REMOVAL OF DIRTS FROM FABRICS OR SUBSTRATES

A SEMINAR REPORT

BY

TAIWO BUSAYO
FOS/20/21/267017

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR DEGREE OF SCIENCE (B. Sc) IN
CHEMISTRY

SUPERVISOR: PROF. A. K. ASIAGWU

FEBRUARY, 2024
 Abstract
Removal of dirt is one of the basic procedures in conservation. However, there is
considerable misunderstanding about the meaning of “cleaning” and even the nature of
“dirt”. In its simplest form, dirt can be simply “stuff in the wrong place”. For example, soil
is good in a farmer’s field but not good on your fabric or outfit. “Dirt” may be classified into
three broad categories – soiling: staining and corrosion. Soiling may be considered as solid
particulate matter sitting on (or bonded to the surface of an object, whereas staining occurs
when liquid matter (such as oil, coffee, or ink) is carried into a porous substrate by capillary
action, darkening or discolouring the surface. Corrosion is a special case in which the
original composition of the surface is altered by chemical processes – either external
processes or internal processes. Often, “dirty” surfaces are a combination of two, or all three
of these processes. The dirt removal method is usually determined by the type of dirt but
can be again roughly divided into four categories – mechanical cleaning, wet cleaning,
chemical cleaning and chemical modification of the altered (corroded) surface. In this paper,
types of fabrics and mechanisms involved in the removal of stain was discussed.
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Stain removal is the process of removing a mark or spot left by one substance on a specific
surface like a fabric or substrate. A solvent or detergent is generally used to
conduct stain removal and many of these are available over the counter. Most stains are
removed by dissolving them with a solvent. The solvent to use is dependent on two factors:
the agent that is causing the stain, and the material that has been stained. Different solvents
will dissolve different stains, and the application of some solvents is limited by the fact that
they not only dissolve the stain, but also dissolve the material that is stained as well. Hearst
Magazines (1973). Another factor in stain removal is the fact that stains can sometimes
comprise two separate staining agents, which require separate forms of removal. A machine
oil stain could also contain traces of metal, for example. Hearst Magazines (1973). Also of
concern is the color of the material that is stained. Some stain removal agents will not only
dissolve the stain but will dissolve the dye that is used to color the material.

1.2 AIM

The aim of this study is to discuss the removal of dirt from fabrics of substrate.

1.3 SUBSTRATE

Substrates are the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the surface or medium
on which an organism grows or is attached. It is also the reactant which is consumed during
a catalytic or enzymatic reaction.

1.4 FABRIC
A "fabric" is defined as any thin, flexible material made from yarn, directly from fibers,
polymeric film, foam, or any combination of these techniques. Fabric has a broader
application than cloth. Merriam-Webster (Retrieved 2024-02-10) Fabric is synonymous
with cloth, material, goods, or piece of goods. Elsasser, Virginia Hencken (2005). Fiber is
the smallest component of a fabric; fibers are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to
manufacture fabrics. Fiber has a hair-like appearance and a higher length-to-width ratio.
The sources of fibers may be natural, synthetic, or both. The techniques
of felting and bonding directly transform fibers into fabric. In other cases, yarns are
manipulated with different fabric manufacturing systems to produce various fabric
constructions. The fibers are twisted or laid out to make a long, continuous strand of yarn.
Kadolph, Sara J. (1998). Yarns are then used to make different kinds of fabric by weaving,
knitting, crocheting, knotting, tatting, or braiding.

1.5 TYPES OF FABRICS

This seminar paper focuses on few of the popular types of fabrics that may find on the
market, how they are made, their properties, and what garment styles they might be suitable
for.

The broad fabric categories of fabrics include:

1.5.1. COTTON

This is the most common natural fibre. Cotton is a soft fibre from the cotton plant. Cotton
goes through a special cleaning process called ginning, which separates the cotton balls from
the rest of the plant. These cotton fibres get spun into a yarn and then made into different
types of fabrics. Because cotton is incredibly versatile, it can be made into woven and knit
fabrics.

