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emotional science,vol. 11, No. 3 pp.427-439. september 2008

Cross-modal association between color and scent for perfume product design

Cross-Modal Associations between Colors and Fragrances for Commercial Perfume

Design

Yujin Kim†

Yu-Jin Kim

Kongju University Department of Film and Television†

Department of Media Image Art & Technology, Kongju National University

Abstract:In order to effectively communicate the fragrances of commercial perfumes to consumers, it is

important to apply congruent colors to their bottles and packaging. This research investigated the cross-
modal associations between colors and fragrances through two experiments. In the first experiment,
bottle colors of more than 200 popular perfumes in the market were analyzed. Distinguishable color
design patterns of the bottles were revealed in accordance with their fragrance types. The second
experiment expanded the use of color-odor matching task to a test population of Korean participants.
Participants selected colors evoked by fragrances of three test perfumes in a blind setting. These three
perfumes had characteristic hues and their associated hues were similar with the real colors of their
bottles. In addition, There were significant variations in color tone across fragrance notes, viz. the top
notes, middle notes, and base notes. The results of the two experiments suggest the existence of robust
cross-modal associations between particular colors and fragrances in commercial perfumery.

Key words:Color, Fragrance, Cross-Modal Association, Commercial Perfume

summary :By applying a color appropriate to the scent of a perfume product to the perfume bottle and packaging, the scent of the product can

be effectively conveyed to consumers. Accordingly, this study investigated the cross-modal association between color and scent through two

experimental studies. In the first experiment, drugs currently on the market200By analyzing the colors of several incense bottles, differentiated

color design patterns according to the type of incense were discovered. In the second experiment, the correspondence between scent and color

was investigated among domestic consumers. In a situation where the perfume bottle could not be seen, subjects were asked to smell the scents

of three perfume products and then choose the color that reminded them. As a result, all three perfume products have differentiated colors (hue)

A response was made, and the selected color was actually

† Correspondent: Yujin Kim (Gongju School) Department of Commerce)

E-mail: yujinkim@kongju.ac.kr
TEL: 041-850-0581
FAX: 041-850-0581
428 Yujin Kim

It was distributed in a color area that was quite similar to the color of my perfume bottle. In addition, the prominent tone of color associated with

the three scent notes (upward, middle, and downward) of the perfume product (tone)A change was discovered. Through the above two

experiments, it was suggested that there is a clear cross-modal association relationship between scent and color in perfume products sold on

the market.

Keywords:Color, scent, cross-modal associations, perfume products

1. Introduction The sustainability of the modality association effect was confirmed.

In addition, depending on the type of fragrance, not only the color of

the corresponding color but also the saturation of the color (chroma)
1.1 Research background and importance
and brightness (value)It has been proven that the As a follow-up

study on this,KempandGilbert (1997)changes in color brightness and

Humans perceive the smell of an object through visual
perceived odor intensity (intensity) It has been proven that there is a
information recognized by the eyes.odor)It is also
strong correlation between
identified. This is because perceived color information
[13].For example, the brighter the color, the
evokes an image of a specific object, allowing one to guess
weaker the smell.Schiffersteinclass
the smell based on experience with the associated image.
Tanudjaja (2004)Complex fragrance instead of single-flavor
15, 18, 9].Fragrance by color (fragrance)Similar to the
raw materials (complex fragrances)classNCS(Natural Color
association phenomenon, some scents bring to mind
System)By conducting a correspondence experiment
certain colors [One].For example, cool scents and sweet
between colors and complex scents using a color system, it
scents each remind us of specific colors, such as blue and
was proven that there is a clear correlation between
pink.
complex scents and colors.16].In recent yearsDemattèetc(
Meanwhile, cross-modality (cross-modal) refers to the fact
2006)An implicit association experiment (Implicit Associate
that different sensory modalities interact and affect the
Test (IAT)[6]Using this method, cross-modal association
acquisition of each sensory information.cross-modal)Various
relationships formed by olfactory and visual stimuli were
studies have been conducted on associative relationships [2, 8,
investigated. The results showed that subjects were able to
19]. Among them, research on the cross-modality association
identify weakly correlated scent-color combinations, e.g.
between smell and vision has been conducted by many
(Spearmint-Pink)Fragrance-color combinations that have a
domestic and foreign researchers from behavioral and
strong correlation compared to (e.g. Strawberry-Pink)was
neurophysiological perspectives.
found to identify more quickly and accurately [10].
Gilbertetc(1996)The experiment participants
to used20Incense raw materials for dogs (fragrance
Additionally, research on subjective and experiential
material)middle13Dog on the Munsell color wheelRed-
phenomena, such as associations between colors and scents, may
PurpleclassGreen-YellowA specific color in the area
produce different results depending on the characteristics of the
between (hue)Found something that corresponds to
cultural group to which the subjects belong.17, 18].realGibertetc.
[11]. 2Years later, the same experiment was conducted and similar results
(1996)[11]silver American, Schiffersteinclass
were obtained, resulting in the intersection of color and scent-
Tanudjaja (2004)[16]Is German, and
 Cross-modal association between color and scent for perfume product design 429

