Introduction and Basics of Dyeing Textiles

Dyeing in textiles is a process in which color is transferred to a finished textile or textile

material (like fibers and yarns) to add permanent and long-lasting color. It can be done
by hand or by machine. Dyes can come as powders, crystals, pastes or liquid
dispersions, and they dissolve completely in an aqueous solution like water. When the
textile and the dye come into contact, the textile is completely saturated by the dye and
colored.
But what's the difference between paint and dye? Paint is a complex substance and
when you use it, you're usually coating the surface of something. Unlike paint, dyes
actually change the crystal structure of substances. The details involve a long chemistry
discussion, but what you really need to understand is that dyes are more saturating and
more permanent. This is important because you want the fabric color to last through
many wearings and washings. And yes, most dyed textile material is used to make
clothing.
Humans have been dyeing textile for a very, very long time, and in fact, scholars find
early mention of dyeing textiles as far back as 2600 BC! Dyeing can be done at any
stage of the manufacturing process. Makers don't have to wait until the whole cloth has
been made in order to dye it.

Types of Dyes
Before we discuss some dye types, you should know that there are many different types of dyes
and we're only going to discuss a few of them. Now, let's review two primary categories before
moving on to dye types. Natural dyes come from sources like plants, minerals and animals.
They have a long history but aren't used much for commercial textiles anymore. You will find
artists and craftspeople using them for hand-made products and for traditional
crafts. Synthetic dyes, made in a laboratory, are chemicals often derived from sources like coal
tar or petroleum-based substances.
 Examples of wool skeins colored with natural dyes

Basic dye dissolves in water and requires a mordant, a chemical that forms a bond with the dye
to make it insoluble, which means the color stays on the textile when it's rinsed following
dyeing. This process tends to be used with fabrics like nylon and polyester. Direct dyes, on the
other hand, don't require a mordant, and they are used to dye natural fibers like wool, cotton, and
silk. Then there are vat dyes, made of materials like indigo, a plant that provides a deep blue
color and is one of the oldest natural dyes. Substances used in vat dyes must be first treated with
a liquid alkaline substance (something that reduces acid) to allow them to be used as a dye.
 Example of someone hand-drying textiles

Methods of Dyeing
There are many ways to dye textile materials. In most dyeing processes, water is used with the
dye and other additives to affix color to textiles. When the textile is rinsed, the color stays. A dye
may also be pressed into a fabric through a thick paste, or the textile material may be immersed
into a dye vat or tub. Sometimes dyeing textiles requires high temperatures and some synthetics
like polyester dye more easily at temperatures above 100 degrees. But why there are so many
different kinds of dyes and ways to use them? Because no kind of dye effectively colors all
natural and synthetic textiles. Different dyes and dyeing processes work best on different
materials. Now let's explore a few processes.
 Finished textiles coming out of a textile dyeing machine

Coloring Textiles
Think about the last time you walked to your closet and picked out your clothes. What
color were you drawn to? Did you reach for a blue shirt, a red shirt, or one that was
yellow and pink striped? Whatever color you chose, the point is, you had many options.
Colors are a great way to represent who we are, what mood we are in, they even serve
as a way to brighten our day. But, not all of our clothes start out colored. You see, there
is a process that occurs that makes our clothes the color(s) they are long before they
end up in our closets. In this lesson we will learn all about the textile dyeing industry and
the many ways textiles are dyed.

What is Dyeing?
Before we discuss the methods of dyeing, let's explain how the process
works. Dyeing is what happens when different colors and shades of colors are applied
to fabric. The fabric is dyed during a variety of stages of manufacturing such as dyeing
the fiber or strings of yarn before it becomes an article of clothing, or dyeing pieces of
fabric before it is sewn into a finished product. And, dyeing can even occur after the
product is completely finished. The success of the dyeing process all relies on the type
of dye chosen for each piece of fabric, and the method that is chosen for the fabric,
yarn, or even the fiber. There are many types of dyes that can be used and there are
even more processes that can be chosen as well.

Categories of Dyes
There are many different types of dyes that can be used for fabrics. But, there are two
main categories of dyes that the textile industry can choose
from; natural and synthetic. Natural dyes are just that, those that occur naturally and
are taken from things like animals, plants, or even minerals. Natural dyes are not man
made. Unlike natural dyes, synthetic dyes are created using chemicals in a lab.

Types of Dyes
We can break down the types of dyes even further then natural and synthetic. Let's take
a look at some more popular types of dyes.
1. Basic- These are water soluble and in its most basic composition, they are used for
acrylic
fibers.
2. Direct-Direct dyes are not very bright and are used when dyeing fabrics like wool,
silk, and even cotton.
3. Mordant- When Mordant dyes are used, other chemicals are added so that the color
binds better to the clothing. The major type of fabric used for mordant dyes is wool.
4. Vat-This type of dye requires alkaline solution. Without the alkaline solution these
dyes cannot dye fabrics. Cotton is one of the major fabric used with this type of dye
because it can be done very quickly.
 5. Reactive- These dyes need a reactive process like adding alkaline solution or heat for
the color to set in.
Other types of dyes include disperse, sulfur and pigment dyes

TEXTILE PROCESSING
The textile processing house has all open-width machines for mercerizing, dyeing, pre-shrinking/
compacting for knitted and woven fabrics. For environmental safety, there are effluent treatment plants to
treat the discharged water from processing house. The dye house consists of two sections woven fabric
dye house and knit dyeing unit besides a lab.

