DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM W/LAB REVIEWER AJSD

MODULE 1 Data management (reservoir) is a discipline that

A database system simplifies managing the data and
extracting useful information quickly.
▪ A database system is an integrated collection of
related files and the details of the interpretation
of the data.
▪ A Database Management System is a software
system or program that allows access to data
contained in a database.
▪ The objective of the DBMS is to provide a
convenient and effective method of defining,
storing, and retrieving the information stored in
the database.
focuses on the proper generation, storage, and retrieval
of data.
• it should not surprise you that data
management is a core activity for any business,
government agency, service organization.
DATA = RAW BASE = STORAGE
A database is a shared, integrated computer structure
that stores a collection of
1. End-user data—that is, raw facts of interest to the
end-user.
2. Metadata, or data about data, integrates and
manages the end-user data.

DATA - Data refers to raw facts that describe a particular Databases are organized by fields (used to define and
phenomenon. store data), records (are logically connected set of one
or more fields that describes a person, place, or thing),
- Collection of records and files (are a collection of related records).
DATUM – the correct singular form of data- Latin for a - DATABASE: R-table (Relation)
given fact
1. Fields – column
DATA – it is the backbone of the information
2. Records – raw
- Processed data
3. Files – collection of raw
INFORMATION - the data with a particular meaning in a
particular context. COMPONENTS OF A DATABASE

CONTEXT gives the data its meaning, and that data can Physical Database
turn into information depending on the context. Data Items Distinct phase of information
Information Relationships Correspondence between various
data such indeterminate relationship
- the result of processing raw data to reveal its Constraints Predictates the define correct
meaning. database
- Data that has a particular meaning in a Schema Organizations of data relationships
particular context.

