Dyes and Pigments 222 (2024) 111913

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Dyes and Pigments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/dyepig

Expansion strategy of carbazole connecting unit in linear hole transport

materials for perovskite solar cells
Jianlin Chen a, 1, Rahim Ghadari b, 1, Xianfu Zhang a, Mingyuan Han a, Xuepeng Liu a, **,
Ying Zhou a, Jieqiong Chen a, Botong Li a, Hongyang Quan a, Yong Ding a, Molang Cai a,
Songyuan Dai a, *
a
Beijing Key Laboratory of Novel Thin-Film Solar Cells, School of New Energy, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, 102206, China
b
Computational Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Organic and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, 5166616471, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Hole transport materials (HTMs) play an important role in perovskite solar cells (PSCs), and the regulation of
Perovskite solar cells their molecular structures can promote the further development of power conversion efficiency (PCE) and sta­
Hole transport material bility. In this work, through exploiting the expansion strategy at the molecular level, a new linear HTM, named
Carbazole connecting unit
H580, was designed and synthesized by expanding the carbazole connecting unit. The results show that the
Expansion strategy
Interfacial material
introduction of dibenzol structure can significantly improve the photophysical and electrochemical character­
istics of the molecule while preserving the passivating effect of the cyano group. The results show that a higher
efficiency and a better stability are obtained after using H580 as the HTM. Significantly, compared with using
spiro-OMeTAD alone, the additional introduction of H580 as an interface material with hole transport capability
and defect passivation effect has achieved an excellent performance of PSCs.

1. Introduction molecule materials can be roughly divided into linear-type [17,18],

As a representative of emerging photovoltaic, perovskite solar cells
(PSCs) with facile preparation by solution methods and rapid growth
power conversion efficiency (PCE), have always maintained a trend of
continuous breakthrough and progress [1–5]. Nowadays, the current
certified PCE has exceeded 26 % [6]. The structures of high-efficiency
PSCs are mainly composed of light absorption layer, charge transport
layer and electrode on both sides. The hole transport layer should have a
suitable energy level, superior hole extraction ability, and protection for
perovskite, which can be achieved by tailoring the molecular structure
of hole transport materials (HTMs) [7–13], or methods of additive
regulation [14,15]. Countless strategies are ultimately aimed at
achieving highly efficient and stable PSCs through optimizing HTMs.
The HTMs can be divided into inorganic materials, organic small
molecule materials and polymer materials. The organic small molecule
materials have attracted much attention because of their simple struc­
ture, easy regulation and definite molecular weight with high repeat­
ability [16]. According to the different molecular shapes, organic small
spiro-type [19,20], star-type [21–23] and so on. It is worth mentioning
that the linear molecular structure is more concise, the synthesis path is
more convenient and the cost is lower [24]. So far, the structure of linear
small organic molecules has been tailored extensively, especially the
reasonable regulation of the molecular connecting unit has been proved
to be an effective method to improve the performance of PSCs [9,13,
25–28].
In the early stage, we designed and synthesized a linear HTM, named
H123, with carbazole as the connecting unit and triphenylamine units as
the edge groups [29]. By introducing an additional cyano group, H123
could also passivate the perovskite surface defects with improved sta­
bility. However, the carbazole connecting unit on molecular structures
was not modified at that time. Recently, many reports have proven that
the conjugation expanding strategy can regulate molecular properties
[30,31]. For example, Jiang et al., by symmetrically or asymmetrically
expanding benzene to naphthalene on the carbazole unit, confirmed that
the expansion of benzene can change the torsion angle of molecules,
which is beneficial to the close packing of molecules into monolayer,

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: liuxuepeng@ncepu.edu.cn (X. Liu), sydai@ncepu.edu.cn (S. Dai).
1
Jianlin Chen and Rahim Ghadari contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2023.111913
Received 10 October 2023; Received in revised form 23 November 2023; Accepted 20 December 2023
Available online 21 December 2023
0143-7208/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Chen et al. Dyes and Pigments 222 (2024) 111913

Fig. 1. Chemical structures of the corresponding carbazole expansion strategy from benzene to naphthalene on HTMs.

