DESIGN CONCEPTS OF SUBSTRUCTURES 18CSE321

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Module – 1
Dr S. G. Patil

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Syllabus

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Site Investigation

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• Site investigation is the process by which geological, geotechnical, and other
relevant information is acquired, which might affect the construction or

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performance of a civil engineering or building project.
Objective of site investigation:

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1. To determine the sequence, thicknesses and lateral extent of the soil

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strata and, where appropriate, the level of bedrock;
2. To obtain representative samples of the soils (and rock) for identification

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and classification, and, if necessary, for use in laboratory tests to determine

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relevant soil parameters;
3. Determine groundwater table and groundwater condition.
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4. Check for ground contamination
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Dr. S. G. Patil
Site Investigation

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Site Investigation

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 Preparation of Scheme

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To obtain the most useful information at minimum cost and effort, proper
planning of subsurface investigation is essential which includes

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• Preparation of layout plan of the project

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• Preparation of borehole layout plan which
includes number and spacing of boreholes,

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depth and frequency of sampling

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• Preparation of layout for relevant field tests
• Preparation of guidelines for laboratory
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testing of collected samples
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Methods for Drilling a Borehole (IS-1892)

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• A large number of methods are available for advancing boreholes to obtain
samples or details of soil strata.

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• The principal methods used worldwide are:

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1. Auger Borehole Usage depends on
2. Shell and Auger Boring  Nature of soil

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3. Percussion Boring  Water table Depth
4. Wash Boring  Sample Disturbance

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 Accuracy of soil exploration
5. Rotary Drilling

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1.Auger Borehole:
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• The soil is crushed under combined action of downward thrust and
rotation.
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• Suitable for soils which can stay open without casing or drilling mud.
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• It is not possible for sands below water table.

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• Good for Highways, railways projects where small depth of soil

exploration is needed
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Dr. S. G. Patil
 Methods for Drilling a Borehole (IS-1892) Conti.

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Types of auger
a) Post hole auger –
i. Suitable for cohesionless soil

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ii. Penetration by manual torque

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iii. Periodically withdrawn to understand the strata (≈15 cm depth)
iv. Disturbed representative soil sample is collected

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b) Helical Auger -

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i. Suitable for Cohesive soil, since they stick in to the blade.

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ii. More depth can be advanced than post auger
i. Periodically withdrawn to understand the strata (≈15 cm depth)
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iii. Disturbed representative sample
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Limitations of the hand operated auger borings
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• Cannot penetrate in hard strata

• Cannot go beyond 4 – 6 m depth
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• If strata having stones and gravels the penetration becomes difficult

• In-situ tests CPT, SPT cannot be carried out
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• No undisturbed soil samples obtained

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Dr. S. G. Patil
 Methods for Drilling a Borehole (IS-1892) Conti.

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2. Shell and Auger Boring
 Suitable for cohesionless soil or stiff clay

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 The tool consists of augers for soft to stiff clay, shells (Called

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Sand Bailer) for very stiff and hard clay and shells or sand pumps
for sandy strata, attached to sectional boring rods.

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 Lifted and then left to fall freely under self weight. Additional weight
(sinker) may be added for ease of sinking

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A hand rig may be used for vertical boring up to 200 mm dia

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and 25 m in depth. In alluvial deposits the depth of the bore
hole may be extended up to 50 m with a mechanized rig.
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 No water shall be added while boring through soft cohesive
soils and cohesionless soils above water table. Bailers should be
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used to remove soil cuttings.
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While boring through cohesionless deposits below water table,

water in the casing shall always be maintained at or above the
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water table. It is essential that the casing is kept full of water

or with 5 percent bentonite slurry up to the top level.
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Shell is used to get the disturbed soil samples at regular intervals or

whenever there is a change of strata.
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Dr. S. G. Patil
 Methods for Drilling a Borehole (IS-1892) Conti.

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3) Percussion Boring:
 Here advancement of hole is done by alternatively

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lifting and dropping a heavy drilling bit which is

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attached to the lower end of the drilling bit which
is attached to the cable.

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 Various boring tools can be attached such as shell

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for Coarse-grained, clay cutter for fine-grained

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and chisel for boulders, cobbles.