SPECIAL FINISHES
 High Visibility
 Flame Retardant
 Electro conductivity
 Moisture management
 Anti static/ Anti bacterial/ Anti acid
 Stain guard
 Soil release
 Water repellant
 Enzyme wash
 Mechanical finishes

WOVEN FABRIC DYE HOUSE

 Osthoff singeing and desizing
 Kuster continuous bleaching
 Kuster mercerising machines
 Monforts thermex E-control dyeing range
 Kuster continuous washing machine
 Bruckner stenters
 Ranson sanforising machine
 Ceramic and aluminum wire raising brushing machines
 Unitech Peacher machine.
 Benninger Padding
 Imperon Motex Stenter with coating attachments
 Menzle Ammonia Curring for PROVAN
 KNIT DYEING UNIT
 Erbatech continuous bleaching
 Monfort relax dryer
 Erbatech Padder
 Erbatech washing machines
 Bruckner stenter
 Bruckner compactor
 Sclavos HTHP soft flow machines for exhaust and polyester blends dyeing
 Fong’s HTHP sample dyeing machine

LABORATORY
 Spectrophotometer - Data Color 800 Computer color matching system
 Mathis - Multi-purpose
 Abrasion Cum-Pilling Tester
 Digital Pilling Tester
 Tear Tester
 Direct Yarn Counting Balance
 Horizontal Lab Padding Mangle
 Digital PH Meter
 Ranin Electronic pipette
 Infra Colour Dyeing Machine - Exhaust
 Lab Stenter - Drying & Curring Chamber
 Washing machines & Tumble dryers
 Atlas Auto Flammability tester
 Oven - Temperature Controller
 Digital Washing Fastness Tester
 Digital Crockmeter
Dyeing
The process of applying color to fiber stock, yarn or fabric is called dyeing." There may or may not be
thorough penetration of the colorant into the fibers or yarns.

Dyes can be used on vegetable, animal or man made fibers only if they have affinity to them. Textile
dyes include acid dyes, used mainly for dyeing wool, silk and nylon and direct or substantive dyes,
which have a strong affinity for cellulose fibers. Mordant dyes require the addition of chemical
substances, such as salts to give them an affinity for the material being dyed. They are applied to
cellulose fibers, wool or silk after such materials have been treated with metal salts. Sulfur dyes, used
to dye cellulose, are inexpensive, but produce colors lacking brilliance. Azoic dyes are insoluble
pigments formed within the fiber by padding, first with a soluble coupling compound and then with a
diazotized base. Vat dyes, insoluble in water, are converted into soluble colorless compounds by
means of alkaline sodium hydrosulfite. These colorless compounds are absorbed by the cellulose,
which are subsequently oxidized to an insoluble pigment. Such dyes are colorfast. Disperse dyes are
suspensions of finely divided insoluble, organic pigments used to dye such hydrophobic fibers as
polyesters, nylon and cellulose acetates.

Reactive dyes combine directly with the fiber, resulting in excellent colorfastness. The first ranges of
reactive dyes for cellulose fibers were introduced in the mid-1950. Today, a wide variety is available.

Methods of Dyeing:

1) Bale Dyeing: This is a low cost method to dye cotton cloth. The material is sent without scouring
or singeing, through a cold water bath where the sized warp has affinity for the dye. Imitation
chambray and comparable fabrics are often dyed this way.

2) Batik Dyeing: This is one of the oldest forms known to man. It originated in Java. Portions of
the fabric are coated with wax so that only un-waxed areas will take on the dye matter. The operation
may be repeated several times and several colors may used for the bizarre effects. Motifs show a
mlange, mottled or streaked effect, imitated in machine printing.

3) Beam Dyeing: In this method the warp is dyed prior to weaving. It is wound onto a perforated
beam and the dye is forced through the perforations thereby saturating the yarn with color.
4) Burl or speck Dyeing: This is done mostly on woolens or worsteds, colored specks and
blemishes are covered by the use of special colored links which come in many colors and shades. It is
a hand operation.

5) Chain Dyeing: This is used when yarns and cloth are low in tensile strength. Several cuts or
pieces of cloth are tacked end-to-end and run through in a continuous chain in the dye color. This
method affords high production.

6) Cross Dyeing: This is a very popular method in which varied color effects are obtained in the
one dye bath for a cloth which contains fibers with varying affinities for the dye used. For example, a
blue dyestuff might give nylon 6 a dark blue shade, nylon 6, 6 a light blue shade, and have no affinity
for polyester area unscathed or white.

7) Jig Dyeing: This is done in a jig, kier, vat, beck or vessel in an open formation of the goods. The
fabric goes from one roller to another through a deep dye bath until the desired shade is achieved.

8) Piece Dyeing: The dyeing of fabrics in the cut, bolt or piece form is called piece dyeing. It
follows the weaving of the goods and provides a single color for the material, such as blue serge, a
green organdy.

9) Random Dyeing: Coloring only certain designated portions of the yarn. There are three ways of
doing this type of coloring:

Skeins may be tightly dyed in two or more places and dyed at one side of the dye with one color and
at the other side with another one. Color may be printed onto the skeins which are spread out on the
blanket fabric of the printing machine.

Dyeing

Most forms of textile materials can be dyed at almost any stage.