Fig. 2. (a) UV–vis absorption spectra of HTMs in dichloromethane solution and thin film state; (b) CV curves; (c) Energy level alignment in PSCs based on different
HTMs; (d) SCLC characteristics of all-hole devices based on H123 and H580; (e) DSC curves; (f) Optimized geometrical structures.

enhancing the π-π interaction, and regulating the substrate work func­
tion [32]. He et al. also proved that the symmetric expansion strategy of
benzene to naphthalene could improve PSC’s performance [33]. Jeong
et al. developed a new HTM, named Spiro-Naph, with asymmetric
phenylnaphthylamine edge units [34]. Compared with the fashionable
organic small molecular HTM 2,2′,7,7′-tetrakis(N,N-di-p-methox­
yphenyl-amine)-9,9′-spirobifluorene (spiro-OMeTAD), whose terminal
arms only have monosubstituted benzene rings, naphthalene group with
a diphenyl configuration lowers the highest occupied molecular orbital
(HOMO) energy level, makes a higher hydrophobicity and closer mo­
lecular packing, and the device stability is significantly enhanced.
In this work, inspired by the above reported symmetric expansion
strategy works, and based on our previous reported multifunctional
H123, an organic molecule (named H580) was designed and synthesized
by expanding the carbazole connecting unit on the molecular structure.
In brief, naphthalene was used to replace the benzene on the carbazole,
as represented in Fig. 1. The structure variation on the molecular
properties and device performance is studied. The results exhibit that
H580 owns slightly deeper HOMO level, higher glass transition tem­
perature (Tg), better hydrophobicity, and higher carrier mobility
compared with H123. The PCE of the optimized device based on H580
delivers a PCE of over 21 %, along with reduced hysteresis and improved
stability. Due to the superior passivating effect of the cyano group for
perovskite films, subsequently, H580 was applied as the interfacial
material between perovskite and spiro-OMeTAD. The maximum PCE of
the device with H580 as an interfacial layer reaches 22.55 %, and the
device stability is also significantly improved.
2. Results and discussion
The H580 is obtained through a carbazole connecting unit expansion
strategy from H123. The specific synthesis process of H580 is illustrated

