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Hundreds of millions of children worldwide do not go to school While most children worldwide get
the opportunity to go to school, hundreds of millions still don’t. In 4 th grade, the lowest East Asian
country is 23 points above the next best country, Northern Ireland for 4 th grade, the same gap as
was in 2011, and in 8 th grade, a whopping 48 points lead ahead of the next best country, Russia, a
17 point increase from 31 in 2011. (See below). In six countries, there is no gap: either there has been
none in 1995 already, or a gap existing in 1995 closed in 2015. In Hong Kong (SAR), Kuwait,
Lithuania, Singapore and Thailand, boys were significantly more likely to be among the low-
performing students than girls in more than one cycle. In 4 th grade, the bottom 5 countries (in
reverse order) are Korea (19%), Chinese Taipei (23%), Japan (26%), Finland (28%), and Croatia
(29%). In many of the world’s poorest countries, children receive less than three years of learning-
adjusted schooling. While girls were more likely to be in the group of low-performing students in
England, Iran, Israel and Korea in the early cycles, this was no longer the case by 1999 or 2003. In 4
th grade, Japan is at the bottom with only 23% of its students’ teachers reporting “very satisfied,”
Hong Kong is third from the bottom, with 33%. This can be measured as the total number of years
that children spend in school. However, laying the foundations of gender equity has become a
political issue and is seen as a general measure of justice and fairness, especially in the education
context (EGREES 2005 ). For tertiary education, young women are now more likely than young
men to be enrolled. Example description of upper left pie chart (grade 4, upper 20% of distribution
of math achievement): In four countries, a gender gap remained; In five countries, a gender gap
opened, i.e., developed where there was none before; In nine countries, the gender gap closed or
there is none in 2015 and there has not been a gap in 1995 neither Full size image. It thus extends
findings of analysis comparing the mean achievement of female and male students. Higher
achievement was tied to students who attended at least three years of preprimary programs, and
whose parents often engaged with them in early numeracy and literacy activities before beginning
primary school. At both grades, most students were never or almost never bullied, but the 6-8
percent of students that reported being bullied weekly had considerably lower average achievement.
In most rich countries, this is more than 10 years. It chalked up 465 points for mathematics and 471
points for science in assessments conducted on 9,726 Form 2 students, 652 teachers and 207
principals from 207 schools nationwide. Keyboard shortcuts and navigation make it easy for students
to input their answers. Further research needs A secondary aim of this paper was to introduce and
evaluate a specific approach to identifying (gender) differences in certain outcomes of education
(mathematics and science achievement of fourth and eighth grade students). Russia showed a
tendency toward a reversed gender inequality: while boys were overrepresented in this group in
earlier cycles of TIMSS, significantly more girls belong to this group in 2015. The differences,
however, mostly favor boys, meaning here that there is, in many cases, a higher percentage of female
students in this group compared to the percentage of male students. Consequently, we followed up
two cohorts in 11 countries: students who attended grade four in 1995 and grade eight in 1999, and a
cohort born 16 years later, with students attending grade four in 2011 and grade eight in 2015. We
first identified the 20% best and poorest performers in each country and cycle per grade and subject
domain, using the overall mathematics and science achievement scores, by performing a percentile
analysis. In many countries, male students constitute the majority of the lower end of the ability
distribution, while in others, more female students are failing to achieve, especially at grade eight.
Instructors can choose from our library of questions or write their own. IEA International Civic and
Citizenship Education Study 2016 international report. Finally, Slovenia and England showed a
significant change in the gender gaps between grades four and eight. Twenty percent lowest
performing students (below 20th percentile) In the countries considered, there was no general trend
in terms of the gender composition of the bottom twenty percent of students in mathematics, nor
were there identifiable trends over the years or among cohorts (lower part of Table 5 ). Both
publications (Baye and Monseur 2016; Bergold et al. 2016 ) include a comprehensive review of the
literature related to gender differences in general and theories on the greater variability of males
regarding achievement. Investigating the tails of the achievement distributions provide a more
differentiated picture of potential gender differences.
