alliteration, assonance, and prosodic features such
as rhyme and rhythm.
 Syntactic affinity is achieved by all kinds of parallelism and syntactical repetitions –
anadiplosis, anaphora, framing, chiasmus, epiphora, etc.
Semantic coupling is demonstrated by the use of synonyms and antonyms, both
direct and contextual, sustained metaphors, symbols.

Semantic field
Semantic field is a method of decoding stylistics closely connected with coupling. It
identifies lexical elements in text segments and the whole work that provide its thematic and
compositional cohesion. Semantic affinity finds expression in cases of lexico-semantic
variants, connotations and associations between lexical units that seem to be unrelated but
invisibly linked throughout the text and create a kind of semantic background so that the
work has some kind of imagery.

VIII. ТЕОРІЯ І ПРАКТИКА ПЕРЕКЛАДУ

1. Відтворення прагматичного потенціалу тексту. (Reproduction of the pragmatic

potential of the text.)
The reproduction of the pragmatic potential of a text refers to the ability to convey the
intended meaning, communicative purpose, and the context-dependent aspects of a text
during its interpretation or translation. It involves capturing not only the literal meaning of the
words but also the implied meaning, cultural references, stylistic choices, and any other
elements that contribute to the overall communicative effect of the original text.
When reproducing the pragmatic potential of a text, several factors come into play:
● Contextual Understanding: To accurately reproduce the pragmatic potential, it is
crucial to understand the context in which the text was produced. This includes the
cultural, social, and historical background, as well as any specific references or
allusions that the original text may contain. By grasping the context, translators or
interpreters can ensure that the meaning is conveyed appropriately.
● Intended Meaning: The reproduction of pragmatic potential requires capturing the
intended meaning of the text beyond its literal interpretation. This involves
understanding the author's purpose, tone, and any nuances or connotations
associated with the words or phrases used. It requires careful analysis to accurately
convey the author's message, including any humor, irony, or subtext.
● Cultural and Sociolinguistic Factors: Pragmatic potential is often influenced by
cultural and sociolinguistic factors. Different cultures have varying norms, customs,
and ways of communication, which can impact the interpretation and translation of a
text. Translators must be aware of these differences and adapt the text accordingly to
ensure that the intended meaning is preserved and effectively communicated in the
target language.
● Stylistic Choices: Reproducing the pragmatic potential of a text involves considering
the stylistic choices made by the author. This includes elements such as wordplay,
metaphors, idioms, and other rhetorical devices. Translators must strive to find
appropriate equivalents or adaptations that capture the essence of these stylistic
choices in the target language.
 ● Audience and Communicative Purpose: The intended audience and communicative
purpose of the text also play a role in reproducing its pragmatic potential. Translators
or interpreters need to understand who the text is addressed to and what the desired
effect on the audience is. They must adapt the text to suit the expectations and
cultural references of the target audience while remaining faithful to the original
intention.
● Adaptation and Compensation: In some cases, certain aspects of the pragmatic
potential may not directly translate into the target language or cultural context.
Translators may need to make adaptations or use compensation strategies to convey
the intended meaning effectively. This could involve providing additional
explanations, using footnotes, or making cultural adjustments to ensure the text's
impact is not lost in translation.
Overall, reproducing the pragmatic potential of a text requires a deep understanding
of the original text and its context, as well as the ability to make informed decisions when
navigating linguistic and cultural differences. It is a complex task that requires both linguistic
proficiency and cultural sensitivity to faithfully convey the intended meaning and
communicative effect to the target audience.

2. Особливості відтворення національно забарвленої лексики. (Peculiarities of

reproduction of nationally colored vocabulary.)
The reproduction of nationally colored vocabulary refers to the translation or
interpretation of words, phrases, or expressions that are unique to a particular nation or
culture. These linguistic elements are deeply rooted in the cultural and historical context of a
specific country and may carry connotations, associations, or references that are not easily
transferable to another language or culture. When dealing with nationally colored vocabulary,
several peculiarities come into play:
● Cultural Specificity: Nationally colored vocabulary often reflects specific cultural
practices, traditions, institutions, or historical events that are unique to a particular
country. Translating or interpreting these terms requires a deep understanding of the
cultural context to ensure that the intended meaning and cultural nuances are
accurately conveyed. Translators must be sensitive to the cultural connotations and
associations tied to these terms and find appropriate equivalents or explanations in
the target language.
● Idioms and Expressions: Many nations have idiomatic expressions or proverbs that
carry a distinct meaning within their cultural context. Translating these idioms
word-for-word may result in a loss of meaning or confusion for the target audience.
Translators must strive to find equivalent idiomatic expressions or adapt the
translation to convey the intended figurative meaning in the target language. This
requires a thorough understanding of both languages' idiomatic expressions and
cultural references.
● Historical and Political Significance: Nationally colored vocabulary can also include
terms related to historical events, political systems, or national symbols. These terms
may evoke strong emotions, patriotism, or pride in the source language and culture.
When translating or interpreting such terms, it is important to consider the historical
and political significance they hold and to convey the appropriate tone and impact in
the target language. Careful consideration must be given to ensure that the
translated terms accurately reflect the intended emotional or historical associations.
 ● Semantic Gaps: Certain words or concepts that exist in one language may not have
a direct equivalent in another. This can pose challenges when translating nationally
colored vocabulary. Translators may need to use compensation strategies such as
providing explanations, using footnotes, or finding approximate equivalents that
convey a similar idea or evoke a comparable cultural response. The goal is to bridge
the semantic gap and maintain the essence and impact of the original term.
● Language Structure and Syntax: Languages differ in their structure and syntax, which
can impact the translation of nationally colored vocabulary. Translators must consider
how the structure of the source language affects the meaning and cultural
associations of certain terms or expressions. They need to adapt the translation to fit
the target language's structure while still capturing the original intent and cultural
implications.
● Target Audience Considerations: The translation of nationally colored vocabulary
may vary depending on the target audience. Translators must take into account the
cultural background, familiarity, and knowledge of the target audience. They need to
adapt the translation to ensure that the terms or expressions are understandable and
resonate with the target readers or listeners, even if they may require some cultural
adaptation.
Translating or interpreting nationally colored vocabulary requires a deep
understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural, historical,
and social contexts associated with the terms or expressions. It involves striking a balance
between conveying the meaning accurately and preserving the cultural nuances, emotional
impact, and historical significance tied to these linguistically specific elements.

3. Специфіка відтворення власних назв. (Specifics of reproduction of proper names.)

Reproducing proper names in translation involves considering various factors,
including linguistic, cultural, and translational norms. Here are some key aspects to consider:
● Transliteration: Transliteration involves converting the characters of a proper name
from one writing system to another while preserving the phonetic representation. For
example, the name "北京" can be transliterated as "Beijing" in English.
● Transcription: Transcription involves representing the pronunciation of a proper name
in the target language using its own phonetic system. For example, the name
"Москва" can be transcribed as "Moskva" in English.
● Cultural Adaptation: In some cases, proper names may undergo cultural adaptation
to make them more familiar and accessible to the target audience. This can involve
modifying the name to fit the target language's phonetic or cultural conventions. For
example, the name "Johannesburg" is a cultural adaptation of the original Afrikaans
name "Johannesburg" in English.
● Literal Translation: Sometimes, proper names can be translated literally if they have a
clear and meaningful translation. For example, the name "Greenland" is a literal
translation of the Danish name "Grønland."
● Established Conventions: Some proper names have established conventions in
translation that are widely recognized and followed. For example, the city "Paris" is
consistently translated as "Paris" in various languages.
● Contextual Considerations: The translation of proper names should also consider the
context in which they appear. If a name has a specific cultural or historical
significance, maintaining the original form might be preferred to preserve the
intended meaning.
 In practice, translators often strive to strike a balance between maintaining the fidelity
of the original name and ensuring it is intelligible and culturally appropriate in the target
language. The choice of transliteration, transcription, cultural adaptation, or literal translation
depends on factors such as the purpose of the translation, the target audience, and the
guidelines provided by clients or translation standards.

4. Перекладацькі трансформації як ефективний засіб досягнення

адекватності у перекладі. Причини застосування та види лексичних
трансформацій у перекладі. (Translation transformations as an effective means of
achieving adequacy in translation. Reasons for use and types of lexical transformations in
translation.)
Translation transformations are techniques used to achieve adequacy in translation
by adapting the source language text to the target language while preserving the meaning
and intent of the original content. These transformations involve making changes at the
lexical (word) level to ensure that the translated text is accurate, natural, and culturally
appropriate. They are employed to address linguistic, cultural, and stylistic differences
between the source and target languages. The use of translation transformations helps to
achieve a higher level of equivalence and readability in the target language.
Reasons for using translation transformations include:
● Lexical Gaps: Different languages have different vocabularies, and certain words or
concepts in the source language may not have direct equivalents in the target
language. Translation transformations can be employed to find suitable alternative
expressions, paraphrasing, or loanwords to bridge these lexical gaps.
● Idiomatic Expressions: Idiomatic expressions and figures of speech vary across
languages. Translators may need to employ transformation techniques to adapt
idioms, proverbs, or metaphorical language into equivalents that convey a similar
meaning in the target language.
● Cultural Adaptation: Translation transformations are often necessary to account for
cultural differences between the source and target languages. This includes adapting
culturally specific terms, customs, or references to ensure that they are
comprehensible and relatable to the target audience.
● Style and Tone: Each language has its own stylistic preferences and norms.
Translation transformations can be used to adjust the style, register, or tone of the
translated text to match the conventions of the target language. This ensures that the
translated text reads naturally and resonates with the target audience.

Types of lexical transformations in translation include:

● Transposition: In transposition, the order or syntactic structure of words or phrases is
changed in the translation to conform to the target language's grammatical rules. This
may involve reordering adjectives, changing word classes, or altering sentence
structures.
● Substitution: Substitution involves replacing a word or phrase in the source language
with a different word or phrase in the target language that conveys the same
meaning. This is often used when there is no direct equivalent in the target language
or to adapt to the target language's cultural or stylistic norms.
● Modulation: Modulation involves changing the perspective, emphasis, or point of view
of the source text in the translation. This can be done to align the translated text with
 the cultural or linguistic preferences of the target audience, or to convey the same
meaning in a more effective or natural way.
● Amplification/Reduction: Amplification involves adding additional information or
expanding on certain aspects of the source text in the translation. Conversely,
reduction involves omitting or condensing information to achieve conciseness or to
match the target language's preferences. These transformations are used to balance
the level of detail and readability in the translation.
● Cultural Adaptation: Cultural adaptation involves adapting culturally specific terms,
references, or customs in the source language text to be more suitable and
understandable for the target audience. This may involve providing explanations,
using footnotes, or finding equivalent terms or concepts in the target language.
Translation transformations play a crucial role in achieving adequacy in translation by
addressing linguistic, cultural, and stylistic differences between the source and target
languages. They help to ensure that the translated text accurately conveys the meaning and
intent of the original content while being natural and appropriate in the target language
context. By employing various lexical transformation techniques, translators can bridge
linguistic gaps, adapt to cultural nuances, and create a more effective and communicative
translation.

5. Перекладацькі трансформації як ефективний засіб досягнення

адекватності у перекладі. Причини застосування та види граматичних
трансформацій у перекладі. (Translation transformations as an effective means of
achieving adequacy in translation. Reasons for use and types of grammatical
transformations in translation.)
Translation transformations are valuable techniques used to achieve adequacy in
translation by modifying the grammatical structure of the source language text to suit the
target language. These transformations aim to preserve the meaning, tone, and readability
of the original content while ensuring grammatical correctness and linguistic fluency in the
translation. They are employed to address syntactic, morphological, and grammatical
differences between languages. The use of grammatical transformations helps to achieve a
higher level of equivalence and naturalness in the translated text.
Reasons for using grammatical transformations include:
● Syntactic Differences: Languages may have different word order patterns or syntactic
structures. Grammatical transformations are employed to restructure sentences,
adjust word order, or change grammatical functions to conform to the target
language's syntactic norms. This ensures that the translated text reads naturally and
follows the grammatical rules of the target language.
● Verb Tense and Aspect: Verb tenses and aspects can vary across languages.
Translators use grammatical transformations to accurately convey the intended time
frame, aspect, or mood of the original text in the target language. This may involve
changing verb forms, tense markers, or auxiliary verbs to match the target language's
system of tense and aspect.
● Agreement and Concord: Languages may have different rules for grammatical
agreement and concord, such as gender agreement, number agreement, or
noun-adjective agreement. Grammatical transformations are employed to ensure that
these agreements are maintained in the translation. This may involve modifying the
forms of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns to match the grammatical requirements of
the target language.
 ● Verb Moods and Modality: Different languages express modality and verb moods,
such as possibility, necessity, or conditional, in different ways. Grammatical
transformations are used to adapt the modality and verb moods of the source text to
equivalent expressions in the target language. This ensures that the intended level of
certainty, obligation, or conditionality is preserved in the translation.

Types of grammatical transformations in translation include:

● Word Order Adjustments: Translators may need to rearrange the word order in the
translation to match the target language's syntactic conventions. This could involve
moving modifiers, adverbs, or prepositional phrases to different positions in the
sentence.
● Verb Tense and Aspect Changes: Grammatical transformations are used to change
the tense, aspect, or mood of verbs in the translation. This may involve modifying
verb forms, adding auxiliary verbs, or using different tense markers to match the
target language's tense and aspect system.
● Noun and Pronoun Modifications: Grammatical transformations are employed to
adapt noun forms, pronoun references, or agreement markers to conform to the
target language's grammatical rules. This ensures that gender, number, and case
agreements are maintained in the translation.
● Modal Expressions: Grammatical transformations are used to adapt modal
expressions and verb moods to equivalent constructions in the target language. This
may involve changing modal verbs, adding modal particles, or using different verb
forms to express the intended modality or mood.
● Voice and Diathesis Changes: Grammatical transformations can be employed to
switch between active voice and passive voice, or to adjust the diathesis of verbs in
the translation. This helps to convey the same meaning and emphasis while adhering
to the grammatical patterns of the target language.
● Nominalization or Verbalization: Translators may use grammatical transformations to
convert nouns into verbs or verbs into nouns in the translation. This helps to adapt
the grammatical structure and style of the text to the conventions of the target
language.
Grammatical transformations play a crucial role in achieving adequacy in translation
by addressing syntactic, morphological, and grammatical differences between languages.
They ensure that the translated text is grammatically correct, coherent, and natural in the
target language. By employing various grammatical transformation techniques, translators
can bridge linguistic gaps, adhere to the grammatical rules of the target language, and
create a more effective and communicative translation.

6. Проблема перекладу газетних матеріалів. (The problem of translation of

newspaper materials.)
The translation of newspaper materials presents a unique set of challenges due to
the nature of journalism and the characteristics of news texts. Newspapers serve as
important sources of information, providing timely and current news to a wide audience.
However, translating newspaper materials requires careful consideration of linguistic,
cultural, and journalistic aspects. Here are some key problems encountered in the translation
of newspaper materials:
● Deadline Pressure: Newspapers operate under tight deadlines, with articles often
needing to be translated quickly for timely publication. Translators must work
 efficiently and effectively to meet these deadlines without compromising the quality
and accuracy of the translation.
● Language Style and Register: Newspapers have a specific style and register
characterized by concise, informative, and engaging language. Translators must
capture the appropriate style and register in the target language while maintaining
the accuracy and readability of the content. It requires finding equivalents for
idiomatic expressions, adjusting sentence structures, and adapting the tone to suit
the target readership.
● Cultural Context and Local Knowledge: Newspaper articles often contain cultural
references, specific terminology, or events tied to the local context. Translators need
to have a deep understanding of the cultural nuances and current affairs in both the
source and target languages to ensure accurate and culturally sensitive translations.
Lack of familiarity with the local context can lead to misinterpretations or inaccurate
renderings.
● Ambiguity and Wordplay: News texts can include wordplay, puns, or ambiguous
expressions that convey multiple meanings. Translators face the challenge of
preserving the intended meaning while finding equivalent expressions in the target
language. Adapting wordplay or puns requires creativity and linguistic expertise to
convey the same effect in the translation.
● Sensationalism and Headline Translation: Headlines play a crucial role in attracting
readers' attention. Translating headlines requires balancing the need for
attention-grabbing language with accuracy and clarity. Translators must capture the
essence of the headline while ensuring that it reflects the main idea and content of
the article.
● Legal and Political Terminology: Newspaper materials often contain legal or political
terminology that requires precise translation. Translators need to have a solid
understanding of these specialized fields to accurately convey the intended meaning.
Errors in translating legal or political terms can lead to misinterpretations or
misrepresentation of facts.
● News Values and Bias: News texts can be influenced by cultural, political, or editorial
biases. Translators must navigate these biases and strive to provide objective and
unbiased translations. They should avoid introducing their own biases and faithfully
represent the viewpoints expressed in the source text.
● Handling Quotes and Sources: Newspaper articles frequently include quotes from
interviews, speeches, or other sources. Translators must accurately translate these
quotes while maintaining the speaker's style and tone. They also need to ensure the
proper attribution of quotes and cite sources accurately in the target language.
Overall, translating newspaper materials requires a combination of linguistic
proficiency, cultural knowledge, and journalistic understanding. Translators must be able to
work quickly under tight deadlines while ensuring accuracy, readability, and adherence to
journalistic standards. They play a vital role in making news accessible to a wider audience,
bridging language barriers, and facilitating global information exchange.