2
J. Chen et al.
Fig. 3. (a) Structure of mesoporous PSCs in the work; (b) Reverse scanning J-V curves of optimal performance devices; (c) IPCE spectra of optimal performance
devices; (d) Stability tracing of different HTMs devices under unencapsulated conditions.
in Scheme S1 and Supplementary data. H580 was confirmed by NMR
and HRMS measurements.
As shown in Fig. 2a, to investigate the optical properties of these
molecules, the UV–vis absorption spectra of HTMs in thin films and
dichloromethane solutions were measured. It is evident that both H123
and H580 have two absorption peaks, and the peak shape of H123 is
consistent with previous tests [29]. Due to the presence of the same
structure of triphenylamine in H123 and H580, both of them have a
higher energy absorption peak near 300 nm, which can be attributed to
the similar n-π* transition on triphenylamine units [35]. In addition, the
π-π* transition occurring on the conjugate backbone causes the H123
and H580 films to exhibit an acromial peak at 380 nm and 401 nm,
respectively. Compared with H123, the onset absorption wavelength
(λonset) of H580 shows a significant redshift. It may be due to the
expansion of benzene on both sides of the carbazole unit, which en­
hances the π conjugations [32,34]. Like many small organic materials
with conjugated structures, the absorption spectra of all the materials
show a slight redshift from the solution state to the thin film state
(including spiro-OMeTAD, Fig. S1) [34,36,37]. By combining the onset
absorption wavelength in film state (λonset, film) and the formula Eg =
1240/λonset, film, the optical bandgap (Eg) of H123 and H580 is calcu­
lated as 2.85 eV and 2.73 eV, respectively.
Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV)
were used to investigate the electrochemical properties of H123 and
H580, as shown in Fig. 2b and Fig. S2. The curves in Fig. 2b show an
electrochemical reversibility, which can promote the stability of PSCs to
some extent [38]. When the benzene of the carbazole unit is expanded,
the HOMO energy level can be decreased from − 5.29 eV of H123 to
− 5.31 eV of H580, which is consistent with partial reported expansion
molecules [34]. A slight shift of the oxidation peak can be observed from
the DPV image (Fig. S2), which also confirms the downward shift of the
HOMO level of H580. This is undoubtedly more matching with the
valence band of perovskite (− 5.64 eV) [35], which reduces the energy
loss during the hole extraction process to a certain extent [32]. In the
PSCs’ structure, the energy level alignment of each layer of materials is
shown in Fig. 2c. Combined with the Eg, the lowest unoccupied molec­
ular orbital (LUMO) energy level of the HTMs is much higher than the
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Dyes and Pigments 222 (2024) 111913
conduction band level of perovskite (− 4.11 eV), which can play a good
electron blocking function and inhibit carrier recombination [39].
The hole mobility of the materials was tested and calculated in the
dark state using the space-charge limited current (SCLC) method. The J-
V curves in the dark state were shown in Fig. 2d. According to Mott-
Gurney’s law, the hole mobility of HTMs is calculated to be 4.34 × 10− 4
cm2V− 1s− 1 and 8.35 × 10− 4 cm2V− 1s− 1, respectively. The increased
conjugation and tight intermolecular alignment caused by the expansion
strategy contribute to the increased hole mobility [19,31,40,41], which
further indicates that the expansion of benzene to carbazole structure
can improve the hole transport capacity of the material. In addition,
based on the conductivity test of the two HTMs summarized in Fig. S3,
H580 also showed a slight enhancement in conductivity characteristics.
As shown in Fig. S23, thermogravimetric (TGA) analysis also shows that
the two HTMs have a high decomposition temperature, both of which
exceed 400 ◦ C, indicating an excellent thermal stability. In addition, the
Tg of the two organic small molecule materials was measured by dif­
ferential scanning calorimetry (DSC). It can be seen from Fig. 2e and
Fig. S24 that the newly developed H580 shows a higher Tg value than
H123, which is also significantly higher than the commonly used
organic small molecule HTM spiro-OMeTAD (Tg = 122 ◦ C) [19]. The
distinction in Tg between H123 and H580 results from the difference in
molecular weight and changes in molecular interactions caused by
structural distortion [33,42].
The frontier molecular orbitals, electrostatic surface potentials (ESP)
and molecular geometry configurations of two HTMs were analyzed by
time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) calculations at the
B3LYP/6-H-BS1G* level [19]. As shown in Fig. 2f and Fig. S4, the
benzene expansion strategy of carbazole unit does not simply extend the
connecting unit in the same plane. Compared to H123, the naphthalene
in the H580 structure causes its molecules to exhibit distorted spatial
configurations, reducing the spatial symmetry of H580 molecule, which
tends to improve its solubility [43]. The HOMO distribution is mainly
displayed on the triphenylamine hole transport unit, and partially exists
on the carbazole connecting unit. The HOMO electron distribution is not
seen on the extended benzene unit. After the symmetric epitaxy of
benzene, more LUMO electrons are distributed on the epitaxy benzene
J. Chen et al. Dyes and Pigments 222 (2024) 111913

Table 1 between molecules [35]. In addition, the cyano group on the H580
The optimal device photovoltaic performance parameters of PSCs with different molecule still shows negative electrostatic charge distribution, which
HTMs. can be seen from the ESP analysis. Compared with H123, the negative
HTM Scan Voc Jsc (mA FF PCE HI potential intensity is negligibly weakened. To some extent, it can be
direction (V) cm− 2) (%) (%) (%) explained that the benzene expansion of the carbazole connection unit
H123 reverse 1.13 24.25 70.18 19.30 9.8 does not annihilate the passivation effect of the cyano group. The
forward 1.06 23.90 69.05 17.41 simulated absorption spectras (Fig. S5) of these two molecules exhibit a
H580 reverse 1.14 24.14 77.48 21.30 7.9 similar trend with experimental results. The specific parameters of the
forward 1.13 23.79 72.89 19.62 photophysical, electrochemical, and thermal properties of the two
Spiro- reverse 1.16 24.15 77.95 21.80 7.9
molecules based on experiments or calculations are all summarized in
OMeTAD forward 1.13 23.53 75.83 20.08 Table S1.
As is shown in Fig. 3a, to explore the effect of expansion of carbazole
HI = (PCEreverse-PCEforward)/PCEreverse.
connecting unit of HTM on the device, we made the conventional n-i-p
PSC with a structure of FTO/c-TiO2/m-TiO2/Cs0.05FA0.95PbI3/HTM/Au.
ring, and a small amount of LUMO distributed on the triphenylamine Previous studies have shown that concentration has a great impact on
unit is almost completely disappeared, which undoubtedly makes the the performance of HTMs [29]. And many works, including ours, have
separation of LUMO and HOMO of H580 molecules based on benzene also shown that the content of dopants will also directly affect the device
expansion clearer. This result is beneficial to charge transmission

Fig. 4. AFM and water contact images of (a) Perovskite, (b) Perovskite/H123, and (c) Perovskite/H580; (d) PL spectra, and (e) TRPL spectra of pure perovskite films
or deposited with different HTMs.