Demattèetc(2006)[10]has proven the association A downward note emitted (base notes)It is divided into

between color and scent in British people. [23].Therefore, through this study, it is possible to examine the color

Meanwhile, in Korea, Baek Eun-ju and others (1999)[3]and patterns associated with each scent note.

Son Ji-hoon, etc. (2002)[4]developed a scale to evaluate the Therefore, this study is based on existing precedents in that

sensibility of scents, and based on this, Woo Seung-jeong and it conducted a color matching experiment for three scent notes

Jo Gil-soo (2003)[5]studied the complex sensibility of scent and that change over time targeting domestic subjects using

color for the design of aromatic materials. These areIRI commercially available perfume products rather than scent raw

Hue&Tone 120Using the color system4The frequency of materials such as single or complex scents. It is differentiated

reminiscent colors for eggplant experimental scents was from research.

investigated,20Emotional evaluation of scents and The main contents of this study are as follows: (One)

corresponding colors was conducted using the paired Literature study on cross-modal associations between

emotional adjective scale. color and scent; (2) 14Analysis of color design patterns of

As this consistent cross-modal association between perfume products classified by scent; (3)Investigation of

color and scent has been revealed, more and more colors evoked through the scents of three perfume

companies are using color-fragrance correspondences products; (4)Finally, based on these research results, we

to provide their potential customers with a richer propose a cross-modal correlation between scent and color

olfactory experience of perfume products through for perfume product design.

color. I became interested in relationships [16].In other

words, we are preparing a plan to effectively convey the
atmosphere of the scent contained in the perfume
2. Analysis of color design patterns of perfume products
bottle by applying appropriate colors to the perfume
bottle and packaging design. for example,Hope and
2.1 Experimental purpose and method
Walch (1990)According to Light Herbal Flavors, they do
not use passionate red or strong black packaging.[12].
This is because the emotional meaning of scent may be Before conducting an experiment on the cross-aspect

conveyed inappropriately. association between the scent and color of perfume

products, we examined whether actual perfume

products show differentiated color design patterns

1.2 Research purpose and research content
depending on the type of scent. To this end, a global

online cosmetics seller Sephora.com[22]being sold in

This study aims to investigate the cross-modal association
200Several women's perfumes were selected.
relationship between the scent and color of perfume products
Sephora.comis a 'perfume search service' that
(perfume bottles, perfume solutions, and colors applied to
helps consumers find the perfume they want
packaging) that consumers actually encounter, rather than the raw
according to their preferred scent or scent note.
materials for perfume, targeting domestic consumers. Since the
fragrance finder service)'is providing. This service
scent of a perfume product is formed by mixing various fragrance
is a world-class perfume expert Michael Edwards
ingredients, the upward notes (upward notes) evaporate the fastest.
'Nostalgia Wheel' proposed by (fragrance wheel)'
top notes),Center note (middle notes),And the slowest growing
Developed based on the principle
430 Yujin Kim

It was. The perfume wheel lists popular perfumes. 5 Table 1. Categorized into 4 groups and 14 subgroups
Types of incense[22]
Four basic scent groups (fresh, floral, oriental, woody,
fougère)and then subdivided each into12It was down
group Main scent notes
classified into three subgroups [20].On the other hand group

Lemon, mandarin, grape, etc.