Quality woollen goods are frequently dyed in the form of loose fibre,
but top dyeing or cheese dyeing is favoured in treating worsteds.
Manufacturers prefer piece dyeing, which allows stocking of white
goods, reducing the risk of being overstocked with cloth dyed in
colours that have not been ordered.
The dye used depends on the type of material and the specific
requirements to be met. For some purposes, high lightfastness is
essential; but for others it may be inconsequential. Factors
considered in dye selection include fastness to light, reaction to
washing and rubbing (crocking), and the cost of the dyeing process.
Effective preparation of the material for dyeing is essential.
Types of dyes

Textile dyes include acid dyes, used mainly for dyeing wool, silk, and
nylon; and direct or substantive dyes, which have a strong affinity for
cellulose fibres (see table). Mordant dyes require the addition of chemical
substances, such as salts, to give them an affinity for the material being
dyed. They are applied to cellulosic fibres, wool, or silk after such
materials have been treated with metal salts. Sulfur dyes, used to dye
cellulose, are inexpensive but produce colours lacking brilliance. Azoic
dyes are insoluble pigments formed within the fibre by padding, first with
a soluble coupling compound and then with a diazotized base. Vat dyes,
insoluble in water, are converted into soluble colourless compounds by
means of alkaline sodium hydrosulfite. Cellulose absorbs these colourless
compounds, which are subsequently oxidized to an insoluble pigment.
Such dyes are colourfast. Disperse dyes are suspensions of finely divided
insoluble, organic pigments used to dye such hydrophobic fibres as
polyesters, nylon, and cellulose acetates.
Fibres and dyes
fibres application classes

Natural fibres

Animal

Wool acid, basic, mordant, reactive, (solubilized vat)

wool blends (wool-cotton, wool-

acid, direct, mordant, reactive
viscose, etc.)

acid, basic, direct, mordant, (reactive),

Silk (solubilized vat)
 Fibres and dyes
Vegetable

azoic, basic, direct, mordant, oxidation, reactive,

Cotton sulfur, vat

acid, direct, (disperse), reactive, vat, solubilized

bast (linen, flax, hemp, jute, ramie) vat

Modified cellulose fibres

direct, mordant, pigment, reactive, sulfur, vat,

Viscose solubilized vat

secondary acetate disperse

Triacetate disperse

Synthetic fibres

polyamide (nylon, Perlon, Rilsan) acid, disperse, mordant, pigment, reactive

polyester (Dacron, Terylene) disperse, pigment

polyacrylonitrile (Acrilan, Courtelle,

basic, disperse, pigment
Orlon)

polyvinyl chloride (Envilon,

basic, disperse
Thermovyl)

polyolefines (Meraklon, Prolene) disperse

elastomers (Glospan, Lycra) acid, disperse, reactive, (wool), vat

Reactive dyes combine directly with the fibre, resulting in excellent
colourfastness. The first ranges of reactive dyes for cellulose fibres were
introduced in the mid-1950s. A wide variety is now available.
Charles S. Whewell
Application process

The dyeing of a textile fibre is carried out in a solution, generally aqueous,

known as the dye liquor or dyebath. For true dyeing (as opposed to mere
staining) to have taken place, the coloration must be relatively
permanent—that is, not readily removed by rinsing in water or by normal
washing procedures. Moreover, the dyeing must not fade rapidly on
exposure to light. The process of attachment of the dye molecule to the
fibre is one of absorption; that is, the dye molecules concentrate on the
fibre surface.

There are four kinds of forces by which dye molecules are bound to fibre:
(1) ionic forces, (2) hydrogen bonding, (3) van der Waals forces, and (4)
covalent chemical linkages. In the dyeing of wool, which is a complex
protein containing about 20 different α-amino acids, the sulfuric acidadded
to the dyebath forms ionic linkages with the amino groups of the protein.
In the process of dyeing, the sulfate anion (negative ion) is replaced by a
dye anion. In the dyeing of wool, silk, and synthetic fibres, hydrogen
bonds are probably set up between the azo, amino, alkylamino, and other
groups, and the amido -CO-NH-, groups. Van der Waals forces (the
attractive forces between the atoms or molecules of all substances) are
thought to act in the dyeing of cotton between the molecular units of the
fibre and the linear, extended molecules of direct dyes. Covalent chemical
links are brought about in the dyebath by chemical reaction between a
fibre-reactive dye molecule, one containing a chemically reactive centre,
and a hydroxy group of a cotton fibre, in the presence of alkali.
In any dyeing process, whatever the chemical class of dye being used, heat
must be supplied to the dyebath; energy is used in transferring dye
molecules from the solution to the fibre as well as in swelling the fibre to
render it more receptive. The technical term for the transfer process is
exhaustion. Evenness of dyeing, known as levelness, is an important
quality in the dyeing of all forms of natural and synthetic fibres. It may be
attained by control of dyeing conditions—that is, by agitation to ensure
proper contact between dye liquor and substance being dyed and by use of
restraining agents to control rate of dyeing, or strike.