Higher average achievement in mathematics and science was associated with attending schools with
fewer school discipline problems and safer and more orderly school environments. The vast majority
of related previous research based on international large-scale assessment data has focused on
comparisons of the mean achievement of female and male students, only relatively few studies have
addressed gender differences at different levels of achievement. The next highest performing country
was Korea, which had higher achievement than all countries except the two with the highest
achievement, followed by Chinese Taipei and Japan. You have permission to use, distribute, and
reproduce these in any medium, provided the source and authors are credited. All the software and
code that we write is open source and made available via GitHub under the permissive MIT license.
Max Roser Talent is everywhere, opportunity is not. Achieve provides flexible tools to complement
your teaching style, through interactives powered by Desmos Studio, active learning resources to
increase student engagement, and self-paced study tools like videos and adaptive quizzes. The next
highest performing country was Korea, which had higher achievement than all countries except the
two with the highest achievement, followed by Chinese Taipei and Japan. A small, yet significant
gender difference in the United States with a higher proportion of female students vanished over the
years and could no longer be observed at grade eight. Changes over time Overall, our findings
suggest that girls are catching up with boys. But the world also needs to focus on what children learn
once they’re in the classroom. Regarding the second cohort, only very few significant gender
differences existed in the eleven countries in both grades. Although in general less than half the
students had teachers who reported participating in such professional development, about 70 percent
had teachers who reported needing future professional development in these areas. Both publications
(Baye and Monseur 2016; Bergold et al. 2016 ) include a comprehensive review of the literature
related to gender differences in general and theories on the greater variability of males regarding
achievement. This trend shows that the gap favoring boys (a lower percentage of boys in the low-
performing group) is closing and even beginning to reverse. However, our analysis revealed that there
is quite some variation between high and low achieving students (cf. Also international comparative
studies observe similar patterns. In Hong Kong (SAR), Hungary and Korea more female students
were among the low-performing students, but more male students were in this group in New
Zealand. For example, Costanzo and Desimoni ( 2017 ) found varying gender inequalities for the
different quantiles of the mathematics and reading scores distributions, using data from an Italian
study of second and fifths grade students. Consequently, we followed up two cohorts in 11
countries: students who attended grade four in 1995 and grade eight in 1999, and a cohort born 16
years later, with students attending grade four in 2011 and grade eight in 2015. Higher average
achievement was associated with students experiencing little or no bullying. Other examples are one-
week STEM camps (Kenya), where female students carry out experiments and visit companies
offering STEM jobs, or “Science, Technology and Mathematics Education (STME) Clinics” (Ghana)
which bring together girls in secondary schools with female scientists who could act as role models.
The gender gap in school attendance has closed across most of the world Globally, until recently,
boys were more likely to attend school than girls. These inequalities in education exacerbate poverty
and existing inequalities in global incomes. Evidence underpinning debate on gender inequality in
education can be explored by analyzing trends in these distributions over the last 20 years. This
suggests these countries improved gender equality among their top-performing eighth grade students
in science during the last decade. In Hong Kong (SAR), Kuwait, Lithuania, Singapore and Thailand,
boys were significantly more likely to be among the low-performing students than girls in more than
one cycle. Hong Kong and Singapore are slightly better with 35% and 39% respectively, below the
international average of 46%. U.S. students seem to like learning math more with 42% and England
has 50% of its 4 th graders like learning math. UNESCO ( 2017 ) has compiled examples of the
various kinds of interventions and programs regarding the gender differences in STEM education
and outcomes.
By reaching its 20-year milestone, TIMSS earns the distinction of establishing the longest trend line
of any international education assessment. Our World In Data is a project of the Global Change Data
Lab, a registered charity in England and Wales (Charity Number 1186433). In order to investigate
possible correlates for changes in or persistence of inequalities, a more detailed look needs to include
country, school and classroom contexts, as well as student characteristics. Changes over time
Overall, our findings suggest that girls are catching up with boys. At both grades, most students
were never or almost never bullied, but the 6-8 percent of students that reported being bullied
weekly had considerably lower average achievement. In about two-thirds of all observed cases, this
difference was significant. Gaps predominantly favor boys, in all significant gaps but one
(Thailand). No generalizable trend can be observed for this group. To enable a longitudinal analysis
of specific cohorts at country level for addressing research question (3), we reduced the scope of our
research further. We argue that these more fine-grained results—compared to overall achievement
averages—could be used to develop measures and policies tailored more specifically to these groups
of students. Higher average achievement in mathematics and science was associated with attending
schools with fewer school discipline problems and safer and more orderly school environments. Four
countries showed significant gender differences in the group allocation; two of them, Iran and Korea,
had significantly more girls in this group, while the other two, New Zealand and Singapore, had
more boys. Keyboard shortcuts and navigation make it easy for students to input their answers.