Data are the foundation of information, which is the
bedrock of knowledge, the body of information, and
facts about a specific subject. Knowledge implies
familiarity, awareness, and understanding of
information in an environment.
A key characteristic of knowledge is that “new”
knowledge can be derived from “old” knowledge.
Types of Databases (classifications)
A. Users
1. Single-user database (Desktop database) -
Supports only one user at a time.
2. Multi-user database (Workgroup database) -
Supports multiple users at the same time
(usually fewer than 50)
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3. Enterprise database - used by the entire
organization and supports many users (more
than 50, usually hundreds)
across many departments.
B. Data Location
1. Centralized database - supports data
located at a single site.
2. Distributed database - supports data
distributed across several different sites.
3. Cloud database - A database is created and
maintained using cloud data services, such
as Microsoft Azure or Amazon’s AWS.
C. Classification by the Type of Stored Data
1. General-purpose databases - contain a wide
variety of data used in multiple disciplines
2. Discipline-specific databases - contain data
focused on specific subject areas. The data in
this type of database are used mainly for
academic or research purposes within a small
set of disciplines.
D. Classification by Data Usage
1. Operational database (Online Transaction
Processing) - support a company’s day-to-
day operations.
2. Analytical database - storing historical data
and business metrics used exclusively for
tactical or strategic decision-making.
2.1. Data warehouse is a specialized
database that stores data in a format
optimized for decision support.
2.2. Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) is
a set of tools that work together to provide
an advanced data analysis environment for
retrieving, processing, and modeling data
from the data warehouse (later evolved
into its discipline: business intelligence).
E. Classifications by Data Structure
1. Unstructured data exist in their original
(raw) state—that is, in the format, they
were collected.
2. Structured data are the result of formatting
unstructured data to facilitate storage, use,
and the generation of information.
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3. Semistructured data - data that have
already been processed to some extent.
DATABASE DESIGN:
- refers to the activities that focus on the design
of the database structure that will be used to
store and manage end-user data.
- Data is a valuable asset
A database management system (DBMS)
- Program or group of programs that work in
conjunction with the operating system to
create, process, store, retrieve, control, and
manage the data.
- It acts as an interface between the application
program and the data stored in the database.
1. Define, create and organize a database: establishes
the logical relationships among different data elements
in a database and defines schemas and subschemas
using the DDL.
2. Input data: It performs the function of entering the
data into the database through an input device (like a
data screen or voice-activated system) with the help of
the user.
3. Process data: It performs the function of
manipulating and processing the data stored in the
database using the DML.
4. Maintain data integrity and security: It allows limited
access to the authorized database to maintain data
integrity and security.
5. Query database: It provides information to the
decision-makers that they need to make important
decisions. This information is provided by querying the
database using SQL.
COMPONENTS OF A DBMS
1. Data Definition Language (DDL) - allows the users to
define the database specify the data types, data
structures, and constraints on the data to be stored in
the database.
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML) and Query
Language - allows users to insert, update, delete and
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retrieve data from the database. SQL provides a general
query facility.
3. Software for Controlled Access of Database -
provides the facility of controlled access of the database
by the users, concurrency control to allow shared access
of the database, and a recovery control system to
restore the database in case of hardware or software
failure.
Module 2
Data model – a relatively simple representation of more
complex real-world data structures, usually graphical.
- data model within the database environment
represents data structures; characteristics,
relations, constraints, transformations, etc.
Model - an abstraction of a more complex real-world
object or event.
- Its primary function is to help you understand
the complexities of the real -world
environment
Data Modeling - It is a blue-print – an iterative
progressive process.
State and Transitions or STD = data
Data Models Basic Building Blocks
(1)Entity represents a particular type of object
(distinguishable) in the real world.
➢ It could be physical objects or abstractions
(2) Attribute is a characteristic of an entity. Attributes
are the equivalent of fields in file systems.
(3) Relationship describes an association among
entities.
(4) Constraint is a restriction placed on the data. They
help to ensure data integrity. Constraints are normally
expressed in the form of rules.
TYPES OF DATA MODELS
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1. Record Based Data Models. These models represent
data by using the record structures.
a. Hierarchical Data Model organizes records in a tree
structure. - Record and Parent -Child Relationship
b. Network Data Model permits a child record to have
more than one parent. —Records and Sets. The record
contains detailed information regarding the data, which
are classified into record types.
➢ directed graphs are used instead of tree
structure in which a node can have more than
parent.
➢ Standardize as the CODASYL BTC model
c. Relational model presents data in the form of tables
which is used interchangeably with the word Relation.
➢ Each table consists of rows, also known as
tuples
➢ Column known as attributes.
Relational Data Model – data is represented in the form
of tables which is interchangeably with the relation of
rows (tuples) and columns (attributes)
2. Object -Based Data Models (conceptual models) it
defines concepts, including entries, attributes, and
relationships between them.
➢ It describes data at the logical and user view
levels.
a. Entity-relationship (E-R) Model uses entity-
relationship (E-R) diagrams
b. Object -Oriented model is a logical data model
that captures the semantics of objects
supported in object-oriented programming
(OOP.)
c. Semantic Data Model – organizes the represent
knowledge but not data.
d. Functional Data Model – describes the
computation within a system.
-transforming values-functions, mappings,
constraints, and functional dependencies.
3. Physical Data Models - describe the details of how
the data is stored. Only specialized or professional users
can use these models.
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These data models can be divided into two types:
a. Unifying Model
b. Frame Memory Model
Module 3
> The E-R model is mainly used for conceptual data
modeling.
> The E-R model is mainly used for communication
between database designers and end-users during the
analysis phase of database development.
> E-R model is a representation of the structure and
constraints of a database that is independent of the
DBMS and its associated data model that will be used to
implement the database.
Enterprise – any kind of organization. Ex. Colleges,
schools, banks, etc.
Entity – an “object” or “thing” on the real world. An
object may be any person or place, event, etc. Ex.
Students of colleges and schools, loans in banks,
employee in any company
Attributes are the characteristics of any entity
Value is the information or data stores in attributes of
any entity
Entity sets – all entities having the same attributes that
make an entity set.
Domain / Value Set – set of all values or information abt
any attributes.
Types of Attributes
1. Simple Attributes – those which cannot be
divided into subparts.
2. Composite Attributes – those which can be
divided into subparts.
3. Single Valued Attribute – attribute having
only a single value for a particular entity.
4. Multi-Valued Attributes – attribute with more
than one possible value for a particular entity.
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5. Derived Attributes – attribute that can be
derived from another known attribute
6. Stored Attributes – attribute that cannot be
derived by other known attributes
NULL Value: stands for nothing. If the value of that
attribute has null value, it is not known or the value is
not applicable.
➢ Null is equal to 0. It can also be blank (-)
Relationship Sets
a) Relationship: an association among several
entities. It connects diff. entities through a
meaningful relationship.
b) Relationship Set: set of the same type.
b.2) Descriptive Attributes: Attributes of any
relationship set.
Degree of Relationship Sets
- The total number of entity sets in a relationship
set.
1. Binary Relationship Set: only two entity sets
involved
2. Ternary Relationship Set: three entity sets
involved
Role: The function of any entity in the relationship set
Recursive Relationship Set: When the same entity sets
participate in the same relationship set more than once
with different roles each time
Mapping Cardinalities (Cardinality Ratios)
- It specifies the number of entities of an entity
set that are associated with entities of another
entity set through a relationship set.
1. One to One (1:1): An entity in X is associated with at
most one entity in Y, and an entity in Y is associated with
at most one entity in X.
2. One to Many (1:N): An entity in X is associated with
any number of entities in Y. An entity in Y is associated
with at most one entity in X.
3. Many to One (N:1): An entity in X is associated with
at most one entity in Y. An entity in Y is associated with
any number of entities in X.
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4. Many to many (M:N): An entity in X is associated with

any number (zero or 1 more) of entities in Y and vice
versa.