7. Особливості перекладу ділової документації. (Features of translation of business

documentation.)
The translation of business documentation is a specialized field that requires
attention to detail, accuracy, and an understanding of business terminology and practices.
Business documents serve various purposes, such as facilitating communication,
establishing agreements, and conveying legal and financial information. Here are some key
features and considerations in the translation of business documentation:
● Terminology Consistency: Business documents often contain specific industry
terminology, technical jargon, and legal or financial terms. Maintaining consistency in
terminology is crucial to ensure clarity and accuracy in the translation. Translators
need to build and maintain a comprehensive glossary of business terms to ensure
consistency across different documents.
● Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Business documentation, such as contracts,
agreements, and terms of service, often have legal implications. Translators must
ensure that the translated documents adhere to the legal and regulatory
requirements of the target language and culture. It may involve consulting legal
experts and being aware of the specific legal frameworks and terminology in both the
source and target languages.
● Cultural Sensitivity: Business practices and customs can vary across cultures.
Translators need to be sensitive to cultural nuances and adapt the content
accordingly. This includes considering differences in business etiquette, formality,
and communication styles. Adapting the translation to the target audience's cultural
expectations helps to ensure effective communication and avoid misunderstandings.
● Accuracy and Precision: Business documents require a high level of accuracy and
precision. Translators must faithfully convey the original meaning while adhering to
the grammatical and stylistic conventions of the target language. Ambiguities and
errors can have serious consequences in business contexts, so thorough
proofreading and quality assurance are essential.
● Formatting and Layout: Business documents often have specific formatting
requirements, such as tables, charts, and bullet points. Translators should pay
attention to accurately reproduce the formatting and layout of the original document
in the translated version. This includes preserving the structure, headings,
numbering, and other visual elements to maintain consistency and readability.
● Confidentiality and Data Protection: Business documentation may contain sensitive
information, trade secrets, or personal data. Translators must handle such
information with utmost confidentiality and comply with relevant data protection
regulations. It may involve signing non-disclosure agreements and using secure
translation processes and platforms.
● Local Market Adaptation: When translating business documents for international
markets, localization plays a significant role. Translators need to adapt the content to
suit the local market's cultural preferences, legal requirements, and business
practices. This may involve adjusting currencies, units of measurement, dates, and
addresses to align with local conventions.
● Tone and Style: Business documents have a specific tone and style that reflects the
company's brand and professionalism. Translators must accurately capture this tone
in the translation, ensuring that it aligns with the target audience's expectations. The
style may vary depending on the document type, such as formal contracts, marketing
materials, or internal communications.
● Domain Knowledge: Business translation often requires expertise in specific
industries or sectors. Translators should have a solid understanding of the subject
matter, industry-specific terminology, and concepts. This enables them to accurately
convey the intended meaning and effectively communicate the message to the target
audience.
 The translation of business documentation is a complex task that demands linguistic
proficiency, subject matter expertise, and attention to detail. Translators in this field play a
crucial role in facilitating international business communication, ensuring legal compliance,
and promoting effective cross-cultural collaboration.

IX. КОМУНІКАТИВНІ СИТУАЦІЇ З ЛІНГВОКРАЄЗНАВЧОЇ ТЕМАТИКИ

1. Literature as art: restoration and eighteenth century English literature

The Restoration and Eighteenth Century period in English literature spans from the
late 17th century to the end of the 18th century. It is characterized by a shift in literary styles
and themes, reflecting the changing social, political, and cultural landscape of the time.
Some of the major characteristic features of this period include:
● Restoration Drama: The period begins with the restoration of the English monarchy in
1660, after a period of political turmoil. This led to the revival of theater, and the rise
of Restoration comedy, known for its wit, satire, and exploration of social mores.
● Enlightenment Thought: The Eighteenth Century was a period of intellectual and
philosophical enlightenment. Writers of this time were influenced by rationality,
reason, and scientific progress. This emphasis on reason is reflected in their works,
which often sought to critique and reform society.
● Satire and Social Criticism: Satire became a prominent form of writing during this
period. Writers like Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope used satire to expose the
follies and vices of society, often targeting political corruption, social inequality, and
religious hypocrisy.
● Rise of the Novel: The Eighteenth Century witnessed the rise of the novel as a
popular literary form. Writers like Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, and Henry
Fielding pioneered the development of the novel, exploring themes of social realism,
morality, and human nature.
Some notable writers of the Restoration and Eighteenth Century period include:
● John Dryden: A prominent poet and playwright, known for his satirical works and
contributions to Restoration drama.
● Alexander Pope: An influential poet and satirist, renowned for his mastery of the
heroic couplet and his sharp social commentary in works like "The Rape of the Lock"
and "An Essay on Man."
● Jonathan Swift: A versatile writer known for his satire and wit, most notably in
"Gulliver's Travels," a biting social commentary on human nature and society.
● Samuel Richardson: Considered one of the pioneers of the English novel,
Richardson's epistolary novel "Pamela" is known for its exploration of class, gender,
and morality.

"Gulliver's Travels" is a satirical novel written by Jonathan Swift and published in

1726. It tells the story of Lemuel Gulliver, a ship's surgeon who embarks on four
extraordinary journeys to different imaginary lands. The novel is renowned for its sharp
social commentary, political satire, and imaginative storytelling. Let's examine some key
aspects of the novel:
 ● Characters: Swift's portrayal of characters in "Gulliver's Travels" is often considered
satirical and exaggerated rather than true to life. The characters serve as
representations of various aspects of society, institutions, and human nature. For
example, the tiny Lilliputians represent the pettiness of human politics and the power
struggles among nations, while the Houyhnhnms and Yahoos in the fourth voyage
symbolize reason versus irrationality. The characters are not intended to be realistic
individuals but rather vehicles for Swift's social critique.
● Situations: The situations presented in "Gulliver's Travels" are indeed dramatic and
often absurd, contributing to the novel's satirical nature. Swift uses these situations to
highlight and ridicule various social and political issues of his time, such as
corruption, hypocrisy, and human follies. While the events are fantastical, they are
presented in a manner that is both thought-provoking and intended to challenge the
reader's perception of reality.
● Background Scenery and Minor Characters: Swift's descriptions of the imaginative
lands Gulliver visits are vivid and intricate, creating a sense of wonder and
enchantment. The author pays attention to detail, providing a rich backdrop for
Gulliver's adventures. Additionally, minor characters in the novel often serve as
conduits for satire, representing specific groups or institutions within society. Swift's
portrayal of these characters is often incisive and adds depth to the overall narrative.
● Author's Style: Swift's writing style in "Gulliver's Travels" can be described as both
simple and complicated, depending on the aspect being examined. His prose is
generally straightforward and accessible, allowing readers to follow Gulliver's travels
and understand the surface narrative. However, beneath the surface, Swift employs
irony, satire, and allegory to convey his critical messages. This complexity invites
readers to engage with the novel on multiple levels and unravel the deeper meanings
embedded within the text.
Overall, "Gulliver's Travels" is esteemed for its satirical brilliance and its ability to
engage readers through its imaginative storytelling and biting social commentary. It remains
a significant work of literature that continues to be studied and appreciated for its wit, depth,
and critical examination of human nature and society.

2. Literature as art: the Romantic period in English literature

The Romantic period in English literature, spanning roughly from the late 18th
century to the mid-19th century, is characterized by a significant shift in artistic and literary
sensibilities. During this period, writers sought to explore emotions, imagination, and
individual experiences, often emphasizing the sublime, the supernatural, and the natural
world. Here are some major characteristic features of the Romantic period:
● Emphasis on Emotion and Subjectivity: Romantic writers placed a strong emphasis
on individual emotions, passions, and subjective experiences, often valuing them
over reason and societal conventions.
● Love for Nature: Nature was seen as a source of inspiration and solace for Romantic
writers. They celebrated the beauty and power of the natural world, often depicting it
as a reflection of human emotions and spiritual connections.
● Romantic Idealism and Individualism: Romantic literature often explored idealized
visions of the self and the pursuit of individual freedom. Writers emphasized the
power of imagination, intuition, and the supernatural.
 ● Rejection of Industrialization: Many Romantic writers expressed criticism of the
Industrial Revolution and its impact on society and the environment. They longed for
simpler, more natural ways of life.
Some notable writers of the Romantic period include:
● William Wordsworth: A central figure in the Romantic movement, Wordsworth's
poems, such as "Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey" and "I
Wandered Lonely as a Cloud," celebrated nature and explored the transformative
power of memory and imagination.
● Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Coleridge is known for his lyrical poetry and his
collaboration with Wordsworth on "Lyrical Ballads." His poem "The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner" is a haunting narrative exploring guilt, redemption, and the
supernatural.
● Percy Bysshe Shelley: Shelley's works, including "Ode to the West Wind" and
"Prometheus Unbound," are characterized by their lyrical beauty and their exploration
of political and social themes, often challenging established norms and advocating
for individual freedom.
● John Keats: Keats's poems, such as "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian
Urn," are renowned for their sensual imagery, rich language, and exploration of
beauty, mortality, and the transience of life.

Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" is often regarded as a masterpiece of the period.

"Frankenstein" is a Gothic novel that explores themes of creation, ambition, and the
human condition. What I find intriguing about this novel is Shelley's examination of the
ethical and moral implications of scientific advancement and the consequences of playing
god. The character of Victor Frankenstein, the ambitious scientist who creates a monster,
raises profound questions about the responsibility of creators and the limits of human
knowledge.
The characters in "Frankenstein" are complex and multi-dimensional, with their flaws
and desires driving the narrative. Victor Frankenstein's internal struggles and the monster's
yearning for acceptance and understanding evoke empathy and contemplation. The
situations in the novel are indeed dramatic and credible, as Shelley skillfully weaves together
themes of isolation, revenge, and the pursuit of knowledge in a gripping manner.
The background scenery in "Frankenstein" serves as a metaphorical reflection of the
characters' emotional and psychological states. Shelley vividly describes the natural
landscapes, evoking both awe and dread. The minor characters also contribute to the overall
depth of the story, providing contrasting perspectives and further exploring the moral
complexities of the narrative.
Shelley's writing style in "Frankenstein" is both intricate and evocative. She employs
rich and descriptive language to capture the emotions, atmosphere, and philosophical ideas
presented in the novel. While her style may be considered more elaborate and nuanced, it
adds to the atmospheric and thought-provoking nature of the story.
Overall, "Frankenstein" stands as a remarkable work of the Romantic period, delving
into existential questions, moral dilemmas, and the inherent contradictions of human nature.

3. Literature as art: Victorian period in English literature

The Victorian period in English literature encompasses the reign of Queen Victoria
from 1837 to 1901. This era is marked by distinct characteristics and themes that reflect the
social, cultural, and political context of the time. Here are some major characteristic features
of the Victorian period:
● Realism: Victorian literature often sought to depict life with accuracy and fidelity.
Writers focused on portraying realistic settings, characters, and social issues,
addressing the concerns and challenges of the rapidly changing society.
● Social Critique: Many Victorian writers engaged in social criticism, addressing issues
such as poverty, industrialization, gender roles, and class inequality. They explored
the social, moral, and ethical complexities of the era.
● Moral and Ethical Dilemmas: Victorian literature frequently delved into moral and
ethical questions, often examining the clash between personal desires and societal
expectations, as well as the consequences of one's actions.
● Exploration of the Human Psyche: Writers of this period delved into the inner
workings of the human mind and emotions. Psychological realism and the study of
characters' motivations and psychological states became prominent.
● Industrialization and Progress: The Victorian era witnessed significant technological
advancements and industrialization. Literature of the period often grappled with the
effects of progress on society, including the impact on individuals and communities.
Some notable writers of the Victorian period include:
● Charles Dickens: Known for his social realism and vivid characters, Dickens's works
like "Great Expectations," "Oliver Twist," and "A Tale of Two Cities" depict the
struggles of the working class and expose the social inequalities of the time.
● Charlotte Brontë: Brontë's novel "Jane Eyre" is a classic example of Victorian
literature, exploring themes of love, independence, and the position of women in
society. It portrays a strong-willed and independent female protagonist.
● Thomas Hardy: Hardy's novels, such as "Tess of the d'Urbervilles" and "Far from the
Madding Crowd," examine the constraints of society, fate, and the struggles of
individuals caught in challenging circumstances.
● Oscar Wilde: Wilde's wit and satire are showcased in plays like "The Importance of
Being Earnest" and his novel "The Picture of Dorian Gray." He skillfully ridicules
societal norms and hypocrisy while exploring themes of art, beauty, and morality.

"A Christmas Carol" by Charles Dickens is a heartwarming and timeless tale that has
captivated readers for generations. It tells the story of Ebenezer Scrooge, a bitter and
miserly man, who undergoes a transformative journey of self-discovery and redemption on
Christmas Eve. Here are some key aspects to consider:
● Characters: The characters in "A Christmas Carol" are vividly portrayed and resonate
with readers due to their relatability. Ebenezer Scrooge, in particular, is a complex
character who undergoes a profound change throughout the narrative. His
transformation from a cold-hearted and selfish individual to a compassionate and
generous soul is a central theme of the story. Other characters, such as Bob Cratchit,
Tiny Tim, and the Ghosts of Christmas Past, Present, and Yet to Come, contribute to
the richness and depth of the narrative.
● Situations: The situations presented in "A Christmas Carol" are both dramatic and
credible. The novella explores themes of loneliness, regret, and the consequences of
greed, all of which resonate with readers. The visits from the spirits and the haunting
visions that Scrooge experiences are dramatic elements that drive the narrative
forward, while the underlying messages of compassion and the importance of human
connection provide a sense of credibility and relevance.
 ● Background Scenery and Minor Characters: Dickens excels at creating vivid and
atmospheric settings. In "A Christmas Carol," the snowy streets of London during the
holiday season and the warm interiors of the Cratchit family's home evoke a sense of
time and place. The minor characters, such as the Cratchit family and Scrooge's
nephew Fred, add depth and contrast to the story, highlighting different perspectives
on life and the true meaning of Christmas.
● Author's Style: Charles Dickens' writing style in "A Christmas Carol" is often
described as both simple and intricate. His prose is accessible and engaging,
allowing readers to easily follow the narrative and connect with the characters.
Dickens' use of descriptive language brings the scenes to life, and his skillful
characterization adds depth to the story. Additionally, the novella is infused with
Dickens' social commentary on the disparities of wealth and the plight of the poor,
which adds layers of complexity to the overall narrative.
Overall, "A Christmas Carol" is appreciated for its timeless themes of redemption,
kindness, and the spirit of Christmas. It continues to resonate with readers due to its
well-drawn characters, dramatic situations, evocative settings, and the enduring messages
of compassion and second chances.

4. Literature as art: Modern English literature

Modern English literature refers to the literary works produced from the early 20th
century to the present day. This period is characterized by a wide range of stylistic and
thematic diversity, reflecting the changing social, cultural, and technological landscapes.
Here are some major characteristic features of modern English literature:
● Experimentation and Innovation: Modern literature embraces experimentation with
form, language, and narrative techniques. Writers sought to break away from
traditional structures and explore new ways of storytelling.
● Stream of Consciousness: The use of stream of consciousness technique became
prominent in modern literature, allowing readers to delve into the characters' thoughts
and perceptions in a more intimate and subjective manner.
● Fragmentation and Multiple Perspectives: Modern literature often employs
fragmented narratives and multiple perspectives, reflecting the complexities of
modern life and the diverse experiences of individuals.
● Exploration of Identity and Society: Writers of this period delved into themes of
identity, alienation, social inequality, and the impact of societal norms on individuals.
They examined the challenges and contradictions of the modern world.
● Social and Political Critique: Modern literature engaged with pressing social and
political issues of the time, addressing topics such as war, class struggles, gender
roles, and cultural shifts.
Some notable writers of modern English literature include:
● Virginia Woolf: Known for her innovative narrative techniques and explorations of
gender and consciousness, Woolf's works like "To the Lighthouse" and "Mrs.
Dalloway" pushed the boundaries of literary conventions and offered profound
insights into human experiences.
● James Joyce: Joyce's novel "Ulysses" is considered a groundbreaking work of
modernist literature. It employs a stream of consciousness and experimental
storytelling to depict a day in the life of various characters in Dublin, Ireland.
 ● T.S. Eliot: Eliot's poetry, such as "The Waste Land" and "The Love Song of J. Alfred
Prufrock," reflected the disillusionment and fragmentation of post-World War I society.
His work explores themes of alienation, spirituality, and the decay of civilization.

"Ulysses" by James Joyce is a complex and highly influential novel that is widely
regarded as one of the greatest literary achievements of the 20th century. It follows the lives
of several characters in Dublin, Ireland, over the course of a single day, paralleling the
events of Homer's epic poem "The Odyssey." Here are some points to consider:
● Realistic Characters: "Ulysses" features a wide array of characters, each with their
own unique perspectives, thoughts, and flaws. Joyce's meticulous attention to detail
in capturing the internal thoughts and external behavior of the characters contributes
to their believability and realism. The characters reflect the diversity and complexities
of human nature, making them relatable and true to life.
● Dramatic and Credible Situations: The situations presented in "Ulysses" are often
mundane and ordinary, focusing on the everyday experiences of the characters.
However, Joyce's masterful storytelling and linguistic experimentation elevate these
seemingly ordinary situations to a level of significance and resonance. The novel
explores themes of love, desire, identity, and the search for meaning in life, infusing
the situations with dramatic tension and depth.
● Background Scenery and Minor Characters: Joyce's attention to detail extends
beyond the main characters to the vividly drawn background scenery and minor
characters. The city of Dublin itself becomes a living, breathing entity, intricately
described and woven into the narrative. The minor characters add layers of richness
and contribute to the overall tapestry of the novel, offering diverse perspectives and
insights into the themes explored.
● Author's Style: James Joyce's writing style in "Ulysses" is highly innovative and
experimental, often considered both simple and complicated simultaneously. The
novel employs a range of narrative techniques, including stream of consciousness,
parodies, puns, and extensive wordplay. Joyce's prose is dense and allusive,
requiring careful attention and interpretation from readers. His complex style reflects
the intricacies of the human mind and the multifaceted nature of reality.
"Ulysses" is known for its challenging and demanding nature, pushing the boundaries
of traditional narrative structure and linguistic conventions. It is celebrated for its exploration
of human consciousness, its intricate symbolism, and its profound insights into the human
condition. While it may not be easily accessible to all readers, it remains a monumental work
that continues to inspire and provoke scholarly analysis and literary appreciation.