Serious consideration has recently been given to methods of dyeing in

which water as the medium is replaced by solvents such as the chlorinated
hydrocarbons used in dry cleaning. There are a number of technical
advantages in solvent dyeing, apart from the elimination of effluent
(pollution) problems associated with conventional methods of dyeing and
finishing. Advantages include more rapid wetting of textiles, less swelling,
increased speed of dyeing per given amount of material, and savings in
energy, because less heat is required to heat or evaporate
perchloroethylene, for example, than is needed for water.
For each application the dyer selects the combination of dyes best suited to
the particular fibre or blend he plans to dye and best able to withstand the
conditions the textile will encounter in further processing and in use in the
finished article. In general, the higher the standard of fastness, the more
expensive the dye, and the final choice may be a compromise between the
desired fastness standards and the cost of the dyes. Fastness tests and
standards have been the subject of work by the American Association of
Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC), Europäisch-Continentale
Echtheitsconvention (ECE), and the Society of Dyers and Colourists
(SDC), Bradford, West Yorkshire. Efforts have been made to set up a
unified system by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Lightfastness is assessed on a scale of 8; 1 represents the poorest fastness
and 8 the best. Fastness to other agents, among them water, bleach, acid,
alkali, detergent solution, and perspiration, is measured on a scale of 5.
Dyes are generally used in combination to achieve a desired hue or fashion
shade. If the substance to be dyed consists of only one type of fibre, such
as wool, the dye mixture will be made up solely of wool dyes. But if the
fabric contains more than one kind of fibre and they differ in dyeing
properties, then mixtures of different application classes of dyes are used.

Forms in which textiles are dyed

Loose stock consists of randomly distributed wool or cotton fibres; tow is

the corresponding term for synthetic fibres. Sliver is a more orderly
arrangement of fibres in a loosely connected, continuous form suitable
for spinning. It is wound into either hanks or tops, loose balls about one
foot in diameter. After spinning, the yarn is either made up into hanks or
into packages weighing about two pounds each, by winding the yarn round
perforated metal tubes. The packages are curiously named, some according
to their shapes; for example, cones, cheeses, cakes, beams, and rockets.
Piece goods, woven cloth or textiles knitted in rope form, and garments, a
term that includes stockings, tights, hose, and half hose, are also dyed as
such.
Machinery and equipment

Modern dyeing machines are made from stainless steels. Steels containing
up to 4 percent molybdenum are favoured to withstand the acid conditions
that are common. A dyeing machine consists essentially of a vessel to
contain the dye liquor, provided with equipment for heating, cooling, and
circulating the liquor into and around the goods to be dyed or moving the
goods through the dye liquor. The kind of machine employed depends on
the nature of the goods to be dyed. Labour and energy costs are high in
relation to total dyeing costs; the dyer’s aim is to shorten dyeing times to
save steam and electrical powerand to avoid spoilage of goods.
A widely used machine is the conical-pan loose-stock machine; fibres are
held in an inner truncated-conical vessel while the hot dye liquor is
mechanically pumped through. The fibre mass tends to become
compressed in the upper narrow half of the cone, assisting efficient
circulation. Levelling problems are less important because uniformity may
be achieved by blending the dyed fibres prior to spinning.
The Hussong machine is the traditional apparatus; it has a long, square-
ended tank as dyebath into which a framework of poles carrying hanks can
be lowered. The dye liquor is circulated by an impeller and moves through
a perforated false bottom that also houses the open steam pipe for heating.
In modern machines, circulation is improved especially at the point of
contact between hank and pole. This leads to better levelling and
elimination of irregularities caused by uneven cooling.

In package-dyeing machines dye liquor may be pumped in either of two

directions: (1) through the perforated central spindle and outward through
the package, or (2) by the reverse path into the outer layers of the package
and out of the spindle. In either case levelness is important. In the case of
soluble dyes the dye liquor must be free of suspended matter. In the case of
disperse dyes, in which particles of dye are dispersed in, rather than
dissolved in, the solution, no gross aggregatescan be allowed; otherwise
the packages would retain undesirable solids on the outer and inner
surfaces. Some package-dyeing machines are capable of working under
pressure at temperatures up to 130 °C.
The winch is the oldest piece-dyeing machine and takes its name
from the slatted roller that moves an endless rope of cloth or
endless belt of cloth at full width through the dye liquor.
Pressurized-winch machines have been developed in the United
States. In an entirely new concept, the Gaston County jet machine
circulates fabric in rope form through a pipe by means of a high-
pressure jet of dye liquor. The jet machine is increasingly important
in high-temperature dyeing of synthetic fibres,
especially polyester fabrics.
Another machine, the jig, has a V-shaped trough holding the dye
liquor and guide rollers to carry the cloth at full width between two
external, powered rollers. The cloth is wound onto each roller
alternately; that is, the cloth is first moved forward, then backward,
through the dye liquor until dyeing is complete. Modern machines,
automatically controlled and programmed, can be built to work
under pressure.

Solutions or suspensions of colorants or their precursors may be

padded onto piece goods by passing the cloth through a trough
containing the liquor and then between rollers under pressure.
Development and fixation processes such as steaming or dry-heat
treatment can be carried out in other apparatus. The method is used
in semicontinuous and continuous operations.
Process Flow Chart/Sequence of Dyeing Lab
At first dyeing is performed in dyeing laboratory and then starting for bulk production. A lots of
work is done in the dyeing laboratory. In the dyeing lab, lab dip or sample is developed by the
dyeing master.Lab dip plays an important role in shade matching & this is an important task
before bulk production.