Canada, Israel, Norway and the US have the most confident 8 th graders. The gap did not widen
significantly in any country. Moreover, stereotypes related to these traditional understandings of role
models persist into the present, and they do influence what happens in the classroom today. In both
cases, more boys belonged to the high-performers at grade four. The Russian Federation as well as
Kazakhstan, Canada, and Ireland also performed very well. Trends in gender gaps in mathematics
achievement at grade eight Twenty percent highest performing students (above 80th percentile) As
with grade four, there are relatively higher percentages of boys than girls among the top 20% highest
achieving eighth grade students in mathematics (see Table 2 ). From the countries included above, we
chose only those who participated at grade four in 1995 and 2011, and at grade eight in 1999 and
2015. However, there was a higher percentage of students with positive attitudes in the fourth grade
(52% very much like science) compared to the eighth grade (35%). UNESCO ( 2017 ) has compiled
examples of the various kinds of interventions and programs regarding the gender differences in
STEM education and outcomes. Measuring gender equality and equity in education While the
aforementioned studies aim towards showing causes of gender inequity in education, large-scale
assessment data cannot provide this type of insight. In 8 th grade, English schools top the world in
emphasis on academic success with 26% of students’ principals reported so, while Jan had only 2%,
Hong Kong 6%, Chinese Taipei 7%, Singapore 10%, and Korea 17%. The U.S. has 8% and Australia
14%, on par with Canada’s 13%. We see these lines converging over time, and recently they met:
rates between boys and girls are the same. Also international comparative studies observe similar
patterns. Only in Thailand, there was a tendency to have relatively more girls in this group (gap
significant only in 2007). A small, yet significant gender difference in the United States with a higher
proportion of female students vanished over the years and could no longer be observed at grade
eight. Unfortunately, more boys than girls still enroll in advanced mathematics and physics. This
difference seems to be stable over the last 20 years.
There are over 50 countries participating in the survey conducted once in four years, including United
Kingdom, Singapore, Japan, United States and Australia. In mathematics, led by Singapore, the five
East Asian countries outperformed the other TIMSS countries by substantial margins in fourth and
eighth grades. In science at both grades, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Korea, and Japan also performed
well and were joined by the Russian Federation and Finland. Only relatively small percentages of
these most able students performed at a high level. We find rather similar patterns for eighth grade
students. Both publications (Baye and Monseur 2016; Bergold et al. 2016 ) include a comprehensive
review of the literature related to gender differences in general and theories on the greater variability
of males regarding achievement. We first identified the 20% best and poorest performers in each
country and cycle per grade and subject domain, using the overall mathematics and science
achievement scores, by performing a percentile analysis. However, being in school does not
guarantee that a child receives high-quality education. To me, the answer has to be chopsticks,
something common to all these East Asian students interact with on a daily basis. While girls were
more likely to be in the group of low-performing students in England, Iran, Israel and Korea in the
early cycles, this was no longer the case by 1999 or 2003. The trends identified in this paper
included promising changes in several countries that were able to diminish gender differences in
mathematics and science achievement, that have been existing in the past. While New Zealand
reached gender equity 4 years later, the gap persisted in the other countries and widened in England
and Iran, again with a higher proportion of girls. In 4 th grade, Japan is at the bottom with only 23%
of its students’ teachers reporting “very satisfied,” Hong Kong is third from the bottom, with 33%.
While the differences are small globally, there are some countries where the differences are still
large: girls in Afghanistan, for example, are much less likely to go to school than boys. Using
TIMSS data, we sought to evaluate whether differences between girls and boys regarding their
mathematics and science achievement at fourth and eighth grade changed over the last 20 years.