Since cotton is so versatile, it can be made into lots of different fabric types. Poplin, denim,
corduroy, toweling, muslin, gauze, voile, sateen, jersey, canvas, and calico are common
types of cotton fabric.

1.5.2. LINEN

This is one of the oldest fabrics in the world. Linen has been known to be a luxury fabric
for centuries. Linen is a lush, natural fabric made from the Flax plant. Flax is incredibly
strong, even more so than cotton. It has a beautiful drape and silky look. You may have
noticed its current boom in the current fashion industry.

Dresses, blouses, shirts, tops, pants, bedsheets, duvets, tote bags and lots more are made
from linen.

1.5.3. SILK

Silk is an expensive, high-end, lush material. The fibres of silk fabric come from the cocoons
of silkworms which synthetic fibres can’t replicate. Silk clothing is expensive which is why
they might be seen in higher-end designer stores.

1.5.4. WOOL

This natural fibre is made from animal hair. The wool fibres come from sheep, alpacas,
goats, and llamas. The wool may be softer or higher quality, depending on the breed. Merino
is fine luxury wool that comes from the merino sheep.

Wool is used to make knitted jumpers, sweaters, and cardigans. It can also be made into
woven fabrics like tweed, tartans, houndstooth, crepe, or flannel. These fabrics are used to
make suits, dresses, or blazers. Coco Chanel’s classic jacket is made from wool tweed.

Some wool garments can be itchy depending on the type of fabric. Wool materials like
merino and cashmere are soft and buttery. Tweeds, houndstooth or plaid fabrics can be
scratchy.

1.5.5. POLYESTER

Polyester has been the most popular synthetic fabric on the market since the 1950s. It is
made from oil or plastic and is a low-cost material, making it popular in fast fashion.
PET is a type of polyester fabric that is made from recycled plastic bottles or packaging.
Many companies are greenwashing PET into being a “sustainable fibre” because it uses
recycled materials.

Like cotton, polyester has many different types of forms. It can be blended with natural
fibres to help add durability and strength. For example, wool polyester blend sweaters are
commonly found on the market today.

Chiffon, crepe, crepe de chine, PET, and lace are common types of polyester fabric. It is
versatile, so it can be made into lots of fabrics. Since it’s so cheap to make, you will notice
that other sewing materials, like zip tapes and threads, are made from polyester.

Polyester fabrics can be made into any sort of clothing like sportswear, lingerie, swimwear,
baby clothing, suits, coats, and even shoes. Homewares can also be made from polyester
fabrics like furnishings, cushions, sheets, and towels.

1.5.6. RAYON

Rayon or viscose rayon is a lovely soft fabric from wood pulp. It isn’t classed as a natural
fibre because it needs to be converted into a fibre artificially.

1.5.7. HEMP

A natural fibre, hemp is made from the hemp plant. Hemp is a great plant that doesn’t require
pesticides and grows quickly. It is super strong, making it a good fabric for bags, rut sacks,
and heavy-duty clothing items like pants or jackets.

Hemp can be considered a rougher, linen-like fabric, it can be made into delicate laces or
silky fabrics.

1.6 SOLVENTS
A solvent (from the Latin solvō, "loosen, untie, solve") is a substance that dissolves a solute,
resulting in a solution. A solvent is usually a liquid but can also be a solid, a gas, or
a supercritical fluid. Water is a solvent for polar molecules, and the most common solvent
used by living things; all the ions and proteins in a cell are dissolved in water within the cell.
Major uses of solvents are in stain removal, production of paints, paint removers, inks, and
dry cleaning. Stoye, Dieter (2000).
These are some of the solvents that can be used for stains, with some examples of the stains
that they can remove. Georgene Muller Lockwood (2002).
Oxidizing solvents: Household bleach generally removes a stain's colour, without dissolving
the stain itself. Hydrogen peroxide is also a bleaching agent that can be used to treat stains.
Georgene Muller Lockwood (2002). Sodium perchlorate is a bleach alternative.
Reducing solvents: Sodium hydrosulphite and sodium hypochlorite normally used for
removing stain and dyes colors.
Lacquer solvents: Acetone is good for removing some glues, nail polish, ink stains, rubber
cement, and grease. Nail polish remover may contain acetone, however for general use it is
best to obtain bottled acetone from a hardware store. It can be diluted with water. Jeff
Bredenberg (2000).
Inert solvents: Inert solvents are those that do not react with anything in the stain. Water for
example can be considered as an inert solvent for some kinds of stains. In this case
dissolving the stain is not a chemical reaction but a physical process.
1.7 DETERGENT