Fig: Dyeing lab

Process Sequence of Dyeing Lab:

Sample/Swatch/Panton no. / TCX no. / TPX no. from the buyer
↓
Determination of sample’s possible color combination by the help of Spectrophotometer or
manual
↓
Dispersion by autodoser
↓
Trial dyeing of first recipe
↓
Unload
↓
 Normal wash
↓
Hot wash with detergent
↓
Oven drying
↓
Ironing
↓
Shade matching in light box ( If Ok then send to buyer for approval)
↓
If not ok
↓
First correction takes from Spectrophotometer or manually
↓
Dispersion by autodoser
↓
Trial dyeing of first recipe
↓
Unload
↓
Normal wash
↓
Hot wash with detergent
↓
Oven drying
↓
Ironing
↓
Shade matching in light box ( If Ok then send to buyer for approval)
↓
If not ok
↓
Second correction takes from Spectrophotometer or manually
↓
Dispersion by auto doser
↓
Trial dyeing of first recipe
 ↓
Unload
↓
Normal wash
↓
Hot wash with detergent
↓
Oven drying
↓
Ironing
↓
Shade matching in light box
↓
If ok
↓
Send for buyer’s approval
↓
Bulk production by considering the buyer’s approved sample as standard

Note: This procedure is applicable for yarn or fabric dyeing

Textile Laboratory Tests | Advantages/Disadvantages of
Laboratory Tests
Laboratory Tests
The main purpose of laboratory tests is to obtain prior knowledge of the performance of textile
products in service. The assumption is made that when such tests are carried out, there is some
relationship between the results of the laboratory tests and the performance of the items in use. In
order to design laboratory testing procedures that correlate with end use performance the
conditions of actual use must be carefully analysed so that they can be simulated as closely as
possible in a controlled setting. Since actual wear is such a complex phenomenon, however,
laboratory tests are usually designed to evaluate only one or a limited number of variables at a
time.

Fig: Textile testing lab

Advantages of Laboratory Tests
1. They are rapid. Most tests can be completed within a day.
2. They are designed to give objective results. A numerical result or rating allows
one fabric to be ranked as being better or worse than another fabric even when the
differences between them are small.
3. The tests are under the direct control of the tester. This allows the conditions of test to be
exactly specified and factors other than those under test to be kept constant.
4. They can be reproduced. An identical test carried out on the same fabric should ideally give
the same result in any laboratory and with any operator.
Disadvantages of Laboratory Tests
1. Laboratory tests can only imitate wear conditions
2. For a complete evaluation of a fabric it is necessary to use a large range of expensive
equipment.
3. Laboratory tests are rapid because many of them aim to accelerate the natural causes of
wear. Speeding up a test may give false results, for example the continuous action of
abrasion tests may cause heating of the material which is not present in normal use.
The History of Textile Dyes
01/23/2015
A Bit of History

Long has it been since the industry of

textile products left behind its humble beginnings in natural dyes, but such
growth and expansion has only proven to strengthen this facet of the fabric
world.

Historically, dyes came from nature, with primary sources consisting of

animals or plants. The majority of these came from roots, berries, bark,
leaves, wood, and other organic, naturally occurring substances such as
fungi.

Archaeologists have even found evidence of textile dyeing going back to the
Neolithic period, otherwise known as the New Stone Age, which began
around 10,200 BC. In China, there is evidence that dyes were created from
insects, barks, and plants, beginning about 5,000 years ago.

These dyes, while effective, were rudimentary and

simplistic, often depicting ruddy colors (e.g., reds, browns, and oranges) that
faded with use. The more luxurious dyestuffs (substances that produce a dye)
which produced brilliant and permanent colors, such as the natural
invertebrate dyes, didn’t gain major popularity until the medieval era.

Around that same period, plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo, saffron, and
madder became important trade goods throughout Asia and Europe. Spanish
treasure fleets then introduced cochineal and logwood to Europe, thus
expanding the amount of available dye colors.

When Europe carried colonists to America, the dyes came with them. These
natural dyes continued to dominate the global textile market, until William
Perkin created mauveine (a rich synthetic purple) in 1856.

Then, in 1869, the red dye found in madder was the first natural pigment to be
synthetically duplicated, which began the steady decline of dyes produced
from natural sources.

The Process of Dyeing

Photo: Saco River Dyehouse

As with the dyestuffs themselves, the dyeing process was originally

rudimentary. Essentially, you would soak the material containing the dye in
water, then add the textile fabrics to the resulting solution and bring the water
to a simmer, often for days or weeks. This would release the dyestuff from
whatever organic material held the dye and attach it to the textile fabrics.
The problem was that much of the dyeing process was still experimental. Will
this material produce a color? Will that color soak into this fabric? How long
must it be simmered to achieve a result? How long will the result last?

And as one can guess, this created some strange concoctions, as Jill
Goodwin writes in the book A Dyer’s Manual:

“We shall never know by what chances primitive man discovered that salt,
vinegar from fermenting fruit, natural alum, and stale urine helped to fix and
enhance the colours [sic] of his yarns, but for many centuries these four
substances were used as mordants.”

(Mordants being “a substance, typically an inorganic oxide, that combines with

a dye or stain and thereby fixes it in a material.”)

Although disgusting, the barbaric origins of dyeing has led to the current state
of long-lasting and vibrant colors. From organic materials to synthetics,
today’s fabric world can thank yesterday’s experiments for doing all of the
strange and laborious work of dye exploration.
THE EVOLUTION OF TEXTILE DYES:
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

The use of dyes on textiles is widely used in different businesses. More than adding
color to everyday things, the use of dyes is also embraced by many industries in order
to minimize overhead costs and maximize existing business materials.

Dyes are indeed revolutionary for it adds color and a different perspective to most of the
things used in the home or in the workplace. But did you know that dyes have a long
history attached to them and their use dates back to ancient civilizations?

Let’s look at the evolution of using dyes and how it turned into a mega industry that we
all benefit from today.
The Early Beginnings of Dye Use
The use of dyes began thousands of years ago.