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 Water should be added to the hole at the
time of boring, and the debris baled out at
(a) Percussion boring rig, (b) shell,
(c) clay cutter and (d) chisel
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=11
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intervals. EebRrB-XA
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Knappett & Craig 2012

 Energy given out by chisel will disturb the soil
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sample
 As these machines are devised for rapid drilling by pulverizing the material, they
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are not suitable for careful investigation, since the vibrations created may alter the in-
situ condition of soil before taking undisturbed soil sample
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Dr. S. G.strata.
 It is the only method suitable for drilling bore holes in boulders and gravelly Patil
Methods for Drilling a Borehole (IS-1892) Conti.

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4) Wash Boring:

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 A casing pipe of 2-3 m length is driven into
the soil by a heavy drop hammer

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 The soil inside the casing is removed by
means of a chopping bit attached to a drill rod

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which forces water at high pressure..

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 Soil mixed with water moves up in annular gap

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 Samples are obtained at certain depth by
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removing drill rod and pushing a sampler
instead.
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 It is suitable for most soil type, but progress

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becomes slow if gravel and cobbles are

encountered
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Source: Dr Yi Yaolin Dr. S. G. Patil

Methods for Drilling a Borehole (IS-1892) Conti.

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4) Wash Boring:

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 To operate continuously hollow drill rods has to be added. We can have 150

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mm dia bore hole with 15 – 20 m depth.
 We can conduct in-situ tests such as SPT (standard penetration test), CPT

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(Cone penetration test).

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 Less disturbance of soil compared to others, hence provide good quality

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undisturbed soil.

Limitations of Wash Boring:

 The progress is slow
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 Cannot penetrate into rock
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 Accurate identification of soil types is difficult. Change in feel of boring tool

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and colour of the slurry may be detected when the strata boundary is
reached.
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Methods for Drilling a Borehole (IS-1892) Conti.

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5) Rotary Drilling:
 Design similar to wash boring. Useful when soil is

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resistant to auguring or wash boring
 It is primarily intended for rock , but can also be

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used for soils.

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 The coring bit is fixed to the end of the core
barrel which is carried by drilling rods.

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 Water is pumped down hollow rods and passes

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under high pressure through small holes inside the
bit or barrel
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 Drilling fluid cools and lubricates the drilling tools
and then carries the loose debris to the surface.
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 The progress is much faster than with other
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methods. There is a slight disturbance of the soil

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below the borehole.

 It is not suitable if soil contains a high percentage
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of gravel-sized (or larger) particles.

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Source: Dr Yi Yaolin Dr. S. G. Patil

 In-Situ Testing of Soil

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• In-situ tests consist of inserting a device into the ground and measuring its
resistance to penetration or deformation, which is then translated into

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strength and stiffness parameters.

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Types of In-situ Tests:
In Bore Holes:

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1. Standard
Penetration Test

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(SPT)

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2. Vane Shear Test
(VST)
3. Pressure Meter
Test (PMT)
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Without a Bore
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Hole:
1. Cone penetration
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Test (CPT)
2. Dilatometer Test
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(DMT)
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Dr. S. G. Patil
Source: Shivakugan
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) (IS:2131-1981)

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 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) (IS:2131-1981)

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• Mainly for granular soils; unreliable in clays
• N-value correlated to φ’ & E

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• done within bore holes at 1.5 m depth Intervals

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• samples (disturbed) collected in split-spoon Rotary-drilled
sampler
Borehole
Procedure:

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1. A 35 mm internal diameter and 50 mm external
diameter split-barrel sampler with a sharp

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cutting edge is attached to a drill rod and placed
at the bottom of the borehole.

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2. The sampler is driven into the ground by a 63.5
kg hammer that is repeatedly dropped from a
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height of 760 mm as shown in Figure.
3. The number of blows required to achieve three
subsequent 150 mm penetrations is recorded.
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4. The number of blows required to penetrate the
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final 300 mm is known as the blow count,

penetration number, or N-value, and is denoted
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by N.
5. The blow count for the first 150 mm is ignored
due to the end effects and the disturbance
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at the bottom of the borehole.

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) (IS:2131-1981)

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FHWA NHI-01-031 (2001)

Under the following conditions the penetration is referred to as refusal and test is
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halted
a) 50 blows are required for any 150 mm penetration
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b) 100 blows are required for last 300 mm penetration

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c) 10 successive blows produce no advancement Dr. S. G. Patil

Corrections to SPT (N) Value

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1. Energy Corrections:
Energy corrections has to be applied because of loss in energy in terms of pully

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friction, friction in gide rod, vibration of drill rod.