5. Environmental protection.
Major Environmental Problems Confronting the World Nowadays:
● Climate Change: The rising temperatures, melting glaciers, and extreme weather
events are among the alarming consequences of climate change. It poses a
significant threat to ecosystems, agriculture, and human settlements worldwide.
● Deforestation: Large-scale deforestation contributes to habitat loss, biodiversity
decline, and increased carbon dioxide levels. It disrupts ecosystems, affects local
communities, and exacerbates climate change.
● Loss of Biodiversity: The loss of plant and animal species threatens the delicate
balance of ecosystems. Human activities such as habitat destruction, pollution, and
overexploitation are driving many species toward extinction.
 ● Pollution: Pollution in various forms, including air, water, and soil pollution, continues
to degrade the environment. It poses risks to human health, wildlife, and ecosystems.
● Resource Depletion: Overconsumption and inefficient resource management deplete
natural resources such as water, minerals, and fossil fuels. This leads to ecological
imbalances and poses long-term sustainability challenges.

Steps Taken by the International Community to Prevent Environmental Pollution:

● International Agreements: Nations have come together to address environmental
challenges through agreements like the Paris Agreement on climate change and the
Convention on Biological Diversity. These agreements aim to mitigate climate
change, protect ecosystems, and promote sustainable practices.
● Sustainable Development Goals: The United Nations' Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) provide a framework for countries to work toward sustainable
development, including environmental protection. These goals encompass various
aspects, such as climate action, sustainable cities, and responsible consumption and
production.
● Environmental Regulations: Governments worldwide have implemented
environmental regulations to control pollution, promote renewable energy, and
protect natural resources. These regulations impose standards and encourage
industries to adopt cleaner practices.
● Conservation Efforts: Conservation initiatives focus on protecting endangered
species, preserving critical habitats, and promoting biodiversity conservation. Efforts
include establishing protected areas, wildlife conservation projects, and promoting
sustainable practices in agriculture and forestry.

Protection of Plant and Animal Species from Becoming Extinct:

Efforts to protect plant and animal species involve several strategies:
● Establishing protected areas and national parks to conserve habitats and safeguard
biodiversity.
● Implementing regulations against illegal wildlife trade and poaching.
● Conducting research and monitoring programs to assess population trends and
develop conservation strategies.
● Promoting sustainable practices in agriculture and forestry to reduce habitat
destruction and fragmentation.
● Educating the public about the importance of biodiversity and engaging communities
in conservation efforts.

Controlling Climate Change and Scientists' Success:

Controlling climate change is a complex task, and success requires a combination of
global efforts, technological advancements, and policy changes. Scientists have made
significant contributions in understanding climate change, its causes, and potential solutions.
However, effectively curbing climate change requires widespread adoption of sustainable
practices, transitioning to renewable energy sources, and reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. The success in controlling climate change depends on the collective actions of
governments, industries, and individuals worldwide.

Improving Air Quality in Big Cities:

To improve air quality in big cities, several measures can be taken:
 ● Promoting the use of clean and renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind
power.
● Encouraging the use of public transportation, cycling, and walking to reduce vehicular
emissions.
● Implementing stricter emission standards for industries and vehicles.
● Enhancing green spaces and urban planning to reduce pollution and improve air
circulation.
● Raising awareness about the importance of reducing personal carbon footprint
through energy-efficient practices and responsible consumption.

Personal Contribution to Environmental Protection:

Promoting awareness and providing information about sustainable practices,
environmental issues, and conservation efforts can indirectly contribute to fostering a more
environmentally conscious society.

Major Environmental Problems Confronting Ukraine:

Some major environmental problems in Ukraine include:
● Air pollution caused by industrial emissions, coal-fired power plants, and inefficient
heating systems.
● Water pollution from industrial discharges and inadequate wastewater treatment.
● Soil degradation and contamination due to agricultural practices, industrial activities,
and improper waste management.
● Deforestation and habitat loss, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains.
● Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster: The aftermath of the 1986 nuclear accident at the
Chernobyl power plant continues to pose environmental and health risks.

Comparison of Ukraine's Environmental Policies with Other Countries:

Ukraine's environmental policies have faced challenges, particularly in areas of
enforcement, infrastructure development, and public awareness. While progress has been
made, there is room for improvement in aligning policies with sustainable development
goals. Comparatively, some countries have implemented more advanced environmental
policies, focusing on renewable energy, waste management, and conservation practices.
International cooperation and knowledge sharing can help Ukraine enhance its
environmental policies.

Ukraine's Worst Ever Natural or Man-made Disaster:

Ukraine's worst-ever man-made disaster is the Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster, which
occurred on April 26, 1986. The explosion and subsequent release of radioactive materials
from the Chernobyl power plant resulted in significant environmental contamination, health
impacts, and the evacuation and resettlement of nearby communities. The accident had
long-lasting consequences for human health, the environment, and the perception of nuclear
energy globally.

Viewpoint on Human Extinction:

Views on human extinction vary among individuals. Some people believe that the
human race will never disappear, pointing to our ability to adapt, innovate, and overcome
challenges throughout history. Others are concerned about the potential consequences of
environmental degradation, climate change, and other global threats, leading them to believe
that humankind may face extinction if urgent action is not taken to address these issues. It is
a topic that is subject to ongoing debate and speculation.

6. Travelling.
Different Kinds of Travel:
There are various kinds of travel that people engage in, including:
● Leisure Travel: This type of travel is primarily for relaxation, recreation, and
experiencing new destinations and cultures. It may involve vacations, sightseeing,
beach trips, or adventure tourism.
● Business Travel: Business travelers travel for work-related purposes, such as
attending conferences, meetings, or exploring business opportunities in different
locations.
● Educational Travel: Educational travel includes study abroad programs, language
immersion trips, or cultural exchanges aimed at learning and gaining new
experiences.
● Volunteer Travel: Volunteer travelers engage in community service and contribute to
social or environmental projects in different parts of the world.
● Adventure Travel: Adventure travelers seek thrilling experiences through activities
like hiking, mountain climbing, diving, or exploring remote and challenging
environments.

Reasons Why People Travel:

People travel for various reasons, including:
● Seeking new experiences, cultures, and perspectives.
● Relaxation, escape from routine, and leisure activities.
● Exploring historical and natural landmarks.
● Meeting new people and building connections.
● Expanding knowledge and learning about different cultures.
● Seeking adventure, adrenaline, and personal growth.
● Business opportunities and professional development.

Favorite Mode of Travel:

Some popular modes of travel include airplanes, trains, cars, buses, and boats. Each
mode offers its own advantages and is preferred based on factors like convenience, speed,
comfort, and the nature of the journey.

Foreign Country or Travel within Own Country:

The choice between traveling to a foreign country or exploring one's own country
depends on personal preferences and circumstances. Both options have their merits.
Traveling abroad offers exposure to different cultures, languages, and landscapes, providing
a unique and enriching experience. On the other hand, exploring one's own country allows
for a deeper understanding of local culture, history, and natural beauty.

Most Interesting Spot I Have Ever Visited:

There are many fascinating spots around the world that are known for their cultural,
historical, or natural significance. Some popular examples include the Great Barrier Reef in
Australia, the Machu Picchu ruins in Peru, the Grand Canyon in the United States, the Taj
Mahal in India, and the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania.
 Best and Worst Trip:
People's best trips are often characterized by positive experiences, memorable
moments, and fulfilling encounters. Conversely, the worst trips may involve unforeseen
challenges, travel disruptions, or unpleasant experiences. The perception of a trip can vary
greatly among individuals based on their expectations, preferences, and circumstances.

Important Tourist Destinations in Ukraine:

Ukraine offers several important tourist destinations, including:
● Kyiv: The capital city boasts historical landmarks such as Kyiv Pechersk Lavra and
St. Sophia's Cathedral.
● Lviv: Known for its charming old town, architectural beauty, and vibrant cultural
scene.
● Odesa: A popular coastal city with beautiful beaches, historical architecture, and
vibrant nightlife.
● Chernivtsi: Home to the UNESCO-listed Chernivtsi University and renowned for its
stunning architecture.
● Carpathian Mountains: A scenic region offering outdoor activities, hiking trails, and
traditional culture.

Importance of Tourism for Ukraine:

Tourism plays a significant role in Ukraine's economy, contributing to employment,
revenue generation, and cultural exchange. It helps promote the country's rich historical and
cultural heritage, natural beauty, and unique attractions. Tourism also fosters international
cooperation, enhances local infrastructure, and supports local businesses.

Space Tourism:
Space tourism refers to the concept of traveling to space for recreational or leisure
purposes. While it was once reserved for astronauts and scientists, private space companies
are now developing space tourism programs. These initiatives aim to offer civilians the
opportunity to experience space travel, albeit at a high cost. Space tourism represents a new
frontier in travel, providing an unparalleled and extraordinary adventure.

Traveling in Space:
Space travel is an exciting prospect for many people who dream of exploring the
mysteries beyond Earth. It offers a unique perspective, scientific research opportunities, and
the potential for technological advancements. However, space travel poses significant
challenges in terms of safety, cost, and sustainability.

Causes of Emigration and Treatment of Illegal Immigrants:

The causes of emigration vary from economic factors and political instability to
seeking better opportunities, higher standards of living, or reuniting with family members.
The treatment of illegal immigrants entering a country is a complex issue with varying
perspectives. Governments and international organizations strive to address immigration
challenges through comprehensive immigration policies that consider humanitarian
concerns, border security, and integration efforts. Balancing the needs of migrants, national
interests, and respecting human rights remains a significant challenge.
 Notion of Globalization and its Future:
Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of
countries through economic, political, cultural, and technological exchanges. It has facilitated
the flow of goods, services, capital, ideas, and people across borders. The future of
globalization is subject to ongoing debates and uncertainties. While globalization has
brought many benefits such as economic growth, cultural exchange, and technological
advancements, it has also raised concerns about inequality, environmental impact, and
cultural homogenization. The future of globalization will likely depend on how nations
address these challenges and strike a balance between global cooperation and national
interests.

Agree or Disagree with the Statements:

● "The world is a book, and those who do not travel read only a page." - Agree.
Traveling allows individuals to broaden their horizons, gain new perspectives, and
experience diverse cultures and environments. It offers unique opportunities for
personal growth, knowledge, and understanding of the world.
● "Men who travel should leave their prejudices at home." - Agree. Traveling exposes
individuals to different cultures, beliefs, and ways of life. To truly appreciate and
engage with the places they visit, travelers should approach them with an open mind,
free from preconceived notions and biases. This fosters cultural sensitivity, empathy,
and a willingness to learn from diverse experiences.

7. Health Care.
The healthcare systems in Ukraine and Great Britain have distinct features:
Ukraine:
The healthcare system in Ukraine faces challenges, including insufficient funding,
outdated infrastructure, and a need for healthcare reforms. The system is predominantly
state-funded, with healthcare services provided through a network of public medical
institutions. Patients in Ukraine are entitled to free or subsidized healthcare, but the quality
and accessibility of services can vary. Private healthcare options are available for those who
can afford them.

Great Britain:
The healthcare system in Great Britain is known as the National Health Service
(NHS). It is a publicly funded system that provides comprehensive healthcare services to all
UK residents, regardless of their ability to pay. The NHS is funded through general taxation,
and healthcare services are delivered through a combination of public and private providers.
The system aims to provide universal access to healthcare, and patients have the freedom
to choose their general practitioner (GP) and specialists.

Reform of Health Care System in Ukraine:

The reform of the healthcare system in Ukraine aims to address the existing
challenges and improve the quality and accessibility of healthcare services. The reform
includes measures such as increased funding, the introduction of family medicine,
decentralization of healthcare management, and the improvement of infrastructure and
medical equipment. The success and effectiveness of the reform will depend on its
implementation, proper funding allocation, and ongoing evaluation.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Insurance Medicine:
Insurance medicine, as a healthcare system, has both advantages and
disadvantages. Advantages include:
● Increased Access: Insurance coverage allows individuals to access a wider range of
healthcare services, including specialized care and treatments.
● Financial Protection: Insurance helps individuals mitigate the financial burden of
expensive medical treatments and procedures.
● Choice and Flexibility: Insurance may offer individuals the freedom to choose their
healthcare providers and tailor their coverage based on their needs.

Disadvantages can include:

● Cost: Insurance premiums can be expensive, making it difficult for some individuals
to afford comprehensive coverage.
● Administrative Complexity: Insurance systems can involve complex paperwork,
approval processes, and restrictions on coverage.
● Inequality: Insurance coverage can create disparities in access to healthcare based
on income and affordability.

Perceptions of Doctors:
When we hear the word "doctor," various thoughts and associations may come to
mind. These can include professionalism, expertise, empathy, compassion, medical
knowledge, and the ability to heal and provide medical care.

Worst Aspects of Being a Doctor:

Being a doctor comes with challenges and stressors. Some of the worst aspects
include long working hours, high levels of responsibility, emotional strain, exposure to critical
and distressing situations, demanding workloads, and the need to make difficult decisions.
The healthcare profession requires dedication, resilience, and ongoing professional
development.

World's Best Doctors:

The world's best doctors can be found in various countries renowned for their
medical education, research, and healthcare systems. Some countries that are often
recognized for their medical expertise include the United States, the United Kingdom,
Germany, Switzerland, and Japan. However, exceptional doctors can be found globally, as
medical knowledge and expertise are not limited to specific geographical regions.

Healthiest People in the World:

Determining the healthiest people in the world is complex, as it depends on multiple
factors. However, certain countries with high life expectancies and low rates of chronic
diseases are often regarded as having healthier populations. These countries prioritize
healthcare, have strong public health systems, emphasize preventive care, promote healthy
lifestyles, and have social and environmental factors conducive to well-being. Examples of
countries often associated with good health outcomes include Japan, Switzerland,
Singapore, Australia, and Spain.

8. The System of Secondary Education in Britain.

 In Great Britain, the system of secondary education consists of various types of
educational establishments catering to the diverse needs of students. The main types
include public schools (independent schools) and state schools.

Public Schools in GB:

Public schools in Great Britain are independent schools that charge tuition fees. They
are known for their long histories, prestigious reputations, and traditional educational
approaches. Public schools often have boarding facilities and provide a comprehensive
education, including academics, sports, arts, and extracurricular activities. Examples of
public schools include Eton College, Harrow School, and Winchester College.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Public Schools in GB:

Advantages of public schools in GB include:
● High-quality Education: Public schools often have excellent academic standards,
experienced teachers, and well-rounded educational programs.
● Networking Opportunities: Public schools provide students with networking
opportunities among influential individuals, which can be beneficial for their future
careers.
● Resources and Facilities: Public schools typically have ample resources, modern
facilities, and extensive extracurricular offerings.
Disadvantages of public schools in GB include:
● Cost: Public schools are expensive, making them inaccessible to many students due
to financial constraints.
● Elitism and Social Divide: Public schools can perpetuate social inequalities and
create a sense of elitism within society.
● Limited Diversity: Public schools often lack diversity in terms of socioeconomic
backgrounds, cultural representation, and perspectives.

State Schools in GB:

State schools in Great Britain are publicly funded and provide free education to
students. They are overseen by local authorities and follow the national curriculum. State
schools vary in terms of facilities, resources, and performance. Some state schools are
selective, admitting students based on academic ability, while others are comprehensive,
accepting students of all abilities.

System of Examinations in GB:

The system of examinations in Great Britain is primarily governed by the General
Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and the A-level qualifications. GCSEs are taken
by students at the age of 16 and cover a range of subjects. A-levels are typically taken
between the ages of 16 and 18 and are more specialized, focusing on subjects related to a
student's chosen field of study. These examinations play a crucial role in determining further
education opportunities and career paths for students.

Comparison with the System of Secondary Education in Ukraine:

The system of secondary education in Great Britain differs from that of Ukraine in
several ways. In Ukraine, secondary education is typically divided into comprehensive
schools and specialized schools. Comprehensive schools offer a broad curriculum to
students of all abilities, while specialized schools focus on specific subjects or areas of
study.
In terms of public schools, Ukraine has a limited number of privately funded
educational establishments that are similar to public schools in Great Britain. However,
public schools in Ukraine generally do not have the same historical prestige and exclusivity
as their British counterparts.
The examination system also differs. In Ukraine, secondary education culminates in
the External Independent Evaluation (EIE) examinations, which are taken by students at the
end of their secondary schooling. These examinations play a significant role in determining
university admissions.
Overall, the educational systems in Great Britain and Ukraine have their own
strengths and weaknesses, and they reflect the cultural, social, and historical contexts of
each country.

9. The System of Secondary Education in the USA.

The American system of secondary education consists of public and private schools
that cater to the educational needs of students across the country. Here are the advantages
and disadvantages of American secondary education:
Public Schools in the USA:
Advantages of public schools in the USA include:
● Accessibility: Public schools are available to all students free of charge, ensuring
equal access to education.
● Funding: Public schools are funded by local, state, and federal governments,
providing resources and facilities for students.
● Diversity: Public schools often have a diverse student population, exposing students
to different backgrounds, cultures, and perspectives.
Disadvantages of public schools in the USA include:
● Limited Funding: Some public schools may face funding challenges, leading to
resource constraints and limited extracurricular activities.
● Large Class Sizes: Due to high student populations, class sizes in public schools can
be large, which may impact individualized attention and instruction.
● Variation in Quality: The quality of education can vary across public schools,
depending on factors such as location, funding, and resources.