Some evidence show that textile dyeing dates back as early as the Neolithic Period or
New Stone Age, which took place around 10,200 BCE. Some data states that dyeing
was done more than 4,000 years ago because of the evidence of dyed fabrics found in
Egyptian tombs. Meanwhile, the use of black, white, yellow, and reddish pigments made
from ochre in cave painting were traced back as early as 15,000 BCE. During 7,200 to
2,000 BCE, the period when fixed settlements and textiles were being developed, dyes
were also used.

Natural Dyes
Dyes were originally derived from sources found in nature such as vegetables, plants,
trees, lichens, and insects. Dependence on natural dyes went on for a long time until
the 1850s.

Some of the natural dyes used in ancient times were indigo, alizarin, Tyrian purple,
yellow and logwood. Let’s look at each of them and see where they were derived from
and how they were developed.

 Indigo – Indigo was probably the oldest known natural dye. It was derived from the
leaves of dyer’s woad herb, isatis tinctoria, and from the indigo plant, indigofera tinctoria.

 Alizarin – Alizarin was a red dye extracted from the madder plant. Meanwhile, other red
shades were derived from scale insects such as kermes and coachineal.

 Tyrian Purple – Tyrian purple was extracted from the glands of snails. This type of dye
was quite elusive because experiments in 1909 found that only 1.4 grams of dye was
generated from 12,000 snails, which may be the reason why only people in power, high
office, or royalty such as kings and emperors had exclusive rights to wearing garments
dyed with this pigment, as documented in the Hebrew Bible and illustrated for Roman
emperors on mosaics in Ravenna.
When the Eastern Roman Empire declined in the 1450’s, the Mediterranean purple
industry eventually waned as well.

 Yellow – Yellow came from the leaves of weld, quercetin, and the bark of the North
American oak tree. Carotenoids, which are compounds present in green plants, also
produced yellow to red dyes.

 Logwood – Logwood is the only natural dye that is still being used today. Heartwood
extracts coming from logwood yield hematoxylin. Once it oxidizes, it will turn to hematein
during isolation. Initially, it is red but the color will transform to charcoal, gray, and black
once combined with chromium. Logwood is used to dye silk and leather.
The Use of Mordants
Most natural dyes warranted the use of mordants in order for the color to stick to
different materials, fabric, or textile. Mordants used alongside natural dyes include
aluminum, copper, iron, and chrome.

In some cases, mordants helped achieve different variations of shades or tints of a

particular color. For instance, magnesium mordants helped alizarin dyes give off a
purple hue.

The Rise of Synthetic Dyes

During the 1850s, the use of natural dyes slowly declined, and the rise of synthetic dyes
started taking place, and it happened for a number of reasons.

The Industrial Revolution led to the growth of the textile industry, which also spurred the
increase in demand for dyes that are cost-effective, readily available and easy to apply.
As a result, the economic limitations of harnessing natural dyes were revealed such as
the vast area of land needed for its production and the consistency and staying power of
the color they give off.

The study of coal and tar also laid the groundwork for the rise of synthetic dye use. In
1850, coal tar was not widely used. However, it still attracted the attention of a lot of
chemists as being a source of new organic compounds.
One of the leading researchers that studied coal and tar was German chemist, August
Wilhelm von Hoffman. He directed the Royal College of Chemistry in England in 1845.
For the next 20 years, he trained most chemists in the English dye industry including
William H. Perkin who discovered the first synthetic dye called mauve. His discovery
marks the rise of synthetic dye development and the gradual decline of natural dye use.
While mauve only lasted in the market for a short while, its creation paved the way for
further research and development of synthetic dyes.

Because of the development of mauve, English textile manufacturers demanded for

new dyes. Through studies and further development, coal tar was discovered to yield
other useful dyes. By 1900, more than 50 compounds have been isolated from coal tar,
most of which were used for the German chemical industry. The synthetic dye industry
was firmly established in Germany in 1914.

From then on until today, synthetic dyes are still widely used in different industries.
Through the years, continuous efforts and studies were conducted to further develop
synthetic dyes, make it more sustainable, expand its use to other fields, and lessen its
impact on the environment.

The Dye Industry Today

Today, there are different types of dyes used in the textile industry. Aside from textile
production, dyes are also used among various types of businesses such as hotels.
Instead of replacing materials such as linens, towels, uniforms, table napkins, and
sheets, some entrepreneurs simply resort to re-dyeing. Adding a new pigment to
existing items is like getting new ones minus the extra cost.

If you’re considering using dyes for your business, KeyColour can help you out. We
have a catalogue of different eco-friendly, affordable, and easy to apply dyes that are
suitable for various types of materials.
 Dye
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

For other uses, see Dye (disambiguation).

Chemical structure of indigo dye, the blue coloration of blue jeans. Once extracted from plants,
indigo dye is almost exclusively synthesized industrially.[1]

Yarn drying after being dyed in the early American tradition, at Conner Prairie living history museum.

A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. The
dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness
of the dye on the fiber.[2]
Both dyes and pigments are colored, because they absorb only some wavelengths of visible light.
Dyes are usually soluble in water whereaspigments are insoluble. Some dyes can be rendered
insoluble with the addition of salt to produce a lake pigment.