A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleansing properties when

in dilute solutions. There are a large variety of detergents, a common family being
the alkylbenzene sulfonates, which are soap-like compounds that are more soluble in hard
water, because the polar sulfonate (of detergents) is less likely than the polar carboxylate (of
soap) to bind to calcium and other ions found in hard water. In domestic contexts, the
term detergent refers to household cleaning products such as laundry detergent or dish
detergent, which are in fact complex mixtures of different compounds, not all of which are
by themselves detergents

One of the largest applications of detergents is for household and shop cleaning
including dish washing and washing laundry. These detergents are commonly available as
powders or concentrated solutions, and the formulations of these detergents are often
complex mixtures of a variety of chemicals aside from surfactants, reflecting the diverse
demands of the application and the highly competitive consumer market. Middelhauve,
Birgit (2003). An average washing powder (detergent) contains between 9 and 17
ingredients, both solid and liquid ones.

Display of various chemical ingredients required for detergent manufacturing by STPP

Group

1.8 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION/FORMULA OF DETERGENT

A common soap is based on fatty acids and made functional by a combination of different
molecules. While a hydrophilic soap molecule is attracted to water, the hydrophobic end of
the molecule is drawn to the fat in the dirt.
The problem occurs in hard water – its minerals react with soap to form an insoluble curd.
Known as precipitate, it leaves visible deposits on fabrics, making it stiff and unappealing.

Hydrocarbons used in soap typically have a plant or animal origin, while those used in
powder detergent can be acquired from crude oil.

Combining them with sulfuric acid results in a molecule like the fatty acids in soap. Adding
alkali to the mix produces a surfactant molecule.

1.9 DETERGENT POWDER INGREDIENTS EXPLAINED

Modern powder detergent formulas comprise several different types of ingredients. Each
ingredient has its specific role, while many support each other to make the most out of the
formula’s properties.

1.10 BUILDERS

Builders are the ultimate component of any detergent base powder. They enhance the
efficiency of the surfactant, while also affecting minerals in hard water to prevent
precipitation.

Apart from that, builders can emulsify fat, turning it into washable tiny globules. Builders
such as sodium silicate do even more – they can prevent corrosion inside washing
machines, ensuring that the formula is safe to use.

Alkaline builders are, essentially, soluble salts that neutralize acids. Combined with
surfactants, they make a base of laundry detergent suitable for stain removal.

However, other ingredients are needed to turn the basic power into a superpower. Modern
detergents typically contain medium strength STPP (sodium tripolyphosphate) as a
well-balanced, versatile builder.
But, potent components such as caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) or caustic potash
(potassium hydroxide) can also be found in formulas.

A sample of Sodium Tripolyphosphate powder by STPP Group

1.11 SURFACTANTS

Surfactants – or foamers – such as LABSA (Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulphonic Acid) are
added to alkalies as a second principal component to promote their washing ability.
 Sample of Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulphonic Acid in a glass vial by STPP Group

Their key role is to enhance the formula’s foaming ability. However, surfactants also work
to break up stains further, disbanding the components that don’t dissolve in water easily.

Anionic surfactants don’t always perform well in hard water and need to be supported with
a non-ionic surfactant to maximize detergent powder’s cleaning action.