Private Schools in the USA:

Advantages of private schools in the USA include:
● Specialized Curriculum: Private schools often offer specialized curricula, such as
Montessori, religious, or college preparatory programs.
● Smaller Class Sizes: Private schools typically have smaller class sizes, allowing for
more individualized attention and interaction with teachers.
● Resources and Facilities: Private schools often have extensive resources, advanced
technology, and well-maintained facilities.
Disadvantages of private schools in the USA include:
● Cost: Private schools require tuition fees, making them inaccessible to many
students due to financial constraints.
● Lack of Diversity: Some private schools may lack diversity in terms of student
backgrounds and socioeconomic representation.
 ● Limited Accessibility: Private schools may have selective admission processes,
which can limit access based on academic ability or other criteria.

Compulsory Subjects and Extra-Curricular Activities:

In the USA, students typically study a range of compulsory subjects, including
English, mathematics, science, social studies, and physical education. Additional elective
subjects may vary based on individual schools and student preferences. Extra-curricular
activities, such as sports, arts, clubs, and community service, are an integral part of the
American secondary education system, providing opportunities for personal growth, skill
development, and social interaction.

Comparison with the System of Secondary Education in Ukraine:

The system of secondary education in the USA differs from that of Ukraine in several
ways. In Ukraine, the secondary education system is divided into general secondary
education, specialized secondary education, and vocational education.
The American system places more emphasis on extracurricular activities and a
broader range of elective subjects, allowing students to explore their interests and talents.
The Ukrainian system, on the other hand, places more emphasis on academic subjects and
specialization in certain fields.
Another significant difference is the presence of private schools in the USA, which
offer alternative educational approaches and specialized programs. In Ukraine, private
schools are less prevalent and generally have a more limited scope.

10. The System of Secondary Education in Ukraine.

The system of secondary education in Ukraine consists of three stages and offers
various types of schools to accommodate students' needs. Here is an overview of the
system:

Three Stages of Secondary Education:

● Primary School: The first stage of secondary education begins at the age of six and
lasts for four years. It focuses on providing foundational knowledge and basic skills in
subjects such as Ukrainian language, mathematics, natural sciences, and foreign
languages.
● Basic School: The second stage starts at the age of ten and lasts for five years. It
aims to broaden students' knowledge and skills in various subjects, including
humanities, sciences, arts, physical education, and foreign languages.
● Senior School: The final stage of secondary education lasts for two years, typically
from the age of 15 to 17. It offers more specialized subjects and allows students to
choose specific areas of study based on their interests and future career aspirations.

Different Types of Schools in Ukraine:

In Ukraine, there are various types of schools, including general education schools,
specialized schools, lyceums, gymnasiums, and vocational schools. General education
schools provide a comprehensive curriculum, while specialized schools focus on specific
areas such as mathematics, arts, or foreign languages. Lyceums and gymnasiums offer an
extended curriculum with additional subjects and activities. Vocational schools focus on
practical skills and prepare students for specific professions.
 Bringing up Children in Ukraine:
Bringing up children in Ukraine involves a mix of traditional values and modern
approaches. Family plays a significant role in shaping children's upbringing, with an
emphasis on respect for elders, discipline, and academic achievement. Parents often
prioritize their children's education and encourage them to participate in extracurricular
activities. However, the specific approaches to child-rearing can vary among families.

"The School is the Answer to All Problems":

While schools play a vital role in shaping individuals and providing educational
opportunities, it is an oversimplification to claim that schools are the answer to all problems.
Education is a multifaceted process influenced by various factors, including family
background, social environment, and individual effort. While schools are essential in
providing knowledge and skills, addressing societal issues requires a holistic approach
involving multiple stakeholders and strategies.

Likes and Dislikes about Secondary Education in Ukraine:

Likes:
● Emphasis on core subjects such as Ukrainian language, mathematics, and sciences.
● Availability of specialized schools that cater to students' interests and talents.
● Growing focus on extracurricular activities and the development of practical skills.
Dislikes:
● Limited resources and outdated infrastructure in some schools.
● Variation in the quality of education between urban and rural areas.
● Need for improvement in the alignment of the curriculum with the demands of the
modern job market.

Differences and Similarities between Systems of Education in Ukraine, GB, and the
USA:
Differences:
● In Ukraine, there is a more centralized approach to education, with a national
curriculum and standardized testing. In contrast, both the UK and the USA have
more localized control, allowing for greater flexibility and diversity in educational
approaches.
● The availability and role of private schools differ significantly. Private schools are
more prevalent and influential in the UK and the USA, offering alternative educational
options that often require tuition fees. In Ukraine, private schools have a more limited
presence.
● The focus on extracurricular activities and the inclusion of vocational education differ
among the three systems. The US and Ukraine place a relatively higher emphasis on
extracurricular activities, while vocational education is more developed in Ukraine.

Similarities:
● All three systems include a multi-stage approach to secondary education.
● They prioritize core subjects such as language, mathematics, sciences, and
humanities.
● They acknowledge the importance of extracurricular activities in students' overall
development.
11. The System of Higher Education in Great Britain.
Higher education in Great Britain is renowned for its academic excellence,
prestigious institutions, and rich history. Let's explore some key points regarding higher
education in the country:

Teaching and Learning in Universities of Great Britain:

● Tuition Fee: Universities in Great Britain typically charge tuition fees for
undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The fee varies depending on the
institution, course, and student status (e.g., home/EU or international).
● Academic Year: The academic year in British universities generally runs from
September/October to May/June, divided into terms or semesters. Each term
consists of a set number of weeks of teaching, followed by assessment periods.
● Teaching Methods: British universities employ a combination of lectures, seminars,
tutorials, and practical sessions. Lectures provide large-scale dissemination of
knowledge, while seminars and tutorials facilitate discussions, group work, and
individualized attention. Practical sessions offer hands-on experience in certain
disciplines.

The University of Oxford:

The University of Oxford is one of the oldest and most prestigious universities in the
world. Some key points about Oxford include:
● Colleges and the University: Oxford University is comprised of several colleges, each
with its own distinct identity and history. Colleges are responsible for student
accommodation, pastoral care, and some aspects of academic life. The university
itself oversees overarching academic policies and qualifications.
● Methods of Instruction and Exams: Oxford employs a tutorial system, where students
receive personalized teaching in small groups or one-on-one sessions with tutors.
This system fosters in-depth discussions, critical thinking, and independent research.
Examinations, both written and oral, are typically held at the end of each academic
year or term.

The History of the University of Oxford:

The University of Oxford has a rich history dating back to the 12th century. It played a
significant role in shaping academia, producing renowned scholars, scientists, and leaders.
Over the centuries, the university has expanded its academic offerings and developed a
global reputation for excellence in various disciplines.

Cambridge University:
Cambridge University, also a prestigious institution, is known for its academic rigor
and scholarly contributions. Similar to Oxford, Cambridge is composed of colleges and offers
a wide range of disciplines for students to pursue.

Likes and Dislikes about Higher Education in Great Britain:

Likes:
● Academic Excellence: British universities are renowned for their high academic
standards and rigorous educational programs.
● Prestige and Reputation: Degrees from British universities, such as Oxford and
Cambridge, carry significant prestige and are recognized globally.
 ● Cultural Diversity: British universities attract students from all over the world, creating
a multicultural and diverse learning environment.
Dislikes:
● Tuition Fees: The cost of tuition fees for international students can be a significant
financial burden.
● Competitive Admissions: Entry into prestigious British universities can be highly
competitive, making it challenging for some students to secure a place.
● Limited Financial Support: Funding opportunities and scholarships for international
students may be limited compared to domestic students.

12. The System of Higher Education in the USA.

Higher education in the United States is renowned for its diversity, wide range of
institutions, and emphasis on academic and research excellence. Let's explore some key
points regarding higher education in the USA:

Different Types of Colleges and Universities in the USA:

● Research Universities: These institutions emphasize research and offer a wide range
of academic programs at undergraduate and graduate levels. They often have
significant funding for research projects and employ distinguished faculty members.
● Liberal Arts Colleges: These institutions focus on undergraduate education, providing
a broad-based curriculum that encompasses various disciplines. Liberal arts colleges
prioritize critical thinking, communication skills, and a well-rounded education.
● Community Colleges: Community colleges offer two-year associate degree programs
and vocational training. They provide accessible education and often serve as a
stepping stone for students who wish to transfer to four-year institutions.
● Technical and Vocational Schools: These institutions specialize in career-focused
education, offering programs in fields such as nursing, culinary arts, automotive
technology, and more.

World-Famous American Higher Educational Institutions:

The United States is home to numerous world-renowned higher educational
institutions, including:
● Harvard University: Known for its academic excellence and prestigious reputation,
Harvard is one of the oldest and most respected universities in the world.
● Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT): Renowned for its programs in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), MIT is recognized globally for its
cutting-edge research and innovation.
● Stanford University: A leading research university, Stanford is known for its
entrepreneurial culture and academic prowess in areas such as engineering,
business, and computer science.
● California Institute of Technology (Caltech): Caltech is recognized for its exceptional
programs in science and engineering, with a focus on scientific research and
discovery.

The Structure of the American Graduate School:

The American graduate school system typically consists of master's and doctoral
programs. Master's programs usually require 1-2 years of study and culminate in a thesis or
comprehensive exam. Doctoral programs involve several years of research and coursework,
leading to the completion of a dissertation.

Comparison between American and Ukrainian Universities:

American and Ukrainian universities differ in various aspects, including:
● Education Approach: American universities often prioritize student-centered and
interdisciplinary education, encouraging critical thinking, creativity, and active
participation. Ukrainian universities tend to follow a more traditional lecture-based
approach.
● Flexibility and Choice: American universities offer a wide range of courses and
majors, allowing students to explore diverse academic interests and customize their
educational path. Ukrainian universities often have more rigid curriculum structures.
● Research Emphasis: American universities place significant emphasis on research
and often provide ample opportunities for students to engage in research projects.
Ukrainian universities are also involved in research, but the research infrastructure
may vary across institutions.
● Tuition and Funding: Tuition fees in American universities can be higher, especially
for international students, but financial aid and scholarships are available. Ukrainian
universities generally have lower tuition fees, but funding opportunities may be more
limited.

13. The System of Higher Education in Ukraine.

Higher education in Ukraine is characterized by a wide range of institutions,
academic programs, and a commitment to providing quality education. Let's explore some
key points regarding higher education in Ukraine:

Teaching and Learning in Ukrainian Universities:

● Entrance Examinations: Admission to Ukrainian universities often requires students
to pass entrance examinations in subjects relevant to their chosen field of study.
These exams assess students' knowledge and academic aptitude.
● Tuition Fee: Ukrainian universities generally have lower tuition fees compared to
many other countries. The fees vary depending on the institution, program, and
student status (e.g., Ukrainian citizens, international students, or scholarship
recipients).
● Academic Year: The academic year in Ukrainian universities typically starts in
September and runs through June. It is divided into two semesters or trimesters, with
breaks for winter and summer holidays.
● Teaching Methods: Ukrainian universities employ a combination of lectures,
seminars, laboratory work, and practical sessions. Lectures provide the
dissemination of knowledge, while seminars and practical sessions encourage
discussion, problem-solving, and hands-on learning.

Famous Ukrainian Universities:

● Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv: Founded in 1834, this university is one
of the oldest and most prestigious institutions in Ukraine. It offers a wide range of
academic programs and has a strong reputation in various fields.
 ● Lviv Polytechnic National University: Known for its technical and engineering
programs, Lviv Polytechnic is a leading institution in Ukraine. It has a long history and
a strong focus on research and innovation.

Uzhhorod National University:

Uzhhorod National University is a renowned institution located in Uzhhorod, Ukraine.
It offers a range of academic programs in fields such as medicine, humanities, natural
sciences, and social sciences. The university has a reputation for its quality education,
experienced faculty, and research contributions.

Likes and Dislikes about Higher Education in Ukraine:

Likes:
● Academic Opportunities: Ukrainian universities offer a diverse range of academic
programs and fields of study, providing students with various options for
specialization and career paths.
● Affordability: Compared to many other countries, higher education in Ukraine is
relatively affordable, making it accessible to a broader range of students.
● Quality Education: Ukrainian universities have a strong academic foundation and
produce skilled professionals in various fields.

Dislikes:
● Infrastructure and Resources: Some Ukrainian universities may face challenges in
terms of outdated infrastructure and limited resources, which can impact the quality
of education and research opportunities.
● Administrative Processes: Administrative procedures and bureaucracy in Ukrainian
universities can be time-consuming and complex, creating challenges for students
and faculty members.

14. What makes a good teacher. Reflecting the teaching experience.

Classes Conducted:
The range of classes a teacher may conduct can vary, including both junior classes
(usually referring to younger students, such as elementary or middle school) and senior
classes (typically referring to older students, such as high school or college).

Establishing Contact with Pupils:

Creating a positive and supportive classroom environment is crucial for establishing a
connection with students. Good teachers make an effort to get to know their students
individually, show genuine interest in their lives and experiences, and foster open lines of
communication.

Teaching Methods:
In English classes, effective teachers often employ a variety of teaching methods to
cater to different learning styles and engage students. These may include interactive
activities, group discussions, multimedia resources, role-playing, and project-based learning,
among others.

Extra-Curricular Activities:
 Organizing and participating in extra-curricular activities can enhance the learning
experience and strengthen the teacher-student relationship. These activities may include
clubs, field trips, debates, cultural events, sports, or community service projects.

Qualities of a Good Teacher:

A good teacher should possess several essential qualities, such as:
● Subject Knowledge: Having a deep understanding of the subject matter they teach.
● Communication Skills: Being able to effectively convey information and ideas, listen
actively, and encourage student participation.
● Patience and Empathy: Showing understanding, patience, and empathy towards
students' needs, challenges, and diverse backgrounds.
● Adaptability: Being flexible and adaptable to different teaching situations and student
needs.
● Passion and Enthusiasm: Demonstrating a genuine passion for teaching and a
positive attitude that inspires students.
● Classroom Management: Maintaining a well-organized and disciplined learning
environment while fostering a sense of respect and fairness among students.
● Continuous Learning: Embracing lifelong learning, staying up-to-date with
educational research, and seeking professional development opportunities.

Likes and Dislikes about the Teaching Profession:

Likes:
● Making a Difference: The opportunity to positively influence and shape the lives of
students.
● Building Relationships: Forming meaningful connections with students and
witnessing their growth and success.
● Sharing Knowledge: The joy of imparting knowledge, skills, and values to students.
● Personal Growth: Continuous learning and professional development as a teacher.
Dislikes:
● Administrative Burdens: Dealing with paperwork, grading, and administrative tasks
that can sometimes overshadow the actual teaching.
● Challenges and Demands: Managing diverse student needs, addressing behavioral
issues, and balancing workload demands.
● Limited Resources: Coping with limited resources and support, such as insufficient
funding, materials, or technology.

15. Recent teaching experience: the importance of teaching literature at school.

Importance of Teaching Literature:
● Developing Critical Thinking: Literature encourages students to analyze, interpret,
and evaluate texts, fostering critical thinking skills.
● Enhancing Language Skills: Studying literature improves reading comprehension,
vocabulary, writing proficiency, and overall language proficiency.
● Cultural and Historical Understanding: Literature provides insights into different
cultures, time periods, and societal issues, fostering empathy and broadening
students' perspectives.
● Emotional and Intellectual Growth: Literature allows students to explore complex
human emotions, moral dilemmas, and philosophical concepts, promoting personal
and intellectual development.
 ● Imagination and Creativity: Literature stimulates imagination, creativity, and the ability
to think beyond the obvious, fostering innovative thinking.

Methods for Teaching English Literature:

● Close Reading: Encourage students to engage with texts deeply by analyzing
themes, characters, language, and literary devices.
● Discussions and Debates: Promote class discussions to explore different
interpretations, encourage critical thinking, and develop oral communication skills.
● Writing Assignments: Assign essays, creative writing tasks, or literary analyses to
enhance writing skills and encourage students to articulate their thoughts effectively.
● Group Projects and Presentations: Engage students in collaborative projects, such
as dramatic performances, book clubs, or multimedia presentations, fostering
teamwork and presentation skills.

Teaching English Literature in Schools:

The extent to which English literature is taught in schools may vary. In some
educational systems, it is an integral part of the curriculum, while in others, it may receive
less emphasis. However, understanding and appreciation of literature are widely recognized
as valuable components of a comprehensive education.

Recommended Works of English and American Writers:

The selection of works to study depends on factors such as students' age, language
proficiency, and curriculum requirements. Some commonly recommended authors and works
include William Shakespeare (e.g., Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth), Jane Austen (e.g., Pride
and Prejudice), Mark Twain (e.g., The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn), and Harper Lee
(e.g., To Kill a Mockingbird).

Short Sketch of an English Lesson on Literature:

Topic: Analyzing Symbolism in "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald

Introduction:
● Provide background information about the author and the novel.
● Engage students in a discussion about symbolism and its importance in literature.
Reading:
● Assign chapters from "The Great Gatsby" for students to read.
● Encourage active reading by asking students to identify and highlight symbols they
come across.
Small Group Discussions:
● Divide students into small groups and assign specific symbols from the novel.
● Ask students to discuss the possible meanings and implications of the symbols and
provide evidence from the text to support their interpretations.
Whole-Class Discussion:
● Bring the groups together for a whole-class discussion.
● Facilitate a conversation where students share their findings, debate interpretations,
and explore the author's intentions behind the symbols.
Analysis and Reflection:
 ● Assign a writing task or an individual project where students analyze a chosen
symbol in-depth, exploring its significance in the novel and its relevance to broader
themes.
Conclusion:
● Summarize the key points discussed during the lesson.
● Encourage students to reflect on how symbolism enhances their understanding of the
novel and its themes.

