AE2230-II Propulsion and Power

Lecture-1 : Introduction
Dr Ivan Langella
Flight Performance and Propulsion (FPP)

i.langella@tudelft.nl

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Lecture scheme AE2230-II
§ Introduction
§ Cycles (Otto/Brayton/Carnot/Rankine)
§ Aero Engines-Ideal processes
§ Aero Engines-Real processes Ivan Langella
§ Turbomachinery
§ Combustion & Emissions

§ Introduction (Electric Power Systems + Generators)

§ Photovoltaic Generators + Batteries & Fuel Cells
§ Power Management & Distribution + Rocket
Propulsion Introduction Angelo Cervone
§ Rocket Propulsion Fundamentals
§ Ideal Rocket Theory
§ Cold Gas Rockets + Chemical Rockets
§ In-Class Tutorial
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 AE2230-II overview

Lectures

Le Brig
ctu ht
er

re spa
ad

Sl
ide ce
Re

so
Propulsion

n
Ol rig and Power

ra on
ma
d ht s
B
Ex p

lle es
Co ctur
am ace

ge
so

Le
n

Online content +
assignments

Please note that the reader does not contain everything that is taught
in the class!!

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 History

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 Flying is a dream

Would we fly if there were no birds in the world?

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Early flying attempts

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Early flying attempts

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Early flying attempts

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Gliders

Cayley’s Glider

Otto Lilienthal’s Glider

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Powered Flight

Cayley’s Glider

“Powered flight would be

possible if an engine would be
able to produce more power in
proportion to its weight, than
the animal system of muscles.”
(1773-1857) Otto Lilienthal’s Glider
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First Flight

Wright Brothers flew the first manned, powered, controlled,

heavier-than-air flight
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 First Flight
Orville Wright flew the Wright Flyer 1 on 17-Dec-1903 at
10:35am, Kitty Hawk beach

First flight: 120 ft in 12 secs

Aircraft crashed after the 4th flight

by Wilbur Wright: 853 ft in 59 secs

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 Basic Principles

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How to Propel in Air??

Jet
thrust

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How to Propel in Air??

. M

+-

~
E

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How to Propel an Aircraft??
Instead of providing
compressed air, what if we can
generate high pressure gases
Turbine
Jet
within the balloon itself?

propeller
Fuel

Thrust

Fuel

Thrust
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Rocket Propulsion

Instead of providing
compressed air, what if we can
generate high pressure gases
within the balloon itself?

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Delft
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How does a gas turbine work??

compressor combustion chamber

Hot Gases
Intake

turbine Exhaust
Nozzle

inletàCompressoràCombustoràTurbine+Nozzle

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How does a gas turbine work??

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Principles of jet propulsion

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 𝑚̇ #
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑉! , 𝑝! , 𝜌! 𝑉" , 𝑝" , 𝜌"
For a fluid, in general, we need:

• 1D flow
• No viscous forces

TSFC or SFC: amount of fuel/hour needed for 1N of

Thrust:

Propulsive efficiency:
! 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 # 𝑑𝑆 = 0
!𝒱

𝜂! =
"#$%&'()*+ %$,+# "#$%&'()*+ %$,+#
= #3/+ $4 +.+#56 7$.*+#()$. = Δ𝐹 = 𝑇 = 𝜌$ 𝑉$# 𝐴$ − 𝜌% 𝑉%# 𝐴%
,$#- $. /0+ 1'&)2
𝜌% 𝑉% 𝐴% = 𝜌$ 𝑉$ 𝐴$ = 𝑚̇ &'( = const
𝑇 × 𝑉8 𝑇 × 𝑉8 𝑚̇ Δ𝑉 × 𝑉8 2 𝑇 = 𝑚̇ Δ𝑉 1
= = = =
𝐸̇ 1 : − 𝑉 :) 1 𝑉9
2 𝑚(𝑉
̇ 9 8 2 𝑚̇ 𝑉9 + 𝑉8 Δ𝑉 1 + 𝑉8

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How does a gas turbine work?

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 Elements of a
propulsion system

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Elements of a Propulsion System

Aircraft &
mission

Thrust
Producer

Energ
gy y to
r
Ene e work
ou r c Conve
S rter
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 Ways of producing thrust
Thrust
Producer

Energ
gy y to
Ener e work
c
Sour Conve
rter

Jet
thrust

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 Energy Sources
Thrust
Producer

Energ
gy y to
Ener e work
c
Sour Conve
rter

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Energy Sources

NiCad Battery = 0.14 MJ/kg Li- ion Battery = 0.7 MJ/kg Li-sulphur = 2 MJ/kg

Gasoline/kerosene = 43 MJ/kg Hydrogen = 120 MJ/kg Uranium = 85 TJ/kg

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Energy Sources

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 Energy to work converter
Thrust
Producer

Energ
gy y to
Ener e work
c
Sour Conve
rter

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Energy to Work Converter

Wankel engine
2.5 kW/kg

600 W/kg

3.5 kW/kg Gas Turbine : 6-15 kW/kg

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Wright flyer engine

Weight = 90 kg
Power = 12 hp (~9 kW) => 99 W/kg
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Elements of a
propulsion
system

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Current Engines

Type Power Range Speed Range Power to Approx.

(Mach No) weight (kW/kg) Efficiency
(%)
Military Engines < 15 MW Upto Mach 2 10 28
Large Turbofans < 50 MW < Mach 1 6 35
Micro gas turbines < 50 kW < Mach 1 6 10
Turbo Props < 10 MW < Mach 0.7 6 40
Electric Motors < 150 kW < Mach 0.7 3.5 85
Wankel Engine < 200 kW < Mach 0.7 2.5 25
Radial engines < 3000 kW < Mach 0.7 1.8 30

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Example of a propulsion system

Thrust producer
(propeller)

+
Electric
Battery
Motor
-

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How Powerful is a Gas Turbine?