• One of the most common surfactants on the market is powerful SLES (Sodium
Lauryl Ether Sulfate). It’s also one of the few anionic surfactants that lose almost
nothing of effectiveness in hard water.
• Alpha olefin sulfonate (AOS) is a mild anionic surfactant, characterized by high-
foaming and strong emulsifying properties, with a decent performance against
minerals.
• Fatty Alcohol Polyoxyethylene Ether (AEO 9) belongs to a relatively new
generation of multi-functional surfactants with excellent efficiency. It’s great for
more sensitive fabrics such as Tencel and viscose.
• Cocamidopropyl Betaine (CAB) is a liquid amphoteric surfactant. It’s a sulfate-
free agent with excellent cleaning and foaming properties, suitable for use as both a
 primary and secondary surfactant. In addition, it’s an affordable multitasker that can
replace harsher anionic agents.
• Cocamide diethanolamine (CDA) is one of the gentle, non-ionic surfactants with
good stabilizing and conditioning properties.
1.13 ENZYMES

Next, come the enzymes. Catalytic enzymes changed the laundry detergent industry
forever.

These components give the powder detergent its superpowers, targeting particular soils and
breaking them into smaller molecules to be washed away easily.

While different detergent enzymes provide each their own benefits, they all shorten washing
time and deliver good results in lower temperatures.

Proteases were the pioneers, the first to be used in mass production.

Lipases and amylases soon followed, paving the road to a whole new generation of enzymes
for future washing detergents.

Today, industrial biotechnology generates improved, eco-friendly, industrial-strength

laundry detergents with excellent sustainability.

1.14 OTHER SUPPORTING INGREDIENTS

A range of various pH modifiers, optical brighteners, and other supporting ingredients

serves to perfect the formula.

Components like antiredeposition agents serve to prevent soils from settling back on washed
clothes. Suds control agents play another vital role in detergents, preventing surfactants from
causing problems with a washing machine.
Colorful speckles – brightening agents are visual enhancers, while oxygen bleaches
improve the detergency of the mixture.

Samples of Colorful Speckles by STPP Group

Finally, processing aids such as sodium sulfate are added to prevent caking and standardize
product density.

Perfumes or fragrances are primarily used to cover chemical scents and dirt odors. Each
supporting ingredient adds or enhances specific properties and defines a unique product.

1.15 THE SCIENCE OF DIRT REMOVAL

Soap and detergent are substances that, when dissolved in water possess the ability to
remove dirt from the surfaces such as human body, textiles, and other solid surfaces. Both
serve the same purpose which is cleansing; however, they are significantly different.
There are several factors based on which soap and detergents can be differentiated. Some of
the major differentiators include composition, structure, uses, and properties.

1.16 SOAP VS DETERGENT

Soaps Detergents

Detergents are usually made of

Soap is a sodium or potassium salt of a carboxylic sodium or potassium salts of long
acid that is accompanied by a long aliphatic chain alkyl chains that end with a
sulfonate group

They are produced using natural ingredients They are produced using synthetic
(animal fats or vegetable oils) products (petroleum fractions)

They have –COONa group They have –SO3Na group

Not all detergents are

Soaps are biodegradable
biodegradable

They work well with woolen

They do not work well with woolen garments
garments

Detergents do not form precipitates

Soaps form precipitates in acidic water
in acidic water

Detergents take less time to be

They take time to be dissolved in water
dissolved in water

Detergents forms lather properly in

Soaps form less lather in hard water
hard water
 We mostly use soaps for washing hands, our Detergents are often used for
bodies, and kitchen utensils laundry and cleaning homes

Soaps are cheap Detergents are expensive

Examples of detergents are sodium

Examples of soaps are sodium stearate, sodium
lauryl sulphate (SLS) and sodium
palmitate
dodecylbenzene sulphonate (SDS)

1.17 MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOAP AND DETERGENT

1. DEFINITION

Soap is a sodium or potassium salt of a carboxylic acid that is attached to a long aliphatic
chain whereas detergents are usually made of sodium salts of long alkyl chains that
terminate with a sulfonate group.