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J. Chen et al.
Fig. 5. (a) Schematic diagram of the target device structure with H580 as an interface material; (b) Reverse scanning J-V curves of optimal devices; (c) IPCE spectra
of the optimal performance devices; (d) Stability tracing of different HTMs devices under unencapsulated conditions.
performance [44–46]. Therefore, we have done a lot of optimizing ex­
periments for H123 and H580. The SEM images in Fig. S21 show the
surface covered with HTMs. At optimal concentrations, the cross section
SEM images in Fig. S22 also exhibit that the H123 and H580-based
devices achieve thicknesses of 112 nm and 116 nm, respectively. Ac­
cording to our previous reports on H123, devices without dopants
showed unsatisfactory results [29]. Inspired by this, we mainly focused
on studying doped HTMs in PSCs. Fig. S6 and Table S2 show the
photovoltaic performance parameters of doped HTMs with different
concentrations. It is not difficult to see that both materials show better
device performance as the concentration decreases, probably because
the thicker hole transport layer caused by higher concentration in­
troduces a larger impedance [47]. Secondly, H580 is more sensitive to
dopant content, which is mainly reflected in the difference of open cir­
cuit voltage (Voc) and fill factor (FF). By optimizing the doping content
of lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulphonyl)imide (Li-TFSI) at the optimal
concentration (Fig. S7 and Table S3), the best device efficiency is ob­
tained. The photovoltaic performance of PSCs was measured under
standard AM 1.5G illumination (100 mW cm− 2). The J-V curves of the
optimal device based on different HTMs under two scanning directions
are shown in Fig. 3b and Fig. S8. The detailed photovoltaic parameters
such as Voc, short circuit current density (Jsc), FF and PCE are summa­
rized in Table 1. The hysteresis indices (HI) of them are also calculated.
The optimal device based on H123 delivers a PCE of 19.30 %, a Voc of
1.13 V, a Jsc of 24.25 mA cm− 2, and an FF of 70.18 % under reverse
scanning direction. After expansion of the carbazole unit with benzene,
the device based on the H580 shows an improved PCE. The optimal
device has a Jsc of 24.14 mA cm− 2 under reverse scanning direction,
which is approximately the same as the H123-based device. Besides, the
Voc of 1.14 V is slightly improved compared to H123, and the FF is up to
77.48 %. The excellent FF can be attributed to the improved hole
mobility of the H580, the better matching energy level also reduces the
loss during hole transport, and the better contact between the cyano
group and the perovskite [48,49]. Moreover, the reduction of the trap
state at the interface further inhibits the current carrying non-radiative
recombination, based on which the final efficiency of 21.30 % is ob­
tained. The incident photocurrent conversion efficiency (IPCE) spectra
of two best devices doped with H123 and H580 are shown in Fig. 3c. The
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Dyes and Pigments 222 (2024) 111913
data performance of the two devices is approximately the same in the
range of 300–840 nm, and the integrated current density is basically
consistent with the Jsc value measured by J-V. The hysteresis phenom­
enon of mesoporous PSCs is frequently reported in the literature [34,45,
50], and this behavior is mainly related to the dynamic trapping and
detrapping of photogenerated carriers, ion migration or band bending
caused by ferroelectric polarization [51]. Nonetheless, based on the
HTM with carbazole unit expansion, H580-based device has a lower
hysteretic index (HI = 7.9 %) than that of H123 (HI = 9.8 %).
The surface morphology of perovskite or coated with different HTMs
was studied by atomic force microscopy (AFM). As is pointed before,
H580 has a distorted structure in space, making its planarity reduced
and the π-π accumulation is weakened [43,52], which will exhibit a
better characteristic of dissolution and film formation. As shown in
Fig. 4a to c, the surface roughness of the perovskite without coating
HTM is large, the root mean square (RMS) value is 43 nm, and it is
significantly decreased after coating with H123. The surface roughness
is further reduced by coating the perovskite layer with H580. This is
because a proper film character makes it better for film formation and
more favorable for contacting perovskite [35]. In addition, the extended
naphthalene group structure has a certain hydrophobic effect [34], and
it is easier to form a tight arrangement between the molecule [31].
Therefore, the perovskite film coating with H580 illustrates the biggest
water contact angle, which indicates that the carbazole unit will
improve the hydrophobicity of the material after expanding benzene, so
as to improve the ability to resist water in the air.
As shown in Fig. 4d and e, steady-state photoluminescence (PL) and
time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) were used to study the dy­
namic behavior of carrier transport between HTMs and perovskite.
H123 has been proved to have a satisfied hole extraction ability [29].
Due to the presence of cyano group, the PL curve has a slight blue shift
phenomenon during the test process. In contrast, perovskite/H580 has a
lower PL peak and shows a more obvious PL quenching ability, which
indicates that the expansion of carbazole unit benzene further improves
the hole extraction ability [53–55]. It is worth noting that its PL curve
also has a blue shift, which indicates that the expansion of benzene does
not cover the passivation effect of the cyano group. In the same test
environment, the perovskite film covered by H123 or H580 shows
J. Chen et al. Dyes and Pigments 222 (2024) 111913