Policymakers could make use of the approach to closely monitor the development of achievement
gaps in their countries and initiate measures to tackle potential causes of inequity, leading to gender
inequalities regarding educational achievement. Russia showed a tendency toward a reversed gender
inequality: while boys were overrepresented in this group in earlier cycles of TIMSS, significantly
more girls belong to this group in 2015. Further research is needed to understand these mechanisms
better and refine implications and recommendations for policy. One aspect of gender differences
receiving high attention is related to STEM education. We found that gender gaps that existed 20
years ago have persisted into the present, but also identified encouraging evidence that gender
equality in education is increasing. However, laying the foundations of gender equity has become a
political issue and is seen as a general measure of justice and fairness, especially in the education
context (EGREES 2005 ). Regarding the second cohort, only very few significant gender differences
existed in the eleven countries in both grades. Student use of Internet for schoolwork shows a similar
pattern. However, top-performing countries had high percentages reaching the advanced level.
Second, the notion of comparability implies taking into account the country contexts. TIMSS is a
large-scale survey conducted to give an international overview on the teaching and learning of
mathematics and science. Similarly, students who feel confident in mathematics have higher average
achievement than those who do not, but again, the percentage not confident was higher in eighth
grade than fourth grade (44% compared to 23%). In six countries, there is no gap: either there has
been none in 1995 already, or a gap existing in 1995 closed in 2015. The results of these analyses
were the relative distributions of female and male students in the groups of “high” and “low”
performers. Literature review and theoretical framework Gender equality and equity in education
and society Gender equality and equity in education is an issue under discussion for more than a
century.
The Russian Federation as well as Kazakhstan, Canada, and Ireland also performed very well. Male
students were overrepresented in the group of the upper 20th percentile of science achievers at grade
four in all considered countries in both cycles (1995 and 2011). For example, if one wishes to
compare gender ratios of eights grade students reaching the advanced TIMSS mathematics
benchmark in 2015, Footnote 1 results are scanty, as more than two-thirds of the countries have less
than 10% of their students reaching this benchmark; a significant number of countries even have no
students at all in this category. This difference seems to be stable over the last 20 years. Twenty
percent lowest performing students (below 20th percentile) There were no clear group patterns for
the bottom 20% of students in science achievement at grade four (see Table 3 ). In many countries,
male students are overrepresented in this group, while in others, more female students are at risk,
predominantly in the upper grades. However, laying the foundations of gender equity has become a
political issue and is seen as a general measure of justice and fairness, especially in the education
context (EGREES 2005 ). All the software and code that we write is open source and made
available via GitHub under the permissive MIT license. Twenty percent lowest performing students
(below 20th percentile) In the countries considered, there was no general trend in terms of the gender
composition of the bottom twenty percent of students in mathematics, nor were there identifiable
trends over the years or among cohorts (lower part of Table 5 ). In order to investigate possible
correlates for changes in or persistence of inequalities, a more detailed look needs to include country,
school and classroom contexts, as well as student characteristics. Cite this work Our articles and data
visualizations rely on work from many different people and organizations. In Korea, however, the
gap decreased over those 4 years and was no longer significant at the eighth grade. In six countries,
there is no gap: either there has been none in 1995 already, or a gap existing in 1995 closed in 2015.
Also international comparative studies observe similar patterns. Keyboard shortcuts and navigation
make it easy for students to input their answers. This finding is consistent with observations related
to mathematics. In science at both grades, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Korea, and Japan also
performed well and were joined by the Russian Federation and Finland. Moreover, Iran was the only
country with a significant gender gap in this group at grade eight in 1999. While there are some
similarities in the overall picture to the findings regarding mathematics achievement, we see also
different results. The gender gap in school attendance has closed across most of the world Globally,
until recently, boys were more likely to attend school than girls. Bergold et al. ( 2016 ) also
identified a higher variability in the achievement of male students, with male students
overrepresented as a group among both highest and lowest performing students. In three countries
(England, Iran and Israel), gender inequality decreased over the same period. FB conducted major
parts of the statistical analysis, drafted minor parts of the manuscript and critically revised all other
parts of the manuscript. Furthermore, findings suggest that girls in general are catching up. For the
lower achieving students, at least regarding science achievement, we can observe a similar change.