TYPES OF KEYS

- A key is an attribute or set of attributes used to

identify data in entity sets.
- The attributes which are used as key are known
as key attributes.
- The rest of all are known as Non-key attributes.

1. Super Key: set of collections of one or more

than attributes that can identify data uniquely.
Any entity set has more than one super key.
2. Candidate Key: (minimal key)
3. Primary Key: used to denote Candidate Key. An
4. Alternate Keys: All the candidate keys other
attribute that identifies data uniquely.
than the Primary Key.
-Any entity can have more than one Candidate
5. Secondary Key; An attribute or set of attributes
key but only one Primary Key.
that don't identify data uniquely but identifies a
group of data
6. Foreign Key: An attribute or set of attributes
that don't identify data uniquely but identifies a
group of data

MODULE 4
E-R diagrams represent the logical structure of a
database.

➢ An ERD the relationships of entity sets stored in

a database.
➢ An entity set is a collection of similar entities.

ADVANTAGES OF E-R MODEL

1. Straightforward relation representation: The

database model's relation representation using
the E-R diagram is relatively more
straightforward than other models.
2. Mapping with relational model: It can be easily
mapped onto the relational model. The E-R
diagrams used in the E-R model can easily be
transformed into relational tables. The entities
and attributes of the E-R model can easily be
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transformed into relations (tables) and columns
(fields) in a relational model.
3. Communication tool: It is straightforward to
understand with a minimum required training.
Therefore, the database designer can use the
model to communicate the design to the end-
user.
4. Design tool: E-R model can also be used as a
design plan by the database developer to
implement a data model in specific database
management software.
5. Easy conversion to other models: E-R diagrams
can be easily converted to a network or
hierarchical data model.
6. Graphical representation: E-R model provides a
graphical and diagrammatical representation of
various entities, their attributes, and
relationships between entities.
7. Easy to modify: Modifications to the E-R
diagram at a later stage is relatively easier than
in other models.
Limitation of E-R Model: E-R model cannot express
relationships between relationships. In other words, the
E-R model cannot express the relationship set between
relationship sets.
Types of Entity Sets
1. Strong Entity Sets: Entity sets having any key
attributes are known as Strong Entity sets.
2. Weak Entity Sets: Entity sets having no key
attributes are known as Weak Entity sets.
MODULE 5
EER model is the enhanced version of the E-R model,
which includes all the basic concepts of the E-R model
with the capability to support additional semantic
concepts of complex applications.
the E-R model can be divided into more specialized
sub-models or can join some sub-models to make a
generalized E-R model.
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Superclass Entity Type (Supertype): a generic entity
type that includes one or more distinct subclasses
required to be represented in a data model.
- It means members belonging to the subclass are
the same as the entity in the superclass. A
superclass and a subclass is a one-to-one (1:1)
relationship. In some cases, a superclass can
have overlapping subclasses.
Subclass Entity Type (Subtype): A subclass entity
type is a more specialized entity type that has a
distinct role in the organization.
- a member of the superclass.
- may be further divided, it acts as a superclass
for its subclasses.
Specialization includes subgrouping entities within an
entity set having some distinct nature than other
entities. Specialization is a process by which any
existing entity set is divided into smaller entity sets
according to the distinct or different of entities.
Generalization – when two or more entity sets can be
combined into a single entity set by determining
similarities (common features) between the entities.
- it is an abstract view of any Enterprise.
3. Specialization and generalization lead to attribute
inheritance between higher-level entity sets and lower-
level entity sets. Inheritance is when a lower-level entity
set inherits (or takes) some properties of its higher-level
entity set.
4. Aggregation is an abstraction process in which a
relationship set is considered a higher-level entity set.
TYPES Of CONTRAINTS:
1. Participation Constraints: tell the participation of
entity set in relationship sets.
There are two types of participation.
• Partial participation: If only some entities from
entity set E participates in relationships in set R.
• Total participation: If every entity from entity
set E is participated with at least one relation in
relationship set R.
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2. Disjoint Constraints: describe the relationship

between members of different subclasses.

3. Categorization is a modeling process of a single

subclass having a relationship with more than distinct
superclasses.

• The subclass having more than one superclass is

known as a category, and the process of
defining a category is known as categorization.

Reduction of an E-R Diagram and EER Diagram into

Tables E-R diagrams have to be reduced in tables to
represent the database in tabular form. For each entity
set, make a different table and for each relationship, set
make a different table.

1. Reduction of strong Entity Sets into Tables

2. Reduction of Composite Attributes

3. Reduction of Multi-valued Attributes

4. Reduction of Weak Entity Sets

5. Reduction of Relational Sets

• Redundant Tables
• Combination of Tables

6. Reduction of Generalization

7. Reduction of Aggregation