Sephora.com'Perfume Finding Service'4Eggplant Citrus
Pungent juice scent
Sporty aromas of green tea leaves, green
Incense Group (fresh, floral, oriental, woody)By
Fresh Green grass, fresh herbs, and ivy leaves.
subdividing each into14It divides into subgroups and
Refreshing, cold scent of moist
classifies perfume products currently on sale (TableOne Water
air, ice, cold dew, etc.
reference). Therefore, in this experiment200Several Rose, pony (peony), moonha,
Floral Elegant and feminine scent of jasmine,
women’s perfumes14The study was divided into scent orchid, and lily

groups and the color design patterns of each group Iris, vanilla, citrus
Soft
A traditional scent mixed with soft
Floral Floral
were analyzed. notes such as citrus.

To analyze the color design palette of perfume Jasmine, Gardenia

White
pure white like freesia
productsIRIDeveloped by the Design Lab Hue&Tone 120 Floral
Romantic scent mixed with flowers

The color system was used as a color stimulus. With soft sandalwood and deep,
Hue&Tone 120The color system is110The oil coloring of Woody- rich patchouli,
Oriental Sensuous scent of warm rosewood
the dog10It is composed of achromatic colors of various with soft flowers and spices

stages. Chromatic colors10The color of the dog (R, YR, Y, Clove, musk, gardamom
Orien Oriental (cardamom) etc. fragrant and
GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, RP)on the horizontal axis11tons of
-tal attractive scent
dogs (Vivid, Strong, Bright, Pale, Very Pale, Light Floral- Sensuous aromas of orange blossom,
Oriental vanilla, white pepper and sweet spices
Grayish, Grayish, Dull, Deep, Dark)With as the vertical
incense, amber, musk’s ethereal
axis2They are arranged in a dimensional plane. In Soft-
Oriental The scent is mixed and soft
particular, this color system is compatible with various
elegant scent

types of previously developed colors (hue)and tone( Cedar, patchouli, pine,

tone)Because the system was developed to Woods Sandalwood, vetiver and
Same bold, traditional wood scent
accommodate the sensibilities of Koreans while
A sexy fragrance blending exotic notes
Woody
considering global versatility [21]It can be said that it such as sandalwood, amber and
Oriental
Woody patchouli.
meets the purpose of this study, which is conducted on
Dry leather, tobacco, cedar
domestic subjects. Woods Smokey and warm scent

Vibrant citrus or
Mossy
Oak moss and warm earthy scent
Woods
with fresh green notes.

2.2 Experimental results and discussion

table firstOnein14Depending on the subgroup of dogs

200Eight perfume products were classified. each sub

 Cross-modal association between color and scent for perfume product design
Perfume products belonging to the group are classified according to
the color of the perfume bottle and its contents.IRI Hue&Tone 120of
the system 2It was mapped to a dimensional color space (FigureOne
reference). Frequency of mapped perfume products10Eggplant
achromatic and10eggplant color,11By investigating each tone,14
The color design patterns of each subgroup were analyzed.
Figure 1.Example of color mapping for perfume products
(Floral-Oriental and Woody-Oriental groups)
2.2.1 Perfume product color analysis
To examine representative colors and tones applied to perfume
products14The color of all perfume products belonging to the
eggplant subgroups was analyzed simultaneously. painting2
Shown is a distribution chart across all colors as shown.
431
However,Red-PurpleclassYellowThe frequency of
products falling into the color range between was high.
On the other handGreen-Yellow, Green, Blue-Green,
BlueThe frequency of colors appeared relatively low.
Through this, it was found that most of the women's
perfume products currently on the market mainly use
warm colors rather than cool colors. The results of this
analysis are based on the Munsell color wheel, which
was found to be an area where humans can more
clearly match colors and smells.Red-Purpleclass Green-
YellowIt appeared quite similar to the color area
between [11].In other words, it can be seen that the
color-fragrance correspondence that people intuitively
and familiarly feel is significantly reflected in the color
design of representative women's perfume products.
Meanwhile, the result of analyzing the tone frequencies
of the colors of all perfume products is shown in the figure.
3asVividone tone area (Vivid, Strong)classBrightOne tone
area ((Bright, Pale, Very Pale)Most perfume products were
distributed in . This suggests that in the case of women's
perfume products, colors with a strong and clear image as
well as colors with a light and soft image are widely used.
Figure 2.Color distribution of women's perfume products
432 Yujin Kim