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Ein = 63.5×9.807×0.762m = 475 J

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It is observed that 30% of energy loss due to pulley friction, friction in guide rod

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and vibration of drill rod

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Eact = 30 to 80% of Ein
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N70 = N×(Ea/Ein);
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If instrument is new we can assume Eact = 70 – 80 % ; if it is old Eact = 30 – 50 %

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Corrections to SPT (N) Value

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2. Correction for overburden pressure:
 Several investigators have found that the penetration resistance or the N

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value in a granular soil is influenced by the overburden pressure.

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 Of two granular soils possessing the same relative density but having
different confining pressures, the one with a higher confining pressure gives a

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higher N value. Since the confining pressure (which is directly proportional to
the overburden pressure) increases with depth, the N values at shallow

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depths are underestimated and the N values at larger depths are

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overestimated.
To allow for this, N values recorded from field tests at different effective
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overburden pressures are corrected to a standard effective overburden
pressure.
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The corrected N values given by N '70  C N N 70
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in which N '70 corrected value of observed N;C N = correction factor for

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overburden pressure.
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Corrections to SPT (N) Value

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IS: 2131

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Corrections to SPT (N) Value

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3. Dilatancy Correction:
This correction is applied if the soil is saturated cohesionless soil (Sand) and

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silts

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Dilation is a phenomenon by which dense cohesionless soil increases in
volume during shearing.

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N”70= 15+1/2 (N’70 – 15) if N’70 >15

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if N’70 <15 No correction for dilatancy; Hence N”70= N’70

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In Gravelly strata dilatancy correction is need to apply
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because permeability of gravelly soil is so high negative pore
pressure get stabilized almost immediately
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Interpretation from SPT

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Cohesionless Soils

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N Φ Dr (%) Consistency

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0-4 25 - 30 0 - 15 Very loose

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4 - 10 27 - 32 15 - 35 Loose

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10 - 30 30 - 35 35 - 65 Medium

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30 - 50 35 - 40 65 - 85 Dense
>50 D
38 - 43 85 - 100 Very dense
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Interpretation from SPT

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Cohesive Soils

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Vane Shear Test (VST)

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Vane Shear Test (VST)

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Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

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• In CPT we have two methods
1.Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)

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2. Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)

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1.Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT):
 The cone which has an apex angle of 600 and an end

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diameter of 35.7 mm is pushed, rather than being driven by

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blows, into the soil.
 When we apply load on sounding rod, only cone moves

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down and penetrate into soil by about 50 mm
 Sounding rod is pushed further of about 50 mm, this has
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the effect of pushing the friction jacket and cone together.
Now mantle tube is moved by 100 mm.
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 Rate of penetration is 1cm/sec. Repeat the above explained
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process.
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Qc = Load from pressure gauge reading + Wt. of cone + Wt.

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of connecting sounding rods

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Dr. S. G. Patil
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

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Qc and Qf are force in cone and force in friction

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The main purpose of measuring cone/tip resistance (qc) and friction resistance (qf)
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to know whether soil is cohesive/non-cohesive
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fr(%) Type of soil

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0 – 0.5 Rock/cemented sand

qf
Friction ratio fr  0.5 - 2 Sand
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qc 2-5 Clayey sand/ Sandy clay

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>5 Clay
Dr. S. G. Patil
Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT): IS: 4968 (Part – I, II)

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• Components:
• A Cone (dia = 50 mm) ~usually made of steel is used

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• Driving rods/drill rods ~marked at every 100 mm

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Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT): IS: 4968 (Part – I, II)

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• DCPT Procedure:
• Cone – drill rod – driving head assembly is installed vertically on the

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ground and hammer is dropped from standard height repeatedly

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• The blow counts are recorded for every 100 mm penetration. A sum of
three consecutive values i.e. 300 mm is noted as the dynamic cone

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resistance, Ncd at that depth.

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• The cone is driven up to refusal or the project specified depth.

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• In the end, the drill rod is withdrawn. The cone is left in the ground if
unthreaded or recovered if threaded.