16. Recent teaching experience: new methods of teaching grammar.

Importance of Teaching English Grammar:
● Communication Skills: A solid understanding of grammar enables students to
express themselves accurately and effectively in spoken and written English.
● Language Proficiency: Grammar knowledge improves reading comprehension,
writing skills, and overall language proficiency.
● Clarity and Precision: Grammar rules provide structure and clarity to language,
helping students convey their ideas with precision.
● Language Analysis: Studying grammar allows students to analyze the structure,
syntax, and grammar patterns of English, enhancing their language awareness and
facilitating language learning in general.
● Academic and Professional Success: Proficiency in grammar is often required for
academic writing, standardized tests, and professional communication.

Methods for Teaching English Grammar:

● Contextual Learning: Integrate grammar instruction within meaningful contexts, such
as reading passages or authentic texts, to demonstrate how grammar rules apply in
real-life situations.
● Communicative Approach: Incorporate grammar through meaningful communication
activities, discussions, and role-plays, where students can apply grammar rules in
authentic conversations.
● Interactive Exercises: Use interactive activities, such as games, puzzles, online
quizzes, and group tasks, to engage students and provide hands-on practice of
grammar concepts.
● Visual Aids: Utilize visual aids, charts, diagrams, and infographics to present
grammar rules and structures in a visually appealing and memorable way.
● Error Analysis and Correction: Provide regular opportunities for students to identify
and correct grammatical errors in their own writing or speaking, promoting
self-correction and awareness of common mistakes.

Teaching English Grammar in Schools:

The effectiveness of teaching English grammar may vary across different schools
and teaching approaches. Some factors that influence the effectiveness of grammar lessons
include the teaching methods used, teacher expertise, student engagement, and the
integration of grammar into meaningful language activities.

Grammar Topics that Students Are Fond of:

The level of interest may vary among students, but topics such as tenses, sentence
structure, verb forms, and word order are commonly taught in grammar lessons and can
spark students' curiosity. Interactive and engaging activities can help maintain students'
interest and enthusiasm in learning grammar.

Short Sketch of an English Lesson on Grammar:

Topic: Present Perfect Tense

Introduction:
● Begin the lesson by discussing situations or experiences students have had recently,
using prompts or questions.
● Introduce the concept of the present perfect tense as a way to express past actions
or experiences that have a connection to the present.
Explanation and Examples:
● Present clear explanations of the form and usage of the present perfect tense.
● Provide examples of sentences in the present perfect tense and explain the time
expressions commonly used with this tense.
Guided Practice:
● Engage students in guided practice exercises where they fill in the blanks or
complete sentences using the present perfect tense.
● Provide immediate feedback and explain any errors or misconceptions.
Contextual Practice:
● Provide reading passages, dialogues, or real-life scenarios where students apply the
present perfect tense to describe past experiences or actions.
● Encourage students to work in pairs or small groups to discuss and share their
responses.
Production and Application:
● Assign a writing task where students write a short paragraph or a short story using
the present perfect tense to describe personal experiences.
● Encourage creativity and the use of time expressions to make their writing more
engaging.
Review and Recap:
● Summarize the key points covered in the lesson and allow students to ask questions
or seek clarification.
● Provide additional resources or practice materials for further independent study.

17. The American Legal System. Court System in the USA.

The system of law-making in the United States is based on a separation of powers
between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. The primary
responsibility for law-making lies with the legislative branch, specifically the United States
Congress, which is composed of two houses: the House of Representatives and the Senate.
● Role of Congress in law-making: The Congress has the authority to create laws at
the federal level. Bills, which are proposed laws, can originate in either the House of
Representatives or the Senate. For a bill to become law, it must be passed by both
houses of Congress and then signed by the President. Congress has the power to
regulate a wide range of issues, including commerce, taxation, defense, and social
policies.
● Role of the President in law-making: The President of the United States plays a
significant role in the law-making process. Once a bill has been passed by Congress,
it is sent to the President for approval. The President can either sign the bill into law
 or veto it. If the President vetoes a bill, it can still become law if both houses of
Congress vote to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Additionally, the
President can propose legislation to Congress and use their influence to shape the
policy agenda.
● Types of U.S. Courts: The United States has a dual court system, meaning there are
both federal courts and state courts.
○ Federal Courts: The federal court system consists of three main levels. At the
lowest level are the U.S. District Courts, which are trial courts where most
federal cases begin. The next level is the U.S. Courts of Appeals, also known
as circuit courts, which hear appeals from the District Courts. The highest
level is the U.S. Supreme Court, which is the final arbiter of federal law and
has the authority to interpret the U.S. Constitution.
○ State Courts: Each state has its own court system, which typically includes
trial courts, appellate courts, and a state supreme court. State courts primarily
handle cases involving state law, such as criminal offenses that violate state
statutes and civil disputes within the state's jurisdiction.
● State and federal jurisdictions: The jurisdiction of the federal courts is limited to cases
involving federal law, the U.S. Constitution, or disputes between parties from different
states. State courts have jurisdiction over cases involving state law, including criminal
offenses that violate state statutes, civil disputes, family matters, and probate issues.
● Types of crimes most often committed in the USA: The United States experiences a
wide range of crimes. Some of the most common types of crimes include:
○ Property crimes: This category includes offenses such as burglary, theft,
arson, and vandalism.
○ Violent crimes: These crimes involve physical harm or the threat of physical
harm to another person, including murder, assault, robbery, and rape.
○ Drug crimes: This category encompasses offenses related to the possession,
sale, or distribution of illegal drugs.
○ White-collar crimes: These crimes typically involve non-violent offenses
committed by individuals or businesses in professional settings, such as
fraud, embezzlement, and insider trading.
○ Cybercrimes: With the rise of technology, cybercrimes, including hacking,
identity theft, and online fraud, have become more prevalent.
It's important to note that crime rates and types of crimes can vary across different
regions within the United States, and addressing crime falls under the jurisdiction of both
state and federal law enforcement agencies.

18. The Legal System in Britain. Court System in the UK.

The legal system in the United Kingdom (UK) has its own unique characteristics and is
distinct from other legal systems around the world. Here are the main peculiarities of the
legal system and court system in the UK:

● Types of British law: The UK legal system is based on common law, which means
that legal principles are derived from court decisions, customs, and precedents rather
than solely relying on written statutes. There are three main types of law in the UK:
○ Statutory law: This includes laws passed by Parliament in the form of Acts of
Parliament or statutes. These laws cover a wide range of areas, such as
criminal offenses, civil matters, and administrative regulations.
 ○ Common law: Common law refers to legal principles and rules that have
developed over centuries through court decisions. It provides a body of law
that judges use to make decisions in cases where there is no applicable
statute or precedent.
○ European Union law (prior to Brexit): Until the UK's departure from the
European Union, EU law had precedence over UK law. EU law consists of
regulations and directives issued by the EU institutions and judgments from
the European Court of Justice.
● Basic principle of law in Britain: The basic principle of law in Britain is the concept of
parliamentary sovereignty. This means that Parliament has the ultimate authority to
make and change laws. Courts are responsible for interpreting and applying the law,
but they cannot invalidate acts of Parliament.
● Courts in England: The court system in England and Wales consists of several levels:
○ Magistrates' Courts: These are the lowest-level criminal courts where less
serious offenses are heard, and they also handle some civil matters.
○ Crown Court: The Crown Court deals with more serious criminal cases, such
as murder, rape, and large-scale fraud. It also hears appeals from
Magistrates' Courts.
○ High Court: The High Court has both civil and criminal jurisdiction. It handles
major civil cases and serious criminal cases.
○ Court of Appeal: The Court of Appeal is the highest court for most civil and
criminal appeals in England and Wales.
○ Supreme Court: The Supreme Court, established in 2009, is the highest court
in the UK and serves as the final court of appeal. It primarily deals with cases
of general public importance and constitutional matters.
● Problems in the UK court system: The UK court system faces several challenges,
including:
○ Delays and backlogs: Courts often experience delays in processing cases,
leading to significant backlogs and lengthy waiting times for trials and
hearings.
○ Funding and resources: Limited funding and resources have strained the
court system, impacting the efficiency and effectiveness of the justice
process.
○ Access to justice: Some argue that the costs associated with accessing the
courts create barriers for individuals and organizations seeking legal
remedies.
○ Digitalization and modernization: The court system is undergoing a digital
transformation to improve efficiency, but challenges remain in adapting to new
technologies.
● Criminal situation and crime prevention: The criminal situation in the UK varies
across different regions, but common types of crimes include theft, assault, burglary,
drug offenses, and cybercrimes. The UK has various law enforcement agencies,
such as the police, to combat crime and maintain public safety. Crime prevention
efforts focus on a combination of strategies, including community policing,
intelligence-led operations, crime prevention programs, and rehabilitation initiatives
for offenders.
 It's important to note that the legal system and court system in the UK are constantly
evolving, and reforms are undertaken to address the challenges and ensure the effective
administration of justice in the country.

19. The Ukrainian Legal System.

The Ukrainian legal system has its own unique characteristics and is based on a civil
law tradition. Here are the main peculiarities of the Ukrainian legal system:
Fields of Ukrainian Law: Ukrainian law encompasses various fields, including but not
limited to:
● Constitutional Law: Governs the structure and powers of the government,
fundamental rights and freedoms, and the functioning of state institutions.
● Civil Law: Regulates private relationships between individuals and legal entities,
covering areas such as contracts, property, family law, and torts.
● Criminal Law: Deals with offenses against the state and society, defining crimes and
their penalties, criminal procedures, and the rights of individuals accused of crimes.
● Administrative Law: Regulates the relationship between individuals and state
authorities, including matters related to administrative procedures, public
administration, and the exercise of governmental powers.
● Commercial Law: Governs business activities, commercial transactions, company
law, intellectual property rights, and competition law.

Hierarchy of Ukrainian Law: The Ukrainian legal system follows a hierarchical

structure, with the Constitution of Ukraine at the top. It is the supreme law of the land, and all
other laws must conform to its provisions. The hierarchy is as follows:
● Constitution of Ukraine
● Laws adopted by the Verkhovna Rada (Parliament)
● Acts of the President of Ukraine
● Acts of the Cabinet of Ministers
● Regulations and orders of state bodies and local authorities
Types of Courts and their Jurisdiction: The Ukrainian court system is divided into
three main branches:
● Constitutional Court of Ukraine: The highest specialized court in the country,
responsible for interpreting the Constitution and ensuring its compliance with laws
and acts.
● Courts of General Jurisdiction: These courts handle civil, criminal, and administrative
cases. The system includes:
○ Local Courts: The lowest level of general jurisdiction courts, dealing with
minor civil and criminal cases.
○ District Courts: Intermediate-level courts that handle more significant civil and
criminal cases.
○ Appellate Courts: Hear appeals from local and district courts.
○ High Specialized Courts: These courts have specific jurisdictions, such as
economic, administrative, and intellectual property matters.
○ Supreme Court of Ukraine: The highest court in the system, responsible for
ensuring uniform interpretation and application of laws by lower courts.
● Commercial Courts: These specialized courts deal with commercial and
business-related disputes, including bankruptcy cases and economic disputes.
 ● Administrative Courts: Specialized courts that handle disputes involving public
authorities, administrative decisions, and violations of administrative law.

People in the Ukrainian Court: The Ukrainian court system involves various
participants, including:
● Judges: They preside over court proceedings, apply the law, and deliver judgments.
Judges in Ukraine are appointed and enjoy judicial independence.
● Prosecutors: Responsible for initiating and conducting criminal proceedings on behalf
of the state. They represent public interests and ensure the enforcement of the law.
● Lawyers: Advocates and attorneys represent the interests of parties involved in legal
proceedings, providing legal advice, and presenting arguments in court.
● Witnesses: Individuals who provide testimony or evidence relevant to the case.
● Parties to the Case: Plaintiffs and defendants, as well as other parties directly
involved in the dispute or legal proceedings.
It's important to note that the Ukrainian legal system is continually evolving, with
ongoing efforts to improve the efficiency, transparency, and effectiveness of the court
system. Reforms are undertaken to strengthen the rule of law, enhance judicial
independence, and ensure fair and impartial administration of justice.

20. Government and Political System in the USA.

The government and political system in the United States is based on a framework of
separation of powers, with three main branches: the Executive, the Legislative, and the
Judicial. Here's an overview of each branch:

Executive Branch - Functions of the American President:

The President of the United States serves as the head of the executive branch and
holds significant powers and responsibilities, including:
● Head of State: The President represents the nation both domestically and
internationally, fulfilling ceremonial and diplomatic roles.
● Chief Executive: The President is responsible for enforcing and administering federal
laws, overseeing government agencies, and appointing key officials.
● Commander-in-Chief: The President is the highest authority of the military and makes
decisions regarding national security and defense.
● Chief Diplomat: The President formulates and implements foreign policy, negotiates
treaties, and conducts diplomatic relations with other countries.
● Legislative Role: The President can propose legislation to Congress and plays a
crucial role in shaping the policy agenda.

Legislative Branch - Structure of American Congress:

The legislative branch is composed of the United States Congress, which consists of
two houses: the House of Representatives and the Senate.
a) House of Representatives: The House of Representatives is the lower house of
Congress, and its members, known as representatives or congressmen, are elected from
individual districts within each state. The key features of the House of Representatives
include:
● Proportional Representation: The number of representatives per state is based on
population, with each state guaranteed at least one representative.
 ● Two-Year Terms: Members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms,
and all seats are up for election every even-numbered year.
● Initiating Revenue Bills: The House has the exclusive power to introduce bills related
to raising revenue, such as tax legislation.
● Impeachment Power: The House has the sole authority to impeach federal officials,
including the President.
b) Senate: The Senate is the upper house of Congress, and each state is
represented by two senators, regardless of population. The key features of the Senate
include:
● Equal Representation: Each state has an equal voice, with two senators per state.
● Six-Year Terms: Senators serve staggered six-year terms, with one-third of the
Senate up for election every two years.
● Advise and Consent: The Senate has the power to approve or reject treaties,
nominations for executive and judicial positions, and certain appointments made by
the President.
● Conducting Impeachment Trials: The Senate conducts impeachment trials for
officials impeached by the House of Representatives, with the Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court presiding over the trial if the President is being impeached.

Judicial Branch - Three Levels and the Role of the Supreme Court:
The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting and applying the law in the United
States. It consists of three levels of federal courts: the District Courts, the Courts of Appeals,
and the Supreme Court.
a) Three Levels of Federal Courts:
● District Courts: The District Courts are the trial courts of the federal system, where
most federal cases originate. There are 94 district courts throughout the country.
● Courts of Appeals: The Courts of Appeals, also known as circuit courts, are
responsible for hearing appeals from the District Courts. There are 13 circuit courts,
each covering a specific geographic region.
● Supreme Court: The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States and
serves as the final arbiter of federal law and the Constitution. It consists of nine
justices appointed for life by the President, with the advice and consent of the
Senate.
b) Role of the Supreme Court and Its Nine Justices:
● Constitutional Interpretation: The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review,
which allows it to interpret the Constitution and declare laws or government actions
unconstitutional.
● Final Appellate Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court has the authority to review and
make the final decision on appeals from lower federal courts and state courts.
● Setting Legal Precedent: Supreme Court decisions establish legal precedents that
guide future court rulings and shape the interpretation of laws.
● Nine Justices: The Supreme Court is composed of nine justices, including a Chief
Justice. They are appointed for life and play a crucial role in shaping the legal
landscape of the country.
It's important to note that the balance of power and interactions between the three
branches of government can influence policy-making, governance, and the functioning of the
American political system.
21. The Constitution of the USA. Elections and Political Parties in the USA.
The Constitution of the United States is the fundamental law of the country and
serves as the supreme legal authority. Here's an overview of the Constitution, its history,
doctrine, and key articles and amendments:

History of the US Constitution:

The US Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, and it replaced the earlier
Articles of Confederation, which proved inadequate in providing a strong and unified national
government. The Constitutional Convention, comprising delegates from the 13 original
states, convened to draft the Constitution in Philadelphia. It was subsequently ratified by the
states, with the addition of the Bill of Rights in 1791.

Doctrine on the American Constitution:

The American Constitution is grounded in several key principles and doctrines that
shape its interpretation and application:
● Federalism: The Constitution establishes a federal system of government, dividing
powers between the national government and the states, allowing for shared and
separate responsibilities.
● Separation of Powers: The Constitution enshrines the principle of separation of
powers, dividing authority among three branches of government—the Executive,
Legislative, and Judicial—to ensure a system of checks and balances.
● Limited Government: The Constitution places limitations on the powers of the
government to safeguard individual rights and prevent the concentration of power.
● Popular Sovereignty: The Constitution asserts that the power of the government is
derived from the people, who elect representatives and participate in the democratic
process.