Figure 3. Tone distribution of women's perfume products

2.2.2 Analysis of applied colors by perfume type

Figure 4.Perfume products by three subgroups of the Fresh group
Color distribution (two colorless perfume products were excluded from the analysis:

14The colors of each perfume product group belonging 1 Citrus, 1 Water)

to each subgroup were investigated and each applied

color was analyzed. first,FreshBy three subgroups
within the group ((Citrus, Green, Water)We compared
the color distribution of perfume products. The
resulting picture4together withCitrusThe group isYR-Y-
GY, GreenThe group is GY-G,andWaterThe group isB-PB
The color was dominant. Color images of major
fragrance ingredientsFreshThis can be interpreted as
having influenced the color design of the group's
Figure 5.Photo of DKNY's 'Be Delicious Charmingly
perfume products. For example picture5together with
Delicious' and 'Be Delicious' perfume products
Greenbelonging to the groupDKNYof'Be Delicious

'Charmingly Delicious'and 'Be Delicious'In the case of

second,FloralThere was a clear difference in the tone
women's perfume, it is used as the main fragrance
distribution of the applied color between the perfume
ingredient. American AppleofYellow-GreenYou can see that
products belonging to each subgroup (Figure6reference).
the color has been applied to the actual product.
Florala subgroup of the groupFloral, White Floral,

Soft-FloralIn that order, the color tones became brighter. FloralIt

was found that as the intensity of the scent weakened, the color tone

of the perfume bottle became brighter. In other words, it can be said

that the stronger the scent of a perfume product, the clearer and

darker the tone is applied.

 Cross-modal association between color and scent for perfume product design 433

Figure 6. Tone distribution of Floral group perfume products

Figure 7.Fresh+Floral group and Oriental+Woody
(20 colorless perfume products were excluded from the analysis: 4 Floral,
Comparison of tone distribution between groups (35 achromatic perfume
White-Floral 11, Soft-Floral 5)
products excluded from analysis: Fresh+Floral 21, Oriental+Woody
14))
Lastly, with a similar scent image FreshandFloral

group,OrientalclassWoodyCombine the groups and

draw the tones of the two groups.7It was compared as 3.1 Experimental method

follows.Fresh+FloralThe group's products

Oriental+WoodyA lighter tone of color was applied than 3.1.1 Experiment participants

the group's products. Through these results, the main

fragrance ingredients of the two groups (TableOne Participants in the experiment were students taking the 'Color

Reference) It can be seen that Genie's unique color Practice' course at Kongju University.58People (Male:Female=

image greatly influenced the color design. 24:34)The average age is21 It was three years old. All of these

students had no history of smell and had normal olfactory and

visual functions. Before participating in the experiment, all

students performed preliminary tasks to gain experience and

3. Color-scent correspondence experiment
knowledge about the scent and color of perfume products.

Students select different perfume products on the market and

Through analysis of the color design patterns of perfume
select the selected product's concept, color (contents, bottle,
products, we found that the color images of major perfume
packaging, advertising, other promotional materials), scent
ingredients are reflected in the design of major perfume
notes (upward, middle, downward), and main scent. The raw
products sold on the market. Based on these research
materials, etc. were investigated. By presenting and sharing
results, three perfume products were selected in this
research results on perfume products during class, we were
experiment to investigate the correspondence between
able to acquire basic expert knowledge about the scent and
specific colors and scents.
color of perfume products. Additionally, all students

participating in the experiment were asked in advance not to

use perfume on the day of the experiment.