Contents

 1Natural vs synthetic
 2History
 3Types
 4Food dyes
 5Other important dyes
 6Chromophoric dyes
 7Pollution
 8See also
 9References
 10Further reading

Natural vs synthetic[edit]

Dyeing wool cloth, 1482: from a French translation of Bartolomaeus Anglicus

Main article: Natural dye

The majority of natural dyes are derived from plant sources: roots, berries, bark, leaves,
and wood, fungi, and lichens.[3] Most dyes are synthetic, i.e., are man-made from petrochemicals.
Other than pigmentation, they have a range of applications including organic dye lasers,[4] optical
media (CD-R) and camera sensors (color filter array).

History[edit]
Textile dyeing dates back to the Neolithic period. Throughout history, people have dyed their textiles
using common, locally available materials. Scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent
colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes Tyrian purple and crimson kermes were highly prized
luxury items in the ancient and medieval world. Plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo, saffron,
and madder were important trade goods in the economies of Asia and Europe. Across Asia and
Africa, patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of
color in piece-dyed cloth. Dyes from the New World such as cochineal and logwood were brought to
Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets[5], and the dyestuffs of Europe were carried by colonists to
America.[6]
Dyed flax fibers have been found in the Republic of Georgia in a prehistoric cave dated to
36,000 BP.[7][8] Archaeologicalevidence shows that, particularly in India and Phoenicia, dyeing has
been widely carried out for over 5,000 years. Early dyes were obtained
from animal, vegetable or mineral sources, with no to very little processing. By far the greatest
source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, only
few of which are used on a commercial scale. The first synthetic dye, mauveine, was
discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856.[9][10]

Historical collection of over 10,000 dyes at Technical University Dresden, Germany

The discovery of mauveine started a surge in synthetic dyes and in organic chemistry in general.
Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsine, safranine, and induline. Many thousands of synthetic
dyes have since been prepared.[11][12][13]

Types[edit]

RIT brand dye from mid-20th century Mexico, part of the permanent collection of the Museo del
Objeto del Objeto

Dyes are classified according to their solubility and chemical properties.[2]

Acid dyes are water-soluble anionic dyes that are applied to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and
modified acrylic fibers using neutral to acid dye baths. Attachment to the fiber is attributed, at least
partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and cationic groups in the fiber. Acid
dyes are not substantive to cellulosic fibers. Most synthetic food colors fall in this category.
Examples of acid dye are Alizarine Pure Blue B, Acid red 88, etc.
Basic dyes are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly applied to acrylic fibers, but find some
use for wool and silk. Usually acetic acid is added to the dye bath to help the uptake of the dye onto
the fiber. Basic dyes are also used in the coloration of paper.
Direct or substantive dyeing is normally carried out in a neutral or slightly alkaline dye bath, at or
near boiling point, with the addition of either sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium sulfate (Na2SO4)
or sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). Direct dyes are used on cotton, paper, leather, wool, silk and nylon.
They are also used as pH indicators and as biological stains.
Mordant dyes require a mordant, which improves the fastness of the dye against
water, light and perspiration. The choice of mordant is very important as different mordants can
change the final color significantly. Most natural dyes are mordant dyes and there is therefore a
large literature base describing dyeing techniques. The most important mordant dyes are the
synthetic mordant dyes, or chrome dyes, used for wool; these comprise some 30% of dyes used for
wool, and are especially useful for black and navy shades. The mordant potassium dichromate is
applied as an after-treatment. It is important to note that many mordants, particularly those in the
heavy metal category, can be hazardous to health and extreme care must be taken in using them.
Vat dyes are essentially insoluble in water and incapable of dyeing fibres directly. However,
reduction in alkaline liquor produces the water-soluble alkali metal salt of the dye. This form is often
colorless, in which case it is referred to as a Leuco dye, and has an affinity for the textile fibre.
Subsequent oxidation reforms the original insoluble dye. The color of denim is due to indigo, the
original vat dye.
Reactive dyes utilize a chromophore attached to a substituent that is capable of
directly reacting with the fiber substrate. The covalent bonds that attach reactive dye to natural fibers
make them among the most permanent of dyes. "Cold" reactive dyes, such as Procion MX, Cibacron
F, and Drimarene K, are very easy to use because the dye can be applied at room temperature.
Reactive dyes are by far the best choice for dyeing cotton and other cellulose fibers at home or in
the art studio.
Disperse dyes were originally developed for the dyeing of cellulose acetate, and are water-
insoluble. The dyes are finely ground in the presence of a dispersing agent and sold as a paste, or
spray-dried and sold as a powder. Their main use is to dye polyester, but they can also be used to
dye nylon, cellulose triacetate, and acrylic fibers. In some cases, a dyeing temperature of 130 °C
(266 °F) is required, and a pressurized dyebath is used. The very fine particle size gives a large
surface area that aids dissolution to allow uptake by the fiber. The dyeing rate can be significantly
influenced by the choice of dispersing agent used during the grinding.
Azoic dyeing is a technique in which an insoluble Azo dye is produced directly onto or within the
fiber. This is achieved by treating a fiber with both diazoic and coupling components. With suitable
adjustment of dyebath conditions the two components react to produce the required insoluble azo
dye. This technique of dyeing is unique, in that the final color is controlled by the choice of the
diazoic and coupling components. This method of dyeing cotton is declining in importance due to the
toxic nature of the chemicals used.
Sulfur dyes are inexpensive dyes used to dye cotton with dark colors. Dyeing is effected by heating
the fabric in a solution of an organic compound, typically a nitrophenol derivative, and sulfide
or polysulfide. The organic compound reacts with the sulfide source to form dark colors that adhere
to the fabric. Sulfur Black 1, the largest selling dye by volume, does not have a well defined chemical
structure.