140 kW
140KW

45,000 kW
1 Turbo Fan Engine > 100 Ferrari's
1 Turbo Fan Engine > 300 Mercedes’
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400 kW
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How Powerful is a Gas Turbine?

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 Thermodynamics

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Law’s of thermodynamics

Zeroth Law : Thermal equilibrium & the concept of

temperature.

First Law : Conservation of Energy and its

interconvertability.

Second Law : Defines entropy.

Third Law : Entropy of a system is zero at absolute

zero.

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Energy: 1st law
§ Conservation of Energy
§ ΔE = ΔKE + ΔPE + ΔU = constant
§ U = internal energy = f(T)
§ Internal energy U is independent of p and V
§ U = f (T) and dU = cv dT

§ Often in combination with p and V:

§ Definition:
§ Enthalpy: h = u + pv (per unit mass)
§ cv = (∂u/∂T)v so du = cv dT (valid for const. vol. processes)

§ cp = (∂h/∂T)p so dh = cp dT (valid for const. press. processes)

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 Fundamental theories of physics
don’t care which way time goes
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 Arrow of time
Entropy

Ist Law Ist Law

Newton’s Laws Newton’s Laws

Thus the Entropy is also called

as the arrow of time time

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Entropy

• A measure of randomness or disorder

• Entropy is a state function
• The units of entropy are J/(mol K) or J/(kg K)
• Indicates the increase in disorder or increase in randomness
• Change in entropy of a system (DS= Sfinal- Sinitial)
• Depends only on initial and final states, and not the pathway.
• Negative (-) DS indicates a more ordered state
• Positive (+) DS = less ordered state
• The entropy of the universe always increases

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 Disorder in your room?

“But, it’s not my fault… the universe wants my room like this!” J
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 Entropy: 2nd law
Irreversible Process
An irreversible process is a process that is not reversible.
All real processes are irreversible.
Irreversible processes occur because of the following:
• Friction
• Unrestrained expansion of gases
• Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
• Mixing of two different substances
• Hysteresis effects
• Heat losses
• Any deviation from a quasi-static process

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Entropy: 2nd law
Violates 1st law
𝑄 𝑊>𝑄
Δ𝑈 = 0

Some transformation is not possible

although allowed by the first law

The second law studies the transformation of heat into work. The issue
is that some transformation is not reversible. Clasius found that
!"! % !"!
∮ # =0 → ∫$ # = 𝑆% − 𝑆$ or 𝛿𝑞 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠

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Entropy: 2nd law
Clasius inequality:

If I have a closed system with any process inside, and the process is not
reversible, then

𝛿𝑄 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 (reversible)

𝛿𝑄
𝑇 𝑑𝑆 > 𝑑𝑄 or ( <0 (irreversible)
𝑇

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Basic Equations for an Ideal Gas
§ Ideal gas if: 𝒑𝒗 = 𝑹𝑻
§ p: pressure [N/m2]
§ v: specific volume [m3/kg]
§ T: absolute temperature [K]
§ R: gas constant [J/(kg K)]
§ Heat Supply at constant pressure
§ dh = dq = du + pdv = cvdT + pdv
§ (dQ/dT)p = cv + p(dv/dT)p = cp
§ pv = RT so p(dv/dT)p = R
§ cp = cv + R or R = cp - cv
§ By definition:
§ Ratio of specific heats: cp/cv = κ (isentropic exponent)

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Basic Equations for an Ideal Gas

§ Ideal Gas Law: pv = RT

§Isothermal process: pv = constant
§Isobaric process: v/T = constant
§Isochoric process: p/T = constant
§Isentropic process: pvκ = constant
§Polytropic process: pvn = constant

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Basic Ideal Gas Processes

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Isentropic process

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Isentropic process
§∆S = 0; cp = constant; cv = constant; cp/ cv = κ
§p vκ = constant (isentropic)
§ p v = R T → p = RT/v (ideal gas). Combine with isentropic:
§ RT/v . vκ = constant
§ RT vκ -1 = constant; R = constant

§T vκ-1 = constant (important expecially for piston engines)

§ p v = R T → v = RT/p (solve for v now to find equivalent expression

in terms of p)

§ p {RT/p}κ = constant
§ p (1-κ)/κ T = constant
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Isentropic process

§ T/ p (κ-1)/κ = constant
§ T2/T1 = [p2/p1] (κ-1)/κ
§ T2 = T1 . P (κ-1)/κ Where P = p2/p1
§ T2 – T1 = T1 [P (κ-1)/κ – 1]

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Thermodynamics of an engine

Hot
reservoir

Engine work

Cold
reservoir
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Power Cycles

§ Thermodynamic Process of a fluid (liquid / gas)

§ Conditions return to original state
§ Open or closed
§ Heat is transferred into power
§ Residual heat is to be rejected to atmosphere
§ Maximum efficiency: Carnot process
§ Two isothermal and two isentropic processes
§ All processes:
§ Increase pressure at low temperature
§ Add heat at high pressure
§ Expand to lowest possible pressure

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Carnot Cycle

§Ideal process: Carnot

§ Isothermal heat addition & expansion
§ Isentropic expansion
§ Isothermal compression & heat
rejection
§ Isentropic compression

§ Represents maximum work to be gained at

at available temperature levels

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