Table 2 device using H123 as the hole layer decreases sharply, and the degra­
Optimal device photovoltaic performance parameters of PSCs. dation is more obvious. H580, with a higher Tg, is conducive to the
HTM Scan Voc Jsc (mA FF PCE HI formation of amorphous state [56,57], and can maintain the molecular
direction (V) cm− 2) (%) (%) (%) configuration under actual working conditions, so as to improve the
H580/spiro- reverse 1.16 24.64 79.17 22.55 4.2 thermal stability of the device.
OMeTAD forward 1.13 24.35 78.28 21.61 The above results proved that H580 has a better performance in both
spiro-OMeTAD reverse 1.14 24.56 76.39 21.42 7.7
electrochemical and photophysical properties. In view of the good hole
forward 1.11 23.46 75.74 19.77 transmission and effective passivation function for the perovskite layer,
it is considered as the interface material between the perovskite layer
and the commonly used organic small molecule HTM spiro-OMeTAD, in
different TRPL attenuation curves. The double exponential fitting pa­ order to further improve the device performance of PSCs. The device
rameters are arranged in Table S4. The perovskite film with H580 on top structure is shown in Fig. 5a. H580 is directly introduced into the
shows a shorter life, indicating that the expansion of carbazole unit interface by a post-processing method under the best concentration, and
benzene makes H580 have a stronger hole extraction ability than H123. spiro-OMeTAD is used as the HTM. We also fabricate noninterface de­
The holes are collected and transported faster at the interface between vices without any treatment as the control group. Fig. 5b, Table 2, and
perovskite and HTM. Fig. S11 reflect the photovoltaic performance of the optimal devices in
In order to explore the tolerance characteristics of PSCs towards two groups. The specific parameters of multiple independent samples
different environments, unencapsulated devices were tested separately are counted in Fig. S10. Combined with Fig. 5c, it can be seen that after
in dry air and a harsh environment. Related results were recorded in the introduction of H580 as an interface layer, the Voc and FF of the
Fig. 3d and Fig. S9. Under light proof conditions, all the devices were device are further increased while maintaining the Jsc almost un­
stored with a relative humidity (RH) of about 15 % at room temperature changed. On the one hand, the HOMO energy level of H580 is between
for about 70 days. The device based on H580 showed an excellent long- the perovskite layer and the spiro-OMeTAD layer, which further reduces
term stability and retained more than 95 % efficiency, while the device the potential barrier existing in the hole extraction process and reduces
based on H123 showed fluctuations in efficiency, and the final efficiency the hole loss [58,59]. On the other hand, the presence of cyano group
loss was close to 20 %. Also in a dark condition, the PSCs with different plays a passivation role on the perovskite surface and reduces the surface
HTMs were subjected to thermal treatment with a high relative humidity defects.
(RH ≈ 35 %). In the first stage, the devices were placed on a 60 ◦ C hot It can be seen from Fig. 6a and b that the trap-filling limit voltage
table. Within the first 12 h of heating, the devices efficiency based on the (VTFL) measured in the dark state of the sample treated with H580 on the
two HTMs decreased rapidly. In the subsequent 48 h, the device effi­ surface decreases from 0.23 V to 0.13 V. The defect state density (ntrap)
ciency of H580 as a hole transport layer almost remained unchanged, of the perovskite film in target group and control group is 2.7 × 1015
while the device with H123 material continued to decay. When the cm− 3 and 4.8 × 1015 cm− 3, respectively. The reduction of ntrap effec­
constant temperature heating time at 60 ◦ C is 84 h, the device efficiency tively reduces the possibility of non-radiative recombination, and the
of H580 as HTM is about 80 % of the initial value, while the device based optimal PCE of 22.55 % is obtained. Fig. 6c shows the variation of de­
on H123 decays from 100 % to less than 70 % relative to the initial vice’s Voc with light intensity. When the surface of perovskite is treated
value. When the temperature is increased to 80 ◦ C, the efficiency of the with H580, the ideal factor (nid) significantly decreases from 1.79 to
device based on H580 material decays slowly within 60 h, while that of