Food dyes[edit]
One other class that describes the role of dyes, rather than their mode of use, is the food dye.
Because food dyes are classed as food additives, they are manufactured to a higher standard than
some industrial dyes. Food dyes can be direct, mordant and vat dyes, and their use is strictly
controlled by legislation. Many are azo dyes,
although anthraquinone and triphenylmethane compounds are used for colors such
as green and blue. Some naturally occurring dyes are also used.

Other important dyes[edit]

A number of other classes have also been established, including:

 Oxidation bases, for mainly hair and fur

 Laser dyes:rhodamine 6G and coumarin dyes.[14]
 Leather dyes, for leather
 Fluorescent brighteners, for textile fibres and paper
 Solvent dyes, for wood staining and producing colored lacquers, solvent inks, coloring oils,
waxes.
 Contrast dyes, injected for magnetic resonance imaging, are essentially the same as clothing
dye except they are coupled to an agent that has strong paramagnetic properties.[15]
 Mayhems dye, used in water cooling for looks, often rebranded RIT dye

Chromophoric dyes[edit]
By the nature of their chromophore, dyes are divided into:[16]

 Category:Acridine dyes, derivates of acridine

 Category:Anthraquinone dyes, derivates of anthraquinone
 Arylmethane dyes
 Category:Diarylmethane dyes, based on diphenyl methane
 Category:Triarylmethane dyes, derivates of triphenylmethane
 Category:Azo dyes, based on -N=N- azo structure
 Phthalocyanine dyes, derivatives of phthalocyanine
 Quinone-imine dyes, derivatives of quinone
 Category:Azin dyes
 Category:Eurhodin dyes
 Category:Safranin dyes, derivates of safranin
 Indamins
 Category:Indophenol dyes, derivates of indophenol
 Category:Oxazin dyes, derivates of oxazin
 Oxazone dyes, derivates of oxazone
 Category:Thiazine dyes
 Category:Thiazole dyes
 Category:Safranin dyes
 Xanthene dyes
 Fluorene dyes, derivatives of fluorene
 Pyronin dyes
 Category:Fluorone dyes, based on fluorone
 Category:Rhodamine dyes, derivatives of rhodamine
Pollution[edit]
Dyes produced by the textile, printing and paper industries can end up in waste waters and are
therefore a potential source of pollution of rivers and waterways[17].
Various porous materials, often used to adsorb harmful chemicals in general, have been specifically
tested to remove dyes from aqueous environments, especially those who could combine wide
availability, fast kinetics and strong adsorption capacities.[18]
Possible examples include nickel oxide nanoplates[17], clays[19], activated carbons[20], composites
of hydroxyapatite with organic substrates [21][22], graphene oxide
abstract
Value addition for textiles is an important process and it is required for
all products including yarn, fabric, garment, fashion apparel, floor
covering, and the majority of technical textiles. Value addition may be
either an additive or subtractive process. In the subtractive process part
of the fiber components may be removed by some physical or chemical
process because textile fibers have natural as well as added impurities
during production. In the additive process, either color or functional
chemicals may be added to improve aesthetic as well as functional
properties. For each textile processing, the processor used enormous
amounts of chemicals and water in order to attain the desired result.
After processing the residual processed chemicals and waters are
treated with effluent treatment and discharged into the mainstream.
The amount of residual unfixed dyes, metal compounds, formaldehyde-
based dye-fixing agents, hydrocarbon-based softeners, and all types of
dye-bath auxiliaries as well as their degradation nature against the
environment are the deciding factors for its sustainability. Technologies
have been developed for the past five decades starting from fiber to
finished product in order to reduce the effluent load, energy,
processing cost, and manpower as well as increase the process
efficiency and reproducibility. There are many factors influencing the
overall efficiency or value addition of a textile product, which play an
important role in its sustainability. This chapter deals with the basic
theory of dyeing processes, factors influencing their performance,
potential pollutants, sustainable technologies developed thus far, and
future perspectives in dyeing.
Conclusion
Dyeing was introduced in our civilization as an art for imparting colors on tex-
tile clothing in order to enhance the dignity of the people. Natural dye based col-
oration was an art and executed by skilled artisans for many centuries. After the
invention of synthetic dyes and industrialization in the nineteenth century, con-
sumption of synthetic dyes for coloration progressed rapidly. Selection of a dye
for coloration is based on the cost of the dye and consumer demands. Coloration
of textile materials with synthetic dyes has increased due to the increase in popu-
lation up to the 1990s. After exploration of carcinogenicity of synthetic dyes and
introduction of the eco-label, consumers became aware of the eco-friendliness of
their products. The eco-label creates not only awareness of green textile; it also
acts as a starting point for the sustainable dyeing processes and reduces the pollu-
tion load.
Researchers and academicians are constantly working on sustaining technol-
ogy that can reduce the pollution load in the textile industry, because conventional
dyeing consumes more energy and water. Natural textile fibers are heterogeneous
and have natural impurities, thus it is always a great challenge for scientists to
develop a suitable technology for an energy-efficient, cost-effective, and particu-
larly sustainable dyeing methodology. Adaption of a sustainable technology from
laboratory to industry is a deciding role and it depends on so many factors such
as their economy, ease of operation, and technological know-how about the dye-
ing. Development of quality and green textile products by adapting those sustain-
able technologies irrespective of their cost can surely lead to survival of natural
resources, which is the basic need of future generations.