Main Articles and Amendments to the Constitution:

The US Constitution consists of seven articles that outline the structure and functions
of the government. Some key articles include:
● Article I: Establishes the powers and structure of the Legislative Branch (Congress),
comprising the Senate and the House of Representatives.
● Article II: Defines the powers and responsibilities of the Executive Branch, headed by
the President.
● Article III: Establishes the Judicial Branch, including the Supreme Court and other
federal courts.
● Article V: Describes the process for amending the Constitution.
In addition to the articles, the Constitution has been amended 27 times. The first ten
amendments, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, were added shortly after the
Constitution's ratification and guarantee individual rights and freedoms. Subsequent
amendments address a wide range of issues, including voting rights, prohibition of slavery,
and the expansion of civil rights protections.
Moving on to the system of elections and political parties in the USA:
● Federal and State Electoral Law:
Elections in the United States are governed by a combination of federal and state
laws. While federal law establishes general guidelines and standards, states have the
authority to administer and regulate elections, including the processes for voter registration,
conducting elections, and redistricting.
 ● The Democratic Party and the Republican Party of the USA:
The two dominant political parties in the United States are the Democratic Party and
the Republican Party.
● Democratic Party: The Democratic Party generally advocates for progressive
policies and social liberalism. It supports a larger role for government in areas
such as healthcare, education, and social welfare. The party is known for its
diversity, representing a broad coalition of voters.
● Republican Party: The Republican Party is generally associated with
conservative and center-right policies. It promotes limited government
intervention, free-market principles, and traditional values. The party often
emphasizes issues such as lower taxes, national security, and individual
liberties.
Both parties hold primaries and caucuses to select their candidates for presidential
and other elected offices. They also have national conventions to officially nominate their
presidential candidates. In addition to the two major parties, there are also minor parties and
independent candidates that participate in elections.
It's important to note that the political landscape in the United States is dynamic, with
political parties evolving over time and new issues emerging. The influence and prominence
of political parties can vary in different states and election cycles.

22. The Ukrainian Government and Political System.

The Ukrainian government and political system is a semi-presidential republic with a
multi-party system. It consists of three main branches: the executive branch, the legislative
branch, and the judicial branch. Here's an overview of each branch:

Executive Branch:
The executive branch in Ukraine is headed by the President and includes the
government, which is led by the Prime Minister. The key features of the executive branch
include:
● President: The President of Ukraine is the head of state and is elected by popular
vote for a five-year term. The President has significant powers, including the ability to
appoint the Prime Minister and other high-ranking officials, represent the country
internationally, and serve as the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.
● Government: The government, led by the Prime Minister, is responsible for
implementing policies and managing the day-to-day administration of the country. It
consists of ministers who oversee specific sectors, such as finance, defense, foreign
affairs, and internal affairs.

Legislative Branch:
The legislative branch in Ukraine is vested in the unicameral parliament known as the
Verkhovna Rada. The main features of the legislative branch include:
● Verkhovna Rada: The Verkhovna Rada is composed of 450 members who are
elected through a mixed electoral system. It is responsible for enacting laws,
approving the state budget, ratifying international agreements, and exercising
parliamentary oversight over the executive branch.
● Parliamentary Committees: The Verkhovna Rada establishes various committees
responsible for reviewing and preparing legislation in specific areas.
 Judicial Branch:
The judicial branch in Ukraine is responsible for interpreting and applying the law. It
includes a hierarchical system of courts. The key features of the judicial branch include:
● Constitutional Court of Ukraine: The Constitutional Court is the highest specialized
court in the country, responsible for interpreting the Constitution and ensuring its
conformity with laws and acts.
● Courts of General Jurisdiction: These courts handle civil, criminal, and administrative
cases. The system includes local courts, district courts, appellate courts, and high
specialized courts for specific areas such as economic, administrative, and
intellectual property matters.
● Supreme Court of Ukraine: The Supreme Court is the highest court in the system and
serves as the final appellate instance for most types of cases. It ensures uniform
interpretation and application of laws by lower courts.
The Ukrainian political system is continually evolving, and reforms are undertaken to
strengthen democratic institutions, enhance the rule of law, and ensure the independence
and effectiveness of each branch of government.

23. The Ukrainian Constitution and Party System.

The Ukrainian Constitution and the party system play significant roles in the
governance and political landscape of Ukraine. Here's an overview of the Ukrainian
Constitution and the party system:

Constitution of Ukraine:
The current Constitution of Ukraine was adopted on June 28, 1996, and replaced the
previous Soviet-era constitution. It was the result of a constitutional process that followed
Ukraine's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Key aspects of the Ukrainian
Constitution include:
● Adoption: The Constitution was adopted by the Verkhovna Rada, the Ukrainian
parliament, after extensive public and political discussions. It was supported by a
majority of parliamentary members.
● Fundamental Principles: The Constitution establishes Ukraine as a sovereign,
independent, democratic, and unitary state. It guarantees the protection of human
rights, the rule of law, and the separation of powers.
● Structure of Government: The Constitution outlines the structure and powers of the
President, the Verkhovna Rada, the Cabinet of Ministers, and the judiciary. It also
defines the principles of local self-government.
● Rights and Freedoms: The Constitution enshrines a range of individual rights and
freedoms, including freedom of speech, assembly, religion, and the right to a fair trial.
● Amendments: The Constitution can be amended through a complex process
requiring a two-thirds majority vote in the Verkhovna Rada, followed by a national
referendum if deemed necessary.

Ukrainian Party System:

Ukraine has a multi-party system, with several political parties competing for seats in
the Verkhovna Rada and other elected offices. The party system in Ukraine has evolved
since its independence and is characterized by the following aspects:
 ● Major Political Parties: The Ukrainian party system includes various political parties,
with some of the major ones being the Servant of the People, Opposition Platform -
For Life, European Solidarity, and Fatherland.
● Ideological Diversity: Ukrainian political parties span a wide range of ideological
positions, including pro-European integration, pro-Russian sentiment, and different
approaches to economic policies and social issues.
● Coalition Building: Due to the fragmentation of the party system, coalitions are often
formed to establish a parliamentary majority and form a government.
● Election Threshold: The Ukrainian electoral law includes a threshold for parties to
enter the parliament. Currently, parties need to receive at least 5% of the national
vote to secure seats in the Verkhovna Rada.

Parliamentary Elections:
Parliamentary elections in Ukraine are conducted through a proportional
representation system with a mixed electoral model. The main features of parliamentary
elections in Ukraine include:
● Election Cycle: The Verkhovna Rada is elected for a five-year term, with elections
typically held on the last Sunday of October in the election year.
● Party Lists: Political parties present party lists of candidates, and voters cast their
ballots for a party rather than individual candidates.
● Threshold and Seats Distribution: Parties need to pass the 5% threshold to secure
representation in the Verkhovna Rada. Seats are allocated proportionally based on
the percentage of votes each party receives.
● Election Observation: Elections are monitored by both domestic and international
observer missions to ensure transparency and fairness.
It's important to note that the Ukrainian party system is dynamic, with parties
evolving, new parties emerging, and political alliances shifting over time in response to
changing political and societal dynamics.

24. The Executive and Legislative Branches of the British Government System.
The British political system is characterized by a constitutional monarchy and a
parliamentary democracy. It consists of two main branches: the executive branch and the
legislative branch. Here's an overview of each branch:

Executive Branch:
The executive branch of the British political system primarily consists of the Monarch,
the Sovereign, and the Prime Minister with their Cabinet of Ministers. Here are the key
aspects of the executive branch:
● Role of the Monarch: The Monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, serves as the
ceremonial head of state and is the symbol of continuity and unity in the country.
While the Monarch's powers are mostly ceremonial, they still hold important
constitutional and representational roles.
● Functions of the Sovereign: The Sovereign performs various functions, such as
opening and closing sessions of Parliament, granting royal assent to legislation,
appointing the Prime Minister, and representing the nation on state visits and
ceremonial occasions.
● Prime Minister and Cabinet: The Prime Minister is the head of government and is
typically the leader of the political party that has the majority of seats in the House of
 Commons. The Prime Minister appoints other members of the government, forming
the Cabinet of Ministers who oversee specific policy areas.

Legislative Branch:
The legislative branch in the British political system consists of two chambers: the
House of Commons and the House of Lords. Here's an overview of each chamber:
● House of Commons: The House of Commons is the lower chamber of the
Parliament. Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected through general elections, and
each MP represents a specific constituency. The House of Commons is responsible
for debating and passing legislation, scrutinizing the government, and representing
the interests of constituents.
● House of Lords: The House of Lords is the upper chamber of the Parliament. It is
composed of appointed members, including life peers, bishops, and hereditary peers.
The House of Lords reviews, revises, and provides expertise on legislation proposed
by the House of Commons. However, its powers have been significantly limited, and
it cannot block legislation passed by the House of Commons.

Parliamentary Procedure in the UK:

a) Parliamentary Sessions, Debates, and Participants: The Parliament operates in
sessions, which typically last for one year. During sessions, debates take place in both the
House of Commons and the House of Lords, covering a wide range of topics, including
legislation, policies, and current issues. MPs and members of the House of Lords participate
in these debates and contribute to the legislative process.
b) Role of Opposition in British Parliament: The largest political party not in
government forms the official opposition in the House of Commons. The opposition
scrutinizes the government's policies, holds it accountable, and offers alternative viewpoints.
The leader of the opposition serves as a prominent figure in debates and may become the
Prime Minister if their party wins a majority in a future general election.
It's important to note that the British political system is evolving, and constitutional
reforms continue to shape the balance of power and responsibilities between the branches
of government.

25. The British Theatre. Theatre in London.

British theater has a rich history and is renowned worldwide for its contributions to
the performing arts. Here are the main features of British theater, including its significance in
entertainment, various genres, iconic London theaters, the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, and
England's Elizabethan Theatre:

Theatre as an Important Part of Entertainment:

Theatre has long been an integral part of British culture, providing entertainment for
the average Englishman. From the early days of traveling troupes and public playhouses to
modern-day theaters, the performing arts have played a significant role in the lives of the
British people. Theater allows audiences to engage with stories, experience live
performances, and explore various themes and emotions.

Different Theater Genres:

British theater encompasses a wide range of genres and styles, catering to diverse
tastes and interests. Some of the notable genres include:
 ● Shakespearean Theater: The works of William Shakespeare hold a special place in
British theater. His plays, such as "Hamlet," "Macbeth," and "Romeo and Juliet,"
continue to be performed and celebrated.
● West End Musicals: The West End, located in London, is famous for its vibrant
musical theatre scene. Musicals like "Les Misérables," "The Phantom of the Opera,"
and "Hamilton" have garnered international acclaim.
● Contemporary Drama: British theatre also features contemporary plays that tackle
social, political, and personal themes. Playwrights such as Harold Pinter, Tom
Stoppard, and Caryl Churchill have made significant contributions to this genre.

Most Famous London Theatres:

London boasts numerous renowned theatres that attract audiences from around the
world. Some of the most famous London theatres include:
● The Royal National Theatre: Located on the South Bank, the National Theatre stages
a wide range of productions, from classic plays to contemporary works.
● The Royal Opera House: This iconic venue in Covent Garden is home to the Royal
Opera and the Royal Ballet, offering world-class opera and ballet performances.
● The Old Vic: With a history dating back to 1818, The Old Vic has showcased a
diverse range of productions, from Shakespearean plays to new works.
● The Globe Theatre: A reconstruction of the original Elizabethan theatre, The Globe is
closely associated with Shakespearean productions and offers an authentic
experience for audiences.

Royal Shakespeare Theatre:

Situated in Stratford-upon-Avon, the Royal Shakespeare Theatre holds a special
place in British theatre history. It is the main venue of the Royal Shakespeare Company
(RSC), dedicated to staging the works of William Shakespeare. The theatre showcases a
mix of traditional and innovative productions, featuring talented actors and directors.

England's Elizabethan Theatre:

England's Elizabethan Theatre refers to the theatrical landscape during the reign of
Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603). This period was marked by the flourishing of theatre,
particularly with the works of William Shakespeare and his contemporaries. The most
famous theatre associated with this era is The Globe, which offered open-air performances
of Shakespearean plays. The Elizabethan Theatre had a significant impact on the
development of English drama and continues to influence contemporary theatre practices.
British theatre, with its diverse genres, iconic venues, and rich history, remains a
thriving cultural institution that continues to captivate audiences both in the United Kingdom
and across the globe.

26. The Fine Arts. The Still Life.

I agree with the statement that "Art is everything that surrounds us." Here are the
arguments supporting this viewpoint:

Definition of Art:
Art can be broadly defined as the expression or application of creative skill and
imagination to produce works that evoke an emotional or aesthetic response. This definition
is not limited to traditional forms of art like painting or sculpture but extends to various
mediums such as literature, music, dance, photography, architecture, and more.

Artist's Responsibility:
Artists have the responsibility to observe, interpret, and reflect upon the world around
them. They draw inspiration from their surroundings, whether it be nature, society, or
personal experiences, and use their creativity to present their unique perspectives. By doing
so, they contribute to the richness and diversity of artistic expressions that capture the
essence of our surroundings.

Appreciating Works of Art:

To appreciate works of art, one must approach them with an open mind and a
willingness to engage with the artist's intent. Here are some ways to appreciate art:
● Interpretation: Art invites viewers to interpret and engage with the message or
emotions conveyed by the artist. Each person may have a unique response and
interpretation, allowing for a personal connection to the artwork.
● Aesthetic Appeal: Appreciating the visual aspects of art, such as the composition,
color palette, texture, and balance, can enhance the overall experience.
Understanding the technical skill and craftsmanship involved can deepen one's
appreciation.
● Historical and Cultural Context: Considering the historical and cultural context in
which the artwork was created can provide insights into its significance and impact.
Understanding the artist's background, influences, and the socio-political climate
adds layers of meaning to the artwork.

Still life painting has a long history and is a genre that focuses on inanimate objects
arranged in a composition. Here are some key points regarding still life painting:
● Development in Art History: Still life painting has been practiced throughout art
history, from ancient civilizations to the Renaissance and beyond. It has evolved in
various ways, reflecting the changing artistic styles and techniques of different
periods.
● Genres: Still life painting encompasses different sub-genres, including floral still life,
vanitas, food and table settings, and symbolic objects. Each genre has its own
thematic significance and artistic approaches.
● Appreciation of a Still Life:
○ Subject and Composition: A still life painting often portrays everyday objects,
such as fruits, flowers, utensils, or objects of symbolic importance. The
composition and arrangement of these objects create a visual harmony and
balance within the artwork.
○ Drawing and Composition: The artist's ability to accurately depict the objects,
their proportions, and spatial relationships contributes to the overall quality of
the still life. Attention to detail and a keen observation of light, shadow, and
perspective are essential.
○ Color and Light: Still life paintings offer opportunities to explore color
relationships, the play of light, and the effects of illumination on objects.
Artists can manipulate color, contrast, and tonal values to create depth and
evoke mood.
 ○ Technical Skill: Appreciating a still life involves recognizing the artist's
technical prowess, including brushwork, texture, and the ability to create a
sense of realism or abstraction, depending on the artistic intention.
In conclusion, art indeed encompasses everything that surrounds us, as it
encompasses diverse forms of expression and reflects the artist's observations,
interpretations, and creativity. Still life painting, with its various genres and artistic elements,
offers a unique opportunity to appreciate the beauty and meaning found in everyday objects
and their arrangements.

27. The Fine Arts. The Landscape Painting.

Landscape painting is a genre of art that focuses on depicting natural scenery,
including elements such as mountains, rivers, forests, and skies. Here are the main points to
consider when discussing landscape painting:

What is a Landscape?
A landscape refers to the physical or natural environment, typically depicting outdoor
scenes that showcase the beauty, grandeur, and serenity of nature. It can capture a wide
range of settings, from expansive vistas to intimate views of specific locations.

Development in Art History:

Landscape painting has a long history and has evolved throughout different periods
of art. It gained prominence during the Renaissance, where artists started to depict
landscapes as the main subject rather than just a backdrop for religious or historical scenes.
Landscape painting continued to develop and became more prominent during the Romantic
era and later movements such as Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and Expressionism.

Genres of Landscape Painting:

Within landscape painting, there are various sub-genres that artists explore. Some of
the notable genres include:

● Realistic Landscapes: These paintings aim to capture the landscape with accurate
representation, often focusing on detailed depictions of the physical elements and
natural lighting.
● Idealized Landscapes: Idealized landscapes aim to portray nature in an idealized or
romanticized manner, emphasizing beauty, harmony, and a sense of tranquility.
● Abstract Landscapes: Some artists take a more abstract or interpretive approach to
landscape painting, using expressive brushwork, color, and composition to evoke
emotional responses rather than precise representation.

Appreciation of a Landscape Painting:

● Subject, Composition, and Drawing: When appreciating a landscape painting, the
subject matter and how it is composed play a significant role. The choice of
elements, their arrangement, and the artist's ability to capture depth, perspective, and
scale contribute to the overall impact of the artwork.
● Colouring, Light, and Shade Effects: The use of color, light, and shade in a landscape
painting can evoke different moods and atmospheres. The artist's skill in depicting
the play of light, the subtleties of shadows, and the interplay of colors can enhance
the visual experience and create a sense of depth and realism.
 ● Appreciation, Judgment, and Personal Impressions: Appreciating a landscape
painting involves personal interpretation and response. The viewer may assess the
artist's technical proficiency, the emotional impact of the artwork, and their own
subjective connection to the depicted scenery. Each individual may have their own
preferences and impressions based on their experiences, cultural background, and
aesthetic sensibilities.
In my personal appreciation of a landscape painting, I would look for a well-executed
composition that captures a captivating scene. The subject matter could vary, from serene
countryside to dramatic mountain ranges or coastal vistas. I would pay attention to the
artist's skill in drawing the various elements, such as trees, water, or architectural structures,
ensuring they are rendered realistically or according to the artist's chosen style.
Regarding color, I would look for a harmonious and evocative palette that conveys
the mood of the landscape. The play of light and shade should create a sense of depth and
atmosphere, enhancing the overall composition. Ultimately, my judgment of a landscape
painting would be based on how successfully it transports me to the depicted setting, elicits
an emotional response, and leaves a lasting impression.
It's important to note that the appreciation of a landscape painting is subjective, and
different viewers may have varying preferences and interpretations.