 No sample recovered
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 Fast testing – less project cost / cover large area in due time
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 Use of bentonite slurry is optional, which is used to reduce friction on

the driving rods.
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 Modified cone is used in this case: diameter = 62.5 mm

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982) and (ASTM D1196 and D1195)

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Aim: The bearing capacity and settlement of the foundation

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Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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Typical set up for gravity loading platform

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Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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Typical set up for reaction loading platform

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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Reaction Loading

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Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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Procedure:
Bearing Plate:

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• Rough mild steel bearing plate in circular or square shape

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• Dimension: 30cm, 45cm, 60cm, or 75cm.
Thickness > 25 mm

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• Smaller size for stiff or dense soil. Larger size for soft or loose soil

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• Bottom of the plate is grooved for increased roughness.

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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Procedure: (Contd.)
Test Pit:

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• Usually to the depth of foundation level.

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• Width equal to five times the test plate

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• Carefully leveled and cleaned bottom.

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• Protected against disturbance or change in natural formation

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Section
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Dr. S. G. Patil
Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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Procedure: (Contd.)
• A seating pressure of 7 KPa (70 g/cm2) is applied and then released after

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some time before the test.

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• Loads are applied in the increments of approximately 1/5th of the estimated
ultimate safe load. (Or, one may choose to increase the load at an increment
of 0.5 kN.)

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• At each load settlement is recorded at time intervals of 1, 2.25, 4, 6.25, 9, 16,

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25 min and thereafter at intervals of one hour.

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• For clayey soil, the load is increased when time settlement curve shows that
the settlement has exceeded 70-80% of the probable ultimate settlement at
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that stage or a duration of 24 Hrs.
• For the other soils, the load is increased when the settlement rate drops
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below 0.02 mm/min.
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• The minimum duration for any load should, however, be at least 60 min.
• Dial gauges used for testing should have at least 25 mm travel and 0.01 mm
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accuracy.
• The load settlement curve can then be plotted from settlement data.
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Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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Plate Load Test – Load-Settlement Curve

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Plate Load Test – Load-Settlement Curve
Terzaghi and Peck (1948):

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S f  Settlement of a foundation of
 B f  B p  30  
2
Sf width Bf (cm)
 

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S p  B p  B f  30   S p  Settlement of the test plate of width
 

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Bp (cm) at the same load intensity as
on the foundation

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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Plate Load Test: Bearing Capacity
• In case of dense cohesionless soil and highly cohesive soils ultimate bearing

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capacity may be estimated from the peak load in load-settlement curve.

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• In case of partially cohesive soils and loose to medium dense soils the
ultimate bearing capacity load may be estimated by assuming the load
settlement curve so as to be a bilinear relationship.

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Plate Load Test (IS 1882:1982)

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• Plate Load Test: Some Considerations (Limitations)

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• The width of test plate should not be less
than 30 cm. It is experimentally shown that

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the load settlement behavior of soil is
qualitatively different for smaller widths.

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• The settlement influence zone is much

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larger for the real foundation sizes than that Soft soil
for test plate, which may lead to gross layer

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misinterpretation of expected settlement
for proposed foundation.
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• The foundation settlements in loose sands are usually much larger than
what is predicted by plate load test.
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• Plate load test is relatively short duration test and gives mostly the
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immediate settlements. In case of granular soils the immediate settlement is

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close to total settlements. However, due to considerable consolidation

settlement in case of cohesive soils, the plate load test becomes irrelevant
in such case. Although the following relationship is suggested
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S f Bf
for interpreting the settlements in cohesive soils, 
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it can not be used seriously for design. S pDr. S.BG.

p Patil
Classification of Foundation Systems

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Foundation
System

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Shallow Deep
Foundation Foundation

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Df < B Df > B

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Dr. S. G. Patil
 Classification of Foundation Systems

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A. Shallow Foundations: transmit structural loads to the near-surface soil

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Spread Footings Mat/Raft Foundations

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a) Most commonly used for moderate
a) Most common type of
foundation
D size structures
b) One large footing that encompasses
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b) Most 1-2 story buildings have
the entire structure
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spread footings
c) Distributes loads across a larger area,
c) Suitable for buildings with
thus reducing induced stresses in the
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more stories when ground

soil
conditions are favourable
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Dr. S. G. Patil
Classification of Foundation Systems

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• Types of Spread Footings

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Dr. S. G. Patil
Classification of Foundation Systems

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B. Deep Foundations: transmit some or all of the applied load well below
the ground surface (typical length of pile > 15 m up to 30 m usually, it may be

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> 50 m in special cases e.g. oil drilling platforms)

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Deep Foundations

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Dr. S. G. Patil
General Requirement of Foundation

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• The foundations must be capable of satisfying the following several stability
and deformation requirements such as:

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• Foundations should be properly located with respect to any future

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influence which could be adversely affect its performance.