2. COMPOSITION AND MAKING

Soaps are made by mixing fats and oils with an alkali or base. They have been around for
hundreds of years. Initially, they were made using ashes with animal fats. In order to produce
superior quality soaps, nowadays, palm, castor, coconut, and olive oils are used in soap
making.

On the other hand, detergents are either sodium salt of alkyl hydrogen sulfates or sodium
salt of long-chain alkyl benzene sulphonic acids. Like soaps, they contain both ionic groups
and nonionic groups. Sulphonate groups or sulfate groups are ionic and long-chain
hydrocarbons are the nonionic groups. For example, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), sodium
dodecylbenzene sulphonate (SDS).
3. GENERAL FORMULA

The general formula of detergents is (R-SO3–Na+) and soaps is (R-(C=O)O–Na+). An

example of both these chemical reagents is given below:

4. PROPERTIES

Some of the differentiating properties between soaps and detergents are:

• Detergents are made from synthetic products whereas soaps are made from natural
products.
• Soaps are biodegradable and hence, they do not add to the pollution. Some detergents
may not be biodegradable.
• Detergents can be used in hard water, whereas soaps cannot be used as they do not
form lather in hard water.
• Soaps cannot be used in an acidic medium whereas detergents can work in the acidic
medium. Being the salts of strong acids, detergents do not decompose in the acidic
medium.
• Soaps are not as much soluble in water as detergents.
• Detergents have stronger cleaning action than soaps.

5. EXAMPLES

Examples of soaps are:

 • Sodium palmitate and
• Sodium stearate
• Sodium maleate, etc

Examples of detergents are:

• Deoxycholic acid
• Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS)
• Sodium dodecyl sulphonate (SDS)
• Lauric acid diethanolamine
• Sodium lauryl sulfate, etc

6. DISADVANTAGES

Disadvantages of soaps:

• Soaps do not form enough lather in hard water. Calcium, magnesium, or iron ions
present in hard water precipitate out and thus, limit soap’s cleansing effect.
• Some soaps are unsuitable for fabrics such as silks, wool, and other natural fibers.
This is because the alkalis in them damage the fiber.
• Soaps cannot be used for cleaning if the water is slightly acidic as they are converted
to carboxylic acid in the acid media.

Disadvantages of detergents:

• Some of the detergents may be non-biodegradable. This means it could add to our
earth’s pollution.
• Detergents produce stable foams in river waters and thus, become a danger to
aquatic/marine life.
• They tend to inhibit the oxidation of organic substances present in wastewaters
because they form envelopes around them.
Mechanism of Action of Soap and Detergent
Soaps and detergents are made from long molecules containing essentially two parts. The
head of the molecule is attracted to water (hydrophilic) and the tail is attracted to grease and
dirt (hydrophobic). When the detergent or soap molecules meet grease on clothes, the tails
are drawn into the grease, but the heads still sit in the water.

The attractive forces between the head groups and the water are so strong that the grease is
lifted away from the surface. The blob of grease is now surrounded by detergent molecules
and is broken into smaller pieces that are washed away by the water. Detergents have an
extra substance in it called sodium zeolite A, which takes up the calcium and magnesium
ions out of hard water. This means they first soften the water and then perform the cleaning
action. Laundry detergent is formulated to clean fabrics by removing dirt, stains, oil, sweat,
and other debris. Whereas, fabric softener is designed to reinforce, protect, and soften your
clothes, keeping them in good condition throughout multiple items of washing.

The pH is the most important aspect for efficient cleaning. Fat and protein stains tend to be
very sticky, and at higher pH, they get more dispersed and will be easier to remove in a
water rich formulation. So, in all cleaning, you will have a buffer system that helps to get
the right pH to address the cleaning that you need, Lars says.

The main ingredient of a cleaning product is surfactants.