UNESCO ( 2017 ) reports on girls’ and women’s education in STEM find that, to date, girls are still
underrepresented in choosing STEM disciplines for studying and as their career paths. This would be
the case in countries with a tracked school system. This new approach to gender gap analysis shows
that while the gender gaps that existed 20 years ago have persisted, gender equality in education has
increased. Only relatively small percentages of these most able students performed at a high level.
With this more detailed look at tails of ability distributions, the approach could provide information
that is more specific and foster the interpretation and explanation of possible inequalities in
education.
Download citation Received: 15 December 2017 Accepted: 12 July 2019 Published: 30 July 2019
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Contact Feedback Jobs Funding How to use Donate Privacy policy Latest work All charts Twitter
Facebook Instagram Threads GitHub RSS Feed Licenses: All visualizations, data, and articles
produced by Our World in Data are open access under the Creative Commons BY license. Evidence
underpinning debate on gender inequality in education can be explored by analyzing trends in these
distributions over the last 20 years. How can the world provide a better education to the next
generation. Policymakers could make use of the approach to closely monitor the development of
achievement gaps in their countries and initiate measures to tackle potential causes of inequity,
leading to gender inequalities regarding educational achievement. As anticipated, higher student
achievement was associated with greater clarity of instruction in both subjects and grades. In none of
these countries could a tendency towards increased gender equality be observed. In 2015, this
number reduced to nine countries, indicating some reduction of the gap. As Allison ( 1978 ) states,
already the choice of the measure to represent equality can make a difference regarding the
perception of equality. Trends in gender gaps in mathematics achievement within cohorts We also
examined the gender gaps in mathematics achievement and their trends following up two cohorts
from grade four to eight (Table 5 ). The exception was science at the fourth grade where there were
as many declines as improvements in the short term. The picture is very diverse across countries,
particularly for the first cohort. The gender gap in school attendance has closed across most of the
world Globally, until recently, boys were more likely to attend school than girls. You have permission
to use, distribute, and reproduce these in any medium, provided the source and authors are credited.
Gender gaps for mathematics achievement at grade four and their trends over time are more similar
to those for science achievement at the same grade than trends at grade eight. Second, the notion of
comparability implies taking into account the country contexts. Education director-general Tan Sri Dr
Khair Mohamad Yusof revealed the country is now at 22nd and 24th for mathematics and science
respectively. This trend shows that the gap favoring boys (a lower percentage of boys in the low-
performing group) is closing and even beginning to reverse. The TIMSS data provides this kind of
information and can serve as a valuable source. Overwhelmingly obvious is, however, the persisting
trend of more male students in the group of high-achievers for both mathematics and science in
many educational systems. These subjects have a long history of being more often favored by male
students, a situation that fosters gender differences in academic competencies and an
underrepresentation of woman in scientific careers. A small, yet significant gender difference in the
United States with a higher proportion of female students vanished over the years and could no
longer be observed at grade eight. Subjects taught to male and female students differed, reflecting
the expected course of life of these children. In other words, it seems that, regarding gender
differences, grade matters more than subject. Again, for fourth grade students, differences are found
in more countries at the upper tail of the achievement distribution than at the lower end. The share of
children who complete primary school is also shown. Children across the world receive very different
amounts of quality learning There are still significant inequalities in the amount of education children
get across the world. Finally, the proposed method is robust to skewed overall distributions of female
and male students. Example description of upper left pie chart (grade 4, upper 20% of distribution of
math achievement): In five countries, a gender gap remained; in seven countries, a gender gap
opened, i.e., developed where there was none before; in six countries, the gender gap closed or there
is none in 2015 and there has not been a gap in 1995 neither Full size image. Max Roser Talent is
everywhere, opportunity is not. That might be very different for other characteristics, for example,
students’ family background, ethnicity or other student characteristics, for which inequality is
perceived as an issue of concern.