434 Yujin Kim

3.1.2 Experimental materials 3.2 Experimental results and discussion

graph2Three perfume products with different perfume To compare the colors associated with the three perfume

bottle and packaging design colors were selected as stimuli, the frequency of the corresponding colors for each

experimental materials:Salvatore Ferragamoof Subtil, stimulus was investigated. However, to increase validity in

LanvinofOxygene, ESTÉE LAUDERof Beyond Paradise.All deriving the corresponding pattern of scent and color, the color

three perfumes are part of the ‘Perfume Wheel’.Floral selected by one subject was excluded from the analysis.

Although they belong to a group, they each have different

Table 2.Experimental Material Perfume Products (Fragrance ingredients with colors similar to
upward, mid, and downward notes. And colors similar to
those applied to the perfume bottle and packaging are identified in bold letters)

the unique colors of the main fragrance ingredients were

product name Subtil
applied to the perfume bottle and packaging design.IRI
product color Strong Red
Hue&Tone 120color system120Each eggplant color is Hyang Group Floral group: Fruity floral scents
assigned a series of numbers, and high qualityA4It was [lift]cherries,
orange flower water
printed on paper and used as a visual stimulus for the [Junghyang] Water fruits, lily of the

experiment. valley,red lily tulip

Fragrance ingredients

[Downward] Jasmine, musk

3.1.3 Experimental process product name Oxygen

product color Bright Blue

Hyang Group Floral group: soft, feminine floral scent

The experimental perfume products were packaged so that the
[lift]blue iris, gardenia, white
subjects could not see the color of the bottle and contents.Blind
sandalwood (white sandalwood)
Test was carried out. Through the nozzle of a perfume bottle
[Medium, downward] hyssop,blue-
Fragrance ingredients

2cmPerfume was sprayed on a large unscented white test flowered plant, white musk, white

paper, distributed to the subjects, and asked to shake the paper Pepper (white pepper)

and smell the scent. Given the color associated with the scent product name Beyond Paradise
Vivid Rainbow
you smell120I chose it from among the colors. Additionally, the
product color

Hyang Group Floral group: Light and sweet floral scent

subjects were asked to select the color associations for each
[Upward] Eden's mist, blue
upward, middle, and downward note.0minute,2minute,30After hyacinth, orange flower,

smelling the scent at minute intervals, we checked the color templar, jabuticaba

that came to mind. Generally, the middle notes are after fruit (jabuticaba fruit)
[Middle] Laelia orchid, crepe jasmine,
spraying the perfume.2minutes from now OneThe downward Mohania japonica

notes are deep and rich, lasting for hours.30Because you can Fragrance ingredients

japonica),pink honeysuckle
take it after a minute.

[22].In order to minimize the influence of sprayed perfume [Downward] natal plum blossoms,
ambrette fruit
products,30The experiment was conducted after the (ambrette seed), zebrano
Wood (zebrano wood),golden
experiment site was ventilated at intervals of minutes.
melaleuca bank
 Cross-modal association between color and scent for perfume product design 435

In the case of achromatic colors, although they were selected as asHue&Tone 120In the system, areas of corresponding

downward notes, the selection frequency (overall selection frequency:3 colors were divided and displayed in gray scale according

Since it was significantly low, it was excluded from the analysis. painting8 to the frequency of selection. As a result, perfume

6 number of people 5 4 3 2

St. R Y.R.Y G.Y.G BG B P.B.P RP

One
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
One
2
3
4
5
6
7 Figure 8 . three things handmade
incense count egg plant Response by channel
paddle

Paradis e, t: top n otes, m: mi

frequency of color

ddle notes,
(S: Subti l, O: Oxyge
number

b: base n otes)
ne, B: Bey ond

8
436 Yujin Kim

Differentiated color areas between products and distinct tonal change It is strong, volatile and evaporates quickly. On the other

patterns for each scent note were discovered. hand, the middle and bottom notes are composed of larger

Calculate the color frequencies of colors corresponding to all and heavier molecules, which evaporate slowly and

notes of each perfume product.9Perfume products were produce a deep, substantial scent.23].In relation to the

compared as follows. A clear color difference was discovered characteristics of these three scent notes, the tone of the

between the corresponding colors of each perfume product. corresponding color for each scent note of all experimental