Surfactant molecules have a hydrophilic part and a hydrophobic one. The hydrophobic end
does not like water and will interact with the soil, whereas the hydrophilic end stays in the
water phase. This means that surfactants can lift soil from the surface and into the water
phase of the cleaning solution, Lars explains. For example, fat on a textile surface can be
removed this way, Lars explains. The surfactant will help disperse and remove soil and
suspend them and keep them in the washing solution.
The builder system makes the aquatic solution just right Talking about builders, this takes
us back to the importance of the pH. Builders are chemicals that are added to modify the
water solution. They do that by modifying the pH, typically driving the pH up if you desire
to remove fat or protein. You can, however, also drive it down if you want to remove soils
that are easier to remove in low pH, like rust or wine. So, it depends a bit on what the purpose
is with your cleaning system, Lars says. You can optimize the cleaning product one way or
the other, but either way, these builder systems will help you build the right aquatic solutions
and to get the right pH.

The builder system also helps you get the right water hardness. Most consumers use tap
water. The water hardness of tap water varies geographically, from household to household
and from country to country. To get the same cleaning efficiency no matter where you live,
the water hardness needs to be corrected for, and this is the task of the buffer system – it
will capture the ions in the water so that you get the same benefit from the surfactants no
matter where you get the water from.

Bleach makes colored stains invisible. Bleach is typically percarbonate, it can go in and
react with colored components. If you look at most of the colored stains that we have in a
consumer setting, it could be red wine, tea, and coffee. If you zoom in on how the colored
molecules look, they will have some double bonds between their carbon atoms. These
double bonds are what trap the light and radiate it in a different direction and that is what
you want to prevent, Lars explains. Therefore, if you want to remove those stains you need
to break the bonds so that they do not radiate the color that you have coming in. This means
that the molecule is still there, but it is no longer reflecting that particular wavelength, and
that is why you cannot see it.

Perfume provides a sense of cleanliness. Most consumers expect a sensorial experience

when they do cleaning, Lars says. And that goes for all sorts of surface cleaning, i.e. laundry,
dishwashing, floor cleaning. It needs to smell like the cleaning process has been effective.
There are a few different ways that this perfume should interact with the consumer. The first
occasion, and probably the most important one, is in the supermarket when the consumer
will smell the bottle. A common practice by the consumer is to select the smell they prefer
already in the store. Therefore, you would like a perfume that stands out already in the bottle
format. You also want something that smells good right after the use, when you just have
completed for example your laundry. The consumer also wants to experience the same
fragrance sensation when they start wearing the clothes.

Polymers play lots of different roles. In a cleaning solution there are typically lots of
different polymers special benefits, Lars says. For example, there are anti-redeposition
polymers. These are long molecules that can grab dirt and prevent it from redepositing at
the surface. For example, when you wash dirt out of your clothes, then the removed dirt will
not redeposit on other garments in your wash. Then you have soil release polymers. These
are polymers that will stick to your clothes. The next time you wear your clothes and get
dirt on them, the dirt will stick to these polymers, and when you wash your clothes, you will
wash off the polymer and the dirt will follow. Another type of polymer is used in automatic
dishwash, where you have polymers that help the drying of glass.

Enzymes make the job easier for the surfactants. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze a certain
chemical reaction. For example, when you eat, your body will release protease that will cut
the protein into amino acids. You also have amylases cutting the starch into sugar, and the
fat in your food will be digested by lipase which cut the fat into free fatty acids. The resulting
molecules are much smaller than the original ones and can be absorbed into the blood and
travel around in the body. This same process is being utilized in cleaning products; Lars
explains. Enzymes are used to cut the molecules in the food-based soils into smaller pieces
which make them easier to be removed by surfactants and to wash off. It is much easier for
surfactants to lift small molecules from the surface than to lift large ones, so you can say
that the enzymes and surfactants work like a team.
1.19 CONCLUSION

Fabric based textile products are exposed to various external factors during exploitation
period. One of the most common significant influence factors is washing (removal of dirt).
This paper researched the mechanism of stain removal as well as the types of fabrics and
substrates which can be stained.
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