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• Foundations must be safe against overturning, rotation and sliding.
• The soil supporting foundation must be safe against shear failure.
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• Total and differential settlements of foundations must be within tolerable
limit (50 – 70 mm)
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Dr. S. G. Patil
 Selection of Foundations

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• The selection of a particular type of foundation is often based on a number of
factors, such as:

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1. Adequate depth. The foundation must have an adequate depth to prevent
frost damage. For such foundations as bridge piers, the depth of the

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foundation must be sufficient to prevent undermining by scour.
2. Bearing capacity failure. The foundation must be safe against a bearing

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capacity failure.
3. Settlement. The foundation must not settle to such an extent that it

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damages the structure.

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4. Quality. The foundation must be of adequate quality so that it is not
subjected to deterioration, such as from sulfate attack.
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5. Adequate strength. The foundation must be designed with sufficient strength
that it does not fracture or break apart under the applied superstructure
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loads. The foundation must also be properly constructed in conformance
with the design specifications.
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6. Adverse soil changes. The foundation must be able to resist long-term

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adverse soil changes. An example is expansive soil, which could expand or

shrink causing movement of the foundation and damage to the structure.
7. Seismic forces. The foundation must be able to support the structure during
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an earthquake without excessive settlement or lateral movement.

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Dr. S. G. Patil
 Selection of Foundations

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Source: Swami Saran Dr. S. G. Patil

Computation of Loads

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• A structure may be subjected to a combination of some or all the following
loads and forces:

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(a) Dead load : It includes the weight of the structure and all material
permanently attached to it such as fire-proofing and air-conditioning systems. If

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the weight of the earth is directly supported by elements of the structure, it
should be considered as dead load.

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(b) Live load : It includes all vertical loads that are not a permanent part of the

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structure but are expected to superimpose on the structure during a part of

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Its useful life. Human occupancy, partition walls, furniture, warehouse goods
and mechanical equipment are major live loads.

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(c) Wind load : It acts on all the exposed areas of the structure. The relationship
between wind pressure and velocity is
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p = k V 2 where p is the pressure, V the velocity and k is coefficient, the
value of which depends on a number of factors, such as the wind speed, the
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type, proportion and shape of structure and the temperature of air.

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(d) Seismic Force : As per IS 1893 (Part I )-2002, for the purpose of determining
seismic forces,
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Dr. S. G. Patil
Design Concepts: Limit States Design and Working Stress Design

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A. Limit States Design:
• A limit state is a set of conditions to be avoided.

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• There are two types of limit states: serviceability and ultimate limit states. A
structure is said to be serviceable if it performs as intended without requiring

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significant unexpected repair or maintenance.
• A serviceability limit state, therefore. is any set of events associated with failure of

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the structure to perform its intended function. A residential building, for example,
is serviceable if it does not settle excessively.

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• Very large, uneven settlements could also lead to an Ultimate Limit state. An

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ultimate limit state is associated with the concept of danger (or lack of safety)
and usually results from some type of serious structural damage that might lead
to partial or full structural collapse, usually preceded by the formation of
extensive, open cracks. D
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B.Working Stress Design: It is also called as allowable stress design (ASD)
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• It is based on the concept of the factor of safety. With respect to foundation

design, the method calls for determining a load that, if applied to the foundation
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element, would lead to an ultimate limit state. This load, which we will refer to as
the ultimate load Qult is then divided by the factor of safety FS. The resulting load
is called the allowable load Qa
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Qa = Qult /FS
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Dr. S. G. Patil
Design Concepts: Limit States Design and Working Stress Design

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Qd <= Qa
• Qd is the design load (or working load)., which are calculated by structural

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engineers as specified in the applicable code, usually as load combinations.

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• All load combinations typically include dead load (the load associated with
everything that is thought of as permanently attached to the structure) plus

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various combinations of live loads and other temporary loads (such as wind.
fluid. earth pressure and seismic loads).

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• Typical values of factor of safety used in foundation design range from 2 to 4,

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depending on a variety of factors, such as type and importance of the
supported structure, type of foundation. construction method and conditions,
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quality and quantity of subsurface investigation. and method of analysis.
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Dr. S. G. Patil
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Thank you

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Any Quations?
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