28. The Fine Arts. The Portrait Painting.

Portrait painting is a genre of art that focuses on depicting the likeness and character
of an individual or a group of people. Here are the main points to consider when discussing
portrait painting:

What is a Portrait?
A portrait is a representation of a person, typically showcasing their facial features,
expressions, and sometimes their body. Portraits aim to capture the likeness, personality,
and essence of the subject.

Development in Art History:

Portrait painting has a long and rich history, dating back to ancient civilizations.
Throughout art history, portraits have been created for various purposes, including
commemoration, documentation, and celebration of individuals. The genre flourished during
the Renaissance, when artists began to explore more naturalistic and lifelike representations
of their subjects. Over time, portrait painting has evolved to encompass different styles,
techniques, and interpretations.

Genres of Portrait Painting:

Within portrait painting, there are various sub-genres and approaches that artists
may employ. Some of the notable genres include:
● Formal Portraits: These portraits focus on representing individuals in a formal or
official context, often depicting them in specific roles or positions of authority.
● Informal or Intimate Portraits: These portraits capture individuals in more casual
settings, emphasizing their personal characteristics, emotions, or relationships.
● Self-Portraits: Artists often create self-portraits as a means of self-expression,
introspection, or self-representation, providing insights into their own identities and
artistic journeys.
 ● Group Portraits: Group portraits depict multiple individuals within a single
composition, often highlighting social relationships, family ties, or professional
affiliations.

Appreciation of a Portrait Painting:

● Subject, Composition, and Drawing: When appreciating a portrait painting, the
subject plays a crucial role. The artist's ability to capture the likeness, facial
expressions, and body language of the subject is essential. The composition should
effectively frame the subject and convey their presence and personality. Accurate
and skillful drawing is crucial to capturing the proportions, features, and overall
anatomy of the subject.
● Colouring, Light, and Shade Effects: The artist's use of color, light, and shade can
enhance the mood and atmosphere of the portrait. Skillful rendering of skin tones,
textures, and the interplay of light and shadow adds depth and realism. Attention to
details such as the play of light in the eyes or the subtleties of skin tones can
contribute to the overall impact of the artwork.
● Appreciation, Judgement, and Personal Impressions: Appreciating a portrait involves
observing and interpreting the artist's choices and techniques. Evaluating the artist's
ability to convey the subject's character, emotions, or inner world is important. The
viewer's personal impressions and connections to the subject matter, as well as the
technical skill and artistic expression of the artist, play a significant role in their
judgment and appreciation of the portrait.
In my personal appreciation of a portrait, I would look for a compelling subject that
captivates my attention and evokes an emotional response. The composition should
effectively frame the subject, drawing me into their presence and allowing me to connect
with their personality or story. Skillful drawing, with attention to capturing the likeness and
features of the subject, is crucial for me to recognize their individuality.
Regarding color, I would appreciate a balanced and harmonious palette that
complements the subject and contributes to the overall mood or atmosphere. The artist's use
of light and shade should create a sense of depth and three-dimensionality, emphasizing the
contours and features of the subject's face and body.
Ultimately, my judgment and appreciation of a portrait painting would be based on
how successfully it conveys the subject's presence, personality, and emotional depth. The
level of technical skill, the artist's interpretation, and my personal connection to the subject
matter would all contribute to my overall impression of the artwork.

29. The Fine Arts. The Genre Painting.

Genre painting is a form of art that depicts scenes from everyday life, showcasing
ordinary people engaged in familiar activities or situations. Here are the main points to
consider when discussing genre painting:

What is Genre Painting?

Genre painting is a genre of art that focuses on capturing the essence of everyday
life and the activities of ordinary people. It often portrays scenes from domestic settings,
marketplaces, streets, or social gatherings, aiming to depict the customs, habits, and culture
of a particular time and place.

Development in Art History:

 Genre painting has a long history, with roots tracing back to ancient civilizations.
However, it gained prominence as a distinct genre during the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th
century, where artists like Jan Vermeer and Pieter de Hooch depicted scenes of domestic
life, interiors, and social interactions. The genre continued to evolve over time, with artists
exploring various themes, styles, and techniques.

Genres of Genre Painting:

Within genre painting, there are various sub-genres that artists may explore. Some of
the notable genres include:
● Domestic Scenes: These paintings depict scenes from daily life within domestic
settings, showcasing activities such as cooking, cleaning, reading, or family
interactions.
● Street Scenes: Street scenes capture the hustle and bustle of urban life, portraying
marketplaces, street vendors, or people going about their daily routines.
● Historical or Narrative Scenes: Some genre paintings depict historical events or
narratives, often with an emphasis on conveying a moral or social message.
● Genre Portraits: Genre portraits combine elements of portraiture with genre painting,
portraying individuals in specific roles or situations that reflect their social status or
occupation.

Appreciation of a Genre Painting:

● Subject, Composition, and Drawing: When appreciating a genre painting, the subject
matter and its depiction play a crucial role. The composition should effectively convey
the narrative or activity depicted, capturing the viewer's attention and drawing them
into the scene. Skillful drawing ensures the accurate portrayal of human figures,
objects, and architectural details.
● Colouring, Light, and Shade Effects: The use of color, light, and shade can enhance
the mood, atmosphere, and realism of a genre painting. The artist's skill in capturing
the play of light, the interplay of colors, and the subtleties of shadows can contribute
to the overall impact of the artwork.
● Appreciation, Judgment, and Personal Impressions: Appreciating a genre painting
involves understanding the artist's intent, observing the details and narratives
depicted, and connecting with the emotions or stories conveyed. Personal
impressions and connections to the subject matter, as well as the technical skill and
artistic expression of the artist, play a significant role in one's judgment and
appreciation of the artwork.
In my personal appreciation of a genre painting, I would look for a captivating subject
that reflects everyday life or a particular historical period. The composition should effectively
portray the activities, interactions, or narratives of the scene, drawing me into the depicted
world. Skillful drawing would ensure the accurate portrayal of human figures, objects, and
architectural details, creating a sense of realism.
Regarding color, I would appreciate a palette that complements the subject matter
and contributes to the overall mood and atmosphere of the painting. The artist's use of light
and shade should add depth and dimension to the composition, emphasizing the forms and
creating a sense of space.
Ultimately, my judgment and appreciation of a genre painting would be based on how
successfully it conveys the essence of everyday life, evokes emotions or narratives, and
captures my attention and imagination. The level of technical skill, the artist's storytelling
ability, and my personal connection to the subject matter would all contribute to my overall
impression of the artwork.

30. The English School of Painting.

The British national school of painting, often referred to as the English School of
Painting, has a rich and significant history in the world of art. Here are the main points to
consider:

Development in Art History:

The English School of Painting has its roots in the 18th century and gained
prominence during the 19th and 20th centuries. It was influenced by various artistic
movements, such as Romanticism, Pre-Raphaelitism, Impressionism, and the British
landscape tradition.

Genres:
The British national school of painting encompasses various genres and styles.
Some notable genres include:
● Landscape Painting: British artists have a long-standing tradition of capturing the
beauty and diversity of the British countryside, including renowned painters like
J.M.W. Turner and John Constable.
● Portraiture: British portrait painters have made significant contributions to the genre,
with artists like Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds known for their skillful
portrayals of individuals.
● Historical and Narrative Painting: Many British artists have depicted historical events,
literary scenes, and mythological subjects in their artworks, often conveying national
identity and cultural heritage.
● Genre Painting: Artists have also explored genre painting, depicting scenes of
everyday life, social interactions, and domestic settings.

Superb Heights:
The British national school of painting has reached superb heights in various
aspects. It has produced exceptional landscape painters who captured the beauty of nature
with remarkable skill and innovation. The Romantic landscapes of J.M.W. Turner and the
poetic depictions of English countryside by John Constable are considered among the
greatest achievements of the school. Additionally, the tradition of portraiture in Britain has
seen remarkable talents like Thomas Gainsborough, renowned for his elegant and
expressive portraits.

My Favorite British Painter: J.M.W. Turner

Joseph Mallord William Turner, commonly known as J.M.W. Turner, is my favorite
British painter. He is famous for his mastery of landscape painting and his innovative use of
light and color. Turner's works are characterized by their atmospheric quality, dramatic
compositions, and expressive brushwork.
Turner was born in 1775 in London and displayed exceptional artistic talent from a
young age. He became a prominent figure in the British art scene and was a key proponent
of Romanticism. His paintings often depicted natural landscapes, seascapes, and historical
subjects, and he had a keen eye for capturing the effects of light and atmosphere.
 Throughout his life, Turner's style evolved, moving away from detailed realism to a
more expressive and atmospheric approach. His later works, characterized by their loose
brushwork and vibrant colors, had a profound influence on future generations of artists.
Turner's artistic career was highly successful, and he exhibited his works extensively
throughout his lifetime. He is considered one of the greatest landscape painters in the history
of art and played a crucial role in shaping the British national school of painting.
Turner's personal life was relatively private, and he was known for his eccentricities
and solitary nature. He dedicated himself to his art and left behind a remarkable legacy of
breathtaking landscapes that continue to inspire and captivate audiences to this day.
J.M.W. Turner's contributions to the art world, his innovative techniques, and his
ability to evoke emotion through his landscapes make him a highly admired figure in the
British national school of painting.

31. Mass Media in Great Britain.

Mass media in Great Britain encompasses various forms of communication that
reach a wide audience. Here are the main types of mass media in Britain:

Newspapers:
Newspapers have played a significant role in British media history. Some of the most
popular and influential newspapers in Britain include:
● The Times: Established in 1785, The Times is one of the oldest and most prestigious
newspapers in the UK.
● The Guardian: Known for its liberal perspective, The Guardian is renowned for its
investigative journalism and strong editorial content.
● Daily Mail: The Daily Mail is a tabloid newspaper known for its focus on celebrity
news, sensationalism, and popular culture.
● The Sun: A tabloid newspaper with a large readership, The Sun is known for its
attention-grabbing headlines and coverage of news, sports, and entertainment.

Television and Radio:

Television and radio are vital components of the British mass media landscape. The
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) plays a central role in providing public service
broadcasting. Some popular TV channels include:
● BBC One: The flagship channel of the BBC, offering a diverse range of programming,
including news, drama, entertainment, and documentaries.
● ITV: The Independent Television network offers a mix of popular programming,
including dramas, reality shows, and news.
● Channel 4: Known for its alternative and innovative programming, Channel 4 offers a
wide range of content, including documentaries, drama, and entertainment.
In terms of radio, the BBC operates several national and local radio stations, catering
to various interests, including news, music, and talk shows. Commercial radio stations also
play a significant role in providing entertainment and information to the public.

Role of the Internet:

The internet has had a transformative impact on the media landscape in Britain. It
has revolutionized the way people consume news, access information, and engage with
media content. The internet enables individuals to access news websites, online
publications, and social media platforms, providing a wide range of perspectives and instant
updates on current events.
Online platforms and social media have also given rise to citizen journalism, allowing
individuals to share news, opinions, and personal experiences. The internet has become an
essential source of information, entertainment, and communication for many English people,
providing a platform for discussion, interaction, and participation.
The role of the internet in the media landscape has led to challenges for traditional
media outlets, as they adapt to the changing digital landscape and compete for online
audiences. Many newspapers and broadcasters now have online platforms and digital
content to reach a broader audience and engage with readers and viewers in new ways.
Overall, the mass media in Great Britain comprises newspapers, television, radio,
and the internet. These forms of media play a crucial role in shaping public opinion,
disseminating information, and providing entertainment and cultural content to the English
population. The internet, in particular, has revolutionized the media landscape, providing new
opportunities for communication, engagement, and access to information.

32. Mass Media in the USA.

Mass media in the United States encompasses a wide range of communication
channels that reach a vast audience. Here are the main types of mass media in the USA:

Newspapers:
While the newspaper industry has faced challenges in recent years, several
newspapers in the USA continue to have a significant influence and readership. Some of the
most popular newspapers in the country include:
● The New York Times: Known for its comprehensive coverage of national and
international news, as well as investigative journalism and editorial content.
● The Washington Post: A prominent newspaper that covers politics, national news,
and investigative reporting.
● USA Today: A widely circulated newspaper known for its concise and accessible
news format, covering a broad range of topics.

Television and Radio:

Television and radio play a central role in American mass media, providing news,
entertainment, and cultural content. The United States has a diverse range of TV networks
and radio stations, including:
● Broadcast Networks: Networks like ABC, NBC, CBS, and Fox offer a mix of news,
dramas, sitcoms, reality shows, and live events.
● Cable Networks: Cable television offers a variety of channels specializing in news
(CNN, MSNBC, Fox News), sports (ESPN), entertainment (HBO, AMC), and more.
● Public Broadcasting: The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) provides educational
and cultural programming, including documentaries, children's shows, and news
analysis.
● Radio: AM and FM radio stations cover a wide range of music genres, talk shows,
news, and sports. National networks like NPR (National Public Radio) offer in-depth
news analysis and cultural programming.

Role of the Internet:

 The internet has had a profound impact on mass media consumption in the United
States. It has transformed how people access news, information, and entertainment. The
internet provides various platforms and services that shape the media landscape, including:
● News Websites: Many traditional news outlets have expanded their online presence,
offering articles, videos, and interactive features on their websites.
● Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube allow users to share
and consume news, connect with others, and engage in discussions.
● Streaming Services: Services like Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon Prime Video offer
on-demand access to TV shows, movies, and original content.
● Podcasts: Podcasting has gained popularity, offering a wide range of audio content
on various topics, including news, storytelling, and educational programs.
The internet has enabled individuals to become content creators and share their
perspectives through blogs, vlogs, and social media platforms. It has also facilitated the
growth of online news outlets and digital-native publications, offering diverse viewpoints and
specialized content.
Overall, mass media in the United States comprises newspapers, television, radio,
and the internet. These channels provide Americans with news, entertainment, and cultural
content, shaping public discourse and facilitating information exchange. The internet, in
particular, has revolutionized media consumption, providing access to a vast array of content
and fostering new forms of engagement and participation.

33. Mass Media in Ukraine.

Mass media in Ukraine comprises a range of platforms that provide news,
entertainment, and information to the Ukrainian population. Here are the main types of mass
media in Ukraine:

Newspapers:
Newspapers have long been a source of information in Ukraine, although their
readership has declined in recent years due to the rise of digital media. Some of the most
popular newspapers in Ukraine include:
● Kyiv Independent: An English-language newspaper covering Ukrainian and
international news, business, and culture.
● Ukrayinska Pravda: A Ukrainian-language online newspaper known for its
investigative journalism and independent reporting.
● Censor: A daily newspaper offering news, opinion pieces, and feature articles on
various topics.

Television and Radio:

Television and radio play a significant role in the media landscape of Ukraine,
providing news, entertainment, and cultural programming. Some popular TV channels and
radio stations include:
● UA: Ukrainian national television broadcaster offering news, shows, and a variety of
entertainment programs.
● 1+1: One of the largest television networks in Ukraine, offering a mix of news,
dramas, reality shows, and entertainment.
● Radio Luxe: A national radio station providing a mix of news, music, and talk shows.
● Radio NV: A news radio station known for its news bulletins, analysis, and
commentary.
 Role of the Internet:
The internet has had a transformative impact on mass media consumption in
Ukraine. It provides various online platforms and services that have become integral to the
lives of Ukrainians. The internet plays a significant role in the following ways:
● News Websites: Online news portals, such as Ukrayinska Pravda, TSN, and UNIAN,
offer a wide range of news articles, videos, and multimedia content.
● Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, VKontakte, and Instagram are popular in
Ukraine, serving as sources of news, communication, and entertainment.
● Online Streaming: Ukrainians access TV shows, movies, and sports events through
streaming platforms like Netflix, YouTube, and local streaming services.
● Online Publications: Digital-native news outlets and magazines provide alternative
perspectives, investigative journalism, and specialized content.
The internet has also facilitated the growth of citizen journalism and user-generated
content, allowing individuals to share news, opinions, and personal experiences. It has
become a platform for public discussions, engagement, and the dissemination of
information.
Overall, mass media in Ukraine includes newspapers, television, radio, and the
internet. While traditional forms of media still hold relevance, online platforms and digital
media have gained popularity, providing Ukrainians with diverse sources of news,
entertainment, and information. The internet, in particular, has enabled broader access to
news and content and has fostered new forms of communication and participation among
Ukrainians.

34. Cinema as an excellent vehicle of culture.

Cinema is undoubtedly an excellent vehicle of culture, with a significant impact on
modern society. Here are the key points regarding cinema:

Cinema as a Part of Modern Way of Life:

Cinema has become an integral part of the modern way of life for many people. It
offers a form of entertainment, escapism, and cultural enrichment. Whether going to the
theater, streaming movies at home, or participating in film festivals, cinema provides
opportunities for shared experiences and storytelling.

Impact of Cinema on People:

Cinema has a profound impact on individuals and society as a whole. It has the
power to evoke emotions, challenge perspectives, and provoke thought. Films can shape
popular culture, influence fashion trends, and spark conversations about social issues.
Cinema also serves as a medium for cultural exchange, promoting understanding and
appreciation of different cultures.