Moreover, the dominant color area yielded results that were perfume products was analyzed. painting10As a result of

quite similar to the actual color of the perfume product:Subtil comparing the frequencies of each tone, a clear change in

(P-PR-R-YR), Oxygene (G, B), Beyond Paradise (Y, P-RP).When tone was found for each scent note. Quite a bit about

subjects smell a perfume product, they recall the corresponding upwards. VividMore about one-tone color downwards. Pale

color while imagining an object with a similar scent that they One tone of color corresponded. These results show that

had previously experienced. Therefore, in the color design of downward notes, which evaporate the slowest, evoke a

the perfume products used in the experiment, the unique colors brighter tone compared to upward notes. In other words, it

of the main fragrance ingredients were used (Table2(Reference) can be said that the tone of the color that is associated with

Because it had a significant effect, the subjects may have been the color is influenced by the speed of the perceived scent

able to associate a color close to the actual color of the note. Like the emotional response to actual strong-toned

experimental perfume product. colors, upwards usually have fresh, strong, and clear

images. In addition, because the upper direction

determines the consumer's first impression of the perfume,

it can be said that consideration of the reminiscent color of

the upper direction is most important in the color design of

perfume products.

Figure 9. About all notes of each perfume product

Comparison of color frequencies of corresponding colors

Upward notes are made up of small, light molecules that

Figure 10. The scent notes of each of the three perfume products
evaporate quickly. The ingredients above are scented. Comparison of tone frequencies of all corresponding colors
 Cross-modal association between color and scent for perfume product design 437

4. Conclusion and discussion It was confirmed that a scent can be easily identified when it

has a strong association with the unknown. for example Subtil

Selected according to the color corresponding to the scentP.R.,

Color is a visual element that has a strong influence on smell
P., Y.R.Cherry, the main flavor raw material (cherry),
perception. Accordingly, in order to effectively provide
Equalization number (orange flower water),Red lily tulips (red
consumers with information about perfume products, this
lily tulips)Because it matched the color image quite well, the
study investigated cross-modal association relationships for
subjects were able to associate a color close to the color of the
actual perfume products mixed with various perfume
actual perfume.
ingredients among domestic subjects. The main findings of this
Third, consumers' olfactory experience can be
study are summarized as follows.
strongly influenced by the color perceived through the
First, most of the colors used in commercial women's
eyes. An appropriate combination of color and scent
perfume designs areVivid-Brighttone andRP-R-YR
can facilitate the identification of perfume products and
-YIt was mainly distributed in the color area. As a result of
increase preference for perfume [17].It can also
comparative analysis of major color design patterns, it was
influence purchase intention by providing consistent
found that people's general color-scent response patterns
emotional messages and experiences. Therefore, the
revealed in many previous studies were significantly
effective use of color in perfume product design will not
reflected in the color design of actual perfume products.
only deliver the message of the perfume product
And the unique colors of major fragrance ingredients were
consistently and effectively, but will also increase the
influencing the color design of perfume products (e.g.Citrus
attractiveness of the product in the perfume market
group：YR-Y-GY, Greengroup : GY-G, Freshgroup :B-PB).The
where many perfume products compete.
intensity of the scent was strongly correlated with the tone
Lastly, the results of this study can be used as
of the perfume product color (e.g.Floral, White-Floral, Soft-
design guidelines for designers to effectively express
FloralThe tone becomes brighter in order of group).
the emotional image and atmosphere of perfume
through color. Furthermore, by conducting follow-
Second, the results of the color-scent correspondence
up research targeting various well-known perfume
experiment show a distinct multisensory sensation between sight
products and various consumer classes, we will be
and smell (even for actual perfume products rather than single or
able to contribute to the development of
complex scents).multisensory)It was verified that an interaction
competitive perfume products.
pattern exists. By analyzing the distinct color and tone change

patterns of colors associated with the scent of perfume products, a

practical cross-modal association relationship between vision and references

smell was proposed. In particular, this study provides a new

perspective to existing previous research in that it was able to

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[23] Wikipedia (http://www.wikipedia.com)

Manuscript submission:08/08/14

Correction submission:08/09/19

Confirmed publication:08/09/20