Fig. 6. J-V curves of defect state density test of devices with (a) or without (b) an interfacial layer; (c) Voc dependence on the light intensity for the PSC with or
without H580 as an interfacial layer; (d) FTIR spectra of H580 and H580 doping with PbI2 respectively.

6
J. Chen et al.
1.43, indicating that H580 can effectively suppress recombinations
caused by defect states on the perovskite surface [60]. In addition, the
fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR) of doped PbI2 and pure H580
were analyzed. When PbI2 was doped, the H580 molecule containing a
cyano group showed a different stretching vibration phenomena as
shown in Fig. 6d. Specifically, the wavenumber of C – – N bond of H580
– Appendix A. Supplementary data
material shifted from 2246.13 cm− 1 to 2244.87 cm− 1 after doping with
PbI2, indicating the interaction may exist between cyano group and PbI2.
It is further confirmed that H580 molecule has the function of passiv­
ating the defect of uncoordinated Pb2+ on the surface of perovskite
films. In summary, as an interfacial material, the passivation effect of
H580 is observable. As shown in Fig. 5d, we also conducted stability
tests related to the devices. In addition to the barrier effect of H580
material itself on water in the air, many defect states on the surface of
the perovskite layer are regarded as a channel for water oxygen to enter
the bulk phase and cause the decomposition of the absorption layer
[61–63], and the cyano group of the interface material H580 can
passivate the surface defects of the perovskite, thus greatly reducing the
rate of water oxygen erosion on it. Finally, unencapsulated devices with
H580 as an interface layer also shows an extraordinary long-term sta­
bility. At the same time, after nearly 70 days of tracking, the efficiency of
the device without H580 has declined to below 70 % of the initial
efficiency.
3. Conclusion
In summary, a new HTM with dibenzo[c,g]carbazole as the con­
necting unit was designed and synthesized, named H580. Studies have
shown that the expansion strategy of benzene in linear molecular
carbazole unit can significantly increase hole mobility and transport
capacity, lower HOMO level, enhance thermal stability, improve film
formation and reduce film roughness. Under the same conditions, the
formal device doped with H580 achieves the champion PCE of 21.30 %
with high FF and Voc. The hysteresis is further reduced, the long-term
stability and thermal stability are also significantly improved, and the
PCE of the PSCs device using H580 as the interface material is finally
increased to 22.55 %. This work shows that the expansion strategy of the
connecting unit in linear molecules is an effective strategy to develop
efficient HTMs or interface materials and improve the performance of
molecules and PSCs.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jianlin Chen: Methodology, Writing – original draft. Rahim Gha­
dari: Data curation, Software. Xianfu Zhang: Resources, Supervision.
Mingyuan Han: Investigation, Methodology. Xuepeng Liu: Project
administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
editing. Ying Zhou: Supervision, Visualization. Jieqiong Chen: Data
curation, Investigation. Botong Li: Investigation, Resources. Hongyang
Quan: Investigation, Methodology. Yong Ding: Project administration,
Supervision. Molang Cai: Methodology, Resources. Songyuan Dai:
Project administration, Resources.
Declaration of competing interest
We declare that we have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work
reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the National Key R&D Program of China
7
Dyes and Pigments 222 (2024) 111913
(No. 2019YFB1503200), the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (No. 61904053, 22279033), the 111 Project (No. B16016), and
the Special Foundation for Carbon Peak Carbon Neutralization Tech­
nology Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province (No. BE2022026).
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2023.111913.
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