Major Centers of the Film Industry:

The film industry is primarily concentrated in Hollywood, California, in the United
States. Hollywood has been synonymous with the film industry for decades, producing a vast
majority of English-language films. Additionally, other major centers of the film industry
include Bollywood in India, Nollywood in Nigeria, and various European film industries in
countries like France, the United Kingdom, and Germany.
 Movie Genres:
Cinema encompasses a wide range of genres, catering to diverse tastes and
preferences. Some popular genres include:
● Drama: Films that focus on character development and emotional storytelling.
● Comedy: Films intended to entertain and provoke laughter.
● Action: Films featuring thrilling and adrenaline-pumping sequences, often involving
physical combat or stunts.
● Science Fiction: Films that explore futuristic or speculative concepts, often
incorporating advanced technology and otherworldly settings.
● Romance: Films centered around love and relationships.
● Thriller: Films that create suspense and tension through intricate plots and
unexpected twists.
Personal preference for movie genres varies depending on individual tastes and
interests. Some may prefer a specific genre for its ability to evoke certain emotions or
engage them intellectually.

Role of Cinema in Life:

Cinema plays a significant role in many people's lives. It offers a means of
entertainment, relaxation, and cultural exploration. Films can provide a temporary escape
from reality or serve as a mirror that reflects societal issues and aspirations. Additionally,
cinema can be a source of inspiration, fostering creativity and imagination.

Favorite English/American Actor:

There are numerous talented English and American actors who have made
significant contributions to cinema. Some notable actors include Sir Anthony Hopkins, Meryl
Streep, Daniel Day-Lewis, Tom Hanks, and Cate Blanchett. Each of these actors has
demonstrated exceptional skills in their craft and has left an indelible mark on the world of
cinema through their performances.
Ultimately, cinema holds a special place in the hearts and minds of people worldwide,
providing entertainment, cultural enrichment, and opportunities for self-expression. It has the
power to bring people together, provoke emotions, and inspire conversations about life,
society, and the human condition.

35. Film review writing.

Title: It's a Wonderful Life

I recently had the pleasure of watching the classic film "It's a Wonderful Life," and I
can confidently say that it lives up to its reputation as a beloved cinematic gem. I chose to
watch this film because of its enduring popularity and reputation as a heartwarming holiday
classic.
The plot revolves around George Bailey, a compassionate and selfless man who
finds himself in a moment of despair on Christmas Eve. As he contemplates ending his own
life, he is visited by an angel named Clarence, who shows George what life would have been
like if he had never been born. Through this imaginative and thought-provoking premise, the
film explores the importance of one's existence, the impact we have on others, and the true
meaning of life.
The relationships between characters in the film are beautifully portrayed, with
George Bailey's loving and supportive family and friends playing crucial roles in his life. The
romance between George and his wife, Mary, is heartwarming and serves as a testament to
the power of love and companionship. The film also showcases amusing and memorable
dialogue, capturing the essence of small-town life and the quirky interactions among its
residents.
The cast delivers outstanding performances, with James Stewart's portrayal of
George Bailey standing out as a true highlight. His ability to convey a range of emotions,
from despair to joy, is truly remarkable. The supporting cast, including Donna Reed, Lionel
Barrymore, and Thomas Mitchell, add depth and authenticity to their respective roles.
Although "It's a Wonderful Life" was released in 1946 and lacks the special effects we
are accustomed to in modern cinema, it doesn't detract from the film's timeless appeal.
Instead, the focus is on storytelling, character development, and the emotional resonance it
creates. The black-and-white cinematography adds a nostalgic charm, while the soundtrack
beautifully complements the film's poignant moments, evoking a sense of warmth and
sentimentality.
One of the social and ethical problems the film addresses is the importance of
community and the impact individuals can have on the lives of others. It prompts viewers to
reflect on the value of human connection, kindness, and selflessness. This underlying
message, combined with the film's heartfelt storytelling and powerful performances, is what
makes "It's a Wonderful Life" such a cherished film.
I wholeheartedly recommend "It's a Wonderful Life" to anyone seeking a
heartwarming and thought-provoking cinematic experience. Its enduring themes, strong
performances, and timeless storytelling make it a true masterpiece that continues to
resonate with audiences of all generations. It is a film that reminds us of the inherent beauty
in everyday life and the profound impact we can have on the world around us.

X. ПРАКТИЧНІ ЗАВДАННЯ МЕТОДИКИ

№1
The teacher gives each student a picture of one of twelve of her favorite personalities.
The problem: the very explanation of the task - how the procedure should be held; giving
unclear instructions by inappropriate language usage
Explain why this is an issue: the instructions should be given in a plain, simple, precise
way understandable for everyone in a class. There are too many of-structures, which can be
replaced in the following ways: a picture containing one of their favorite personalities; picture
with one of their favorite personalities, a picture with a random star, etc. Number of the
students is not important and can be neglected since there might be different quantities of
them.

№2
The teacher ignores him and says “Okay, you may start now.”
The problem: inappropriate task organization, lack of individual attention and support.
Explain why this is an issue: by ignoring the student's concern or question, the teacher
fails to provide individual attention and support. This can hinder their ability to grasp key
concepts and may result in gaps in their knowledge and skills.
This can be problematic because students may have different learning needs, and by not
addressing them, the teacher misses an opportunity to facilitate the student's understanding
and engagement with the lesson. It may lead to lack of motivation, inconfidence, reluctant
participation; also it hampers learning progress, and can create an unfavorable classroom
environment.

№3
Two students ask for the name of the student they are working with ... but the teacher
ignores
The problem: lack of clarity (giving inappropriate instructions, wrong task organization) and
effective communication
Explain why this is an issue: when students ask for clarification on their group members'
names, it indicates a need for clear instructions and effective communication. By ignoring
their request, the teacher overlooks the importance of establishing a supportive and
collaborative classroom environment. Students may perceive the teacher as unapproachable
or uninterested in their needs, leading to strained relationships and a lack of open
communication. Moreover, ignoring students' questions deprives the class of these valuable
opportunities for collaboration and knowledge-sharing.

№4
The teacher says, “Be quiet!”, and continues monitoring the class.
The problem: lack of effective classroom management and communication/ problems with
discipline
Explain why this is an issue: teachers should strive to establish a positive learning
environment by using positive reinforcement strategies, engaging in effective
communication, implementing appropriate classroom management techniques, and
addressing disruptive behaviors through constructive dialogue, not by shouting

№5
Are you going on holiday next week?
Form: to be going to + the base form of the verb
Meaning: personal plans, intentions (in this case)
Context: informal style - a conversation between two individuals discussing their upcoming
plans or schedules. It is likely that the conversation is happening in the present or near
future, as the question specifically mentions next week.
Checking Ss’ understanding: ask them to explain the meaning of the question or provide a
response indicating whether they have plans for a holiday in the upcoming week.

№6
teaching students words they already know
Explain why this is an issue: RECOLLECT words, not teach; it would be tedious since
there should be taken into consideration Krashen`s theory (it's not a case)
Suggest what the teacher should have done: warming up activities in the form of
brainstorming: Word Association, Picture Matching, Odd One Out, Charades,Sentence
Completion, Vocabulary Race.

№ 7-9
only focusing on the lyrics and ignoring the illustrations; asking the students who is who after
having listened to the song; not specifying whose picture students should draw
Explain why this is an issue: inappropriate lesson planning (layout of the task, instruction
giving, objectives of the task, teacher`s/students` procedures)
Suggest what the teacher should have done: she should have explained the aim of the
activity. What are they doing it for? Before reading students should have been acquainted
with pictures to be ready for specific reading and performing activity `who is who`;

№ 10
not asking students to say the new words
Explain why this is an issue: it creates limited vocabulary practice; Reduced engagement
and retention; Lack of reinforcement; Limited assessment of pronunciation;
Suggest what the teacher should have done:
Pronunciation practice: After introducing each flashcard, the teacher could have asked
students to repeat the word aloud, modeling the correct pronunciation and providing
feedback as needed.
Choral repetition: The teacher could have led the class in a choral repetition activity, where
the whole class says the word together. This helps build confidence and familiarity with the
vocabulary.
Pair or group practice: The teacher could have organized pair or group activities where
students take turns saying the words on their flashcards to each other. This promotes peer
interaction, active engagement, and additional practice opportunities.
Sentence creation: The teacher could have prompted students to create sentences using
the new vocabulary words. This encourages students to not only say the words but also use
them in meaningful contexts.

№ 11
not involving all the students
Explain why this is an issue:
Limited participation: When only a few students are involved in saying the new words, it
excludes others from actively participating in the learning process. This can lead to
disengagement and reduced opportunities for all students to practice and reinforce their
vocabulary skills.
Unequal learning opportunities: By not involving all students, the teacher unintentionally
creates a disparity in learning opportunities. Some students may miss out on valuable
practice and feedback, which can hinder their progress in vocabulary acquisition and oral
proficiency.
Decreased classroom dynamics: Involving all students promotes a positive classroom
atmosphere and fosters a sense of inclusivity and collaboration. When only a few students
are given the chance to speak, it may create a less interactive and engaging learning
environment.
Suggest what the teacher should have done:
- Turn-taking: Implement a turn-taking system where each student gets a
chance to say a new word from the flashcards. This ensures that all students
have equal opportunities to participate and practice their speaking skills.
- Pair or group work: Organize pair or group activities where students take turns
sharing the flashcards and saying the words to each other. This allows for more
student involvement and peer-to-peer interaction.
 - Choral response: Instead of relying on individual student responses, the
teacher can engage the whole class in choral response activities. This involves
having all students say the words together as a group, providing opportunities for
active participation.
- Rotating roles: Assign different roles within the activity, such as one student
holding the flashcard and another student saying the word. Rotate these roles so
that each student gets a chance to participate and engage in different aspects of
the activity.
- Share in small groups: Divide the class into small groups and give each group
a set of flashcards. In their groups, students can take turns showing the
flashcards and saying the words, ensuring that everyone has an opportunity to
participate.

№ 12 = № 16 = № 17
B - it's pre-listening since the teacher introduces the content, raises students` interest by
asking personalized questions and pre-teach vocabulary. These features are characteristic
ones for the pre-listening stage.
Why does the teacher show pictures? - to establish the content, to generate vocabulary
and activate background knowledge
Why does the teacher write words on the board? - to focus on the key words, pre-teach
target language
Why does the teacher ask students to discuss in pairs? - to have different interaction
patterns during the lesson

№ 13 ???????
asking students to listen and read without having exploited the visuals in the story
Explain why this is an issue: inappropriate lesson planning (layout of the task, instruction
giving, objectives of the task, teacher`s/students` procedures)
Suggest what the teacher should have done: she should have explained the aim of the
activity. What are they doing it for? Before reading/listening students should have been
acquainted with pictures to be ready for specific reading/listening and performing activity

№ 14
Not giving the students a specific purpose to listen to the text again can be an issue due to
the following reasons:
- Lack of focus: Without a specific purpose or task, students may listen to the
text passively or without a clear objective in mind. This can lead to reduced
concentration and engagement, making it harder for students to extract
meaningful information from the listening material.
- Missed learning opportunities: By not providing a specific purpose, students
may not actively listen for specific details, main ideas, or specific language
structures. This hinders their ability to practice targeted listening skills and may
result in missed learning opportunities.
- Limited comprehension assessment: Without a specific purpose, it becomes
challenging for the teacher to assess students' listening comprehension
effectively. It becomes difficult to determine whether students have understood
the main ideas, details, or specific information from the listening material.
What the teacher should have done:
 - Listening for specific information: The teacher could have asked students to
listen and identify specific details or answer comprehension questions related to
the content of the listening material. For example, they could be instructed to
listen for specific locations, people's names, or actions described in the dialogue.
- Note-taking: The teacher could have encouraged students to take notes while
listening to the text. They could be asked to jot down key information, important
vocabulary words, or main ideas. This helps students actively engage with the
listening material and practice their note-taking skills.
- Following a transcript: The teacher could have provided a transcript of the
listening material and asked students to follow along while listening. They could
be instructed to identify any differences or gaps between their understanding and
the transcript, helping them improve their listening accuracy.
- Completing a graphic organizer: The teacher could have provided a graphic
organizer related to the content of the listening material. Students could be asked
to listen and fill in the organizer with relevant information, such as a timeline, a
sequence of events, or a cause-and-effect chart.

№ 15
drawing the students’ attention to the comprehension questions after reading the text
● learners listen in a very untargeted way;
● learners are unclear about where to direct their attention;
● their ability to answer is compromised since it depends upon which parts of the
recording they happen to have paid special heed to.
● Their responses are heavily dependent upon memory
● They are unable to answer further teacher’s questions as time goes by.

№ 18 - № 19 - № 20
lead in + presentation + practice. Inductive way of presenting the topic by using a text. It also
includes controlled practice since the output of the learners is predictable. This is PPP
format of learning: Lead-in, Restricted Exposure; Teacher clarification, Restricted output.
Why does the teacher use a story about a school-aged child, i.e. George? - to motivate
students and give them the topic of interest, something that is common - it's more interesting
Why does the teacher ask students to rank the school subjects? - they may practice the
previous topic

№ 21- 23
The current stage of the lesson describes stage C: While-writing.
The reason for choosing the current stage as While-writing is that the students are actively
engaged in the process of writing their postcards. They are using the given expressions and
activity list to draft their postcards and exchange them for feedback. This aligns with the
objective of the lesson, which is to help students write a postcard, and indicates that they are
in the phase of actively producing their written work.
The teacher gives students sets of expressions for several reasons:
- Language support: The expressions provided by the teacher serve as
language models and scaffolds for students' writing. These typical postcard
sentences help students structure their thoughts and convey their ideas in a
concise and appropriate manner.
 - Variety and creativity: By providing a list of expressions, the teacher
encourages students to vary their language use and avoid repetitive or formulaic
writing. It gives them options to choose from and encourages them to personalize
their postcards using the expressions that best fit their message and writing style.
- Building confidence: Providing ready-made expressions helps students who
may struggle with generating ideas or finding the right words to express
themselves. It gives them a starting point and boosts their confidence in
constructing their postcards.
- Cultural and contextual appropriateness: The provided expressions ensure
that students use language that is commonly used in postcards and aligns with
the purpose and tone of this type of writing. It helps students become familiar with
the conventions of postcard writing and develop an understanding of appropriate
language use in this context.
Why does the teacher ask students to exchange postcards? - encouragement of
peer-assessment, peer-correction, collaboration and feedback
Why does the teacher ensure that students get their own postcards back? - on the
basis of feedback they need to correct their postcards and produce the final version of their
writing

№ 24
Peter used to go jogging every morning when he was at school.
Form: used to + bare infinitive
Meaning: past habit that is not actual anymore
Context: informal situation, where Peter refers to things in the past which are no longer true
for him
Checking Ss’ understanding: ask students what they used to do in their childhood

№ 25
Clare: I get frustrated because I often present language at the start of the lesson and we
practise it a lot, but the students hardly ever produce it in a freer situation at the end of the
lesson.
Suggested solution: One possible solution to address Clare's frustration could be to
incorporate more communicative activities and tasks that encourage students to use the
language in a freer situation at the end of the lesson. This could include role-plays,
discussions, debates, or project-based assignments where students have the opportunity to
apply the language learned in a meaningful and interactive way.
The reason: The lack of production of the language in a freer situation at the end of the
lesson could be due to a variety of factors. It is possible that the activities used in the lesson
primarily focus on receptive skills (such as reading and listening) rather than productive skills
(such as speaking and writing). Additionally, students might lack confidence or feel
uncomfortable using the language spontaneously. By incorporating more communicative
activities, students can practice using the language in a realistic context, which can help
build their confidence and promote language production.

№ 26
Clare: I've always tried to keep my lessons quite learner-centred. But when I teach grammar
sometimes it seems inevitable that the lesson will be dominated by me, particularly at the
start.
Suggested solution: One possible solution to address Clare's concern about grammar
lessons being dominated by the teacher is to incorporate more interactive and
student-centered activities that actively engage students in the learning process.
- Use guided discovery: Instead of explicitly teaching grammar rules, guide
students to discover the rules themselves through interactive activities. Provide
them with real-life examples and encourage them to analyze and identify patterns
or rules on their own. This approach promotes active learning and allows
students to take a more active role in the lesson.
- Incorporate pair or group work: Design activities that require students to work
collaboratively in pairs or small groups. This can include exercises like
information gap activities, role-plays, or problem-solving tasks. By working
together, students can practice using the grammar structures in a communicative
and interactive way.
- Provide opportunities for student-led practice: Allocate time during the lesson
for students to practice the grammar points independently or in small groups. This
can be done through exercises, worksheets, or online platforms that provide
immediate feedback. Encourage students to take ownership of their learning and
actively engage in the practice activities.
The reason: Grammar lessons often tend to be teacher-centered because of the need to
explain the rules and provide examples. However, this dominance can limit students' active
participation and engagement. By incorporating more interactive and student-centered
activities, students have the opportunity to actively explore and apply the grammar rules,
promoting a deeper understanding and retention of the concepts. Additionally, student-led
practice allows them to take ownership of their learning and develop their language skills in a
more independent manner.

№ 27
№ 28
№ 29
1) Safer planes? (with surprised questioning intonation):
Type of correction: repetition
2) Hmm. Can you help Simon, Bruno?:
Type of correction: peer-correction
3) OK. Look. Trains go at a hundred miles an hour, planes go at 500 miles an hour, so
planes are faster than trains. Yes?:
Type of correction: explicit correction

№ 30
1. Student: I already seen the “Hunger Games”.
Teacher: (Metalinguistic feedback/explanation): use the appropriate tense form. How do we
form Present Perfect?
2. Student: My dad is a doctor. She works in a hospital.
Teacher: (Repetition): My DAD is a doctor. SHE works in a hospital?
3. Student: I was born on 1998.
Teacher: (Reformulation/Recast): oh, you was born IN 1998